Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
Complex Numbers
Explanation & Arithmetic of complex numbers.
Why do we need complex numbers?
The need for complex numbers arises when we solve equations that previously have had no solution.
Consider the solution to x2 4x + 13 = 0
x =
4 36
2
To solve this equation we would need to extend the number system to include numbers with negative
squares. To do this we let
i=
i2 = -1
Solve x2 4x + 13 = 0
Solution
x =
4 36
2
4 36 1
2
4 6 1
=
2
4 6i
=
2
= 2 + 3i or
2 3i
Re (z) = x
Im (z) = y
a=c b=d
Conjugate
If
z = x + iy
z = x iy
Examples:
I) 2 3i
II) i
III) 2
z = 0-i
z = 2 0i
Solution
z = 2 + 3i
Addition
z1 + z2
(a + bi) + (c + di)
Example:
If z1 = 3 + 2i and z2 = 4 3i
(a + c) + i(b + d)
evaluate z1 + z2
Solution
z1 + z2 = 3 + 2i + 4 3i
=7i
Multiplication
z1.z2
(a + bi) (c + di)
Example:
If z1 = 3 + 2i and z2 = 4 3i
Solution
z1 z2 = (3 + 2i)(4 3i)
= 18 i
1
, usually the reciprocal is written in the form x + iy.
z
Example:
1
in the form a + ib
z
If z = 4 + 3i find
Solution
1
1
=
z
4 3i
=
1
4 3i
4 3i 4 3i
4 3i
16 9i 2
4 3i
16 9
4 3i
25
4
3
i
25
25
i2 = -1 so
If z2 = 3 + 4i
find z
Solution
Let z = x + iy
Then
z2 = (x + iy)2
(x + iy)2 = 3 + 4i
x2 + 2xyi + y2i2 = 3 + 4i
x2 + 2xyi + y2(-1) = 3 + 4i
5
x2 y2 + 2xyi
= 3 +4i
-----1
2xy = 4
-----2
and
Solving simultaneously
in order to get a y2 to substitute into
4x2y2 = 16
x2y2 = 4
y2 =
4
x2
Substitute y2 into
x2 -
4
x2
=3
x4 4 = 3x2
x4 3x2 4 = 0
Let m = x2
then
m2 3m 4 = 0
(m 4)(m + 1) = 0
m=4
If
or
m = 1
x2 = 4
x2 = 1
x = 2
x = i (but x is an so x i)
x=2 y=1
x = -2 y = -1
z=2+i
or
z = -2 i
6
Examples:
I
If z1 = 2 + 3i and z2 = 1 + i
a)
find
Re (z1 +z2)
b) Im (z1 z 2 )
Solution
z1 + z2 = (2 +3i) + (1+ i)
z1 z 2
= (2 + 3i)(1 i)
= 2 2i + 3i 3i2
= 3 + 4i
=2+i+3
=5+i
Re (z1 +z2) = 3
II
Im (z1 z 2 )
= 1
Show that zz = x 2 y 2
Solution
Let
z = x + iy
z = x iy
z z = (x + iy)(x iy)
= x2 y2i2
= x2 + y2
III
[HSC 2000
3 mks]
z = x + iy
z2 = 24 + 10i
You can see that we are just finding the square root of 24 + 10i
Solving
(x + iy)2 = 24 + 10i
7
-------
2xy = 10
------
and
25
x2
Substituting y2 into
x2 x4 25
25
= 24
x2
= 24x2
x4 24x2 25 = 0
Let m = x2
m2 24m 25 = 0
(m 25)(m + 1) = 0
m = 25
When
or
m = -1
x2 = 25
x2 = -1
x = 5
x I since x
x=5 y=1
x = -5 y = -1
i.e
z=5+i
or
z = -5 i
8
IV
[HSC 1990
Express
2 marks]
z
in the from x + iy , where x and y are real.
3 5i
Solution
Let z = a + ib
z
a ib
Then
=
3 5i
3 5i
a ib
3 5i
3 5i
3 5i
3a 5ai 3bi 5i 2 b
9 25i 2
3a 5b i(3b 5a)
9 25
3a 5b i(3b 5a)
34
3a 5b (3b 5a)
+
i
34
34
Solution
(i)
zw
ii)
4
z
4
z
4
2i
= 2 + 2i + i + i2
2i
4
2i 2i
= 1 + 3i
8 4i
4 i2
z w = (2 + i)(1 + i)
8 4i
5
8 4
= - i
5 5
=
Example:
If z = 3 + 2i ,
(x, y)
Solution
z = 3 + 2i
A (3, 2)
z = 3 - 2i
B (3, -2)
radians = 180
1 =
radians
180
10
Convert to radians
a) 30
b) -120
Solution
=
30
180
120
180
2
3
Polar co-ordinates.
The point A with the Cartesian co-ordinates (a, b) on an Argand diagram can also be specified by polar
co-ordinates (r, ).
(r, ) :
For the point A to have unique polar co-ordinates (r, ) it is necessary to restrict to 2.
7
Otherwise points will be indistinguishable. For example (2, ) (2,
). We will make the
6
6
restriction - < , as illustrated below .
11
Examples:
I)
(1,
)
4
II)
(-2,
2
)
3
III)
(1,
)
3
IV)
(2,
)
2
V)
(1,
B
A
E
C
5
)
6
x2 y2 = r
12
arg z
Examples:
Solution
I)
z = 2 + 2i
22 22
z =
=2 2
(2, 2)
arg z
2
= tan-1 2
2
2
= 45
=
II)
z = 3 + i
3 12
=
=2
arg z
1
= tan-1 3
(3, 1)
1
= 30
3
=
6
III)
z = -3 + i
3 1
2
=2
arg z
= - tan
3
-1
= 180 - 30
=-
5
6
13
(-3, 1)
= arg z
1
3
IV)
z = 2 + 4i
22 42
z =
(4, 2)
=2 5
arg z
4
= tan 2
-1
2
= 6326 (in radians ??)
= tan-12
V)
z=1-i
z = 12 (1) 2
=1
arg z
1
= 0 - tan-1 1
= 0 - 45
=
VI)
z = 3 i
(1, -1)
3 (1)
2
=2
arg z
1
= - + tan-1 3
= -180 + 30
= - +
5
6
14
3
1
(-3, 1)
= arg z
Modulus-Argument form.
y
From trigonometry
(r, )
x = r cos
r
y = r sin
z = x + iy
= rcos + i.rsin
= r(cos + isin)
r = z
where
Example:
= arg z in radians
Express 3 i in modulus-argument form
Solution
r =
(1) 2
= 2
tan
arg z =
1
3
So,
3 i = 2(cos
= 2(cos
15
+ isin
)
6
6
- isin ) *
6
6
Vectors.
A vector is a graphical representation of a magnitude and a direction.
Thus
z = x + iy
= OP
P (x, y)
r
Magnitude of OP
= length OP
= z
Direction of OP
= arg z
z as a vector can be written in
Examples:
Solution
I)
z=3i
II)
z = 2 cis
2
3
y
Q
0
x
2
2
3
P (3, -1)
x
0
16
Since a vector is just a magnitude and a direction these vectors can be reproduced by translation.
Consider
z=1+i
marked by OP below.
y
P
2
1
x
the vector OP CD AB
B (3, 2)
y
2
A (2, 1)
P
2
1
0
D (-1, -1)
C (-2, -2)
17
tip to tail
Addition
p+q =z
q
p
q
p
Subtraction
p-q =z
-q
Z
q
p
Examples:
If z1 = 3 2i
and z2 = -1 + 4i
Solution
z2
z1 + z2
z2 moved tip to tail
x
z1
y
18
z2
z1 - z2
x
z1
Example:
a) BP
b) CP
c) PA
d) DP
Solution
Some other vectors we can easily find are
BO = 4
OC = 3i
OA = 1
P
a) BP = BO + OP
C (0,3)
=4+z
b) CP = OP OC
= z 3i
c) PA = OA OP
B (-4,0)
=1z
D (0,-3)
y
d) DP = DO + OP
= 3i + z
19
x
A (1,0)
OAB OCD
OD OC
=
OA OB
& z1.z2
D
z3
z1
z2
C
z2
A
z1
z3 = z2z1
1
= z1.z2
z3 = z1.z2
20
B (1, 0)
Example:
a) find
If z1 = 1 + i
and
z2 = 3 i
z1
z2
z
b) find arg 1
z2
c) hence find the smallest positive integer n such that if z =
1 i
, zn is real and evaluate zn
3 i
Solution
a)
z1 = 12 12
= 2
3 (1) 2
z2 =
= 2
z
z1
= 1
z2
z2
=
2
2
y
arg z1 = tan-1
b)
z1
=
1
1
= -
3
z2
1
arg z2 = - tan-1 3
1
1
z
arg z = arg 1 (from pt b) =
-
4
z
6
2
21
5
12
c)
If zn is real then
arg zn = 0, , 2, 3,
i.e graphically zn is
= k , where k = 0, 1, 2
= n arg z
Now arg zn
So
= n
5
12
n =k
5
12
12k
,
5
where k = 0, 1, 2
n = 12
Because zn is real it lies on the x axis.
z12 = z12
2
z12
arg z12 = 5
12
1
64
1
cis5
64
22
Triangular inequality
A
b
C
a+bc
Example:
abc
[triangular inequality]
If z1 = 3 + 4i and z2 = 13
a)
b)
Solution
a)
z1 + z2 z1 + z2
(triangle inequality)
32 42
z1 =
=5
So,
5 + 13 z1 + z2
18
z1 + z2
b)
z2= kz1,
where k
z2 = k.z1
13 = k.5
k =
13
5
13
(3 + 4i)
5
39
42
+
i
5
5
(when z1 + z2 is a max)
De Moivres theorem
Example:
Solution
S(n):
(cos + i sin)n
= cosn + i sinn),
n = 1, 2, 3,
S(1):
(cos + i sin)1
= cos + i sin
TRUE
If S(k) is true,
S(k + 1):
(cos + i sin)k
cosk + i sink
(cos + i sin)k + 1
TRUE
cosn + i sinn)
24
by induction
Example:
Solution
Let
z = r(cos + i sin)
then
z = r(cos i sin)
zn = r n (cos + i sin)n
z n = r n (cos i sin)n
LHS
z n = r n (cos i sin)n
= r n (cosn i sinn)
RHS
z n = rn(cos - i sin)n
= rn (cosn - i sinn)
LHS = RHS
25
Example:
Solution
Let
Now
z = 3 + i
z = 3 i
2
3 12
z =
arg z = tan-1
=2
z = r (cos + isin)
= 2 (cos
Now
1
3
= 30
=
So
(3, 1)
1
3
z = r (cos i sin)
+ isin )
6
6
z8 = 28 (cos
= 2 (cos
i sin )
6
6
+ i sin )8
6
6
= 28 (cos
4
4
+ i sin
)
3
3
z 8 = z8
= 28(cos
- i sin )8
6
6
= 28 (cos
Now
(3 + i)8 + (3 - i)8
4
4
- i sin
)
3
3
z8 + z 8 = 28 (cos
4
4
4
4
+ i sin
) + 28 (cos
- i sin
)
3
3
3
3
4
4
+ 28 cos
3
3
28 cos
256 - 05
- 256 + 0i
26
+ 256 - 05
Example:
a)
By expressing cos4, sin4 in terms and powers of cos and sin show that
tan4 =
4 tan 4 tan 3
1 6 tan 2 tan 4
Solution
Let
z = cos + isin
z4 = (cos + isin)4
= cos4 + isin4
and
z4 = (cos + isin)4 =
Ck an-k bk
Ck (cos)n-k (i sin)k
k 0
[polynomial expansion]
k 0
= 4C0(cos)4 (i sin)0 + 4C1(cos)3 (i sin)1 + 4C2(cos)2 (i sin)2 + 4C1(cos)1 (i sin)3 + 4C4(cos)0 (i sin)4
= cos4 + 4cos3 i sin + 6cos2 i2sin2 + 4cos i3 sin3 + i4 sin4
= cos4 + 4cos3 i sin + 6cos2 (-1)sin2 + 4cos (-1i) sin3 + (+1)sin4
= cos4 + 4icos3sin - 6cos2 sin2 - 4icossin3 + sin4
= cos4 - 6cos2 sin2 + sin4
i(4cos3sin - 4cossin3)
and
tan4 =
4 tan 4 tan 3
=
1 6 tan 2 tan 4
27
b)
Solution
Rearranging the equation
t4 + 4t3 6t2 4t + 1 = 0
t4 6t2 + 1
1
= 4t 4t3
=
4t 4t 3
t 4 6t 2 1
Let t = tan
then
4t 4t 3
t 4 6t 2 1
4 tan 4 tan 3
=
1 6 tan 2 tan 4
solving tan4 = 1
tan4 = 1
let v = 4
tan v = 1
=
5 9 13
,
,
,
,
4
4
4
4
But v = 4
5 9 13
,
,
,
,
4
4
4
4
5 9 13
,
,
,
,
16 16 16
16
(4k 1)
16
where k = 0, 1, 2, 3
28
16
5
16
9
16
13
16
17
16
21
16
25
16
019
149
-502 -066
019
149 -502
5
9
13
, tan
, tan , tan
16
16
16
16
29
Example:
z -n = (cos + i sin)-n
=
1
(cos i sin ) n
1
cosn i sin n
1
cosn i sin n
cos n i sin n
cos2 n i sin 2 n
= cosn - i sinn
So zn + z n
= cosn + i sinn
cosn - i sinn
= 2cosn
30
Example:
= (2i sin)3
= 8i3 sin3
= - 8i sin3
z3 z 3 = 2i sin3
Now
(z1 z 1)3
Ck an-k bk
k 0
[polynomial expansion]
k 0
z3 - 3 z2 z -1 + 3 z1 z -2 - z 3
z3 - 3z + 3 z -1 - z 3
z3 - z 3
- 3z + 3 z -1
z3 - z 3
- 3(z - z 1)
z3 - z 3
- 3(z - z 1)
- 8i sin3
2i sin3
- 3(2i sin)
- 8i sin3
2i sin3
- 6i sin
sin3
2i sin 3 6i sin
8i
8i
dividing through by 8i
31
sin3
sin 3 3 sin
4
4
sin3
1
(-sin3 + 3sin)
4
1
(3sin sin3)
4
RHS
Method 2.
Note: Use this (as it is the most consistent method in attacking problems) way unless
The method illustrated below is consistent with HSC questions. See Q.2 part d) 2003 HSC.
Let
z = cos + i sin
z3 = (cos + i sin)3
= cos3 + i sin3
also
(cos + i sin)3
Ck an-k bk
Ck (cos)n-k (i sin)k
k 0
[polynomial expansion]
k 0
32
cos3 + i sin3
So
= 3cos2sin sin3
= 3(1 sin2)sin sin3
= 3sin 3sin3
- sin3
1
(3sin sin3)
4
RHS
Note: Mr. Scovells method will fail here due to 8cos2 which wont occur in the expansion.
33
z = rcis
zn = rncisn
Example:
Let
given zn find z ?
= r(cos + i sin)
z3 = r3(cos + i sin)3
= r3 cos3 + i sin3
r3 cos3 + i sin3
= 1
r3 cos3 + i sin3 = 1 + 0 i
z3 = 12 0 2
=1
Now
z3 = 1 then
z = 1
Arg z3 = 0
z3
This means
= cos3 + i sin3
= cos0 + i sin0
and sin3 = 0
Solving for
3
= 0, 2, 4, 6, 8,
34
= 0,
2 4
,
,
3
3
2k
,
3
where k = 0, 1, 2, 3,
[Note that there a 3 distinct k values to correspond with 3 distinct solutions. We know there are 3
solutions because we are solving z3]
2k
3
z = r(cos + i sin)
z = cos
2k
2k
+ i sin
3
3
When k = 0
z1
z1 = cos 0 + i sin0
1
=1
z2
When k = +1
3
2
2
2
z2 = cos
+ i sin
3
3
3
1
=
+
i
2
2
2
3
1
2
35
= 120
When k = - 1
z3 = cos
2
2
+ i sin
3
3
1
2
1
2
3
i
2
2
3
3
2
= 120
z3
4
4
+ i sin
3
3
1
2
3
i
2
= z3
Also note that for z3 = 1 there are the equally spaced solutions around the unit circle, namely
1,
cos
2
2
+ i sin
,
3
3
cos
2
2
+ i sin
3
3
z2
2
3
z3
36
z1
Example:
w3 = 1
w3 1 = 0
(w 1)(w2 + w + 1) = 0
So
w1 =0
or
w2 + w + 1 = 0
w2 + w + 1 = 0
Example:
Let
a)
z = r(cos + i sin)
z6 = r6(cos6 + i sin6)
z6 = r6(cos6 + i sin6) = - 64 + 0i
642 02
z6 =
= 64 = r6
z
64
= 2
arg z6 =
= r
Arg z6 =
Rearranging - 64 + 0i into mod-arg form
z6 = r6(cos6 + i sin6) = 64 (cos + i sin)
6 = , 3, 5,
3 5
,
,
,
6 6
6
37
z6
2k
+
6
6
(2k 1)
6
k = 0, 1, 2, - 3
z = r(cos + i sin)
Substituting into
r=2
where
z = 2(cos
(2k 1)
6
where
k = 0, 1, 2, - 3
(2k 1)
(2k 1)
+ i sin
)
6
6
When k = 0,
z1 = 2(cos
= 2(
=
+ i sin )
6
6
3
1
+ i)
2
2
3 i
When k = -1
z2
= 2(cos
+ i sin
)
6
6
= 3 i
When k = 1
z3 = 2(cos
3
3
+ i sin
)
6
6
= 2i
38
When k = -2
z4
= 2(cos
3
3
+ i sin
)
6
6
= - 2i
When k = 2
z5
= 2(cos
=-
5
5
+ i sin
)
6
6
3 i
When k = -3
z6
= 2(cos
=-
5
5
+ i sin
)
6
6
3 i
z1
z2
z6
z4
Note: z2 = z1
z4 = z 3
39
z6 = z 5
b)
z6 + 64 = 0
(z z1)(z z2)(z z3)(z z4)(z z5)(z z6) = 0
From above:
z2 = z 1
z4 = z 3
z6 = z 5
From above
z1 =
3 i
z3 = 2i
z5 = -
z1 =
3 i
z 3 = -2i
z5 = -
3 i
3 i
So
[z2 z( 3 i + 3 i ) + ( 3 i )( 3 i )][z2 z(2i + -2i) + (2i.-2i)][z2 z(- 3 i + (- 3 i ).( - 3 i )] = 0
3 i) +
Note: Some questions are more easily answered or require an answer using modulus-argument form
for z1, z2, z3
40
Example:
z1 = 1
when k = 0
z2 = cos
2
2
+ i sin
5
5
when k = +1
z3 = cos
2
2
+ i sin
5
5
when k = -1
z4 = cos
4
4
+ i sin
5
5
when k = 2
z5 = cos
4
4
+ i sin
5
5
when k = -2
Note:
z3 = z 2
Now
z5 = z 4
4
2
) +1] [z2 z(2 cos
) + 1]
5
5
Re (z) = 3
All the dotted lines represent the vectors z where Re z = 3. There are infinite amount of vectors
terminating along the bold line.
Sketching a curve
Example:
Im (z 1 + 3i) = 4
Let z = x + iy
Then
z 1 + 3i
= x + iy - 1 + 3i
= x - 1 + i( y + 3)
Since Im (z 1 + 3i) = 4
1
( y + 3) = 4
z
y = 1
All the dotted vectors z have Im z = 1 and terminate along the bold line. You dont have to draw the
dotted vectors. They are there simply to illustrate the concept.
42
b)
Find the minimum value of z for which Im (z 1 + 3i) = 4 occurs and state the vector z
for this condition.
1
z
=0+i
=i
Let
Then
and
Re z . Im z 0
z = x + iy
[(2 3i) z ] = (2 3i)( x + iy)
The shaded area represents
6 2x + 3y < 12
= 2x + 3y + i (2y 3x)
Re [(2 3i) z ] = 2x + 3y
x.y 0
2
Re z . Im z = x . y
Which is the graph of
2x +3y = 12
2x +3y = 6
x.y0
Example:
a)
z satisfies z 1 + 2i = z + 3
ALGEBRAIC SOLUTION
Let
z = x + iy
Then z 1 + 2i = z + 3 becomes
1
x + iy 1 + 2i = x + iy + 3
x 1 + i(y + 2) = x + 3 + iy
( x 1) 2 ( y 2) 2
(x 1)2 + (y + 2)2
( x 3) 2 y 2
= (x + 3)2 + y2
x2 2x + 1 + y2 + 4y + 4 = x2 + 6x + 9 + y2
4y = 8x + 4
y = 2x + 1
GEOMETRICAL SOLUTION
Let the point P be the locus of z
Rearranging
z 1 + 2i = z + 3
z (1 - 2i) = z (- 3)
z z2
z z1 = z z2
-3
z z1
x
(1, -2)
z starts from the origin and terminates in infinite places along the dotted line
z2 starts from the orgin and ends at the point (-3, 0)
z z2 is found with vector subtraction
z z2
-3
-3
z2
z2
z z2
b)
The minimum value of z is the perpendicular distance from the origin to the locus.
d
ax1 by1 c
a2 b2
2(0) 1(0) 1
2 2 (1) 2
x
1
units
5
45
Discussion
Sketch the region defined by z 2
The shaded region defines all vectors with a modulus 2
2
z
-2
2
z
-2
Example:
If z satisfies z 2 2i =
a)
b)
c)
ALGEBRAIC SOLUTION
a)
Let z = x + iy
z 2 2i =
x + iy 2 2i =
x 2 + i(y 2 ) =
2
2
46
( x 2) 2 ( y 2) 2
(x 2)2 + (y 2)2
= 2
x 2 + i(y 2 )=
2 units
zmax
(2, 2)
zmin
x
GEOMETRICAL SOLUTION
Let z = 2 +2i
z 2 2i =
z (2 + 2i) =
z z1 =
(2, 2)
z1
The vector
z z1 has a distance of
2 units
y
z z1=
z z1
(2, 2)
z
z1
b)
y
(3, 3)
(2, 2)
1
value of z occurs at the point (3, 3).
zmax
So
z = 3 + 3i
48
c)
2+
AOD
2 = 2 2
A
2
BOD
= 45
(2, 2)
=
4
z1
2 2
C
AOB = BOC = sin
2
=
2 2
1
=
2
6 4
12
+
6
5
12
arg z
12
12
49
Discussion
Consider the Argand diagram below and the equation of the locus z
O
-
3
arg z =
The gradient of OP is
= tan
=-
3
3 x where x >0
y=-
Note since the locus has an argument z 0 as the vector z = 0 has no argument.
Example:
arg z
4
2
z< 2
OR*
* Note OR and not AND. This means you shade in the union of both regions and not the intersection.
-2
-2
50
Example:
a)
GEOMETRICAL SOLUTION
arg (z 1 2i) =
arg (z [1 + 2i]) =
3
Let z1 = 1 + 2i
[see z1 below]
.
3
arg (z z1) =
3
point A
z - z1
z1
z
51
b)
arg (z 1 2i) =
arg (z [1 + 2i]) =
Let z1 = 1 + 2i
arg (z z1) =
6
[see z1 below]
z - z1
A
z
z1
ii)
y y1 = m(x x1)
y2
1
3
1
(x 1)
3
y=
y =
52
1
1
x+2
3
3
1
2 3 1
x+
where x > 1
3
3
Example:
and
0 arg (z + 3)
Find the area & perimeter of the region so formed by these conditions.
GEOMETRICAL SOLUTION
2 z + 3 3
2 z - (- 3) 3
Let z1 = - 3
2 z z1 3
0 arg (z - z1)
3
0 arg (z + 3)
(-3, 0)
53
-1
Area
1
(R2 r2)
6
2
(3 22)
6
5
units2
6
=2 +
Example:
Perimeter =
1
1
2R +
2r + 1 + 1
6
6
1
2(3 + 2) + 2
6
5
units
3
GEOMETRICAL SOLUTION
arg (z + i) = arg (z 1)
The vectors
P1
z
O
-i
+1
B (1, 0)
P2
A (0, -1)
P2
The vector z could terminate at the points P1, P2, & P3 however
54
Case
P1
If P1 represents z then
AP = z + i
BP = z 1
And
arg AP = arg BP
[the direction itself does not matter so long as it is the same direction for both vectors]
The interval containing P1 is a possible locus of arg (z + i) = arg (z 1)
Case
P2
If P2 represents z then
AP = z + i
BP = z 1
arg AP arg BP
But
P3
If P3 represents z then
AP = z + i
BP = z 1
And
arg AP = arg BP
Formula test.
56
57
58
59
60