Fuel 85 (2006) 474480

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The influence of biomass co-combustion on boiler fouling and efficiency

Marek Pronobis*
Institute of Power Engineering and Turbomachinery, Silesian University of Technology, Konarskiego 20, 44-101 Gliwice, Poland
Received 20 February 2005; received in revised form 9 August 2005; accepted 10 August 2005
Available online 9 September 2005

Abstract
The paper presents an attempt to evaluate the influence of biomass co-combustion on the fouling of boiler convection surfaces. In order to
show the influence of co-firing biomass with bituminous coal on boiler efficiency, the calculations of pulverized fuel (PF) OP 140 steam
generator have been carried out. Typical Upper Silesian coal with medium fouling inclination has been chosen as a basic fuel. Three kinds of
biomass have been taken into consideration: straw, wood and dried sewage sludge. The results confirm that the properties of additional fuels
cause deterioration of the boiler efficiency as well as the changes in boilers operational parameters (amount of water injected in attemperators,
ash stream, hot air temperature). The biomass during cofiring in fact replaces the coal, but always the additional fuel consumption is higher than
that of the substituted coal. Therefore, the actual decrease of coal consumption is smaller than the thermal fraction of the biomass.
q 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Boilers; Biomass; Co-combustion; Fouling; Efficiency

1. Introduction
The strategic objective fixed by the directive of Polish
government is to obtain 7.5% of the total energy
consumption from renewable sources until the year 2010
and 14% until 2020. An important part of this program is the
development of biomass combustion technologies.
In view of increase in the demand for waste utilization and
combustion of renewable fuels, materials of these kinds are
more often burned together with coal in steam generators,
what may be the lowest-cost option for reducing greenhouse
gas emissions. Because of their organic origin, these fuels
(wood, bark, straw, sewage sludge, municipal solid wastes,
bone meal, etc.) are termed biomass, although they include
not only strictly natural components. The biomass and waste
fuels also contain mineral matter, generally in proportions
strongly different from those found in coal.
The following concepts of co-firing biomass in connection with pulverized coal are applied [1]:
1. integration of co-combustion grate for biomass into the
bottom of PF boiler furnace
* Corresponding author. Tel.: C48 32 237 1273; fax: C48 32 237 2193.
E-mail address: pronobis@kotly.ise.polsl.gliwice.pl.

0016-2361/$ - see front matter q 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.fuel.2005.08.015

2. grinding of biomass in coal or special mills and

subsequent injection into the boiler
3. combustion of suspension of fine biomass particles in
water or oil using oil burners
4. combustion of biomass in a separate pre-combustor and
injection of the created flue gas into the boiler
5. gasification of biomass and combustion of the product
gas as additional fuel.
Application of methods 13 can change the fly ash
chemical and mineralogical constitution in PF boiler.
Blending of coal with biomass containing different mineral
matter composition may create various problems, which not
only make the boiler operation difficult but also can make
co-firing biomass with coal in conventional power systems
unprofitable. The paper presents an attempt to evaluate the
influence of biomass co-combustion on heating surfaces
fouling as well as on the boiler thermal effectiveness.

2. Properties of biomass and coal ash

Typical Upper Silesian coal with medium fouling
inclination has been chosen as a basic fuel. Three kinds of
biomass with various ash properties have been taken into
consideration: straw, wood and dried sewage sludge

M. Pronobis / Fuel 85 (2006) 474480

Table 1
Proximate analysis of coals and additional fuels (superscript r on the
as-received basis)
Unit

Lower
heating
value, Qri
Ash content, Ar
Total
moisture
content,
Wtr

Coal

Additive fuel
Wood

Straw

Sewage
sludge

10,900

15,250

10,000

kJ/kg

22,000

23.0

4.0

4.3

50.0

10.0

35.0

10.7

3.0

(Table 1). Chemical constitutions (given in the form of

oxides) of the mineral matter of biomasses according to
[14] and of coal are presented in Table 2. For
characterizing the ash fouling tendency, the base-to-acid
(B/A) ratio is often used:
B=A Z

Fe2 O3 C CaO C MgO C Na2 O C K2 O C P2 O5

SiO2 C Al2 O3 C TiO2
(1)

This formula has been introduced for fossil fuels with

very low phosphorus content, which therefore is not
represented in Eq. (1). The influence of this element on
the ash fouling properties is not recognized in adequate
degree. Many publications (for instance [47]) confirm that
increased P2O5 content aggravates the fouling tendency of
the fly ash. Therefore, for taking into account this influence,
it seems to be justified to place the P2O5 content in the
numerator of the formula (1) [8].
The dominant feature of wood ash is its very high amount
of calcium and also higher than in coal amount of potassium
in the absence of sulfur. Such characteristic indicates that
the melting temperature of ash of this kind will be high and
even on radiation boiler surfaces the deposits will be loose.
However, blending wood with coal (or other sulfurcontaining fuels) may produce minerals with much higher
fouling and sintering tendency.
Straw ash is composed mainly of silica and potassium.
The amounts of calcium and phosphorus are lower than in
the wood, although higher in comparison with the mineral
part of coal. The level of chlorine in straw depends on soil
conditions and can reach ClrZ0.5%, what in turn may result
in significantly higher chlorine amount in the ash. Strong
fouling tendency of chlorine compounds leads to increased
amount of this element in the convection surfaces deposits.
In the superheater area, the deposits are strongly corrosive,
creating in this way an additive layer deteriorating the heat
transfer. Paradoxically, co-firing of straw with sulfur
containing fuels can decrease the corrosion, because tight
layer of K2SO4 may protect the tube. When the Sr/Clr molar
ratio is higher then 4.0, the fuel can be regarded as non-

475

corrosive; by Sr/Clr!2.0 the corrosion of superheaters

occurs almost inevitably [9].
Protective effect of sulphates does not always occur,
which proves that this phenomenon may also depend on
other parameters. Investigations confirm, for example, the
corrosion in molten salts (most commonly alkali chlorides
and sulphates), attacking the metal surface in temperatures
lower than the evaporation temperature of those salts. In
[10], the multiphase diagram has been presented showing
that by sulphatation of chlorides the mixtures with lowered
melting temperatures may be created, which subsequently
are able to create eutectics with the tube material.
If the catalytic effect of deposits and metal oxides
covering the tube is leading to enhanced oxidation of SO2 to
SO3, the sodium and potassium pyrosulphates and trisulphates may be formed. In the temperatures exceeding
550 8C (and in the case of the mixtures of sodium and
potassium trisulphates above 480 8C [2,11]), these species
can react with protective layer of oxides. Molten phases may
be found even on evaporator and economizer tubes because,
for example, Na2S2O7 can exist in molten state at 398 8C. In
the extensive full-scale investigations presented in [12], a
superheater corrosion induced by molten sulphates was
observed when co-firing straw (thermal fraction 20%) with
coal.
The oxygen content in the flue gas is of primary
importance for the corrosion processin oxidizing conditions, the damaged oxide layers may be rebuilt, giving
adequate anticorrosive protection [13]. Therefore, the
occurrence of reduction atmosphere in the area of superheaters (which can take place by low-NOx combustion)
strongly increases the risk of corrosion [14]. It is also
possible that in the close vicinity of the fouled tube, the
reduction conditions occur even though an excess of oxygen
is present in the flue gas. Such situation is possible when the
deposit of molten chloride prevents oxygen from reaching
the metal surface. During sulphatation of these chlorides,
the gaseous chlorine is generated subsequently attacking the
tube [15].
During co-combustion of significant amounts of biomass
in power boilers, one must reckon that corrosion phenomena
similar to those, which have been observed so far rather in
the municipal waste incinerators, may occur. Moreover,
corrosion processes in power boilers may have even more
severe consequences because the steam temperatures (and
also the temperatures of tube walls) are usually higher.
Chemical constitution of the mineral part of the sludge
can vary in wide range, but always its fouling tendency is
stronger than that of coal. In comparison with coal, the
sludge includes much more iron, phosphorus and sodium.
Taking into account high ash content of sludge, the
influence of its co-combustion can appear just by relatively
low thermal fraction in the fuel.
Analyzed additional fuels are characterized by higher
(than coal ash) values of B/A ratio, which is a rather
disadvantageous property in boiler operation.

476

M. Pronobis / Fuel 85 (2006) 474480

Table 2
Chemical constitution of coal and biomass ashes
Fuel

CaO

MgO

Fe2O3

Na2O

K2 O

SiO2

Al2O3

P2O5

TiO2

B/A

Coal
Wood [2]
Straw [3]
Sludge [4]

3.5
56.7
8.1
13.9

3.5
9.5
7.2
2.8

9.0
3.6
0.2
24.6

0.8
3.2
0.5
4.9

2.5
5.3
32.0
2.2

60.0
8.5
50.0
22.4

19.7
8.4
0.3
9.0

0.1
4.7
1.5
19.3

0.9
0.1
0.2
0.9

0.241
4.882
0.980
2.096

In order to show the influence of cofiring biomass with

the bituminous coal on the fly ash properties, the
calculations using data shown in Tables 1 and 2 have been
carried out. Proportions of both (basic and additional) fuels
burnt in the furnace have been described by means of the
thermal fraction of the biomass
ZD Z

m_ D QrD
i
m_ D QrD
C
m_ B QrB
i
i

(2)

where m_ is the mass flow (kg/h) (index B for basic fuel, D

for additional fuel, respectively).
The following values of thermal fractions were assumed
in the present work: ZDZ0.02, 0.05, 0.1 and 0.2. Similarly,
mass fractions of the biofuel may be expressed by
YD Z

m_ D
m_ B C m_ D

(3)

and have been also calculated.

The chemical constitutions for the above-mentioned
thermal and mass fractions, as well as B/A values related to
them have been placed in Table 3.
The calculation results show that the co-combustion of
dried sewage sludge has the greatest influence on the
chemical constitution and therefore the properties of fly ash.
It is a consequence of low heating value of the sludge
(thermal fraction much lower then the mass one) and high
amount of ash.

3. The influence of biomass co-combustion

on the heat transfer
Firing of additional fuel in the boiler changes the
chemical constitution and amount of the flue gas
resulting in the change of its radiative properties
(emissivity, absorptivity) as well as in changes of the
velocity and viscosity, thus influencing the convection
heat transfer coefficient. The change of concentration and
properties of solid particles can also vary the emissivity
of fly ash present in the flue gas and may cause a
considerable variation in the fouling intensity. In
consequence, during co-combustion of biomass, the
temperatures of flue gas and heating media can vary,
changing the streams of spray water or lowering
superheat temperatures below nominal values.
For predicting the fouling tendency of ashes, the thermal
effectiveness number Jz has been used. It is defined as a
quotient of overall heat transfer coefficients in real and in
ideal (clean) conditions
Jz Z

kz
kc

(4)

The change of Jz being the consequence of biomass cofiring instead of all-coal combustion has been evaluated by
means of the quotients JzS =JzB (Table 3), where JzS
describes the fouling by simultaneous biomass and coal
firing while JzB by coal combustion only.

Table 3
Chemical constitution of ashes and changes of the thermal effectiveness number Jz
ZD ()

YD ()

CaO (%)

MgO (%)

Cofiring wood with coal

0.02
0.0396
3.878
3.543
0.05
0.0960
4.465
3.609
0.1
0.1832
5.497
3.725
0.2
0.3354
7.792
3.984
Cofiring straw with coal
0.02
0.0286
3.525
3.520
0.05
0.0706
3.564
3.552
0.1
0.1381
3.634
3.608
0.2
0.2651
3.791
3.734
Cofiring dried sewage sludge with coal
0.02
0.0430
4.425
3.438
0.05
0.1038
5.591
3.359
0.1
0.1964
7.109
3.257
0.2
0.3548
9.163
3.119

TiO2 (%)

B/A

JzS
JzB

0.133
0.183
0.273
0.471

0.894
0.885
0.870
0.835

0.248
0.259
0.279
0.325

0.990
0.975
0.950
0.899

19.594
19.428
19.136
18.475

0.108
0.120
0.141
0.188

0.896
0.890
0.880
0.856

0.243
0.247
0.254
0.271

0.996
0.991
0.981
0.959

18.749
17.548
15.987
13.873

1.807
3.961
6.762
10.555

0.900
0.900
0.900
0.900

0.312
0.411
0.566
0.842

0.914
0.828
0.739
0.642

Fe2O3
(%)

Na2O
(%)

K2O (%)

SiO2 (%)

Al2O3
(%)

P2O5 (%)

8.962
8.902
8.797
8.564

0.817
0.844
0.890
0.994

2.520
2.551
2.605
2.726

59.634
59.066
58.067
55.845

19.620
19.495
19.276
18.788

8.952
8.877
8.744
8.444

0.798
0.796
0.791
0.781

2.661
2.913
3.358
4.363

59.945
59.860
59.709
59.368

10.387
12.137
14.413
17.495

1.165
1.624
2.223
3.033

2.473
2.440
2.396
2.337

56.656
52.439
46.953
39.525

M. Pronobis / Fuel 85 (2006) 474480

In Ref. [16], the correlations for calculation of Jz, based

on the investigations carried out in pulverized fuel fired
Polish steam generators, have been presented. The formulas
are valid for heating surfaces covered with loose or slightly
sintered deposits. For in-line tube bundles applies
 K0:104

0:432
D
K0:044
0:185 R0:03
Jz Z 0:25s0:106
s
w
1
2
fg
32
24:5
 m K0:135
Tfg
!
B=AK0:314
5
373
while for staggered ones:

  m K0:138
R0:03 0:09 Tfg
0:111 0:056
Jz Z 0:46sK
w
B=AK0:394
2
fg
24:5
373
(6)
where
D
s1Zs1/D
s2Zs2/D
R0.03
Tfgm
wfg

outer tube diameter (mm)

relative transverse pitch ()
relative longitudinal pitch ()
fraction of fly ash particles bigger than 30 mm
(%)
mean flue gas temperature in the tube bundle
(K)
flue gas velocity in between the tubes (m/s).

Formula (5) is valid within the following range of

parameters: s1Z1.697.9, s2Z1.43.12, D/32Z1.01.59,
wfgZ4.015.0 m/s, R0.03/24.5Z1.03.6, Tfgm /373Z1.0

477

3.35, B/AZ0.230.91. Allowed values for Eq. (6) are:

s 1Z1.627.7, s2 Z1.03.0, D/32Z1.02.33, w fg Z
m
3.815.0 m/s, R0.03/24.5Z13.6, Tfg
/373Z1.02.88, B/AZ
0.190.46, respectively.
In comparison with coal combustion, cofiring of biomass
increases the B/A ratio of the fly ash. In consequence, the
thermal effectiveness number (assuming mean value of the
respective exponent) varies as follows:


JzS
B=AS K0:354
Z
JzB
B=AB

(7)

Eq. (7) proves that Jz decreases in response to increasing

biomass fraction. Moreover, difficult to evaluate (but
stronger in in-line bundlesEq. (5)), even further decrease
of Jz can result from additional fouling connected with the
introduction of very fine components (lower R0.03) to the fly
ash. They are products of condensation and solidification of
gaseous mineral fractions in the flame. This phenomenon
may be important especially by combustion of biofuels with
high Na and K content. The lowering of thermal
effectiveness number of convection surfaces results in the
decrease of boiler efficiency as a consequence of increased
flue gas outlet temperature.
In regenerative air heaters (RAH), increased fouling can
lead to increase of energy consumption and decline of hot
air temperature [17]. The flue gas outlet temperature can
vary in both directions, depending on the air leakage flow. In

Table 4
Results of thermal calculations for PF OP 140 boilercofiring of wood

Maximum capacity
Steam outlet pressure
Feedwater temperature
Mass flow of attemperator spray
Fuel
Lower heating value
Ash
Moisture
Steam temperatures
I. Superheater inlet
III. Superheater outlet
Flue gas temperatures
Furnace outlet
Platen superheater area outlet
Air heater inlet
Leaving the boiler
Air temperatures
Entering air heater
Leaving air heater
Boiler efficiency
Fuel consumption
Coal
Wood
Coal consumption change
Ash stream change

Unit

ZDZ0

ZDZ0.02

ZDZ0.05

ZDZ0.1

ZDZ0.2

kg/h
MPa
8C
kg/h

140,000
9.4
185
5390

140,000
9.4
185
5832

140,000
9.4
185
6336

140,000
9.4
185
6984

140,000
9.4
185
8420

kJ/kg
%
%
8C

22,000
23.0
10.0

21,561
22.25
10.99

20,934
21.18
12.40

19,967
19.52
14.58

18,277
16.63
18.38

309
540

309
540

309
540

309
540

309
540

1077
887
278
144.9

1079
889
279
146.2

1081
898
284
148.2

1085
908
289
151.8

1091
922
300
159.1

25
264
91.94

25
266
91.82

25
269
91.66

25
275
91.37

25
285
90.78

18,664
0
0
0
0
0

18,314
755
K349
K1.87
K50.2
K1.17

17,786
1888
K878
K4.71
K126.4
K2.95

16,901
3790
K1762
K9.44
K253.7
K5.91

15,021
7631
K3542
K18.98
K509.3
K11.87

8C

8C

%
kg/h

kg/h
%
kg/h
%

478

M. Pronobis / Fuel 85 (2006) 474480

majority of cases, the RAH fouling leads to decrease of

boiler efficiency.
To determine the influence of biomass co-combustion on
boiler efficiency, a series of variant thermal calculations of
PF boiler OP 140 manufactured by Rafako SA [18] have been
carried out, using the method described in [16,19]. The input
data and calculation results are presented in Tables 46. The
thermal effectiveness number has been determined by means
of formula (7), using the values from Table 3.
The properties of additional fuels cause deterioration
of boiler efficiency resulting in the increase of fuel
consumption. Since the main reason of biomass cofiring
is the need to reduce the combustion of fossil fuels, the
problem of primary importance is the real effectiveness
of such reduction. In Tables 46, the values Dm_ B (in kg/h
and %, respectively) have been shown and are defined as
follows
Dm_ B kg=h Z m_ Bcoal Km_ Bcofiring kg=h

Dm_ B % Z

m_ Bcoal Km_ Bcofiring

m_ Bcoal

Similarly the changes of the removed ash stream have

been shown against thermal fraction of biomass cofired and
compared with the case of coal combustion.

4. Conclusions
In comparison with coal combustion, cofiring of wood,
characterized by relatively low heating value and high
moisture content, causes the increase of the attemperators spray water flow of 50% by biomass thermal fraction
ZDZ20%. In this position, it is rather better to feed the
lower burners with wood, lowering the furnace outlet
temperature. In some cases, it may also be necessary to
increase the capacity of attemperators.
Low content of minerals in the wood and straw decreases
the ash stream to be removed from the boiler despite the
higher (cumulative) fuel consumption.
Cofiring of dried sewage sludge decreases the water
amount in the flue gas, which causes (in connection with
stronger surface fouling) the decrease of amount of water
injected in the attemperators. Sometimes it may lead to the
difficulties with low load operation. During co-combustion
of more wet sludge, such phenomenon will not arise.
High minerals content in the sewage sludge increases
significantly the amount of ash to be removed from the
boiler. By ZDZ20%, the amount of ash is about 80%
higher than for coal combustion.

(8)

%

(9)

where
m
_ Bcoal mass flow of coal for coal only combustion
(kg/h)
m
_ Bcofiring mass flow of coal for cofiring with biomass
(kg/h)
Table 5
Results of thermal calculations for PF OP 140 boilercofiring of straw

Maximum capacity
Steam outlet pressure
Feedwater temperature
Mass flow of attemperator spray
Fuel
Lower heating value
Ash
Moisture
Steam temperatures
I. Superheater inlet
III. Superheater outlet
Flue gas temperatures
Furnace outlet
Platen superheater area outlet
Air heater inlet
Leaving the boiler
Air temperatures
Entering air heater
Leaving air heater
Boiler efficiency
Fuel consumption
coal
Straw
Coal consumption change
Ash stream change

Unit

ZDZ0

ZDZ0.02

ZDZ0.05

ZDZ0.1

ZDZ0.2

kg/h
MPa
8C
kg/h

140,000
9.4
185
5390

140,000
9.4
185
5616

140,000
9.4
185
6012

140,000
9.4
185
6480

140,000
9.4
185
7596

kJ/kg
%
%
8C

22,000
23.0
10.0

21,807
22.47
10.02

21,524
21.68
10.05

21,067
20.42
10.10

20,211
18.04
10.19

309
540

309
540

309
540

309
540

309
540

1077
887
278
144.9

1079
889
280
145.7

1080
897
281
146.4

1083
898
283
147.7

1089
907
288
151.3

25
264
91.94

25
266
91.86

25
266
91.80

25
268
91.69

25
273
91.40

18,664
0
0
0
0
0

18,305
539
K359
K1.92
K59.4
K1.38

17,757
1348
K907
K4.86
K150.7
K3.51

16,844
2700
K1820
K9.75
K302.5
K7.05

15,019
5417
K3645
K19.53
K605.4
K14.10

8C

8C

%
kg/h

kg/h
%
kg/h
%

M. Pronobis / Fuel 85 (2006) 474480

479

Table 6
Results of thermal calculations for PF OP 140 boilercofiring of dried sewage sludge

Maximum capacity
Steam outlet pressure
Feedwater temperature
Mass flow of attemperator spray
Fuel
Lower heating value
Ash
Moisture
Steam temperatures
I. Superheater inlet
III. Superheater outlet
Flue gas temperatures
Furnace outlet
Platen superheater area outlet
Air heater inlet
Leaving the boiler
Air temperatures
Entering air heater
Leaving air heater
Boiler efficiency
Fuel consumption
Coal
Sludge
Coal consumption change
Ash stream change

Unit

ZDZ0

ZDZ0.02

ZDZ0.05

ZDZ0.1

ZDZ0.2

kg/h
MPa
8C
kg/h

140,000
9.4
185
5390

140,000
9.4
185
4248

140,000
9.4
185
2988

140,000
9.4
185
1656

140,000
9.4
185
0

kJ/kg
%
%
8C

22,000
23.0
10.0

21,484
24.16
9.69

20,754
25.80
9.27

19,643
28.30
8.63

17,742
32.58
7.52

309
540

309
540

309
540

309
540

309
540

1077
887
278
144.9

1076
898
291
150.7

1074
903
306
158.6

1071
907
323
167.5

1067
910
348
181.4

25
264
91.94

25
275
91.61

25
290
91.18

25
307
90.66

25
331
89.82

18,664
0
0
0
0
0

18,357
824
K307
K1.65
341.4
7.95

17,879
2070
K785
K4.21
854.5
19.91

16,945
4164
K1630
K8.73
1707.1
39.77

15,285
8407
K3379
K18.10
3426
79.82

8C

8C

%
kg/h
kg/h
%
kg/h
%

All kinds of biomass analyzed are characterized by higher

fouling tendency than coal, resulting in the deterioration of
boiler efficiency. The ash from sewage sludge is
particularly disadvantageous in this regard (more than
2% points of deterioration by cofiring 20% sludge). In the
boilers equipped with RAH, this deterioration may be
slightly aggravated (comparing with results shown in
Tables 46) because the influence of fuel change on RAH
fouling was not taken into account due to the lack of
respective data.
Because the boiler efficiency loss is much lower than the
decrease of coal consumption, the biomass cofiring may be
very profitable. The only condition is that the additional
fuel price must be significantly lower (also by means of
implementation of the surcharge on the biopower).
From all the analyzed cases, the co-combustion of straw
has the lowest influence on the heat transfer in boilers.
However, such additional fuel can cause serious chloride
corrosion of superheater tubes. This effect can be reduced
by means of properly chosen coal characteristics.
The problems connected with stronger fouling during
biomass cofiring can be eliminated using properly
organized sootblowing.
The results in Tables 46 indicate that during cofiring,
the biomass in fact replaces the coal, but always the
additional fuel consumption is higher than that of
substituted coal. Therefore, it is necessary to increase

the capacity of fuel feeding system as well as to build

additional installation for biomass pretreatment. Further
negative effect of co-firing is higher transportation cost.
The more the biomass volume with respect to LHV unit
is higher than that of coal, the more significant this effect
is.
The actual decrease of coal consumption is smaller than
the thermal fraction of the biomassfor example by
ZDZ20% of sewage sludge the value of Dm_ B is only
18.1%.
In all the analyzed cases, the increase of hot air
temperature occurs. This phenomenon can have a
positive impact on the performance of coal mills while
grinding wet biomass with coal. On the other hand, rising
of combustion air temperature results in an increase of
NOx generation and emission.

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