Chapter 5

ELECTRICAL CONTACTS

Electrical contacts have an important role in the construction and operation of

electrical and electromechanical equipment. These are parts of current paths, consisting of
two metal pieces, which, through their touching it is obtained the electrical conduction.
The touch of contact pieces is made under a force of contact pressure, Fc, usually
produced by using mechanical devices (pre-tensioned springs).
Because the electrical contacts are portions of the current paths that support high
intensities stresses, it is necessary for them to be characterized by high safety in operation,
appropriate resistant to different stresses by various natures (mechanical, electrical,
environmental factors) and by a sufficient thermal and electrodynamic stability.
After the kinematics of the contact pieces, we have:
fixed contacts (contact fixed links) which are obtained by joints dismountable or
not (screws, rivets, welding etc.) of the contact pieces;
sliding contacts at which the contact pieces can move one to the other without
interruption of the electrical conduction;
switching (commutation) contacts having at least one movable contact element
which by its motion is achieved the dynamic commutation into the electrical circuits.
5.1. Contact resistance
F
c
2

R AB

B
C
Fc

A R'AB = R c +R AB

2b

2a

2a

Fig.5.1
Experimental verification
of contact resistance

b
Fig.5.2
Electrical contact:
a- microscopic appearance; b- calculation model.

The presence of an electrical contact on a current path puts, always, in evidence an

additional electrical resistance, Rc, called contact resistance.
Experimental verification of contact resistance can be performed by measuring the
resistance of a metal bar between two points A and B (Fig.5.1) before and after cutting it in
point C; it is found that RAB resistance measured in the presence of contact C has always

higher values than the initial resistance RAB, the difference being just the value of the
contact resistance Rc.
The existence of contact resistance is explained by two processes, the constriction
of current lines, on the one hand and the coverage of the contact surface with disturbing
films, on the other hand.
The constriction resistance, Rs, is produced as a result of the current lines
constriction in contact points.
No matter how smooth it would be the contact surfaces their touching takes place
into a finite number of points, Fig.5.2a.
The real contact area, Ac, considered as a sum of contact micro-surfaces will
always be smaller than the apparent contact area, Ab, which depends by the geometric
dimensions of the contact pieces.
In the case of plastic deformation, the real contact area, Ac, can be calculated with
the equation given by Holm:

Ac

Fc
na 2 ,
H

(5.1)

where Fc is the pressing force in contact, Fig.5.2a, H - material hardness, considered under
plastic deformation, n-number of elementary contacts, a - circular area radius of elementary
contact, 0.3<<0.75 - factor correction.
For contacts with a single touch point, Fig.5.3,
Fc
the real contact area is calculated with:

Ac

Fc
a 2 .
H

(5.2)

In order to obtain the expression of

constriction resistance, Rs, corresponding to a point
contact, the sphere model of infinite conductivity it is
used. According to this model, it is considered that
between two metal pieces 1, 2, (Fig.5.4) with
resistivity 0, the basic electrical contact is made
through a sphere having a radius and zero resistivity.
In these circumstances, in the contact zone the current
lines are radials and the equipotential surfaces are
spheres, which are concentric with the contact sphere.

Fig.5.3
Punctiform contact

'

The elementary electrical resistance, dRs , of a hollow semi-sphere of radius r and

thickness dr is given by equation:

dRs'
For the electrical resistance,

dr
,
2r 2

Rs' , of a contact piece we have:

(5.3)

z
2

r
x
2a
1

2a
1
Fig.5.5
The ellipse model of contact

Fig.5.4
The sphere model of infinite conductivity

R dR
'
s

'
s

dr

.
2
2r
2a

(5.4)

For the constriction resistance Rs, of the whole contact it is obtained the expression:

Rs 2 Rs'

,
a

(5.5)

being the material resistivity of contact pieces and a - the radius to elementary contact.
The second component of contact resistance, the film (pellicular) resistance, Rp, is
the effect of the formation of disturbing films, usually with semiconductor properties, on
the surfaces of contact pieces. The structure and disturbing film thickness depend on the
metal of contact pieces, the contact surface temperature and the chemical composition of
the environment.
The film resistance, Rp, can be calculated using the relation:

Rp

R p0
Ac

(5.6)

where Rp0 is the specify surface resistance and Ac-real area of contact.
The values of specify film resistance are determined by calculation using
experimentally verified relations.
Taking into account by the issues presented for real contacts which are covered
with disturbing films, the contact resistance Rc is calculated with the equation:

Rc R p

Rs
,
n

(5.7)

where Rc is the contact resistance, Rs, Rp are constriction, respectively film resistances given
by the relations (5.5), (5.6) and n - the number of contact points.

In the design of the electrical contacts is useful the analytical expression of

dependence between the pressing force in contact, Fc and the contact resistance, Rc.
Frequently, it is used a relation experimentally verified by the form:

Rc cFc m ,

(5.8)

where c is a constant that depends on the nature of the contacts metal, by the processing
and the state of contact micro-surfaces, m - a constant depending on the contacts form. In
Tab.5.1 the values experimentally determined of these parameters are given, for Rp0 = 10-12
m2 and =0.45.
Tab. 5.1
Coefficients of approximation function, [SI]
c
m

Material
Silver

0.84210-4

Un-oxidised copper

0.93510-4

Aluminium

1.34210-4

0.6

-4

Synthesized alloy Cu-W

1.97210

Tinned copper

0.59610-4

Silvered copper

0.91810-4
Rc

Fc

mV

I
0
Fc

b
Fig.5.8
Contact resistance measurement: a-method: 1, 2 - cylindrical pieces
of contact; b - characteristic of contact resistance.
The contact resistance can be measured by the amperrmeter (ammeter) and
voltmeter method, a measuring scheme for the elementary contact being presented in
Fig.5.8a.

In Fig.5.8b it is plotted the curve shape Rc(Fc) for an electrical contact. The
hysteresis of contact resistance is explained by the appearance at increasing of pressing
force in contact Fc, of plastic deformations of the contact peaks.
The plastic deformation leads to an increase of elementary contacts number, so
that the contact resistance values are lower at decreasing of the pressing force compared
with those of at its increasing.
Depending on the materials nature and constructive type, there are limit values of
the pressing force over which there isn't obtain visible reductions of contact resistance.
These efforts have values of 5 ... 10 N/mm2 for copper, 20 ... 30 N/mm2 for aluminium and
2 ... 5 N/mm2 for zinc.
5.2. Stresses of electrical contacts
5.2.1. Thermal stresses
In operation, the electrical contacts are subject to complex stresses, produced by
the action of factors with different natures (electrical, mechanical, chemical and so on).
Thus, in any closed electrical contact and carrying current it is producing heat through
Joule-Lenz effect.
An electrical contact, crossed by the intensity current I, it is characterized by
contact voltage drop Uc, given by relation:

U c Rc I ,
(5.9)
Rc being the contact resistance.
In normal operating conditions, the contact temperature Tc can be calculated using
the Wiedemann-Franz-Lorenz relation:
Tc

U c2
T p2
4L

(5.10)

where Uc is the voltage drop across the contact, L=2.510-8 V2/K2 - Lorenz's constant for
metals and Tp the steady temperature corresponding to a point of the current path, as far
from the contact surface.
The contacts verification under long-term heating it is made by calculating the
temperature Tc, using the relation (5.10) and comparing the values obtained with those
imposed or recommended as admissible.
In Tab.5.2 are given maximum admissible temperatures for some types of
electrical contacts.

Tab. 5.2
c
ad
, C]

Contact type
Contacts type plug of copper and its alloys

70

Copper contacts and its alloys for circuit breakers

90

Massive contacts, sliding or front, of copper and its alloys

Massive contacts, sliding or front, with plates of silver, soldered or
welded
Contacts of fuses

110
120

In order to determine the apparent contact surfaces, in the calculations it is used

values of admissible current density, Jad, determined experimentally. Thus, for copper
contacts, it can be considered:

J ad

0.31A / mm 2 , for I 200 A,

0.31 1.05 10 4 ( I 200), for 200 I 2000 A,

0.12 A / mm 2 , for I 2000 A.

(5.11)

The pressing force in contact, Fc, can be also determined on the basis of values
experimentally verified. Tab.5.3 shows the values for pressing forces in contact of relays,
while Tab.5.4 shows the specific values of pressing forces in contact for other electrical
equipment.
Tab. 5.3
Material
Field of use
Fc N
Wolfram
Relays of high frequency switching
>1
Composition Ag-CdO
Relays of high frequency switching
0.3 ...1
with low frequency switching
0.2
Silver
0.5
with high frequency switching
Platinum and its alloys
0.5 ...1
Tab. 5.4
Material
Silver
Copper

Field of use
Low power contactors
Contactors
Contactors
Command electrical equipments

Fc0 N/A
0.04
0.07 ...0.14
0.15 ...0.24
0.25 ...0.34

Alloys with
silver

Contactors for aircrafts

Contactors
Automatic circuit breakers of low voltage

0.04
0.07...0.15
0.05

5.2.2. Electrodynamic stresses of electrical contacts

The constriction of current lines in the zone of elementary contacts is the reason of
electrodynamic repulsion forces in contact, which it acts in direction to opening the contact
pieces. In short-circuit state, these forces have high values and determine the self-opening
of contacts.
In this case, the electrical contact, it is considered as a portion of the current path
with reduced cross-sectional area, for calculation of electrodynamic force of repulsion
between two pieces of contact, considered cylindrical with radius R, we can use the
relation:

F 10 7 i 2 ln

R
,
a

(5.12)

where i is the current intensity which flowing through the contact, R-contact pieces radius,
-7
a- elementary contact radius and 0 = 410 H/m-value of the vacuum magnetic
permeability.
Due to electrodynamic repulsion forces, given by equation (5.12), the resultant
force of pressing in contact decreases and thus, that it takes place the decreasing of radius
values, a. This leads to increased further repulsion force (5.12), finally reaching either at
melting and welding of contact or at its self-opening.
_
_
_
Both effects are eliminated by proper
Fd
F
F
designing of the springs which provide the pressing
force in contact and by judicious choice of current
i
paths geometry in the contact zone.
In this latter way, it is possible offsetting the
effects of repulsion electrodynamic forces in contact
a
through ones of contour electrodynamic forces.
An example of this is shown in Fig.5.9,
_
_ i
relative to the current path geometry in the vicinity of
F
F
a bridge contact.
Corresponding the version from Fig.5.9a, the
_
Fd
effect of repulsion electrodynamic forces in contact, F,
is reinforced by the contour electrodynamic forces, Fd.
b
By choosing a suitable geometry of current
path, Fig.5.9b, the self-opening effect of contact,
Fig.5.9
produced by the action of repulsion forces F, is
Compensation of repulsion forces compensated by the contour electrodynamic forces, Fd.
by contour forces