BEGINNER'S SYNTHESIZER FAQ

BEGINNER'S SYNTHESIZER FAQ

BORING DISCLAIMER:
I. Introduction
II. What is a synthesizer?
III. Types of synthesizers, in brief
Modular synthesizers
Analog synthesizers
Digital synthesizers
Sample-playback synthesizers
Samplers
Software synthesizers / Physical modeling
Drum machines
IV. Major types of synthesis
Subtractive synthesis
Additive synthesis
Wavetable synthesis
Sample playback (PCM synthesis)
Physical modeling
FM synthesis
Phase Distortion
Waveshaping
Vector synthesis
Wave Sequencing
VAST Synthesis
Granular Synthesis
V. What do all the synthesizer components mean?
The Glossary
VI. Vocabulary: What all the terms in a synthesizer mean
Voices / Polyphony / Multitimbral: Voice terms
A special note on voices, combo modes, and multi modes
RAM and ROM
Packaging: Rack mount vs. Keyboards
Controller terms including basic MIDI
Features (and stuff that wont fit elsewhere)
Standards (Sample and soundbank)
Front panels (including controlling the synthesizer)
VII. MIDI: The art of controlling the synthesizer
The basics of MIDI
Computer-based MIDI software
Software sequencers

Notation based software

Patch editors / librarians
.MID files
Other MIDI software
Which computer is right for me?
Composing MIDI files for the net
Other control methods
How can I convert a song to MIDI?
VIII. Which synthesizer is right for me?
Rock music / R&B
Techno music
The famous x0x lineup
Industrial music
Ambient music
New Age music
Jazz / Blues music
Rap / Hip Hop
Churches
Game composers
Film composers
Notes for the live performer
Notes for the beginner
IX. Buying Synthesizers
General tips for buying synthesizers from a dealer
General tips for buying used synthesizers through classifieds
General tips for buying used synthesizers through the net
Pawn shop tips
X. The Home Studio: A brief overview
Mixers
FX box notes
Recording your stuff at home
Hard disk recorders
DAT / ADAT
The good ol' 4 track
SMPTE and other synchronization explanations
Other peripherals
XI. A brief guide to programming your own sounds
XII. 11 notable synthesizers in history
XIII. For the technocrats: Building your own synthesizers
XIV. Synthesizer publications
XV. Synthesizer resources on the net
XVI. Acknowledgements, revision history, and conclusion

BEGINNER'S SYNTHESIZER FAQ

Version 0.3
05/01/97
(C) 1997 Chad Gould
email: cgould@gate.net

BORING DISCLAIMER:
This document is intended for informational purposes only. All rights reserved - commercial, for-profit
reproduction and distribution of the FAQ is prohibited. Accuracy is not guaranteed to be 100%, FAQ
represents authors opinions but I try to come as close as possible. All trademarks in this FAQ are registered to
their respective companies. Any suggestions, modifications, or other critiques of the FAQ can be addressed by
writing to cgould@gate.net.

I. Introduction
Synthesizers and electronic instruments have been in common use in today's music for at least 30 years, and
have been used in serious compositional works for much longer than that. Today's compositions feature more
synthesizers than ever - from the all-electronic blips found in today's techno music, to the stylings and pads
behind today's pop music. As a result, many people become very interested in synthesizers, and want to learn
how to play them.
But today's synthesizers can seem complicated at first. It is hard to figure out, for the beginner, which
synthesizer to choose from, and to understand all of the possible features in a synthesizer. What makes a
JV1080 different from a Nord Lead? What are all these terms in the feature list and what do they mean? What
is MIDI?
At the same time, I did not see on the Internet a very good, comprehensive source for explaining the world of
synthesizers. Being one who runs a large MIDI and synthesizer link page, I was getting way too many
questions asking the same thing (the most common being "what synthesizer should I purchase?", but many
other technical questions as well). It would be much nicer to simply type all of this information once and refer
them to a FAQ. So I wrote this. (:
I'm hoping I didn't make this too complicated. I wanted to include a lot of information, to make it interesting
reading and complete; at the same time, I want to make it somewhat basic as well, to help out beginners. I hope
I have succeeded, and haven't turned anyone off by the fact that this thing is, well, voluminous... if not, well,
write on ways to improve it! (:
Although I have been involved with synthesizers for a long time, I can't claim to have knowledge on
EVERYTHING. Therefore, if you notice any significant mistakes or omissions, please email me at . With that,
on with the show...

II. What is a synthesizer?

A) Definition

From Webster's New World Dictionary, Second College Edition:

Synthesizer - A person or thing that synthesizes; specifically, an electronic device containing filters,
oscillators, and voltage-control amplifiers, used to produce sounds unobtainable from ordinary musical
instruments.
Why the word synthesizer? Well, it is evolved from the word synthesis. Synthesis means to put together parts
or elements so as to form the whole, according to Webster's Dictionary. That is the general concept behind a
synthesizer: To put together parts and elements of a sound, from sound generating devices to sound processing
devices, and form a whole sound.

B) A Brief History of Synths

Although the synthesizer concept is a relatively new one, electronic instruments have been with us for a long
time. The world's first electronic instrument was invented by Leon Theremin in 1920. The aetherphone, as he
first called it, later became known as the theremin. It is one of the few electronic instrument that does not
require contact to play - you simply wave your hands in the air around two antennas to raise and lower the
volume and pitch. It has been used in countless places (the soundtrack to "Forbidden Planet", the song "Good
Vibrations" by the Beach Boys), and is still used today.
Most of the rest of the electronic instruments produced in the 20s, 30s, and 40s were of the electric organ
variety, although there were some notable exceptions (such as the Trautonium and the Ondes Martenot, both
invented in the late 1920s, and the RCA Mark I and II synthesizers, created around the 1950s). Particularly of
note is the Hammond electronic organ. The first Hammond electronic organ was introduced in 1935; the
Hammond name has since become legendary.
It was around the 1950s that electronic instruments became treated more seriously. This is because in the
academic music world, the musique concrete style established itself. Musique concrete revolved heavily around
taking sounds out of the real world, mixing them, and processing them to form a composition. This style
heavily revolved around the newly invented way of recording media: Magnetic tape. Sounds could be recorded,
have their pitch raised or lowered, processed through a variety of methods, spliced, looped, and a piece could
be formed. The elements found in musique concrete still exist today, in the form of digital samplers (which can
do what tapes do, only with a greater precision and accuracy). Many tape studios started looking beyond the
real world for sounds, and began collecting a wide variety of electronic devices: Oscillators, amplifiers, and
other signal processing devices. It was only natural for synthesizers to come along and make a headway.
Several small companies (among them, Buchla and Moog) opened up in the middle 60s to make modulars for
this small market.
Synthesizers had existed prior to the late 60s, in various forms (the RCA Mark I and II synthesizers are good
examples of this). But until this period, synthesizers were very expensive, and restricted only to more obscure,
academic compositions. Electronic synthesizer builders were mostly hobbyists searching for new ways to
create sound. In the late 60s, however, popular musicians themselves were searching for new sounds. The
Beatles, for instance, experimented with tape loop ideas in several songs, and used a Mellotron (an early
"sampler" that used tape loops to create its sound) on others. Film composers were looking for ways to create
unique sounds as well. From this, commercial synthesizers (such as the VCS-3 "Putney" and the Moog
Minimoog) were born, and the music world would never be the same.
Today, synthesizers are used in almost all forms of music. From providing the backbone of today's most
popular music, to providing the strange sounds for the most experimental music, synthesizers are at the

forefront of today's music technology. The synthesizer has undergone some radical changes, and now can be
found using a wide variety of techniques and methods for creating its sound. But the basic concept remains the
same: To start with an electronically generated signal, process the signal through electronic methods, and
emerge with a unique sound that often cannot be duplicated by any other instrument.

III. Types of synthesizers, in brief

There are many types of synthesizers out there. From time to time, you will run into many of these terms
describing various ways a synthesizer generates its sound. Although sometimes people refer to a synthesizer by
its synthesis technique (covered in section IV), it is more common to refer to a synthesizer by a generic
methodology that a synthesizer uses. This can lead to debates (ie, "The Roland Alpha Juno 1 isn't an analog, it's
a digitally-controlled hybrid!"), and isn't technically the most correct... but it does find a way to separate certain
bleeping machines from other bleeping machines. (:
With that in mind, here are the generic categories most people use to describe synthesizers...

Modular synthesizers
The earliest synthesizers made were not made in a self contained unit like the modern day synthesizer is. Each
unit, instead, was self-contained in an individual box (a module, hence the term "modular"). Units were
available that both created a signal (VCOs, noise generators) and processed a signal (VCF, VCA, etc.). These
modules were mounted in large racks and connected to each other with 1/4" cables. Because you patched
together connections with these cables, a particular sound was called a "patch"... and the name has stuck with
us to this very day.
These modular synthesizers were usually very big, sometimes taking up entire rooms. Compared to the portable
keyboard, a modular synthesizer seems like a burden... until you realize that with a modular synthesizer, you
are not restricted to one particular path. Modular synthesizers have the greatest freedom in terms of composing
patches, and for this reason they are still used in the studios of film composers and studios that require the
ability to make new sounds.
The Buchla and Moog modular synthesizers were the earliest to enter the commercial marketplace; although
the Buchla technically was the first, the Moog remains the most famous, for two reasons. The first is that the
Moog synthesizer got noticed through the enormously popular release of "Switched On Bach" by Walter Carlos
(now known as Wendy Carlos). The second is that the Moog modular synthesizer defined the standard which
all analogs use to this very day: All functions of the synthesizer are controlled by a control voltage (CV) of one
volt per octave. Even today, modulars are still being made by small companies (such as Doepfer, Serge (which
in some way resembles the old Buchlas), and many others).
Modular synthesizers, of course, are quite impractible for the performing musician (although several artists
have and do use a modular on stage)... for this reason, the pre-wired synthesizer was born in the early 70s.
Basically, the pre-wired synthesizer took the most common modules of a synthesizer, routes it through the most
common path, and adds various control options (for different patches) to the panel through a variety of
methods. The result was a synthesizer that was much more practical for musicians, and the bulk of what you
will find in the market.
Nowadays, a new type of modular synthesizer is emerging: A virtual modular synthesizer. This modular
synthesizer allows you to create the sound on a computer, using virtual "patch cords" and "modules" that

synthesizer a very similar sound to a modular, without all of the bulk and cables.

Analog synthesizers
A synthesizer with analog-based circuitry. These synthesizers, in general, use analog-style units (oscillators,
filters) that are controlled by voltage (like the old modulars, only pre-wired). Analogs are known for having a
warm, pleasing sound, compared to most digitals.
Early analogs, such as the Minimoog, are easily called that: they all have what is called discrete circuitry
(transistors, resistors, etc. - no integrated circuits). Later synthesizers, however, used other, more compact
analog technolgies such as op-amps and linear integrated circuits.
In the early 80s, the terminology began really getting distorted when synthesizers came out with separate
sections controlled by digital technology (for things such as patch memory). Often the oscillators themselves
would be controlled by some digital circuitry, to help keep the oscillators in tune. Instead of having VCOs
(voltage controlled oscillators), they are often referred to as having DCOs (digitally controlled oscillators - see
the Roland Juno series for an example of that). And things got complicated even further by having synthesizers,
such as the Korg DW-8000, that have oscillators driven by short, looped samples, but have analog filters!
(These synthesizers are often called "analog hybrids".)

Digital synthesizers
Basically, synthesizers that use digital methods to generate sounds.
"Digital synthesizers" have been around since the late 1950s, when RCA introduced the Mark I synthesizer to
the world. The "synthesizer" consisted of a variety of analog components (oscillators, etc.) - the catch is that
the components were digitally controlled. In order to use this program, you had to tediously program in a piece
on punchcards; this severely restricted its use.
Some commercial digital synthesizers came out in the late 70s for musicians with deep pockets (notably the
New England Digital Synclavier workstation and the Fairlight sampler), but it wasn't until the Yamaha DX7
came out that people took notice. The Yamaha DX7 packed an amazing amount of synthesizer power (realistic
instruments, nice sounds) for a $2000 price tag. The result was a huge success that redefinied the shape of the
synthesizer market.
Digital synthesizers are very similar, technique wise, to analogs. Usually, they start out with a sound source
(anything from a sample to a computer-generated wave) and process them through various digital algorithms.
The result is often more realistic (due to the samples), but many complain digital synthesizers sound "colder"
than analogs.
Some synthesizers have been done using digital synthesis methods that do not rely on samples. The Yamaha
DX7 is a good example of this (it used digital methods to do a type of synthesis called frequency modulation
(FM) in much greater quantities and with much greater precision than was possible with an analog synthesizer
of the equivilent size); the Roland D-50 is another (it allowed you to select either short "PCM" samples or
digitally-generated waveforms, and process them through digital filters and digital VCAs). However, today's
digital synthesizers primarily use samples to generate their sound. Thus, we come to the two types of sample
synthesizers...

Sample-playback synthesizers
The majority of the synthesizers on today's market are sample-based synthesizers. These are synthesizers that
contain hard-coded samples (stored onboard in ROM on the synthesizer). Synthesizer patches are created by
using these hard coded samples as a sound source, and processing the signal through various filters, envelopes,
etc. They are known in general as sample-playback synthesizers (although some sound card manufacturers call
the process "wavetable").
Although these can be a limiting synthesizer type to some extent, they tend to have several advantages. First of
all, its cheap. ROM is cheap, and digital technology is getting cheaper. Second, polyphony is cheap and
extensive on these machines: Some sample-playback synthesizers can play up to 64 notes at one time! Third,
its very realistic sounding (due to the use of samples). Fourth, they are easy to use: Simply call up the patch
you want and play. However, they often lack real-time control and warmth, and you are limited to the samples
in the ROM. It's a judgement call. For beginners, I do think they are the best choice, but for those wanting to
create their own sounds, I don't...
Some of these synthesizers are called workstations. Workstations are nothing more than synthesizers which
several related components of a synthesizer (sequencer, effects processor, data storage) can be found on one
unit. Although there are certainly analog workstations out there (the ESQ-1 was an analog hybrid workstation),
nowadays, all workstations sold today are entirely sample-based (with other synthesizer techniques looming in
the background, such as sampling and physical modeling, sometimes).

Samplers
Sample-based synthesis is nice, but what if you want to use your OWN samples as the sound source? This is
where the sampler comes in. A sampler is a device that can take any sound that is put into it, "sample" it,
process it, and play it back. Whether it be a short vocal clip from President Kennedy's inaugural address, or a
multilayered synthesizer sample that is processed to do crazy things, samplers give you considerable freedom
to make any sound you want.
The downside? Samplers are expensive, and more difficult to program than other categories. Samplers also
have the most storage consideration, and often come with the ability to add internal hard drives, or connect to
external storage devices via SCSI. Another downside is that they lose the contents of their memory when
turned off, just like a computer, and you must reload the samples from a floppy disk or hard drive to begin
using the sounds again. Still, they are a worthy piece in a synthesizer arsenal.
Nowadays, samplers are available that make use of your computer to generate sounds. On the shareware
market, there are a few programs (like Simple Sampler and Mellosoftron) that allow you to trigger WAV files
easily with MIDI, and play it back through your sound card. On the professional level, there are program/
hardware packages that allow you to do sampling (at a professional price) with your personal computer, with
much of the processing a hardware sampler has.
JLoffink@bangate.compaq.com adds:

The distinction between sample-playback synthesizers and samplers can

become blurred, as there are some sample-playback synthesizers with small
amounts of user RAM for loading samples, just as there are some samplers
with Flash ROM options that allow users to load limited amounts of samples

into memory that keeps its contents even after the instrument is powered
off.
Although its not to the point where a $99 Soundblaster can replace a $3500 Emu (no processing abilities with
most of the shareware programs), the sampling shareware is certainly an alternative available for those looking
for a cheap way to include a sampler in their songs.
Another cheap alternative is what I call a "phrase sampler". Samplers like the Roland MS-1 fall into this
category... they have limited amounts of samples and polyphony, but more real time controls available than the
average rackmounted sampler, and are well suited for DJ work.

Software synthesizers / Physical modeling

A third type of digital synthesizer has emerged in recent years, and is continuing to develop. In the early 90s,
Yamaha released the first of these types of synthesizers. Called the Yamaha VL1, it modeled wind instruments
(such as saxaphones) very well. The synthesizer was not a big seller, but the sound it produced was incredibly
realistic, much more realistic than sampling synthesis. Thus, modeling has become the new way of looking at
synthesis.
The idea behind modeling is to use software code to produce the sound, instead of using hardware methods.
This concept has been around for some time (an experimental program called Csound has been available for
computers for a while), but only recently has the idea blossomed in any community but the experimental.
Currently, the trend has been to model analog sounds. The Clavia Nord Lead claims to use modeling to
produce its analog sounds; Yamaha is planning to release a Nord Lead competitor called the AN1X, and
Roland already has released its Nord Lead clone (the JP-8000). The Korg Prophecy solo synthesizer does both
analog(ish) modeling AND some realistic synthesizer modeling.
A huge array of software synthesizers that use only the PC to generate the sound have also cropped up. Many
of the synthesizers are like Wavecraft (which models a modular through software), and cannot be played realtime. However, some newer software (such as the Rebirth 338, which real-time models two 303s and an 808) is
offering the promise of real-time synthesis on a personal computer.
The possibilities for this type of synthesizer remain yet to be seen.

Drum machines
This term refers to special units that only contain drum sounds in them (usually). The drum machines have an
internal sequencer that allows you to program in a drum song, and play it back. This makes drum machines
nice for people who have a limited amount of musicians: You can pre-record and play back rhythm parts while
you play back live on top of them. (I don't consider drum machines a substitute for the real thing, though)
Drum machines also have a special charm in rap and hip-hop music, due to the more "electronic" sound a drum
machine has and the fact that it is able to keep a beat perfectly.
There are several types of drum machines available. Very old drum machines (Roland TR-808, CR series) use
analog synthesis as a way to make drum sounds. Later, drum machines started using digital samples to make
the sounds; although some machines exist that use both methods (Roland TR-909), nowadays, almost all drum
machines on the market are sample-based. A few drum machines, however, allow you to load your own
samples in to be used as rhythms (Emu SP1200, Akai MPC60 / MPC3000, Linndrum 9000, etc.), thus opening
up another dimension of rhythms. Some drum machines nowadays are modeled (ie, the Novation Drumstation).

Early "drum machines", FYI, were not programmable (ie, you had only a few preset rhythms), and were mainly
designed as accompaniment for organ players. The first commercial drum machines that had programmable
rhythms were the Roland CR and TR series. Interesting that many machines in the TR series are still used
today. (:
The better drum machines have touch-sensitive pads (so the machine can record the velocity struck at), and
have ways of changing the pitch, envelope, and duration of the drum (and the ability to record it into the
internal sequencer realtime.)

IV. Major types of synthesis

More technical (but more correct) is the methodology that a synthesizer uses to arrive at its sound. Of course,
there are differences between various synthesizers even within techniques... which gives certain synthesizers a
different sound over other types of synthesizers. With that in mind, here is the various synthesizer types
around...

Subtractive synthesis
One of the most common synthesizer techniques, found in most analogs and some other types of synthesizers
(such as modeling synthesizers). This type of synthesis is achieved by taking a tone with lots of harmonics and
filtering them to arrive at the desired tone color. Most sample-playback synthesizers are technically subtractive.

Additive synthesis
Exactly the opposite of subtractive synthesis. Basically, putting together a number of different wave
components together (partials or harmonics) to arrive at a particular sound. A specific type of synthesis is
Fourier synthesis, which involves mixing together a large number of sine wave harmonics to achieve a specific
sound.

Wavetable synthesis
A type of synthesis form which produces a sound through short, cycled samples.
The technique varies between various synthesizers. For the Microwave and PPG Wave, multiple short
waveforms stored in a table can be sequenced through a single note, producing rich sounds. The synthesizer
also provides the ability to interpolate between various waveforms. For synthesizers like the DW-8000 and
ESQ-1, "wavetable" refers to the fact that the synthesizer uses single-cycle waveform samples to produce its
sound. For synthesizers like the Wavestation, the reference is to small-sample chunks to produce the sound.
Sound card manufacturers often refer to their soundcards that use sample-playback synthesis as
"wavetable" (because the samples are stored in a table in RAM.)

Sample playback (PCM synthesis)

Also known by many other names (AI2 synthesis, etc.), the idea behind this type of synthesis is to take a
sample of some kind (whether it be of a synthesizer, acoustic instrument, etc.), and play that sample back as the

oscillator (instead of an electrically generated wave). This tends to generate very realistic sounds; the problem
is, without the ability to create your own samples (ie, all the samples are stored in ROM), the sound generation
options can be limited. Usually, this is an extension of subtractive synthesis.
A sampler attempts to solve this problem by allowing you to create your own samples and play them back via
various synthesis options. Samplers are technically sample playback synthesizers with RAM instead of ROM
inside; but by enabling you to create your own sounds, the samplers open up a world of new possibilities.
The sample playback synthesis era started with the Roland D-series of synthesizers, which used the term
"Linear Arithmetic", implying an additive paradigm. The D-series, like most sample-based synthesizers, is
more subtractive than additive though.

Physical modeling
A new form of synthesis that has emerged in recent years. Instead of trying to simulate through an abstract
method, the synthesis method tries to physically model the instrument itself, thus providing a very accurate
instrument. However, it is often the most difficult to program - and consequently, the hardest to provide an
effective user interface for. Nevertheless, analog physical modeling synthesizers recently have appeared with
the "classic" easy-to-program knobs et al.

FM synthesis
FM (Frequency Modulation) synthesis, widely popularized by the DX7 and other Yamaha instruments, is a
unique type of synthesis. The basic concept behind FM synthesis is that you modulate the frequency of an
audio oscillator by the frequency of another audio oscillator. By stacking various oscillators on top of each
other, you can get a wide variety of sounds. Yamaha also introduced a modified version of FM called RCM
(Realtime Convolution and Modulation); they are very similar, though.

Phase Distortion
Phase distortion was a technique introduced by Casio for the CZ series of synthesizers. The basic concept is to
morph various waveforms from their original waveform (saw, pulse, etc.) into a sine wave and back.

Waveshaping
Waveshaping is a technique popularized by such synthesizers as the Korg 01/W. Waveshaping allows you to
apply a non-linear function on the original signal, thus offering a wide variety of effects.

Vector synthesis
A way that some of the more powerful synthesizers can create nice sounds through a simple concept. Up to a
certain amount of oscillators can be mixed together and (often) realtime controlled through a device such as a
joystick. It makes for some nice ways of producing expressive sounds.

Wave Sequencing
Wave sequencing is a feature popularized by the Korg Wavestation. It allows you to sequence through

programmable patterns of samples - a concept similar to the "loop-the-loop" partials found in the D-50 and the
cycling available in the PPG Wave / Microwave, but with a lot more control, with each sample assigned a level
and duration.

VAST Synthesis
A type of synthesis unique to Kurzweil K2000, K2VX and K2500 instruments that combines elements of
analog synthesis (filters, pulse width modulation, hard sync, distortion, amplitude modulation) with digital
shaper and wrap functions. Multiple configurations of signal paths are available, giving connectivity
comparable to a modular synthesizer.

Granular Synthesis
At this time a more abstract concept, granular synthesis is similar to wave sequencing except the snipplets are
so short that an actual tone is developed, instead of the rhythm that wave sequencing produces.

V. What do all the synthesizer components mean?

Knowing what type of synthesizer you are looking for is nice in itself. But what do all of these terminologies
mean? NOTE: See VI. Part E for effects terminology. Effects I consider a feature of the synthesizer, not the
synthesizer itself.

The Glossary
32'/16'/8'/4': A carryover from the organ days, simply referring to the octave at which the patch is set at. 8' is
the normal sound; 16' is one octave down, 32' is two octaves down, etc. Likewise, 4' is one octave up.
+24db/+12db/+18db:This simply refers to a specific filter type, characterized by how abrupt its cutoff slope
will be. This also refers to the amount of poles that are in a filter.
ADC: Analog to Digital Converters. Used in samplers to create digital data (ie, where a sound wave is
represented solely by numbers) out of a sound input. The better the bit resolution of the ADC, in general, the
better sounding the conversion will be.
ADPCM: An audio compression routine for digital audio.
ADSR: The basic envelope of a synthesizer. This type of envelope is probably the most common type,
especially on early synthesizers. Incidentally, each letter stands for a basic parameter of the envelope: Attack
Decay Sustain Release.
Algorithm: In computer terms, a set of instructions designed to accomplish a specific task. This computer term
has been applied to synthesizers, though, by such synthesizers as the Yamaha DX series. The Yamaha DX
series uses the term algorithm to describe how the FM operators are set up and processed.
Amplifier: A circuit which controls the volume that a particular signal has.
Amplitude Modulation: A process that allows you to modify the amplitude (or level) of a sound using various

other signal sources. This allows you to produce a range of tremolo or timbre modulation (wah-wah) type of
effects. Also known as AM.
Attack: In an ADSR envelope, the control that determines the time it takes to get to the maximum attack level.
Bandpass Filter: A filter that lets through only a narrow band of frequencies.
Bank: Generally refers to a collection of patches grouped together.
Baud Rate: The number of bits of computer information transmitted per second.
Bit Resolution: When people refer to a "16 bit machine", this is what they are referring to. This refers to the
amount of bits it takes to store a sample inside of a sampler. A bit, by the way, is the smallest unit of a
computer; it is a digital piece of information that is either 1 (on) or 0 (off).
BPM: Beats per minute, the usual tempo measurement.
Buffer: Temporary storage for a patch. You can play it, edit it, etc. without harming the RAM or ROM where
the patch came from. Most synthesizers with memory send the patch to the buffer when you call it up.
Carrier: In FM synthesis, an operator that "carries" the main audio output of the sound without modifying
(modulating) anything.
Cent: Used to describe pitch tuning. A notation where one hundred cents equals a half step.
Clock Rate: Usually refers to the sample rate at which keyboards play the pre-recorded ROM samples back at.
Combination: A special synthesizer patch that uses multiple patches, spanned across various portions of the
keyboard and routed through the same FX, to create a very rich sound.
Controller: A device that is capable of producing some change in the aspect of sound. See the whole glossary
of controller terms below (VII. Part D)
Cutoff Frequency: The frequency in which a filter is set to. Beyond this frequency (in a lo-pass filter, the most
common), the sound is cut off.
DAC: Digital to Analog Converter. Used for samplers and sample based synthesizers. In general, the better the
bit resolution of the DAC, the better sounding the samples.
DCO: Digitally Controlled Oscillator. Similar to VCO, except that the tuning of the VCO is somehow
computer-stabilized (e.g. clocked to a single CPU, etc.)
Decay: In an ADSR envelope, the control that determines the time it takes to go from the maximum attack
level to the sustain level (set by the sustain control).
Delay: Sometimes refers to delay time before a specific keyboard section starts (such as a delay time in an
envelope or LFO); also, a specific FX type, see section VII Part E.

Delay Time: Usually refers to the delay before a specified section begins working.
Detune: These parameters usually allow you to have some of the oscillators be slightly out of tune with the
other, creating a fatter sound.
Default patches: The patches that are loaded into the synthesizer when you first buy it.
EG: In some synthesizers, they use the term "Envelope Generator" instead of Envelope; this is a shortened
abbreviation for this.
Emphasis: Sometimes used to describe resonance.
Envelope: The signal processing device in a synthesizer that controls amplitude over a time. In not-sotechnical terms, it gives sound its shape. It tells when the synthesizer volume should go up and down in
volume, and the time it should take to go up and down. Early synthesizers commonly used an envelope type
called ADSR, but modern synthesizers tend to have a lot more complicated parameters. The basic concept,
however, remains the same.
Envelope Tracking: A function that changes envelope length, time, etc. depending on what note is played.
Filter: A device that blocks certain frequencies while letting other frequencies through.
Frequency: The pitch of a tone. In oscillators (VCOs, etc.), they usually refer to the initial starting pitch. In
filters (VCFs, etc.), they usually refer to the setting of where the cutoff frequency begins. In samplers, it
sometimes is used to specify the sample rate. Frequency is measured in Hertz, where one Hertz (Hz) is one
cycle per second.
Frequency Modulation: In addition to being a basic synthesizer technique used by some synthesizers, many
synthesizers have a feature which allows you to modulate the frequency (pitch) of an oscillator or filter,
producing rich and complex tones. Also known as FM.
Keyboard Tracking: A function on some keyboards that determines how the area of the keyboard affects
tonal qualities.
Hertz (Hz): A way of measuring frequency, where one hertz is one cycle a second.
Hipass Filter: A filter which only lets frequencies HIGHER than a certain cutoff point through.
Inverter: In some synthesizers, a circuit that reverses the normal voltages in the circuit, so that +5V becomes 5V, etc., for special effects.
KHz: 1 Khz = 1000 Hz.
LFO: Stands for "Low Frequency Oscillator". An oscillator that in general is NOT triggered from voltage; it
runs continuously at a very low speed (although many synthesizers have a retrigger option that allows the LFO
to be reset for each note played, or when you want it). Some common applications: Putting an LFO on the
VCO pitch (for vibrato) or putting an LFO on the VCF filter cutoff frequency (for slow filter sweeps).
Loop: An option in a sample that allows you to repeat a sample at a certain point when it reaches a certain

point in the sample. In other words, a way to repeat a sample forever. The basic sample loop simply loops the
sample from a previous point in the sample when the sample reaches a designated end point; this is called a
forward loop or a sustain loop. Other types of loops include the reverse loop (a loop where the sample loops
from a point near the end of the sample to a point near the beginning; in other words, reverse of the forward
loop) and the bi-directional or ping-pong loop (a loop that plays from the starting point to the ending point,
reverses and plays from the ending point to the starting point, and continues ping-ponging back and forth).
Some samplers allow two loops: a loop for sustaining a note, and a second loop when a note-off message is
received (called the release loop). Also: In a sequencer, an option that allows you to repeat a sequence
infinitely.
Lowpass Filter: A filter which only lets frequencies LOWER than a certain cutoff point through.
Matrix Modulation: A type of system which allows you to connect several selectable sources by several
selectable destinations by a certain amount. Common on many synthesizers today.
Mix: Often used to describe the amount of volume between one source and another. Often used to describe
mixing two oscillator volumes. Also used to describe mixing two samples.
Mixer: A device that combines two or more audio signals.
Modulator: In FM synthesis and elsewhere, a modulator that is used to modify the output of another operator,
creating rich complex tones. This process is known as modulation.
Multisample :A "patch" that is made up of several samples spanned over the keyboard. For example, a piano
patch could be made up of seven samples, each at an octave point of the piano, spanned over the keyboard.
This creates a more realistic sound.
Noise: As it says; random frequencies spitting out to produce static-like sounds. Useful in some patches.
Notch Filter: A filter that only lets everything BUT a certain notched portion of frequencies through.
Operator: In FM synthesis, a digital sine wave that is combined with its own envelope generator. Kind of the
FM way of describing a VCO.
Oscillator: A generic term describing the part of the synthesizer that produces the basic tone or sample of the
patch. In the old days, an oscillator referred to a specific electronic circuit that oscillated back and forth in
voltage, but nowadays, some sample-based synthesizers use this term.
Pan: The placement of the sound between the left and right stereo channels of a synthesizer.
Partial: In a Roland synthesizer, refers to one of the building blocks. Think of it as an oscillator with an
independent filter, amplifier, etc.
Patch: A synthesizer sound composed of specific settings. In the old days, you used to patch together modules
with patch chords, hence the term formed. Later, "patches" were dialed up on knobs. With the advent of
memory, however, patches usually refer to a stored patch inside the synthesizer memory.
PCM: Pulse Code Modulation. A really technical way of describing a sample, often specifically referring to
samples hard-coded into ROM. Sample-based synthesizers are sometimes called "PCM synthesizers".

Pink Noise: Noise that has passed through a low-pass filter.

Pole: As in "2 pole filter" and "4 pole filter". The more poles a filter has, the more abrupt its cutoff slope will
be, and the more accurate the filter will be in reducing unwanted frequencies.
Port :Refers to an electrical connector of some kind; also refers to a program written for one machine that is
translated into another.
PPQ: Pulses Per Quarter-Note. A way of measuring the resolution of a sequencer; the higher, the more
accurate notes can be recorded.
Preset: A patch that is built into a synthesizer patches that cannot be changed.
Program: Another word for a patch. In modern sample-based synthesizers, often refers to the patches which
use only a single voice in a synthesizer, and are the basic blocks for multimode and combination mode patches.
Pulse: This refers to square waves whose width is somehow being controlled. IE, a normal square wave looks
like:
|-----|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
-----------|
Pulse waves can look like this:
|-|
|
| |
|
| |
|
-------- --------PWM: Pulse Width Modulation. A parameter that controls the width of the square waves. See pulse.
Q: A common name for resonance.
Ramp: On some synthesizers, a smooth modulation that best resembles the attack portion of an envelope.
Rate: The speed at which a particular device is operating at.
Rate Scaling: See scaling.
Reconstruction Filter: From Keyboard Magazine's web site: A lowpass filter on the output of a digital-toanalog converter that smoothes the staircase-like changes in voltage produced by the converter in order to
eliminate clock noise from the output.
Release: In an ADSR envelope, the control that determines how long it takes to go from the sustain level to 0
when the note is released.

Resolution: With apologies to Keyboard Magazine's web site, because they said it best: A function on a filter
in which a narrow band of frequencies (the resonant peak) becomes relatively more prominent. If the resonant
peak is high enough, the filter will begin to oscillate, producing an audio output even in the absence of input.
Filter resonance is also known as emphasis and Q. It is also referred to in some older instruments as
regeneration or feedback, because feedback was used in the circuit to produce a resonant peak. It produces a
very distinctive sound in the analog filter process, and is an important part of techno music, among other things.
Resynthesis: Analyzing the sample and adding frequencies to make the sample sound more real. Used on some
synthesizers as a technique.
Ring Modulator: A type of mixer that takes two signals and produces either the sum or difference of the two
signals. Cliched in the 70s but not heard of much in the modern era.
Sample: A piece of analog audio encoded digitally. Samples are what make possible much of today's music, as
they enable people to take "snipplets" of sound and produce either realistic-sounding instruments or astonishing
effects. Technically, a sample is simply one "reading" of audio data, but most people refer to samples as a full
snipplet.
Sample-and-Hold (S&H): From Keyboard Magazine, once again: A circuit on an analog synthesizer that,
when triggered (usually by a clock pulse), looks at (samples) the voltage at its input and then passes this
voltage on to its output unchanged, regardless of what the input voltage does in the meantime (the hold
period), until the next trigger is received. In one familiar application, the input was a noise source and the
output was connected to oscillator pitch, which caused the pitch to change in a random staircase pattern. The
sample-and-hold effect is often emulated by digital synthesizers through an LFO waveshape called "random."
Sample Rate: The rate at which a sample is recorded. It determines how many "samples" are reserved to store
a particular sample in the machine. For example, a sound sampled at a sampling rate of 44,100 will require
44,100 samples per second to store the sound. The higher the sample rate, the higher quality the sample will be,
with less of a phenomenon known as aliasing (a situation where unwanted frequencies appear in the sample,
due to the lack of information present in the sampled data). Each sample will require a certain number of bits to
store, depending on the machine. From this, you can calculate the storage space a sample requires (ie, a 16 bit
machine requires 16 bits per sample. Monophonic samples require one channel; stereo samples require two.
Since 8 bits equals one byte, you can determine that a one second sample will require 88,200 bytes at a rate of
44,100 / 16 bit, monophonic; and double that for stereo samples).
Scaling: Often used to shorten or widen signal processor output (such as the rate of the envelope or the volume
level) over a period of time in a particular fashion.
Software Version: Just the version number of the particular synthesizer's operating system.
Split Points: Sometimes used as a term to describe a multisample; a split point is where one sample becomes
another.
Suboscillator: An oscillator that is set at (usually) one octave below the normal oscillator; used for bass effects.
Sustain: In an ADSR envelope, the control that determines the level that the sound is played at while the note
is being held, and after the other envelope portions (Attack and Decay) have been cycled through.
Sync: Provides a way for you to synchronize the device with something else. For example, LFO sync in

synthesizers often allows you to clock the beginning of the LFO cycle to key-on timing. Sync is used in the
Roland x0x series to allow both sequencers to start at the same time with the same tempo.
Timbre: In certain Roland synthesizers, a building block in the patch. Also a way in describing the tone quality
of the sound.
Tracking Generator: A synthesizer feature found on Oberheim and Alesis synthesizers. Here is a long
explanation, thanks to Analog Heaven's archives:

The tracking generator is a non-linearizer for control signals. Imagine the

range of a controller as a line from minimum to maximum:
___---~
___---~
___---~
___---~
~
^

(sorry for the rough ASCII graphics)

Anyway, imagine this line as being a broken rubber band stretched
between two thumbtacks, one at each end. (I indicate where they go
with tilde marks '~' in the above picture.) Now insert three more
tacks into the band, one at the center and two more halfway between
the center and the ends. So you have a line of five tacks describing
the straight line of the controller range, with zero effect at one end
and maximum effect at the other, right? (The caret marks '^' show
the horizontal positions of the five markers.)
Well, the tracking generator lets you grab any of those tacks and move
it up or down from zero to maximum, stretching the band out of shape
and turning it into a zigzag, a quasi-envelope structure, or
whatever. Each point on the curve has a value from 0 to 63, and values
are set independently for each point. The default, the ordinary
unaltered line, has these values:
___---~
___---~
___---~
___---~
~
^
0

^
15

^
31

^
47

^
63

We could also draw a curve like this:

~

/ \
/

/ \
\

/
\

/
\

\
\

/
\

/
\ /
~
^
0

~
^
^
0
63
Or like this:

\
\
~
^
0

^
63

___---~------~------~
___---~
~
^
0

^
15

^
31

^
31

^
31

Or even like this:

~
/
/
/
/
/
/
~------~------~------~
^
^
^
^
0
0
0
0

^
63

Well, what are these curves good for? Remember, they control what
happens to a control signal that's normally linear. So you can take a
linear signal and use it in different ways by routing it through the
tracking generator first. The two-bump example can be applied to a
stage of an envelope to create double-tonguing effects. The flattened
line can be applied to a mod wheel output to give it a
quasi-logarithmic throw. And the last example can be applied to a
voltage pedal to produce a footswitch-like 'step' when the pedal is
pressed all the way down (ideal for simulating a hihat). And there
are lots of others as well. Experiment!
Transpose: A function that allows you to shift the entire keyboard up and down a key. Usually, the
transposition is done in semitones (or one note in a key; ie, +1 transposition would make a C a C#, a C# a D,
etc.).
Track: On tape, a band of tape used for recording audio. Normal stereo cassettes, for instance, have 4 tracks (2
tracks for each side, one track for each stereo channel). In a sequencer, this refers to a similar concept: A
selection of music that can be recorded, sequenced, and played back separate from the other tracks.

Tremelo: A periodic change in amplitude (unlike vibrato, which is a periodic change in frequency).
Tune: A way to adjust the sound of the synthesizer. Early analogs required you to tune through an analog
knob, sometimes tuning each individual VCO; most of today's modern digitals, in contrast, allow you to tune
with a menu, and usually express the tuning in terms of +/- cents off of the standard tuning.
VCA: Also known as Voltage Controlled Amplifier, this is an amplifer whose magnitude can be controlled by
voltages. IE: Attaching the voltage of an envelope will produce a patch whose volume corresponds to the
envelope shape; attaching the gate voltage, on the other hand, will produce a patch whose volume goes on
when the note is struck and off when the note is released.
VCF: Also known as Voltage Controlled Filter, this is a filter whose cutoff frequency can be controlled by
voltages. This means that attaching the voltage of an LFO to it will produce wowing sweeps; attaching an
envelope voltage will give the filter a particular shape; etc.
VCO: Also known as Voltage Controlled Oscillator, this simply means an oscillator whose pitch is controlled
by a certain control voltage. IE: Attaching an LFO voltage will produce a pitch that goes up an down.
Velocity Sensitivity: A measurement of how fast each key is descending.
Vibrato: A periodic change in frequency. Sometimes used as a term for an LFO, specifically a fixed LFO set at
a certain speed designed to perform vibrato-like effects.
Wave: A basic sound coming from an oscillator, or another name for a sample.
Waveform: The generated signal produced by an oscillator or a looped sample.
Waveshape: The shape of the wave being produced, usually referring to oscillators. Common oscillator
waveshapes are square waves, pulse waves (square waves whose width is controlled somehow), sawtooth
(ramp) waves, triangle waves, sine waves, and random / noise waves. The shapes look like (in rough ASCII
form):
Square
Pulse
---- --| | |
||
|
-- ----- ----Triangle
Sine
/\
/-\
/ \ /
|
|
|
/
\/
\_/
\_/

Sawtooth (Ramp)
/|
/ | /
/ |/
Noise (random)
\ /. : .
:\./ /: \
/. -0_/ : :

White Noise Unfiltered noise.

VI. Vocabulary: What all the terms in a synthesizer

mean
Beyond what actually produces the sound (the signal generators) described in section V, here is a list of what

you can expect when you look at a keyboard specification list. What does all those things mean? Here's where
you find out.

Voices / Polyphony / Multitimbral: Voice terms

First, some simple terminology:
Combination Mode: A mode where several "program mode" patches are spanned through various sections of
the keyboard, and combined through one FX unit.
Monophonic: A synthesizer that can only play one note at a time. This is not necessarily a bad thing; these
synthesizers often have very rich sounds for their lack of voice abilities.
Multi Mode: A mode in some sample-based synthesizers that allow you to play multiple programs at once
(usually 16, the number of MIDI channels available). Generally, all the multi mode programs use patches
created or called up in program mode, and are all routed through the same FX unit.
Polyphonic: A synthesizer that can play more than one note at a time. Not necessarily multitimbral, though.
Polyphony: The maximum amount of notes a synthesizer can play at one time. Of course, a note could contain
more than one oscillator. Confusingly interchanged with voices; it is advisable, before buying a synth, to find
out whether the polyphony listed describes the amount of notes played with a typical patch, or whether the
polyphony listed decreases with a typical patch.
Program Mode: The mode where the basic building blocks of a synthesizer are created. Each patch in
"program mode" is usually very basic.
Unison Mode: A monophonic mode on some polyphonic analog synthesizers used where all of the oscillators
of the synthesizer are triggered on the same note, creating a nice fat sound.
Voice: Two ways it is used: 1) An oscillator played in the synthesizer, and 2) The maximum amount of
oscillators a synthesizer can play at one time (as in 32 voices). Sometimes confusingly interchanged with
polyphony.

A special note on voices, combo modes, and multi modes

Most modern sample-based synthesizers are patterned largely after the hugely successful Korg M1 and 01/W.
These sample-based synthesizers defined how future sample-based synthesizers worked. But, as a result, they
often confuse people, fooling them because of the way they are set up.
Modern synthesizer are often set up into three modes: "Combination" modes, "Program" modes, and "Multi"
modes. The building block around all of this is a program mode patch. These basic patches consist of the basics
(oscillators, filters, etc.), and are accessed via the "program mode". "Multi mode" is a mode designed for
sequencers. In this mode, you can play multiple patches of "program mode" banks, each on a separate MIDI
channel. By using a sequencer to control each MIDI channel, you can create a composition simply by using this
method. However, most synthesizers only come with one FX box (with one-four chained FX) that you have to
route all multi-mode patches through. "Combination modes" are more geared towards playing the keyboard
solo - they take several patches created in "program mode", span them across various layers of the keyboard,
route them through 1 FX box, and create a very lush patch (with less polyphony, and no ability to do

multimode-style sequencing unless the keyboard has a "combination copy". They're good for demonstrations
though.)
A warning: Any changes made to program mode patches will often affect the combination mode patches! If
you like your combination mode patches, be careful. Because combination patches are harder to play in multi
mode (although many synthesizers contain a way to copy them over), I usually ignore them myself. (: Also, the
terminology on some synthesizers may be a lot different (I'm using Korg 01/W / X3 / X5 terminology), but the
basic gist is the same.

RAM and ROM

Memory is a critical part of today's synthesizers. Memory is used to store patches, both presets and userdefined patches. An important part of today's synthesizers, therefore, can be how many ROM presets it has.
The more ROM space it has, the greater amount of space the synthesizer has to store preset samples. Of course,
the quality of samples is more important than the quantity, but it may give an indication of how many ROM
samples are in the synthesizer.
RAM is critical for any samplers. RAM is where all of the samples are going to be stored. Early samplers often
used proprietary RAM chips to store the samples in - a pain in today's market. Fortunately, most samplers
nowadays can handle SIMMs. SIMMs are exactly the kind of memory chips that you find in your local
computer store. Of course, SIMM requirements vary from sampler to sampler, and you may not like the idea of
opening up your sampler to install the SIMMs to begin with... in which case you see your local dealer for
memory upgrades.
Of course, there's also patch memory, the place where synthesizers store the settings of the synthesizer patches.
This memory can either be RAM (user-modifiable patches) or ROM (preset patches). And, of course, there is
memory for modifying the global settings of the synthesizer. Most specification lists give the number of
patches available, and how many of them are preset ROM (unmodifiable) and user-modifiable RAM.
Most synthesizers have a memory protect mode, FYI, that must be turned off before you begin modifying
patches. Usually, when you turn the synthesizer on, memory protect mode defaults to on so you don't
accidentally overwrite your favorite patch when playing around.

Packaging: Rack mount vs. Keyboards

When it comes to packaging, there are two basic models that today's synthesizer comes with: Either it is sold
with a keyboard, or the synthesizer is mounted in a rack unit. Some music items are sold as a "tabletop" unit
(ie, most drum machines); these items come in a small, compact box instead. There's not much to be said about
that package (except that, like the rack, it sometimes requires external input from a MIDI source). However, the
keyboard and the rack have some considerations in mind.
For the keyboard, the following distinctions are important:
* Number of keys. A piano sized keyboard is 88 keys. Most synthesizers seem to be 61 keys (5 octaves), in
contrast.
* Size of keys. Almost all synthesizers nowadays are sold with "full-sized keys" (sized like pianos), but
portables often come with "half-sized keys", which are not as large (and more compact).

* Action. These determine exactly how the keyboard feels to your touch. The three categories in this field are
weighted, synth-action, and semi-weighted. The distinctions are as follows:
* Weighted keys make a great attempt to feel like a piano (which, since the key is pulling on a lever to strike a
hammer on the piano string, feels weighted down). They are often loaded with various mechanical devices to
simulate the piano action, and might be best for those used to playing on a piano. In my opinion, they are more
expressive, but difficult to do fast solos with.
* Synth action keys have no weighting at all. In other words, they feel exactly like organ keys: Just there, with
no weighting at all. They are not as expressive to me (but I grew up as a piano player...), but they make it very
easy to play lightning fast solos. The cheapest keyboard option.
* Semi-weighted action is a compromise between the two. While the keys may be weighted down somewhat
to help on the expressiveness, the feel is a lot different from a piano, and may be alright for fastness. It's also a
lot cheaper than fully weighted keys.
* Zones. Some synthesizers offer the option to be able to transmit various portions of the MIDI keyboard on
different MIDI channels. This makes it convenient if you hook the keyboard up to an electronic instrument that
supports more than one patch at once (a multitimbral keyboard): You can easily set it up so half of the
keyboard is playing a piano, and another is playing a saxaphone, or other combinations. Not all instruments
support zones.
For the rack-mounted unit (also known as a module), there are a few considerations that you have to be aware
of. First of all, a rack mounted unit generally cannot be directly controlled (by a sequencer, etc.) - it usually is
able to be externally controlled by either a MIDI keyboard or a sequencer. So rack-mounted units are not good
for those who do not already have a keyboard. However, they do take up a lot less space.
Almost all synthesizer units use the conventional rack definition. The rack for these synthesizers are 19" wide,
with at least 1/2" on each end reserved for mounting on the rack rails. For height, a rack package uses the U
specification, where 1U is equal to an instrument that's 1 3/4" in height. (And, consequently, 2U instruments
are 3 1/2" in height, etc.) Some instruments are considered to be 1/2U, where the instrument only takes up half
of the width (ie, 9 1/2" wide) while still being 1 3/4" in height. There is no standard for depth.
Commercial rack-mount boxes are available from SKB and other companies; it is cheaper to build your own,
however, if you have the skills. Some companies sell rack-rails that allow you to build the box yourself with
little effort; the commercial rack-mount boxes tend to be better, though, for transport. Your mileage may vary.

Controller terms including basic MIDI

Aftertouch: A control feature of the synthesizer that allows you to generate additional effects by pressing on
the synthesizer key after you have released a note. Sometimes the effect is subtle (a little more vibrato, for
instance); other times, it's quite noticeable (if the aftertouch is applied to the filter, for instance).
Breath Control: A device that allows you to blow air through it to produce various effects when connected to
a synthesizer. A way of producing more realistic wind instruments.
Channel: Or MIDI Channel. Each MIDI cable has 16 channels which a synthesizer can transmit and receive
data on them. One must match the channels in the external device to the channels in the synthesizer to get the
correct data.

Channel Aftertouch: Aftertouch that is applied to ALL notes on a given MIDI channel, instead of each note
having a separate aftertouch value.
Channel Pressure: Same as channel aftertouch.
Continuous Controller: Used to describe pedals that have a range to them (such as pedals that control the
volume of the synthesizer). The pedal transmits data within a certain range (such as 0-127).
CV: Control Voltage, a way of controlling older analog synthesizers externally. Usually used to determine the
pitch of a synthesizer. Usually set to a particular value. See Section VII Part E for a full explanation.
DIN / Sync: Early Roland instruments used this protocol to control their synthesizers. See Section VII Part E
for a full explanation.
Footswitch: A little pedal that can be pressed up or down, either being on or off. Think of it as like a piano
pedal. It is usually used for sustain, although it can be used for many other features.
Gate: Another way of controlling older analog synths externally; it is either on or off. Usually used in
conjunction with control voltages (CV) to determine when a note got turned on and off. See Section VII Part E
for a full explanation
Glide: See portamento.
Legato: Not a feature, but a vocabulary word. (: When you are holding down a note before you hit the next
note and release it, you are playing legato.
MIDI: A communications protocol that allows one instrument or device to control another instrument or
device. But it's more than that; this FAQ devotes an entire section to it! See section VII.
MIDI Clock: A timing reference sent out by MIDI cables; can be used to coordinate devices together.
MIDI In: These inputs get connected to a MIDI Out port of another device to receive data from that MIDI Out
port.
MIDI Out: These inputs get connected to a MIDI In port of another device so that the keyboard can transmit
data to it.
MIDI Thru: These ports mirror (somewhat exactly) what is received via the MIDI In port, so the keyboards
can be "daisy chained" to a certain extent.
MTC: MIDI Time Code, a way of transmitting SMPTE timing data over a MIDI cable for synchronization.
Modulation Wheels: A wheel that you can control to produce a certain effect. Unlike pitch wheels, which
center in the middle, these wheels usually center at 0 (for no effect). Most often used for vibrato, but can be
used for many other things as well!
Multisample: To use several samples, spanned across various portions of the keyboard, in one patch. This
creates a more realistic sound.

Omni: In this mode, the instrument is able to receive in all MIDI channels simultaneously.
Pedal: Unlike pianos (whose pedals are described as "footswitches"), this usually describes a pedal that
transmits amounts in a certain range (0-127, for instance), for purposes such as controlling volume (or other
things).
Pitch Bender: A little wheel that exists on most synthesizers. By raising and lowering the wheel, you can raise
and lower the pitch. These pitch bends can even be recorded and played back via MIDI. Neat, eh?
Polyphonic Aftertouch: Aftertouch which is applied to each individual note, as opposed to channel aftertouch
(aftertouch applied to only one channel).
Polyphonic Pressure: See polyphonic aftertouch.
Portamento: A function where the pitch will slide over smoothly from one note to another instead of jumping
over the pitches.
Pressure: Same as aftertouch.
Ribbon Controller: A special type of controller where placing your finger on a specific portion of a thin
"ribbon" (an electrically sensitive strip) to send controller information to the synthesizer.
SDS: The MIDI Sample Dump standard format. A convenient way of transmitting samples over MIDI to be
exchanged with other samplers.
SMDI: SCSI Music Data Interchange. A specification for sending SDS samples over SCSI.
SMPTE time code: Stands for Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers. A type of code used for
synchronizing film and video tape to audio tape. Often used nowadays to synchronize MIDI machines and tape
deck recorders as well.
Staccato: Another pure vocab word. (: Releasing all notes before hitting the next note.
Sustain: As in a piano, a sustain pedal holds down (sustains) the notes as if you were holding them on the
keyboard, until the pedal is released.
Sweep Inputs: See continuous controller.
Trigger: Yet another way of controlling older analog synths externally; similar to gate.
Velocity: How hard you hit the keys. Some keyboards are able to interpret velocity sensitivity; some are not.
Vibrato Wheel: Sometimes used for Modulation Wheel.

Features (and stuff that wont fit elsewhere)

1/8" Plug / Jack: Same as the 1/4" plug/jack, only the diameter is 1/8" instead. Used mostly for consumer

applications (such as headphones).

1/4" Plug / Jack: The standard synthesizer connection. A large piece of metal that has a nice bulb-shaped tip
on the end, that (guess what!) is 1/4" in diameter! Can either be two-conductor (unbalanced, mono) or threeconductor (balanced, mono or stereo).
AC Adapter: A little (hah!) cube that plugs into both your synthesizer and your power plug. This cube
converts AC power into the DC power that synthesizers prefer. It also takes up valuable space on your outlet.
ADAT: An 8-track digital audio tape (DAT), popularized by Alesis.
Aliasing: A phenomenon that occurs with digital recording; above the Nyquist frequency, frequencies will get
distorted into frequencies that aren't even there.
Arpeggiator: A type of audio device which cycles through the notes you are holding down on the keyboard in
a specified fashion. There are numerous types of arpeggiators, each with several features that can be useful for
improvisation concerts.
Balanced: Audio engineering term. The two legs of the circuit (+ and -) are isolated from the circuit ground by
exactly the same impedance. Each leg may carry the signal at exactly the same level but with opposite polarity.
They are usually used with either XLR or 1/4" connectors, and are good for preventing noise over long
distances.
Card: A plug-in memory device, usually used for storing patches. ROM cards generally have no battery, and
you can't write patches to it; RAM cards generally have a battery, and you can write patches to it. There are
other card types available, though; one company offers a synthesizers, for instance, that has plug-in filter cards!
Cassette Backup: Many older synthesizers have a way of backing up the patches to tape, usually through some
sort of DIN connector that came with it that hooks up to the microphone input and the earphone output.
Chorus: A style of effects. Used to fatten sounds up by rotating a portion of the sound on one channel out of
phase.
Clipping: On a sampler, a sample whose volume is beyond the limits of the sampler's ability to pick it up. The
sample is simply recorded at the maximum volume, or clipped.
Crossfade: This function in samplers blends a given amount at the beginning of the loop into an equal amount
at the end of the loop, thus making some harsh loops sound nicer.
Cross-synthesis: An effect that allows you to analyze one sound, mix another in, and produce a combination
between the two.
DAT: Digital Audio Tape. A common way of recording things; its like an audio tape, only the recording is
digital.
Data Dump: Section VII Part B.3 explains this term fully. Basically, a way of backing up patches over MIDI.
Decibel (dB): For reference, a unit of measuring the audio signal. The greater the dB, the higher the signal. Its
a logarithmic scale, so the ratio between 120dB and 130dB is higher than the ratio between 110dB and 120dB.

Delay: In effects, an echo that occurs with a certain period (greater than 50ms, usually) between the original
signal and the echo source. The canyon effect ("HELLO? Hello? hello? h...")
DIN: A type of connector used heavily in synthesizers. It's a little round connector that contains a certain
amount of pins. MIDI connections, for instance, are all made with 5-pin DIN connectors.
Digital Output: A special output allowing the synthesizer to communicate with other digital machines with the
same digital outputs in a digital manner (ie, not first converted to an analog wave). The theory being that going
all digital will result in no noise developing.
Disk Drive: A device that allows you to insert magnetic disks in it to save various information (such as
patches, sequencer data, etc.)
Distortion: An effect that distorts the sound, giving it a grungy feel. Think of a heavy metal guitar sound. (:
Dry: A signal without effects.
Echo: Another way to describe a delay.
Effects: Signal-processing devices that enhance the sound through a variety of techniques. Usually contains
such features as reverb, chorus, digital delay, phasing, flanging, etc. In modern synthesizers, there is a certain
number of FX algorithms (effect types) in them, with up to a certain number of simultaneous effects (effects
that can be played at once). More is better, in many ways (although FX quality widely varies).
Equalizer: A device that allows you to emphasize (boost) certain frequencies while de-emphasizing (cut)
others. Parametric Equalizer allows control of both the frequencies being cut and boosted and the gain.
Fade: A function in samplers that allows you to reduce the volume of a portion of the sample to 0 gradually.
Feedback: A condition where the device is modulating itself. When a microphone feedbacks, it is picking up
signals from a speaker and modulating that to create that high pitched whine. Other synthesizers use feedback
to create different effects.
Flanger: A type of effect where a portion of the sound is rotated in and out of phase with another portion of the
sound by varying the delay time. Originally done by creating a tape delay and holding one of the tape loops
against the tape player flanger, hence the name.
Flash ROM: ROM whose data can be recorded. Sometimes used in samplers (in the form of Flash RAM or
Flash ROM cards, etc.)
Gain: In samplers and mixers, often another word for volume.
Groove Quantize: A method of quantizing that is not as exact as quantization is (but perhaps smarter); allows
room for a "swing" beat.
Input: A jack specifically used for inputting sounds or controls into the synthesizer, to be processed, sampled,
etc.

Jack: Not the name, but the electronic device that receives the connector. Also known as "female" for obvious
reasons.
Leslie: A type of effect produced originally by rotating a speaker in a cabinet. Popularized by Hammond B3s
and other organs.
Line Input/Output: An input or output at line level.
Line Level: Technically, a signal whose level falls between -10dBu and +30dBu. The common level that a
synthesizer outputs at.
Multitimbral: A keyboard that can play more than one patch at once. Early keyboards were NOT
multitimbral, and could only play one sound at once, regardless of the polyphony they had. Nowadays, through
sequencers and MIDI, a keyboard CAN play more than one instrument at once. These keyboards are called
multitimbral.
Normalize: On a sampler, a command that increase the intensity of the wave to maximum without distortion
(clipping).
Numeric Keypad: Just as one would expect, it's a little calculator-like grid which has all 10 numbers available.
Nyquist Frequency: A theory about digital recording; the theory says that in order to measure a particular
frequency, the sampling rate must be double of that particular frequency. In other words, it's the highest
frequency that you can record given a particular sampling rate.
Operating System: As if computers were enough, now you find out synths have operating systems too. (:
Really, it's nothing more than the software that controls the interface and workings of the synthesizer. For
today's digital synths, OS is getting more and more important.
Output: A jack used to deliver the final signal to a mixer or other keyboard for further processing. Many
synthesizers have more than one output (that can be assigned) for convenience (so you can assign different
instruments to different FX and EQ routings on the mixer, for instance).
Overdrive: A type of distortion that is produced by overdriving the signal and reducing the resulting volume.
Parametric Equalizer: See the equalizer definition.
Phaser: A type of effect where the phase of an input signal is modulated. Unlike a flanger, this signal does not
rely on a delay, and thus has a different characteristic.
Phone Plug / Jack: Another name for 1/4" plugs / jacks.
Phono Plug / Jack: See RCA Plug / Jack
Plug: The electronic connector itself. Also known as "male" for obvious reasons.
Quantize: One of the sequencer options available; rounds the values of the notes played to exact values (such
as eight notes, sixteenth notes). Makes things exact but sometimes computer-sounding.

Quantization Noise: A phenomenon that occurs in digital samples. If the resolution is bad enough, with low
notes you add partials that don't even exist.
Quickdisks: An old, proprietary, now outdated format that some older samplers and synthesizers used for
storing data. Not recommended due to the expense of new Quickdisks in today's market.
RCA Plug/Jack: A very low cost type of connector that is commonly used in 4-tracks and consumer stereo
equipment. Not very durable or reliable, but very cheap. The plugs are immediately recognizable: A small hole
surrounded by some insulating material, with a metal outer shell.
Resample: A function that allows you to change the sample rate of a sample without changing its overall
quality (pitch, etc.)
Reverb: A special FX device that is used to simulate the continuous echo of a hall, arena, or other echoing type
places. Very similar to a delay.
Reverse: A function in samplers that simply turns the wave inside out.
SCSI: Small Computers Interface. A high speed communications protocol that allows electronic pieces of
equipment to communicate to each other. Often used in samplers for tasks such as storage.
Sequencer: A device or program that allows people to record information (usually MIDI information) and
played back, with possibilities for editing, quantizing, etc. In the old days, the only sequencers available were
hardware sequencers that played back a limited amount of notes (ie, 16, 32, etc.) in a repetitive sequence
(hence the name). Today's sequencers are much more powerful in some ways, as you can compose and score
entire symphonies with them. However, they aren't as real-time controllable...
Sostenuto Pedal: A pedal found on some synthesizers in which notes are sustained only if they are held on the
keyboard when the pedal is pressed.
S/PDIF: An interface used to directly connect two digital audio components together so as to allow them to
transmit direct digital audio data to each other.
Splice: In tapes, a term used for cutting pieces of tape and putting the two pieces together. Sometimes used in
samplers for the same reason.
Split: A mode in which a keyboard is split up between two or more separate patches.
Step Recording: A way of recording on sequencers that allows you to enter in notes one at a time.
Swing: In quantization, a parameter that allows leeway for notes that don't quite fall on the beat, keeping a
certain "groove" that may be in a song.
SYSEX: A form of MIDI data used to transmit information exclusive to a particular synthesizer. Often used for
MIDI patch dumps.
Time Compression/expansion: Time compression / expansion is a function used in samplers to change the
speed of the sample without changing the pitch. A very useful function often heard in a variety of music forms.

Tremolo: A type of effect that cyclically effects the volume.

Trim: In this sampler function, you select a range in the sample; everything beyond this range gets deleted
when activated.
Truncate: To cut off the end of a sample beyond a certain point.
Tuning Tables: A series of programmed tables that allow your keyboard to achieve various tuning scales. For
example, one table could be set for Arabic tuning, while another could be set for the standard Equal
Temperment scale most Western songs use.
Velocity Curve: A way of setting how the velocity of a struck note on a keyboard affects the volume of a
synthesizer.
Vocoder: A real-time effect commonly used in the late 70s and early 80s. You plug your synthesizer in one
input, and a microphone in another; you play some notes on the keyboard, and then you speak. Every time you
speak, your voice is combined with the keyboard to make it sound like the keyboard is talking. A very robotlike effect.
Wah: An effect designed to simulate a "wah" pedal. Think of the wocka-chicka-wocka effect found on 70s
R&B songs. Think Jimi Hendrix.
Wet :A signal with effects.
XLR: A type of connector, commonly seen in microphones. A large, three-pinned connector is used for a nice
balanced connection. First manufactured by Cannon.
XFade: An abbreviation for crossfade.

Standards (Sample and soundbank)

.AIFF: Audio Interchange File Format. A common standard for transmitting and playing back sample data.
.AU: Sun's method of transmitting and playing back sample data.
.MID: Also known as the standard MIDI file format. A commonly accepted format for interchanging
sequenced data. Widely used in soundcards for exchanging songs in the General MIDI (GM) format.
.VOC: Creative Labs popularized this standard for transmitting sound data.
.WAV: A common standard for transmitting and playing back sample data, popularized by Microsoft.
GM (General MIDI): The original standard for common MIDI files, found on many keyboards and most
soundcards today. Most of the MIDI files transmitted over the net are in the General MIDI format. It is also a
popular format for game composers, since almost all soundcards can be worked to be GM. It defines what
instruments go where and minimum polyphony, among other things. Some feel it is too limiting, though.
GS: Roland's extension to General MIDI, a format found on modern Roland instruments and soundcards. It is

designed to be 100% compatible with GM while at the same time containing extra features.
XG: Yamaha's extension to General MIDI, a format found on all modern Yamaha instruments and soundcards.
It too is designed to be 100% compatible with GM while at the same time containing extra features.

Front panels (including controlling the synthesizer)

First of all, some definitions for the front panel controls and displays:
Attenuator: A pot that specifically turns down the volume of an input. Often found on modulars.
Button: You press it and it does something. (:
Knob: Same as potentiometer / pot.
LCD: Liquid Crystal Display. Basically, a panel on the front of the synthesizer that shows a grid of dots. This
grid of dots is used to display letters, pictures, etc. that show you what patch number you are on, program
information, etc.
LED: Light Emitting Diode. An electronic device that emits a little light when electricity is passed through it;
available in red, green, yellow, or blue. Like little red light bulbs; usually used as indicators. Also available in 8segment number indicators (for that calculator look).
Pin Matrix: You won't see this except on a VCS 3, but I thought I'd throw it in. (: The VCS 3 used a compact
grid that you connect with a series of pins to substitute for patch chords, creating a semi-modular synthesizer in
a compact unit.
Pot: Not the weed variety. (: Short for potentiometer. A knob that functions as a variable resistor; but you don't
need to know that. All you need to know is that a pot is what you often are using to control your synthesizer.
Twist the know to change the value.
Slider: Another variable resistor, but instead of being a knob that you turn to control features, you slide a little
lever up and down.
With the advent of techno, many people are now concerned with the problem associated with real-time control.
Back in the late 80s, real time control was not as desired of a feature (the desired feature was press-patchnumber-and-play), but real-time control has come back in vogue.
Older analog synthesizers often had knobs to control the sound instead of a digital interface (a LCD that shows
menus and a couple of buttons to page through the menus); this is nice for those looking for real-time control.
There are, however, synthesizers that have are analog and have no knobs at all (The Korg Poly 800, Ensoniq
ESQ-1, and Oberheim Matrix 6R to name a few). And there are a few digitals that have real-time control
available (especially with the advent of techno and its emphasis on real-time control). So don't assume that,
say, a Poly 800 will allow you to make that nice acid bass-line. (: Today, many newer synthesizers have frontpanel knobs. Many of them are nicer than the old controllers in some respects.
And don't assume that just because it has a LCD and no knobs, it is crap. Admittedly, real-time control is
MUCH more difficult, but you can still get some nice sounds. I think beginners find it easier to grasp onto
something physical, though - programming a synthesizer through sliders and knobs instead of paging through

menus and changing sounds.

VII. MIDI: The art of controlling the synthesizer

The basics of MIDI
In the early 1980s, synthesizer sales continued to grow. The synthesizer had become popularized in music, and
many people felt the need to have one. The trouble was, there was so many standards out there. Even though
voltage had become a universally accepted control standard, even the tuning of the voltage was different in
many synthesizers (1 volt per octave (linear scale, or V/Oct) was a standard accepted by Moog and ARP, but
other synthesizers used a different standard entirely (such as V/Hz, or exponential scale, used in some Yamaha
and Korg analogs). A digital standard was needed that could hook up anything to anything.
The solution came from a collaboration between Roland, Sequential Circuits, and other companies, to form the
Musical Instrument Digital Interface - MIDI, as it later became known. The MIDI specification provided a way
for instruments from many different manufacturers to communicate with each other. It is used today for many
control purposes, but the primary reason MIDI is used today is to record (and play back) music recorded onto a
sequencer. By using MIDI, you can compactly store an entire arrangement by simply storing what notes get
triggered on which synthesizer at what time. MIDI thus makes it easy for the musician to record elaborate
pieces (with sequencers) without having the expense of an elaborate tape track to record passages that you have
done previously. With the sequencer, you open up a whole new methodology of recording music. No longer do
you have to have a lot of musicians play parts live; for beginning home studios, no longer do you have to invest
multiple dollars in a large multitrack to create a nice sounding piece. MIDI helps the process.
To use MIDI, just simply keep in mind the following basics:

The MIDI Out of a device is used for TRANSMITTING information TO a particular device.

The MIDI In of a device is used for RECEIVING information FROM a particular device.

The MIDI Thru of a device echoes anything received through the MIDI In port.

A basic MIDI connection would go something like this, between a computer and two keyboards:
MIDI IN |<-----| MIDI OUT
COMPUTER |
| SYNTH 1
MIDI OUT |----->| MIDI IN
| MIDI THRU

|
|
|
| SYNTH 2 |
|------->| MIDI IN |

Be careful about daisy chaining with the MIDI Thru port! Daisy chaining can be somewhat unreliable with
over 3 keyboards, producing delays caused by data errors. However, a computer (and other independent MIDI
Modules) can have several MIDI ports (or independent MIDI connections, each with 16 different channels: It's
like having several Soundblasters, or several MPU-401s) available, allowing for one to easily hook up many
MIDI units to each other.
MIDI of course is used for a wide variety of other applications, and it is this that we describe below...

Computer-based MIDI software

Software sequencers
Sequencers are probably the most common application of MIDI files. A sequencer is a tool used to record notes
and other information that a keyboard or other device transmits. For instance, you can record on a sequencer a
tune that you just wrote on your synthesizer. Everytime you play that sequence back, the sequencer will play
back all the nuances of the tune on your synthesizer: the notes, how hard you hit the note, etc. However, a
sequencer (up until recently) can only record INFORMATION. In other words, you are not recording the actual
waves of the song - you are only recording the notes you played, the velocities you struck the sequence at, etc.
The sequence is a much more compact way of storing tunes than digital audio.
A sequencer often has a variety of aids to help you compose a tune. Most sequencers have a STEP mode,
where a sequence is recorded in exact steps (ie, sixteenth notes, eighth notes, etc.). Another feature available on
sequencers is quantization. Quantization allows you to correct erroneous notes by moving the notes over to
exact points in a beat. (You usually can select the points, such as eight notes, sixteenth notes, etc.) Many
sequencers have smart quantizations that allow one to keep a tad of groove in the music (so the sequence
doesn't sound so robotic and exact.) Sequences can change patch banks on synthesizers, fade volume and other
controllers up and down, insert, blend, and mix various "tracks" (a track in a sequencer simply refers to a
channel of information that can be edited and manipulated separately from the other channels). It makes it
much easier to create a score without the need of extra musicians, and is critical to beat-driven forms of music
(such as techno and industrial).
Many sequencers have various editing modes available - such as an event list for displaying all the MIDI
events more technically, and a notation mode that allows you to edit the piece as if it were a music score.
MIDI has a way of coordinating sequencers as well. With MIDI comes the ability to have a MIDI clock - a
clock that allows other sequencers to synchronize themselves to the same clock, so everything has the same
tempo. Most software sequencers and hardware MIDI sequencers have the ability to synchronize to MIDI, so
one sequencer can control the rest. (You can even sync the MIDI devices to other DIN/sync, sync, etc. devices
through converters.)
Nowadays, there are sequencers that can integrate audio snipplets into the sequence. These sequencers (such as
Cakewalk Pro Audio and Cubase Audio) run more expensive than their non-audio counterparts.

Notation based software

Some software is available that is SPECIFICALLY designed to help you score a piece easier. It used to be that
in order to produce a score, you had to tediously copy little dots onto a piece of paper by hand. However,
thanks to the computer, writing a score is a lot easier. You simply click onto notes and other music symbols,
and drag them onto the staff. You can even import MIDI files and use them as a starting point for creating a
full, complete score. And printing off multiple copies, or separating the score into orchestral parts, is much
easier. Software such as Finale are examples of this type of notation-based software that is designed more for
music publishing than anything else.

Patch editors / librarians

One of the nice things about the MIDI protocol is that virtually all MIDI synthesizers in existence have a way
to transmit the patch data over MIDI. This patch data is transmitted in a special MIDI code known as SYSEX.
SYSEX stands for System Exclusive codes, and is used by synthesizers to transmit information that cannot be

transmitted by ordinary controllers.

Most synthesizers nowadays feature something called "bulk dump" or "data dump". The procedure for each
of the synthesizers varies, but the essential gist of it is that you can backup your patches on any program that
has a generic SYSEX manager. The general procedure is as follows:
1. Make sure that the correct MIDI port is selected on your SYSEX manager, ie the port that has a direct
MIDI connection to the synthesizer. Caution: Most synthesizers that I've seen do NOT echo SYSEX
through the MIDI Thru port! So be forewarned that a direct MIDI In - MIDI Out connection may be
needed.
2. Hit the "receive" button on your SYSEX manager. (Note: Some SYSEX managers may receive
automatically, see your instructions) On your synthesizer, perform the "bulk dump" procedure as
described in the manual. The patch data will now transmit to the computer.
3. Save the .SYX data to a file.
4. In case of accidental erasure, you just simply load that .SYX bank you created in steps 1-3. Then,
making sure you have the correct MIDI connections and port set up, simply transmit that bank to your
synthesizer. (On a few synthesizers, you will have to press "bulk receive" or something like that.)
You have now just backed up your patches.
Software sequencers like Cakewalk often contain general SYSEX librarians; there's also a shareware SYSEX
package called WinSYSEX floating around.
Beyond merely backing up your patches, SYSEX and MIDI can be used to edit your patches. There are many
shareware programs out there to edit synthesizer patches easily and efficiently. Several lists, such as the ones
available at Synth Zone will help you find the editors that are available out there. There is also a commercial
editor out there called Unisyn; it provides a complete way to edit and backup patches for hundreds of
synthesizers.

.MID files
On the net, there are many places which offer .MID files that people can play. In general, .MID files are
nothing more than files created in a sequencer, generally designed for GM (General MIDI) synthesizers so that
almost everyone with a sound card can play it. The files are saved in a format known as the Standard Midi File
(SMF). This is a format that was developed so that sequences can be moved from sequencer to sequencer.
However, they are now being used to create files that can be distributed over bulletin board systems and played
on any sound card. Micosoft Internet Explorer has a built in tag that allows you to play MIDI files on a web
page, and Netscape browsers can do the same thing with a plug-in.
However, there is some confusion on this matter, as there is more than one MIDI file standard! The two file
types are known as "MIDI Type 0" and "MIDI Type 1". Technically, type 0 files have all the data on ONE
track, where type 1 files have multiple tracks. (There is a type 2 file as well, which organizes the note data into
patterns, but it isn't seen as much).
Most sequencers are built to play General MIDI, Type 1 files primarily. If you have a choice, save your
sequencer data as a Type 1 file.

There are several places to download MIDI files on the net; see the Internet section for details.

Other MIDI software

Just because MIDI is used for sequencing, notation, and music does not mean that these are the only
applications of MIDI! In fact, MIDI is used in a variety of other media applications as well, such as automated
mixing and light applications.
Although a discussion of all the software available would take up too much space, of particular interest to those
who want to program customized MIDI applications is a software package called MAX. MAX is a MIDI
development system for the Macintosh and the PC that allows you to easily write software that does unique sets
of tasks that cannot be done by ordinary software. The software is costly, but it is relatively easy to use... the
programming is done by simply attaching modules to each other in a graphical fashion. For those needing
customized MIDI solutions, the savings on development time make MAX a worthwhile choice.

Which computer is right for me?

Good question. There are several computers competing for this role. Each computer has its own advantages and
disadvantages. My feeling on this matter is that the most important thing is how comfortable you feel with
using each computer. The Windows 95 operating system for PCs strongly differs from the Macintosh System 7
operating system, and that differs from what the used market computers use considerably. Most programs are
now available for both systems, although there are some notable exceptions (for instance Cakewalk is ONLY
available for PCs, and Performer is ONLY available for Macintoshes).
The Macintosh System 7 operating system seems to be more multimedia friendly, and have more professional
multimedia applications for it (since it has been around for much longer than Windows for the PC has). On the
other hand, the Macintosh shareware market is much more limited than the PC shareware market, even for
MIDI programs. The Macintosh seems to be easier than the PC is to connect MIDI (with the PC, you've got to
go through a lot more B.S. just to get MIDI ports connected to the system). On the other hand, the PC, as a
whole, is cheaper than the Macintosh.
If you've got a program that you like that's available on one system only, then I would choose that system.
Beyond that, the computers are surprisingly similar.
Don't forget the used market! Cubase for the Atari computers, for instance, is plenty powerful enough for
beginning users -and used Ataris cost a heck of a lot less than a new PC or Macintosh. Although Ataris are
more limited for other applications, they might be considered a good computer for those on a budget. They
certainly have all the power many people will ever need.

Composing MIDI files for the net

Composing MIDI files for the net is relatively easy to do. The best way is to compose it in a sequencer (such as
Cakewalk, Cubase, Performer, etc... or any number of lower-powered, lower-cost sequencers), and save the
sequence as MIDI Type 1 file (usually, if the sequencer has a .MID file option, it is a MIDI type 1 unless
specified elsewise). Don't save the sequence in the sequencer's native format: No one else will be able to play
the sequence unless they have that particular sequencer.
Unless you have a specific audience you are targeting, try to compose using General MIDI (GM) instrument

definitions. Many sequencers default to General MIDI automatically when playing back pieces.
To add music to the background of a web page, you can do it several ways. Microsoft Internet Explorer has the
easiest way of adding MIDI music to a web site, using the following MIDI tag:
<BGSOUND src="song.mid">
Netscape also offers a way to play MIDI files in the background, through the use of a plug-in, such as
Crescendo. You can easily use this tag for Netscape browsers; however, this requires that the server have the
MIDI MIME type configured correctly. If you do not hear MIDI music with the plug-in installed, chances are
the server doesn't have this MIME type implemented, and you will have to bug the system administrator to add
it... At any rate, here is the tag.
<EMBED SRC="yourmidifile.mid">
Other alternatives have come about that allow one to not only play MIDI files in the background on BOTH
Internet Explorer and Netscape, but also allow you to not worry about server MIME types. The following code,
for example, was taken from Cresendo's web page:
<OBJECT ID=Crescendo
CLASSID="clsid:0FC6BF2B-E16A-11CF-AB2E-0080AD08A326"
HEIGHT=55
WIDTH=200>
<PARAM NAME="Song" VALUE="yourmidifile.mid">
<EMBED TYPE="music/crescendo"
SONG="yourmidifile.mid"
PLUGINSPAGE="http://www.liveupdate.com/dl.html"
HEIGHT=55
WIDTH=200>
</OBJECT>
The method you ultimately choose is up to you.
Oh, for the curious, here is the definition of MIME type found on the net:
A "MIME" or "Multi-Media Internet Mail Enhancement" type is a method of indicating to sending and
receiving programs that the data to follow is of a particular "type" and "format" which can therefore be
interpreted by programs according to the rules that apply to that format of data. Which is another way of
saying that the data could be "handed" to the program that created for interpretation (and/or display).
IE: A program receives a .MID file. It does not know what it is, so it looks at the MIME types built into the
BOTH the client and the server. If it sees that it is called a MIDI file on both the server and your computer, it
will interpret it correctly and play it.

Other control methods

MIDI, of course, is not the only control method ever to have been on synthesizers. Before MIDI, synthesizers
were most commonly controlled by voltage. This voltage is known as a Control Voltage, or CV. You can plug
a keyboard that produces a control voltage for every key, and play notes on the synthesizer accordingly.

Unfortunately, there is no defined standard for the scaling of this voltage. The majority of synthesizers used V/
Oct, where one octave on the keyboard produced one volt (linear scale). However, some synthesizers used V/
Hz, where each volt produces an increase in the frequency of the pitch (exponential scale).
In addition to a control voltage, there was often a voltage that turned itself on the instant you hit a key, and
turned itself off when you released the key. This voltage is called a gate voltage. This voltage is often used to
control envelopes, although it can be used (in some synthesizers at least) on any component.
Another voltage used in synthesizers is known as a trigger. This is a simple, short pulse that is produced
whenever a note is hit on and off. Triggers are often used for drum machines (in order to avoid a long,
continuous drum hit) and any application that required a simple short pulse instead of a long hit.
Aside from MIDI, some other digital standards were developed, but are very proprietary. One of the notables
mentioned here, however, is Roland DIN/Sync. It is not a way of transmitting notes, but a way of keeping
Roland (and a few other) instruments in clock with each other. In that respect, it is more like SMPTE than
anything else. For more information, see the synchronization section.
For today's MIDI users, there are a variety of converters out there, built by manufacturers such as Kenton,
PAIA, and more, that convert MIDI signals to control voltages, gate signals, etc. in a variety of configurations.
Although they can be a bit pricey (ranging from $100 for a PAIA kit to $500 for a Kenton top-of-the-line
model), they are an excellent way to integrate your old, MIDI-less synthesizer into your current setup.

How can I convert a song to MIDI?

One of the most frequently questions on the MIDI newsgroups seems to be is there an automatic way to convert
songs to MIDI. Apparently, they are looking for a nice magical box that they can play a piece through, and
poof, out will come a GM file. (:
The answer, at this time, is that there isn't - at least for SONGS. The way most people write music for the net is
that they simply listen to the tune by ear, and play it back. Pitch recognition is an extremely complicated
process beyond simple solos; to recognize lots of pitches at once is impossible given today's current software.
There are, however, several products out there that are able to recognize SIMPLE pitches and convert them to
MIDI information. Products like Autoscore and other products built into sequencers are able to take pitches and
translate them into MIDI form. For simple things like a flute solo and a sung voice, they work nicely. Other
products are available that take guitar sounds, clarinet sounds, voice sounds, etc., and convert them into MIDI
data. While not every instrument has been MIDIed yet, it's getting closer to that point!

VIII. Which synthesizer is right for me?

This question is, without a doubt, the most frequently asked question that I get asked. And yet, this is one of the
hardest questions to answer. Music has been done in every genre with a wide variety of genres; it is impossible
to narrow the field of synthesizers down to a select few. Budget constraints only further complicate the
problem.
However, I CAN give general guidelines to purchasing synthesizers for various genres by highlighting
"legendary" synthesizers in a particular field. And I CAN give advise on how some artists in a genre produced

a sound. Hopefully, with this knowledge in mind, you can go to a music store and get the type of sound you are
looking for.
Disclaimer: These are my opinions. Not everyone will have the same opinions. (: I welcome new opinions to
add to these columns: Email me at if you have anything to add...
Note that many of these synthesizers mentioned are no longer in production, and some commend very high
retail prices. For a compilation of used gear prices, check out the Used Gear price list at http://www.synthzone.
com/. This page is a compilation of prices on used gear sold through the Internet newsgroups. Another useful
web page is the New Gear price list (http://www.princeton.edu/~casey/newgear.html) which lists the prices on
new gear gathered by Internet volunteers.

Rock music / R&B

Rock music has used a large variety of synthesizers in order to get a famous sound. Since there are several
genres of rock and roll, it is best to discuss them separately.
Early rock and roll was highly descended from jazz and blues, and consequently used many of its organ
sounds. Hammond B3s were common; so were a lot of other rock organs. See the jazz/blues portion for more
information on the electronic organs... nowadays, these organs are only available either used or digitally
simulated.
Many other rock synthesizers enjoyed popularity in the rock and R&B genre. The Moody Blues got famous for
using the Mellotron tape sample playback machine ("Nights in White Satin"). Emerson Lake and Palmer made
a small modular system (and the similar Minimoog) famous with the song "Lucky Man". Pink Floyd, in their
early works, not only used the famous Minimoog, but a British analog synthesizer called the VCS-3. (The VCS3 was the primary synthesizer in Dark Side of the Moon.) And progressive rock artists (Genesis, Yes, etc.)
found synthesizers extremely appealing, often assembling large quantities of early analog synthesizers (Rick
Wakeman, in particular, is famous for having giant amounts of synthesizers on stage, rushing back and forth
between them). For vintage rock lovers, starting out collecting vintage rock synthesizer instruments may seem
rough, since most of the famous vintage instruments carry a high resale value and are harder to find in working
condition. However, in the modern market, there are some synthesizers that do a good job emulating the old
analogs (notably the Studio Electronics SE-1, which emulates the Minimoog, and the Nord Lead, which tries to
emulate everything). Samples of the old synthesizers are abundant, as well. For those on a budget, Emu's
Vintage Keys series and Roland's Vintage card for the JV-1080 might work just as well for you (and, in the
case of the JV-1080, you get plenty of other sounds suitable for rock). But there is a nice appeal to owning the
actual instrument used, despite the difficulties it may have (no MIDI, no patch memory, etc.)
As rock moved on, various instruments moved in and out of vogue. In the late 70s, the Prophet 5 was enjoying
tremendous popularity (especially in the progressive circles... Peter Gabriel used it frequently, for instance).
The Fender Rhodes electronic piano was quite popular, too, and was used by such groups as Supertramp
frequently. The Yamaha DX7 came out in 1983, and it became THE instrument to have - almost all groups
from 1983 to 1987 used one. In 1987, the Roland D-50 and the Korg M1 came out... the instruments on those
two machines became dominant for the next 4 years. Lately, though, there hasn't been a particular instrument
that has dominated rock - the only one that has enjoyed some "dominance" has been the Kurzweil K2000
(sworn in by modern Pink Floyd and many others). Beyond that, it's more a question of synth lines that get
famous, and what instruments they use... stuff like Van Halen's "Jump" (composed supposedly with an
Oberheim OB-X), The Eurythmic's "Sweet Dreams" (synth line supposedly composed with a Juno 60), Duran
Duran (they used a Roland Jupiter 4 for "Hungry Like the Wolf"), Depeche Mode (lots of synthesizers, but
they were frequent performers with Emulator IIs), etc. Oh, and it was a Prophet 2000 that appeared in Revenge

of the Nerds. (:
Today's rock and roll sounds use the synthesizer mostly for pads and background, as well as realistic sounds
(pianos, electric pianos, some drum sounds, etc.) Workstations seem to be the most common instruments in
rock lineups today - you can carry only a few synthesizers around and get the most sounds that you need. Ditto
for R&B, although there is more of an emphasis on electric piano and bass sounds. With R&B, it might be nice
to have a good analog (or at least a bassy digital synthesizer) to sample and use. R&B drums are often totally
synthetic, so a drum machine is often nice to have to free up voices used for drums on the workstation /
synthesizer. Most sounds (except for basses) seem to be sample based (or at least could be sampled from an
analog synthesizer).
Keep in mind, though, that the warmest pad sounds (according to many people) come from analogs. So while
building your synth arsenal, you might want to keep an old used analog (or analog modeler) in mind. I wouldn't
recommend analogs as a starting point, though, except to retro groups (those who perform old wave and
progressive rock probably would best start out with old, used analogs, like the ones mentioned above... pricey
but there aren't too many polyphonic analogs / analog modelers out there right now...).
For beginners, the best advice is to go with a sample-based synthesizer with a lot of sounds. One synthesizer
that performs some basic pads may be all a rock band ever needs. Elsewise, a workstation is probably the best
bet, though one should keep other synthesizers in mind.

Techno music
Blips and bleeps, filtered sounds, and samples here and there. Techno is a very diverse genre, but techno has
certain keyboards that fit the genre more, namely analogs and samplers. But much of techno involves real-time
"twiddling" with the synthesizer, particularly with the filter cutoff frequency and the resonance, so your
objective should be to get synthesizers with real-time control.
Certain keyboards in techno have obtained legendary status, as well. The predominant series of keyboards and
drum machines? A series of drum machines and synthesizers from Roland that nowadays are often abbreviated
to the term x0x. So, without further ado, to prevent this question from flying all over the place, the FAQ
presents...

The famous x0x lineup

A frequently asked question is "What is all of the machines in the x0x lineup?" So, without further ado, here it
is. This doesn't count rarities, prototypes, false sightings, or all the other sort of silly rumors that go on in the
mailing lists. (: As a note, all of these machines are old things, and the REALLY popular ones (TR-808, TR909, TB-303) fetch rather ridiculous second-hand prices, to the point where some might moan about it.
Monophonic lead synthesizer. Its main attraction was the ability to be "strapped on" - ie, put around
your neck and played like a guitar. Had a "modulation grip" that made the thing look more like a
SH-101
guitar. Red or blue; the only Roland synth ever to have a 2nd run (the second run, however, was
made a long time ago).
MC202

A monophonic bassline synthesizer with a 2nd track in the sequencer for external sources. Really
nice sounding bass, though I don't think the machine was ever too popular. The MC stands for
"Microcomposer" FYI. It's gotten some play as a TB-303 substitute but I find it nice for other
reasons. (:

THE legendary name in techno synthesizers. If you have been to a rave, and you hear this very wet,
slick, screaming synthesizer screaming, often this is it. Acid compositions love this one. Although
all Roland synthesizers with custom ICs have this sound, TB-303 lovers will swear by no other. It
has been popular enough for SEVERAL companies to make "clones" of the TB-303. And to think,
TB-303
this synthesizer was originally meant to emulate a bass guitar. (: It did not sell very well when it
was issued, and thus commends one of the highest prices on the used market of any synthesizer.
Oh, it's monophonic, and has a funky sequencer. Controlled by DIN sync, which means that a
popular techno combination is to sequence this machine with one of the TR machines with DIN.
Far from an analog drum machine, this is merely a somewhat nice sample-based drum machine.
TR-505 Has nice punchy bass drums, and a loud snare that might be suitable for industrial with enough
work. Also has MIDI as well, which is nice. Not for analog lovers.
Analog drum sounds, like the TR-808 and TR-909. It's gotten some use in techno since it can be
TR-606 modified to act like a TR-808, in some ways. I think it's kind of nice to get some of the analog drum
sound made famous by the TR-808 and TR-909. Has DIN Sync.
A sample-based drum machine. Not bad as far as a sample-based machine goes, some of the
TR-707 samples need work but can be improved with FX. It has both DIN Sync AND MIDI, which makes
it popular for controlling some of the Roland synthesizers.
Hip-hop's favorite drum machine, the way to make the boom. A totally analog drum machine, and
one of the original rhythm composers. Fairly popular among electronic composers when it was
TR-808
released (aside from Roland's CR-8000 and related, it was the first programmable drum machine), it
remains popular today. In techno, it has a softer boom sound, and nice claps.
Like the TB-303 is THE popular techno synthesizer, the Roland TR-909 is THE popular techno
drum machine. The bass thump in many songs is either a TR-909, or a TR-909 sample - the TR-909
TR-909
has a much harsher thump than the 808. Added to this is a very nice set of hi-hats, claps, and bells,
and you have a very nice sound for techno. It has MIDI and DIN Sync.
Also notable in the x0x series is the TR-727 drum machine (which had percussion geared more towards Latin
rhythms). Also note: When people say 303, they usually do not mean the MC-303. (: Also note: There was no
404.
Techno songs have been made merely with this equipment - with people syncing up various machines (so the
tempo of the rhythm is the same - ie, people syncing a 909 rhythm to a 303 bassline), creating patterns on both
machines, and playing with the filter.
Fortunately, not all is lost if you cannot afford the x0x techno synths. (In fact, some would argue that these
sounds are cliched.) There are plenty of other ways to get a similar, although not identical, sound. The TB-303
has been emulated fairly completely by a couple of machines (the Syntechno TB-303, the TBS-303), and a
number of other monophonic bass synthesizers have come along that allow you to not only make a TB-303 like
sound but explore other bass sounds in techno (Novation Bassstation, Deep Bass Nine, Doepfer MS-404, etc.).
For the TR-808 and TR-909 sounds, Novation has come up with a product called the Drumstation that emulates
these drum machines. There are several software synthesizers (such as the Rebirth 338, among others) that
allow emulates these synthesizers as well.
Aside from some of the x0x series, general analog synthesizers are popular. For some reason, the old Roland
analog synthesizers (Roland Juno 106, Juno 60, Jupiter 6, Jupiter 8, etc.) are fairly popular in techno, but in
general, if it has knobs, it can be used for techno. The 4-op FM synthesizers (most popular among them the
Yamaha DX-100, but also including the DX-27, 21, TX81Z, etc.) have become somewhat popular due to their
ability to produce jungle-like bass tones and dissonant clangs. Korg M1 sounds (and MC-202 / SH-101 sounds)

were popular for a while in house, although they have gone more out of favor. I have seen many other
synthesizers at techno concerts (Oberheim Matrix 12, Korg Prophecy, Clavia Nord Lead, and the Korg MS20,
to name a few)... analog modelers (such as the Clavia Nord Lead, and probably the upcoming Yamaha AN1X)
are popular as well.
Popular too are samplers. Samplers produce vocals, and also can be used to process tones from an analog
synthesizer (which generally has limited polyphony). The better samplers nowadays have resonant low-pass
filters which can do a decent job at producing the techno-like filter sweeps. Many techno groups (especially
drum-and-bass groups) also sport a large variety of drum machines (or at least several drum machine samplers.)
The route to a techno arsenal may seem expensive, considering all of this equipment! My personal advice for a
beginning techno artist, in general, is to get a sampler and an analog synthesizer with real-time control. The
type of synthesizer you want depends on genre; for example, acid composers will want a TB-303 or (more
likely) one of the clones, but other genres may be better off with other types of synthesizers. Knobs are critical
for techno, as most techno songs rely on some form of real-time tweaking. A good sampler, particularly one
with a lowpass filter with resonance, can help make up for the lack of synthesizers in your arsenal. A drum
machine can help free up polyphony used by drums on the sampler.
I would personally avoid the many sample-based techno machines on the market unless you have a budget.
Machines like the Yamaha CS1X, Emu Orbit, etc. are nice and cheap, and they are a great machine for
someone who wants not only techno sounds but a general purpose synthesizer. However, they tend to be a lot
more limiting than analogs or analog modeling synths. You can do a lot more with other equipment (ie: Drum
machine, cheap polyphonic paddy analog, a nice acidy monosynth, and you can create some nice songs for
under $1300.). Nice for the price, though - beginners who are short in cash may find this the best bet.

Industrial music
Ye olde sampler, and ye olde sampler. That's the primary thing an industrial artist needs. Industrial is a realm of
music that focuses primarily on the ability to create your own sounds, particularly noisy and dissonant clangs
and bleeps. A sampler is the best way to accomplish this. It's nice to have a sampler to perform live easily with,
as well. I've seen many industrial artists use the Ensoniq ASR-10 (a nice, relatively inexpensive keyboard
sampler with a sequencer built in). Other keyboard samplers, from the old but nice Emulator II, to the real
expensive Kurzweil K2500S and Emu eIVk, are also good in that regard. There unfortunately aren't too many
keyboard samplers out there.
Beyond that, grabbing a bundle of programmable synthesizers are nice. Particularly of interest are analog
synthesizers with easy-to-program knobs; most of the bass in today's industrial is done by sampled (or real)
analog synthesizers. (Nine Inch Nails, for instance, heavily uses the Clavia Nord Lead nowadays.) A way of
producing distortion (via an FX box) helps as well. Getting a multi-FX box can be nice (so you can produce
weird phasing type of stuff, etc.) Any weird equipment that produces noises can be sampled and become part of
an arsenal. Go to it, and have fun.
Also see the techno section for related hints. Techno and industrial are somewhat related.

Ambient music
Ambient music has some different considerations than techno. For one, although ambient does use some of the
"bleepy" synths mentioned above in the techno section, ambient tends to be a lot more subtle using these
instruments. Ambient music is more concerned with the processed sound than the actual instrument itself, in

many cases.
Reverb and delay are critical in an ambient piece; although the techno/dub forms of ambient use less FX than
the pure beatless form Brian Eno pioneered, they still are a critical part of the ambient sound. There are several
out there; what type you like depends on your personal preference. (I, for instance, chose a Boss SE-70 due to
its rather spacey sounding reverb and its ability to do multi FX. Your mileage may vary). Much of ambient uses
sampling in some form or another (giving a piece a more organic feel), so if anything, I'd advise to get a
sampler first. Instruments that emphasize sound creation are the key; ambient is a genre that loves to find ways
of getting new, unique sounds. Those who are uncomfortable with the LCD method of programming might find
it easier to lean towards synthesizers with knobs. Analog synthesizers with knobs are particularly popular in
ambient, because of their warm sound and easy programmability. But even with digital synthesizers (including
samplers), my feeling is that if you feel comfortable programming it, the synthesizer is right for ambient. I'd
advise against sample-playback synthesizers, though, because although sample playback synthesizers can be
uniquely programmed, the preset samples are often not geared toward an experimental, ambient viewpoint.
Yeah, I know that sample playback synthesizers are the majority of the store... and they CAN be useful, but
certainly not as a first purchase. Sample playback synthesizers that can load in other samples from an external
source (such as the Yamaha SY85/99, Generalmusic S series, Ensoniq TS series, Alesis QS series) are fine if
you are willing to learn the system...
Brian Eno composed many ambient pieces with nothing more than a Yamaha DX-7 and processing equipment
(such as delays, reverbs, etc.)... my personal ambient compositions revolve mostly around a Yamaha TX16W
sampler, with pads and FX coming from a Oberheim Matrix 1000 and Roland Juno 106, among other
synthesizers. Groups like the Orb and Future Sound of London have tons of equipment at their disposal, but
some Aphex Twin songs don't contain much more than a processed Oberheim Matrix 1000 and samples.
Ambient is VERY open ended on how you create the piece - get something that allows you to experiment.
For new synthesizers, I would look at samplers (ranging from the budget Emu ESI-32 and Akai S1000, to the
more expensive Emu eIV, Kurzweil K2500, and Akai S3200, and everything in between). I would also look at
synthesizers like the Nord Lead (which are easily programmed), and the Prophecy (harder to program, but very
expressive). The Oberheim Matrix 1000, despite its lack of programmability, is a cheap, 1U rack-mounted
warm analog synthesizer, and is nice for ambient. And take a nice tour of the FX section. (:

New Age music

Warm, swirly pads and realistic instruments. That seems to be the two key requirements for a New Age
synthesizer for much of the genre. Of course, the New Age genre is one of the most diverse categories in a
record store, covering everything from light jazz to progressive rock. But these two requirements seem to cover
a good portion of the genre.
Korg seems to have a knack for making New Age sounding synths (the whole 01/W and X series has a nice
midrange, which can be very nice. And the Korg Wavestation is THE best swirling pad machine, my opinion. I
know modern Tangerine Dream is heavy into Korg), but many other manufacturers have made synths that are
easily New Age. The Kurzweil K2000 workstation seems to be popular among some composers (Constance
Demby does ALL her modern work on a K2000), for instance - it is capable of producing nice swirly pads and
good realistic instruments. Ditto for the Yamaha SY series, in particular the SY99 (David Parsons used that
synthesizer series a bundle). The Roland D-50 synthesizer is also very capable of making swirly pads (although
it is not very realistic by modern standards).
In the older days of so-called "New Age" music, other synthesizers were notable. The Linndrum drum machine
in particular became a standard for New Age drum machines. Vangelis had a sound dominated by the Yamaha

CS-80 (an old, EXTREMELY heavy polyphonic analog synthesizer). Tangerine Dream became famous in the
early 80s for compositions dominated by the PPG Wave synthesizer (a wavetable synthesizer duplicated today
by the expensive Waldorf Wave and less expensive Waldorf Microwave); in the mid-80s, the famous Emulator
II sampler became their instrument of choice. Progressive electronic artists were very fond of the Prophet 5
(and its close cousins, the Roland Jupiter 8 and 6) in the early 80s. Before that, such electronic instruments as
the Mellotron (a tape loop playback system with a unique sound), VCS 3 (aka the "Putney") and ARP 2600
were among those used.
Much of today's synthesizers will work for the New Age market rather well. For a beginner, I would avoid
synthesizers with high learning curves (such as the K2000/2500, or other samplers and workstations) and
analogs / analog emulators (which tend to be limited, polyphony wise; not good for creating large held chords)
and focus on sample-playback synthesizers (many with tons of swirly pad sounds for you to play on).
Samplers, analogs, and workstations are good for those who are looking to either create their own sounds, or
want a more powerful built-in sequencer, and don't mind the higher learning curve. Those with an interest in
creating a more ambient-like textures might want to read on the ambient section. Although certain parts of New
Age (ie, space music) use effects greatly, others (ie, light jazz) use them sparingly... nonetheless, FX is always
nice to have.
See the ambient section for related hints.

Jazz / Blues music

For traditional jazz and blues music, pure synthesizer sounds are relatively uncommon. But organ sounds are
common, and one instrument led the pack in creating the legendary blues/jazz organ sound: the Hammond B3.
This instrument is not a pure synthesizer (like many electronic organs, in the sense that it generates its sound
mechanically and not electrically), but the organ has a famous sound that has been found throughout many jazz
records. Hammond B3s and related electronic organs are hard to find, but many companies (including
Hammond, in its XB series) have put out Hammond B3 clones that claim to be close to the original. Because a
used Hammond B3 is so expensive, they are probably good alternatives to the Hammond B3. In addition, there
are electronic Leslie simulators that simulate one of the effects a Hammond B3 has (a Leslie speaker is a
speaker that creates a phase-like effect by physically rotating the speaker cone in the cabinet. The B3 has one
of these, one of the unique characteristics of its sound).
Many other organs have been used in traditional jazz (Farfisa and Vox are the two other big rock/jazz organ
names) as well as rock blues compositions. However, in recent years, jazz has incorporated many other
keyboard sounds into its lineup (especially with electronic jazz musicians like Jan Hammer and Herbie
Hancock in the field). Realistic instruments, soothing pads, and organ sounds seem to be the rule - sounds
atypical of sample based synthesizers and sampling synthesizers, and even analog synthesizers for the soothing
pads. (Some jazz composers actually have quite a large, film-composer size collection of synthesizers). If you
are looking for a non-organ keyboard, I think what you choose should depends on budget and style.
Experimental jazz musicians will love sampling synthesizers for the ability to create unique sounds. Other jazz
musicians might consider workstations, which contain sequencing functions that might help out a live
performance scenario. For those who do not need these things, a mere sample-based synthesizer might be all
you need. The sound you choose depends on what you like. (For instance, I like the Alesis QS series for its
piano sound, but the Korg X series has warmer pads, in my opinion... decisions, decisions. (: ) Weighted
keyboards may be an issue for those who are used to piano keys. And don't forget about the used analogs. (:
Focus in the store on the type of instruments you desire.
Some of the New Age and film composing hints might be helpful for those pursuing this genre.

Rap / Hip Hop

Sample loops, sample loops, sample loops. That's a large portion of what guides the grit behind today's hip-hop
and rap music. Like techno, hip hop has some equipment that has gained somewhat of a legendary status.
The first piece of equipment that has gained legendary status is the Roland TR-808 drum machine. It is this
machine that produces the well-known "boom" that rattles speakers and can be heard for miles around. It's a
piece of equipment that's legendary in other circles, too (e.g. techno), so the prices for this piece of machinery
(which is not available new) often hangs around $600. However, some alternatives exist: Notably the Novation
Drumstation (which models the TR-808), samples of the machine, and tons of drum machines and synthesizers
which have a TR-808 kit in them.
The second piece of equipment that has gained legendary status is the Technics SL1200 turntable. Tons of
turntables exist, but this one seems to be popular among anyone who spins as a DJ. They are expensive, but
very good - high quality, high torque, etc. Since this is an electronic synthesizer FAQ, I won't discuss the
alternatives much here, but rest assured the turntable plays an important part, and in my mind is used in hiphop
as an instrument itself.
A third piece of equipment, which is not as legendary but is still important, is the Emu SP-1200 sampling
percussion machine. This machine is an easy to use drum machine that can sample, and play back the samples
either through a sequencer or via a pad that is triggered.. Although limited in sampling time, it nonetheless has
played a crucial role in some hip-hop records. However, this equipment (which I believe is still available new,
albeit expensive: $2200 or so) can easily be replaced by the more expensive, new Akai MPC3000 (or other
older sampling drum machines: The Linndrum 9000, Emu SP-12, Akai MPC60, heck, even a Korg DDD1 with
a sampling card, for instance); or, if you are willing to sacrifice the convenience of the drum machine layout, a
full-fledged sampler. (Full fledged samplers tend to be cheaper, but they often don't include the built in
sequencer that a sampling drum machine does. This makes live performances quite a bit more of a pain. The
Akai S950 rackmount sampler, though, is one sampler that has been used some in hip hop, and is quite cheap
used. 12 bit samplers, such as the Roland S-series sampler, might also be appropriate for hip-hop, even with a
"grungier" sound than 16 bit samplers.)
For the upstart rap/hip-hop artist: Personally, I recommend that, if anything, get a sampler of some sort
(sampling drum machine or regular, whatever) and some turntables. Rap is heavy on the drums, so collecting
various drum machines is also advisable. The TR-808 is optional, but if you want that boom sound (not all hiphop uses it) and the nice soft drums that hip-hop often uses, get either the original thing, or a high-quality
sample set of it. Some rap artists have used old analog synthesizers (Snoop Doggy Dogg's famous high-pitched
whine), but I would focus on the more critical elements first (sampler and turntables).

Churches
Churches almost exclusively depend on more realistic sounds (ie, organ sounds) and soft, mellow electronic
sounds (electric pianos). But a further critical element has to be explored before the church makes a decision on
buying a synthesizer: How the person is going to be playing the keyboard live. This affects what type of
keyboard one should look for.
For those who do not intend to pre-compose parts (ie, the entire performance is 100% live) on the synthesizer,
no sequencer is necessary. That way, they can look at keyboards like the Alesis QS6, Korg X5, etc. that have
no sequencer. However, if at any time a person wants to pre-compose a part (so they can hit a button on the
synthesizer marked "play" during the service, and play, say, a piano part while the synthesizer is playing a

string section, organ section, etc.), a sequencer is a must.

Weighted keys (keys that have more of a piano-like feel to them) may be important for the piano players
(although organ players may feel more comfortable with the standard non-weighted synthesizer keys). If the
church does not have an amplification system available, a keyboard that has speakers (such as the Korg i series)
is also a must.
In general, I recommend a sample playback keyboard; these are the easiest keyboards to use, and they produce
the most realistic sound. For those who are concerned with the look of the equipment, they might want to invest
in a digital piano, which often contain the types of sounds a church is looking for (piano, organ, etc.) while
being encased in a piano-like cabinet. (Note that digital pianos are often considerably more expensive than a
synthesizer). Some churches might be more comfortable staying away from synthesizers and focusing on
digital organs that give more organ options for the church. Elsewise, the synth that balances realism and cost
will do.

Game composers
General MIDI. You need it. Although I don't like the standard, and the industry is moving away from it in favor
of CD soundtracks on the disk itself, there will still be an occasional time where a General MIDI song is
required. Make sure one of your keyboards is a General MIDI keyboard (almost all sample playback keyboards
made nowadays are General MIDI). It's a limiting system, but it certainly is workable.
If you are composing for a soundtrack that will be placed directly on the CD, see the general notes below for
film composers...

Film composers
Film composers in general look for both realistic sounds AND synthesizers that allow them to create unique,
thematic sounds. As a result, the synthesizers that film composers tend to use are on the more expensive order.
Synthesizers for film composers should be highly programmable, and highly expressive. Synthesizers like the
Korg Wavestation, Oberheim Matrix 12, Waldorf Wave, New England Digital Synclavier, the Fairlight
sampler, etc. have been highly popular with film composers. Modular synthesizers have been popular with film
composers as well.
Building a home studio with these instruments (which range from $1000 for a Wavestation to $6000 for a new
Waldorf Wave!) can be quite expensive. Nonetheless, I advise the beginning film composer to look for
instruments that allow for flexible sound creation. Almost all instruments on the professional level are
programmable in some form, but many of today's digital instruments are difficult to program, and quite cryptic.
The best synthesizer compromise - but ones that usually have higher learning curves and prices - are sampling
workstations (Kurzweil K2000, Emu eIV, etc.). These instruments can produce realistic sounding instruments,
as well as giving you the chance to compose your own sounds with very flexible program options. But that
does not mean that hard-coded sample-based synthesizers are out (especially if you are just beginning, or are
on a budget). If you look for a sample-based synthesizer, make sure to get a feel for the programming engine
first. Analogs are easier to create your own sounds with, but on a budget, you might feel limited with an analog
(especially for creating realistic instruments). Budget samplers are cheap (the Emu ESI-32 and Akai S1000 run
in the $1000 range nowadays), and might provide a better compromise if you already have a keyboard (all
these budget samplers are rackmounted).
Some of the general hints regarding New Age music might be advisable here as well.

Notes for the live performer

At some point, you are going to have to play with your synthesizers live. Here lies a problem with synthesizers
- in many cases, they cannot be played live easily. One of the advantages of synthesizers (you can easily create
a full composition in your own studio, without the need for a band, using a machine) becomes a disadvantage
when playing live - no one wants to see a performance played by a machine!
At some point, you have to decide the route you want to take playing live. One option is to presequence
everything and bring a computer along with you. The trouble is, even a small portable notebook computer may
turn people off who prefer the live concert experience. Of course, you can always hide it. (: And some people
(like Chip Davis) I've seen actually integrate La Machine into the performance. Unfortunately, there are very
few (if any) keyboard sequencers out there that allow for live, improvisational performances (not even MIDIcontrolled track muting - Any computer sequencer manufacturer listening? Hello?). Another option is to
prerecord parts of the concert on a DAT (Digital Audio Tape) and play live parts over the top of this. This is a
little more hidden than a computer, but is even less flexible than a computer (you can play around with a
computer sequence a bit if you play on the computer during your performance. You can't do that with DAT there's only "play".) Unfortunately, that seems to be the dominant mode of performances that I have seen.
Hardware sequencers are available as well, with some allowing flexible real-time sequencing (notably the more
expensive analog sequencers, such as the old ARP sequencers et al that put the repeating notes in Tangerine
Dream; the sequencers found on Roland x0x machines that techno loves; and the new analog MIDI sequencers,
such as the Doepfer MAQ 16/3). Others allow for real-time track muting (the fairly popular Alesis MMT8
sequencer), which is can be nice. Other hardware sequencers, unfortunately, are no more flexible than a
software sequencer - but they do not have the stigma of the DAT machine and computer.
Other people do live performances by using a workstation. Workstations, in general, contain a built in
sequencer, where you can prerecord the parts of the performance that you need to play, and then play a live bit
over the sequence you created. This creates a VERY portable situation (you can do a concert with only a
Ensoniq ASR-10, Korg 01/W, Korg Trinity, etc. on stage), which doesn't suffer as badly the stigma problems
associated with DATs and computers.
There are other ways to do a live performance. Some people have fiddled around on programs like Max (Max
is a very powerful, easy to use program that allows you to create customized MIDI applications for high-end
users) or simply programmed their own thing to create their own improvisational software. Some people have
done wonderful things using simply an arpeggiator on a synthesizer and triggered samples. Sampled loops
would be another way of performing live - just hold the sample loop and trigger samples and other keyboards.
Unfortunately, though, the options are a bit more limited than I personally like...
Another issue for the live performer is how much equipment to take around with you. It's really a judgement
decision that has to be made - taking around your whole studio allows for more flexibility, and looks more
impressive on stage (all those keyboards...), but unfortunately it's a lot harder to set up and take down. It's just
another thing to consider for live performances...
Another viewpoint...
From davep@alr.com Fri Apr 11 19:06:26 1997
From: "Dave P."
To: cgould@gate.net

Subject: Re: Draft of a Synthesizer FAQ (Part 3/5)

Hi Chad,
First, thanks much for all of the hard work that you have put into
this FAQ ! I hope it gets the attention it deserves.
I did want to comment on the section quoted above, though. I feel that
most synths, especially any synth that is programmable and can store
lots of patches, can be played live very easily. I performed live in
various progressive, metal, mainstream rock, new wave, and
experimental electronic bands on a daily basis for about fifteen years
(I'm mostly doing recording now). When I started, there were no
programmable synths, and I used an Arp 2600 and an Odyssey. Later, the
system was heavily customized to include Serge modules and joystick
controllers. Eventually, I was using a Chroma with a midi retrofit, an
Ensoniq VFX, an Emu Protues 1XR and Proteus 2, and an Oberheim Matrix
6R and Matrix 1000 all midi'd together, and all played live from the
Chroma keyboard. No computers, no sequencers.
In addition to all of the performance options you describe, I think it
is important to point out the option of this type of live performance
- getting into a band with other musicians, either with a real drummer
or a drum machine, and just jammin' live with real honest-to-goodness
keyboard playing, with no sync to any clock, using midi only as a
means to connect the modules to the keyboard controller.
Dave Peck
Aftershock Productions
I concur! That certainly is as valid of a way of performing live as any. (:

Notes for the beginner

The beginning composer in synthesizers might feel overwhelmed by synthesizers at first. It's normal - the
world of synthesizers is a complicated world, in many respects (like any other musical world).
My advise is to start it off slow. Simpler synthesizers might allow you to get introduced into the world a lot
easier than going all out with a Kurzweil K2000 right off the bat. If you don't care about programming at all, a
sample-based synthesizer probably is right for you. Not only do most sample-based synthesizers have easy
access to the world of general MIDI, they have nice realistic sounding instruments, and tend to be easy to use
(just select the patch number and play). Unfortunately, most sample-based synthesizers tend to be tougher to
program, and are not appropriate for all genres.
Another alternative is a simple analog synthesizer, with knobs. Ideal is something like a Roland Juno 60 or
Juno 106 (which has patch memory, all of the parameters up front with either sliders or buttons, a very easy to
use interface, and a nice sound. The Juno 106 even has MIDI... I consider the series, personally, one of the best
synthesizers for a beginning analog disciple)... but if you can't find that used, many of the monophonic
synthesizers made today have easy-to-program knobs and might be idea for learning about analog. If you have
more cash, something like the Nord Lead might be more idea (which is more complicated, but has knobs and a

very nice interface... and polyphony). Again, this isn't for everyone, but for those into genres which require
sound generation or live tweaking (techno, industrial, ambient, film, etc.), I would look into these instruments
first, even though you miss out on the realistic instruments of the sample-based synthesizer.
Samplers tend to be the toughest synthesizers to learn how to program (except for some of the sampling drum
machines or phrase samplers, which are designed to play sample loops and small voice clips), so I would avoid
full fledged samplers if programming is not up your alley. They do tend to be one of the most usable
synthesizer types in the field, though...
In conclusion: Go to it and good luck. (:

IX. Buying Synthesizers

General tips for buying synthesizers from a dealer
For the beginner, the dealer is probably the easiest place to buy a synthesizer, and most reliable. In general,
most of the equipment in a reputable music dealer's shop works well; and is fully warrantied so that if
something goes wrong, you can bring it back to the dealer for repairs or a replacement.
The worst problem I've found with a dealer is some of them tend to pressure you into taking a synthesizer that
you might not necessarily want. Some stores tend to pressure you a lot more than others, to car-salesman like
proportions. As a result, I would advise you to use the same technique you would use in buying a car: Come
armed with the knowledge beforehand. Know exactly what TYPE of synthesizer you want, and a price range to
expect for the synthesizers you are looking for. Be firm but kind with pressuring salesmen, and don't be afraid
to say no.
The net is an excellent place to research synthesizers that you are looking for. More and more stores are on the
net nowadays, and its not a big hassle emailing people for quotes on synthesizers. Be sure to use this to your
advantage: The best deal might not be at your local hometown dealer.

General tips for buying used synthesizers through classifieds

Buying used synthesizers through local classified ads is probably the safest way to buy a used synthesizer.
Often, you get all the accessories (power chords, manuals, etc.) you need through this method, and it's not as
hard to get ripped off, as long as you have a face-to-face encounter with the owner. An equipment check is
important (turn the synthesizer on, play with the buttons, see if everything works like it should), of course. For
the beginner who may not be familiar with the synthesizer, it is easier to talk with the owner of the synthesizer
and see if he's being truthful about why the equipment is acting like it does.
The main disadvantage of using this method is the price. Prices can be incredibly low for a particular piece of
gear; they also can be incredibly overstated as well. A good idea is to check the large compilation of Internet
prices on a piece of gear (see ); if you have access to a synthesizer blue book, even better. Occasionally, one of
the large synthesizer magazines (Keyboard, etc.) will post a listing of prices for used gear; although sometimes
overinflated themselves, they provide a good reference point.

General tips for buying used synthesizers through the net

Two Internet newsgroups, rec.music.makers.synth and rec.music.makers.marketplace, often have synthesizers

and other electronic equipment posted for sale. In addition, the World Wide Web has several places with used
equipment forums for people to sell and buy from.
The Internet tends to be a little bit more stable, price-wise, than the classifieds (although "trendy" pieces may
cost more on the net). However, it poses a greater risk, since you do not get to test the equipment beforehand
and make sure that it works. Also, it is harder to send off money to someone you may never meet in person. So
it is a bit more risky.
Personally, however, I have had nothing but great luck with the Internet. I have bought 4 synthesizers from the
net; all of them were in mostly good condition. I do take the precaution of having the equipment sent COD if
possible. COD stands for Credit On Deposit, and works as follows:
The seller ships an item C.O.D. - a condition which means that the piece of equipment cannot be delivered
unless the buyer pays a certain amount of money to the postal service. He or she makes out the C.O.D. for the
price of the synthesizer, and is charged a C.O.D. service charge in addition to the standard shipping fee.

The seller gets the piece of equipment. At that time, he pays the amount that the C.O.D. is due for, and
receives his or her merchandise.

If a piece of equipment is over a few hundred dollars, I strongly urge people to use COD on shipping: It allows
a better piece of mind for the buyer (who doesn't have to pay anything if the seller refuses to send the
equipment) and the seller (who doesn't get ripped off if the buyer cannot pay for the equipment). However, the
downside to this method is C.O.D. is a VERY expensive charge. For $1600 pieces of equipment, an extra $10
for C.O.D. is not a problem, but for $30 pieces of equipment, $10 C.O.Ds become a major hassle. Other, more
trustworthy methods may be preferable.

Pawn shop tips

Pawn shops tend to be the trickiest place to buy synthesizers, from what I've found. For the beginner, I would
not recommend it. Pawn shop staff are unable to help people who want to know how the synthesizer works.
Often basics such as the right AC adapter are not available, let alone manuals. The equipment is often in
terrible condition, and if you are not familiar with the synthesizer, it is hard to know what is "normal" and what
is not.
The advantage pawn shops have is price. Pawn shops sometimes have the best bargains in the business, due to
that same ignorance about synthesizers that makes them bad for beginners. This is especially true of smaller
pawn shops. Of course, the opposite is also true: Sometimes pawn shops have terribly inflated prices! Pawn
shops, however, do tend to be the easiest places to bargain with, so you might get a better deal even with an
inflated price.
For selling, pawn shops can be alright. The places with blue books tend to give you a fair value for your piece,
and give the cash very quickly. Of course, you run into some difficulties - I once had a hard time explaining the
concept of a drum machine I was selling. It took a little bit to convince them that the condition was excellent,
and that it did what it was supposed to. I noticed the drum machine also got sold in a month from the shop. So
much for that. (:

X. The Home Studio: A brief overview

With the increasing amount of synthesizers, and the lowering cost of studio equipment, it now is becoming
more and more sensible to produce a quality home studio than ever. With that in mind, here is a brief overview
of some of the features of a home studio. I'm not going to go into too much detail, but I think this will be
helpful for those who are wanting to get started in the home studio world.

Mixers
One of the great things that has happened over the last few years has been the reduction in price of mixers.
Today, there are mixers out there that cater towards the very small project studio, with very good, professional
sound. But a mixer can seem complicated to a beginner.
The basic concept of a mixer is to take together sound inputs from several sources and mix them all together. In
other words, all of the synthesizers, microphones, guitars, etc. that you have can be mixed into one track,
through a variety of methods. The volume of each source is controlled by a fader - providing an easy way to
mix things.
Most mixers offer a variety of features aside from sheer volume. For instance, a mixer will have a certain
amount of channels. Each channel on a mixer represents one input. Another common feature on a mixer is a
bus. A bus is sort of like a sub-mixer - a channel can be assigned to a particular bus, and its level can be set.
Then, the total volume of that bus can be raised and lowered by a fader. This is very useful for certain
applications (such as miking a drum - you can have 8 channels used for a miked drum, but the total volume of
this drum can be raised and lowered with one fader if they are all assigned to the same bus.) Many mixers are
often named after the number of channels and/or buses they have. (IE, a Mackie 1604 has 16 channels, along
with 4 buses.)
Almost all mixers today are stereo mixers, meaning there are at least two channels in the output. With this
comes panning. Each channel will have a pan, usually, to indicate where in the stereo plane you want the signal
to go to. You can send it to the left, right, the middle, and anywhere in between.
Most mixers also have some sort of equalization setting for each channel on them, so that the tone of each
channel can be controlled. The standard EQ setting - high, middle, and low - is common, but some mixers have
stranger combinations to produce the equalization. Many mixers will also allow you to solo a channel (so you
can hear only that channel, and set the level of that channel individually), and mute channels. Many mixers
have separate outputs for the main bus (where all the buses get mixed together) and the control room (for
monitoring the mix), allowing you to change the volume and play with the mix without disturbing the
recording.
Another thing that is found on mixers is auxiliary (aux for short) inputs. Auxiliary inputs act as another mixer,
in a sense. For each channel, you have an aux output send knob. This controls how much of the signal is sent to
the aux output. This aux output can be routed through FX boxes, compressors, EQ, etc. and sent back to the aux
input, to create what is known as an effects loop. The aux output can also be used for other purposes.
Mixers come in several varieties. For home use, the most popular is the small analog mixer provided by many
companies (Mackie, Soundcraft, etc.). These mixers often give great sound at a fraction of the price of the large
mixers, but have less channels and busses to work with. Still, they leave room for upgrade, and the difference
between a tabletop mixer like the Mackie MS1202 and a professional mixer like the Mackie 8-bus revolves in
the number of channels, number of buses, and number of extra features.
Starting to become popular and affordable are digital mixers. Digital mixers have most of the same features as

an analog mixer, but offer the advantage of less hiss, some digital-only control features, and, most importantly,
automation. Automation is very difficult and expensive for analog features; digital mixers offer the unique
ability of being able to record your mix into the sequencer like any other keyboard. They are still expensive
(Yamaha's digital mixers are about 3-4 times the price of an equivalent analog mixer), but they are coming
down in price, and might make an impact later in the marketplace...
At the VERY high end of the mixers spectrum, a mixer becomes semi-modular - where each channel strip is a
module in itself, and you add features simply by adding modules to the mixer unit. Most mixers designed for
home studios, however, are self-contained, and contain buttons to produce the nice routing options the high-end
mixers have.

FX box notes
Another thing that helps in a home studio is an FX box. Most recordings nowadays use at least some effects in
their recordings - whether it be a chorus to fatten the sound up, a little bit of reverb to make the sound more
natural and less dry, or special effects such as phasers.
The variety of effects boxes is astounding, but if I were to purchase an effects box, I would probably go for one
that had a multitude of effects that you can chain up. Some effects boxes are designed for specific purposes (e.
g., reverb), and while that is very nice once you have an effects box (i.e., a standalone reverb box frees up your
other box to do other things), I would consider having a large quantity of decent quality effects to be more
important. That doesn't mean, of course, that you should buy a box with tons of crappy-sounding FX. (: One
should balance between price and performance...
Incidentally, most effects boxes are rack-mount instruments (or at least have that ability). Also, terminology
wise, a signal is described as "wet" when recorded with effects, and "dry" when recorded without.

Recording your stuff at home

Now for the fun part: Putting your stuff on tape. With MIDI sequencers, it certainly is possible simply to take
an old tape deck and use that to record your songs. But there are a wide variety of other options out there,
including some options that allow you to record in a better and more powerful manner. Among them are the
following:

Hard disk recorders

The newest method of recording at home is something called hard disk recording. Hard disk recording is where
you actually use your computer to store the recording of each track digitally. The digital recording allows you
to ping-pong (record one track onto another while simultaneously adding new sounds) easily; in fact, with
computers, your track space is only as limited as your hard drive space. (Oh, by the way, a track is simply a
channel of recorded audio information, in terms of tapes and recordings.)
Equipment wise, there is plenty out there. There are many pieces of gear which only use the computer as an
interface; all the recording is done in a separate box. At the opposite end of the spectrum is a completely
software based solution, where the only piece of hardware used is a card to translate sound into digital (ie,
something like the Card D+). The rest is controlled by software, using your hard drive and computer to control
the software.

Many sequencers (Cakewalk Pro Audio, Cubase Pro Audio, etc.) have options which allow you to record audio
and integrate the audio with MIDI sequences.
In order to do hard disk recording, however, you may have to spend a lot. The computers that can do hard disk
recording should be powerful (ie, Pentiums or PowerPCs are optimal). Even more importantly, a TON of hard
disk space is needed to store the digital recording. At least a gigabyte of hard disk space free is recommended;
more is desirable for more complex tracks. The equipment for hard disk recording isn't cheap, either: The Card
D+ goes for $500+, for instance, and other, more hardware-based HD recording options go for much more.
But with the advent of CD-Rs that allow you to write a CD inside the computer (for $500 or less), you can
make a master without ever even traversing cable and using a DAT machine. That thought might be pretty
appealing, and a good reason to consider hard disk recording in the future.

DAT / ADAT
DAT is probably the cheapest way to get a good studio-quality master. DAT, or Digital Audio Tape, is simply
a piece of tape where digital information is recorded instead of analog. The benefits, compared to analog tape,
are less hiss, a better sound (at least compared to consumer tapes), and the ability to duplicate and ping-pong
easier. Many studios use DAT machines as a way to make a good-quality master, from which a CD can easily
be made. The problem is, DATs only have two stereo tracks.
ADAT machines, made primarily by Alesis, take the concept of the DAT and go one step further. An ADAT
machine has 8 tracks on it. So, in essence, an ADAT is like a digital 8-track machine, with all the benefits of a
4-track type device and DATs. They run more expensive than a plain DAT machine ($2500 compared to $800),
and are more expensive than comparable analog 8-tracks ($2500 compared to $1000), but may be worth it to
those wanting a high-quality digital sound.

The good ol' 4 track

With all of this digital technology around, let us not forget the good ol' 4 track. (: A 4-track recorder is a
recorder that can record on 4 tracks, either simultaneously, separately, or with tracks ping-ponged to each
other. The advantage of a 4-track for home use is that the tapes are cheap: It simply uses a standard consumer
audio tape, and records only in one direction. (A standard audio cassette has 4 tracks, 2 for each side, in order
to give two stereo sides of recording.)
4 tracks have become remarkably cheap over the years, with a nice variety of features, and are the cheapest
way to make a demo short of using a plain cassette recorder.

4) SMPTE and other synchronization explanations

Many tape devices are not MIDI enabled, and therefore cannot use MIDI clocks to start and stop when the
MIDI sequencer starts. Instead, there are a few ways that tape devices synchronize themselves to the MIDI
devices.
One of these methods is simply known as "sync". Tape recorders with sync have jacks with a sync in and a
sync out. This allows you to start and stop the tape recorder through a special pulse code sent through these
jacks. There are devices available that allow you to convert from the MIDI clock (which sends its own special
start and stop codes) and the sync jacks normally used.

A special time code that is used heavily in the video world is known as SMPTE. From the Sonic Foundry web
page (makers of Sound Forge, a popular hard disk recording program), here is an explanation of the world of
SMPTE found there:

The Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers (SMPTE) time code may be one of the most
misunderstood concepts among individuals within the music industry. After working with SMPTE time code
for years, many people are still confused by the concept, so don't feel bad if you haven't got it all figured out.
Hopefully this discussion will clear the mud.
The biggest problem with SMPTE time code is that, depending on whether you sit on the video or audio side of
the fence, SMPTE time codes may mean different things to you. When dealing with SMPTE you will probably
see five, perhaps six, different types of time codes formats (six is for the people who are really confused).
Following is a description of each SMPTE time code format.
SMPTE 25 EBU
This SMPTE code runs at 25 frames per second and is also known as SMPTE EBU (European Broadcasting
Union). The reason for having this rate is that European television systems run at exactly 25 frames per second.
SMPTE 24 Film Sync
This SMPTE code runs at 24 frames per second and is also known as SMPTE Film Sync. This rate matches a
nominal film rate of 24 frames per second (the slowest speed possible for apparent continuous motion).
OK, those two are easy. Now things start to get a little crazy.
SMPTE 30 Non-Drop (as used in the audio world)
In the US, the 60 Hz power system makes it easy to generate a time code rate of 30 frames per second. This
rate is commonly used in audio environments and is typically known as 30 Non-Drop. You will probably use
this rate when synchronizing audio applications like a multi-track recorder or your MIDI sequencer. If all you
care about is working with audio and not dealing with video, stop reading right here. We mean it! All you
really need to know is that there are three different SMPTE rates you might want to use: SMPTE 24, SMPTE
25, and SMPTE 30 Non-Drop. However, be aware that SMPTE 30 Non-Drop in the video world runs at 29.97
frames per second.
True SMPTE 30 Drop and SMPTE 30 Non-Drop (as used in the video world)
If you are planning to work with video, the frame rate of exactly 30 frames per second is never used. When
NTSC color systems were developed, the frame rate was changed by a tiny amount to eliminate the possibility
of crosstalk between the audio and color information. Even though it is still referred to as SMPTE 30 Drop or
Non-Drop, the actual frame rate that is used is exactly 29.97 frames per second. This poses a problem since this
small difference will cause SMPTE time and real time (what your clock reads) to be different over long
periods. Because of this, two methods are used to generate SMPTE time code in the video world: Drop and
Non-Drop.
In SMPTE Non-Drop, the time code frames are always incremented by one in exact synchronization to the
frames of your video. However, since the video actually plays at only 29.97 frames per second (rather than 30
frames per second), SMPTE time will increment at a slower rate than real world time. This will lead to a

SMPTE time versus real time discrepancy. Thus, after a while, we could look at the clock on the wall and
notice it is farther ahead than the SMPTE time displayed in our application.
SMPTE Drop time code (which also runs at 29.97 frames per second) attempts to compensate for the
discrepancy between real world time and SMPTE time by "dropping" frames from the sequence of SMPTE
frames in order to catch up with real world time. What this means is that occasionally in the SMPTE sequence
of time, the SMPTE time will jump forward by more than one frame. The time is adjusted forward by two
frames on every minute boundary except 00, 10, 20, 30, 40 , and 50. Thus when SMPTE Drop time increments
from 00:00:59:29, the next value will be 00:01:00:02 in SMPTE Drop rather than 00:01:00:00 in SMPTE NonDrop. In SMPTE Drop, it must be remembered that certain codes no longer exist. For instance, there is no such
time as 00:01:00:00 in SMPTE Drop. The time code is actually 00:01:00:02.
When synchronizing audio to video, it is crucial that the SMPTE time code(30 Drop or Non-Drop) used in your
sequencer or digital audio workstation is the same as the SMPTE time code striped onto the video. Only then
will the SMPTE times on the video screen and computer monitor match exactly during playback.
In the audio world, people have started to call 30 Non-Drop (which runs at 29.97 frames per second) 29.97Non-Drop to distinguish it from the 30 Non-Drop used between audio applications (which runs at a true 30
frames per second). SMPTE 30 Drop (as used in video) may also be referred to as SMPTE 29.97 Drop just to
reiterate that the frame rate is actually 29.97 frames per second. It just depends on who you talk to.
However, you must remember that there is no difference between 30 Drop and 29.97 Drop time code. There are
those who have tried to say that there is such a thing as a SMPTE time code which actually runs at 30 frames
per second and generates "drop frames". This practice would be silly, as the whole point of a SMPTE Drop
time code is to make up for the discrepancy between the 29.97 frames per second "video" rate and the 30
frames per second "real time" rate.

(Once again, thanks to Sonic Foundry for the above explanation.)

As mentioned before, there are alternatives to the SMPTE / Sync synchronization methods and MIDI clocks.
One of these alternatives is Roland DIN/Sync. For more information on how to keep time with early Roland
instruments, see the DIN Sync FAQ at http://www.citenet.net/noise/202/dinfaq1. YES, it is possible to
synchronize Rolands DIN Sync methods to the MIDI clock, just like there are devices to convert the MIDI
clocks start/stop codes to the standard tape syncs start/stop codes.

Other peripherals
There are other peripherals mentioned. Probably the two most common extra peripherals are equalizers and
compressors. Equalizers are used to help adjust the tone of the sound. Adding an equalizer to an instrument can
either soften it down or make it sparkle more, or bring out the bass. Compressors are devices that soften the
peaks and the lows that a piece goes through. A standalone compressor is a nice detail in any studio.
Aside from that, there are several extra things each claiming to help the sound in a way. How you route your
studio is largely up to you but make sure you have the important things (a way to record, a mixer to mix, and
some speakers + amp to hear what you are playing) first.

XI. A brief guide to programming your own sounds

Programming your sounds may sound like a complicated task at first. It really isnt. If youve read this FAQ,
you understand the components of the synthesizer to some extent. A basic understanding of the components,
and a little bit of familiarizing yourself with the abstract language of each synthesizer is all you need.
Synthesizer components can really be divided into three parts:

Modules that generate sound.

Modules that alter the quality of the sound.
Modules that control and alter the generators or the tone.

Usually, I begin with the SOUND GENERATORS. These vary in function, and range from analog oscillators
(often called VCOs) to a sample. This is the fundamental place where sound is created. Picking the right wave
can be important in determining exactly how the patch will sound later. Do you want a harsh wave? Use
sawtooth waves. Do you want a soft wave? Use sine waves. Do you want something in between? Squares are
nice. Or, in 2 VCO machines, you can mix and match. With samplers, you can either try for a detailed patch
that simulates and instrument (by sampling an instrument itself). Or you can simply pick a random sound and
process it through the other parts of the synthesizer.
I then gauge a general idea of what type of control I want over the tone of the sound and the generated sounds.
Components such as LFOs (Low Frequency Oscillators) and Envelopes are generally used to control and shape
how a signal works. For instance, you can feed an LFO (up and down voltage) into the VCO pitch and create
vibrato (up and down pitch). You can feed an envelope (a shaped voltage) into the filter frequency cutoff to
make the frequency cutoff move with the voltage, for a more instrument like effect.
Although digital synthesizers often operate much different than their analog counterparts, it is a good idea to
familiarize yourself with analog programming. The idea of voltage helps a lot: once you understand that every
component is simply producing a voltage, and that this voltage can either add or subtract from various
components, it makes knowing how to get a sound much easier.
I then follow up with the SIGNAL PROCESSORS, components that alter the quality of the sound. The two
most common examples of this are the VCA (used to change the volume of the synthesizer) and the VCF (used
to change the tonal quality of the synthesizer). Here is where you shape the sound, using LFOs, VCAs, and
other components. Want to create a wooowwrr effect? Hook the LFO to the VCF (or filter) cutoff point. Want
to shape the sound more like a piano? Set the envelope right, hook it to the VCA, and it works.
In digital synthesizers, there is often a general "volume envelope" instead of a VCA, as well as "pitch
envelopes" and "filter envelopes". They work exactly as if you connected an envelope to the volume, pitch,
filter, etc. no difference except terminology, really.
Above all, experiment. My first programming jobs were done on a DX27. I learned how to program the
synthesizer merely by playing with it seeing what each parameter does when you changed the value. I
encourage people to get simpler synthesizers simple analogs with knobs make for excellent tools for people
wanting to learn how to program, as all the parameters are out in front of you, and most of them will have a
visible effect. The digitals of today unfortunately are harder to program, and many are very complicated, with
tons of parameters and options, seeming daunting to the new programmer in contrast, a monophonic bass
synthesizer (Novation Bassstation, etc.) or an old polyphonic (like the Roland Juno 106) is easy to use and easy
to learn how to program on.

XII. 11 notable synthesizers in history

OK, so this is really a disputed category. Everyone kind of has their favorite synths, and there are really many
synths that are fairly notable in the electronic field. How does one decide what makes a great synthesizer?
From my perspective, it is a synthesizer that has changed the field of music as we know it today. That does not
necessarily mean that it is the most popular synthesizer around. But it means that somehow, there was a
technique in this synthesizer that either got picked up in other synthesizers, or shaped the course of the
synthesizer as we know it today. With that in mind, here are the 11

Early Moog modulars. Moog's modulars were not the first to be commercially built; Don Buchla's
synthesizers were earlier, and included the notable concept of a sequencer. However, Robert Moog's
modulars (sold around the late 60s through the 70s) were more important, in that they defined the
standard used by analog synthesizers around the world: A musical voltage control. The Moog modulars
used a control voltage, with a setting of one volt per octave, to generate the functions needed: Pitch in a
VCO, filter cutoff in a VCF, and volume in a VCA. Envelopes, LFOs, and keyboards could produce the
necessary voltage needed. Although Buchla's modular synthesizers were controlled by voltage as well,
their setting was more experimental and not idea for setting up tones like the Moog's was. A simple
concept, one that helped break the idea of synthesizers out of the experimental level to the public eye.
Moog Minimoog. Easily one of the most important synthesizers in the synthesizer history. In 1969, the
Moog concept was designed to solve the problem presented with modules: patch chords. Although patch
chords allowed you to route anything to anything, they produced a huge network of visual confusion,
and it took time to reconnect patch chords. The Minimoog was the solution to this: hardwired modules
connected by switches and knobs. The action moved synthesizers from the studio to the live
performance: its easier to carry a Minimoog to a performance than a whole module. From then on, the
dominant keyboard in the marketplace is the "hardwired" keyboard. But the popularity (which was slow
at first, but boomed in the early 70s) has more to do with the portability: it has to do with the sound. The
Minimoog bass sound has become one of the most well-known and loved sounds in electronic music,
and the filter has been described in loving tones. Easily a classic.
Prophet 5. No, the Prophet 5 was NOT the first polyphonic synthesizer to appear on the marketplace.
Others, such as Yamahas CS-80, appeared before then (the CS-80 is notable for being the crux of
Vangeliss late 70s / early 80s sound). But the Prophet 5 is a good example, along with the Jupiter 8 and
others, of the CEM chip sound. Dave Smith, who started off Sequential Circuits by selling sequencers,
designed the keyboard, and it became THE polyphonic keyboard of the late 70s and the 80s. It was used
heavily by Peter Gabriel and others. The real innovation is in the integrated chips, where a single VCO,
VCF, or VCA can be put in one linear IC. The Prophet 5 used this, which made for a much more
compact solution to the polyphony problem (as using discrete chips would make for a REALLY large
and bulky synthesizer). Another innovation is in the Prophet 5's true programmability. The Prophet 5
was the first synth to digitize the synth settings and store them in RAM. This was a tremendous help to
players wanting to be able to call up their patches live. Polyphonic synthesizers appeared afterwards in
huge numbers, all using some form of integrated linear IC.
New England Digital Synclavier. The New England Digital Synclavier was an innovative synthesizer
in many ways. Although it was expensive, and rarely used outside the film / experimental world, the
synthesizer had many components that migrated to future synthesizers. First of all, the Synclavier was
the first commercially successful synthesizer to use digital FM technology. Although the concepts were
around beforehand, the Synclavier was the first to push it into the mainstream, making companies l ike
Yamaha take notice. Secondly, the Synclavier integrated a computer into the process. The computer
could do many things, such as sequence and program parameters. Later models could even sample. In
effect, the Synclavier was the first of what would later be known as the workstation a synthesizer that
could sequence, sample, play, score, and do all the things you need to do. Later companies introduced
workstations that were less bulky (ie, the Ensoniq ESQ-1, the Korg M1, etc.), but the concept was
introduced here. Frank Zappa was a big fan of the Synclavier for composing and scoring.
Fairlight CMI. In the 1970s, a groupe of people in Sydney, Austraila, began working on a computer

controlled synthesizer. What they ended up with, however, was something totally different: They ended
up with a sampler. The sampler redefined electronic music, by making tape loops and tape samples tons
easier to process. Although the CMI was expensive, the ability of the CMI to edit and create sounds,
sequence, and control the keyboard through a graphic light-pen interface was appealing. Jean-Miche l
Jarre was a heavy user of the CMI in his earlier concepts. And it inspired the next wave of samplers
Emu Emulator. Emu started off as a company doing modular synthesizers in the 70s. However, the
direction of Emu changed completely when Dave Rossum, the founder of Emu systems, first saw the
CMI in 1980. He figured there must be an easier way to do sampling and, presto, a year later, a
prototype of the Emulator I was produced. The sampling interface was simple, the concepts were easy to
understand, and the price ($8,000) was considerably lower than the CMI. From there on, Emu took off
and becam e a dominant sampling company, producing the Emulator II in 1984 with longer sampling
times, a sequencer, and multisampling. Some of the sounds that became standards in the mid 80s (such
as the Emulator II shakuhachi patch), and still remain in force today. Some bands (Depeche Mode, for
instance) still tour dominantly with Emulator IIs.
Yamaha DX7. Yamaha had been developing FM technology in keyboards for some time, but it was
with this keyboard that digital synthesizers took off, dominated analog synthesizers, and until recently,
have never looked back. The reasons were simple: It was an FM synthesizer, creating complex sounds
that until then were only possible with expensive machines. It was digital, with an easy "pick a patch
with a button" interface. It had the newly introduced MIDI interface for easy control. And it cost less
than $2000. It was the first truly affordable digital synthesizer. And it was a huge success, becoming one
of the best-selling and most known synthesizers ever. From 1983 to 1987, a large percentage of songs
hitting the market had DX-7 sounds in them. Easily one of the most notable synthesizers in history a
synthesis of developing ideas at affordable prices.
Roland TR-808. Programmable rhythm machines were not around until the late 1970s. That is when
Roland introduced their CR series, which I believe are the first programmable drum machines ever.
Until then, the only rhythm units had been preset patterns, which couldnt be reprogrammed into
something else. But the true synthesis of the programmable drum machines came with the Roland TR808, introduced in 1980. The machine proved to be fairly popular: it had an easy to use interface and
decent soundi ng analog drums. However, despite the fact that other, sample-based drum machines
overtook the TR-808 in popularity in the 80s (a notable example is the Linndrum, whose drum sounds
defined much of the electronic early 80s tunes), the TR-808 came back in the late 80s when hip-hop
artists discovered that you can tune the bass drum sound of the TR-808 to produce an extraordinary sinewave boom that rattles speakers and can be heard for miles around.
Roland TB-303. Before techno, this instrument wouldnt have even made the list. But since techno, this
instrument has become THE sound to have, with its unique whining resonance being critical to many
techno songs. Its success is almost accidental: It was originally designed as a synthesizer to emulate a
bass guitar. But with the right parameter adjustments, it gives that nice wet filter sound that many
Rolands of this time have, with some unique distortion in the resonance that makes this instru ment
beloved by many. Not a unique synthesizer as a whole (most of the elements in it have been done before
in other synthesizers), but a unique way of putting it together.
Roland D-50. The D-50 was designed in many ways to be a success for Roland, like the DX-7 was for
Yamaha. It worked: The D-50 was one of the most popular synthesizers in the 1980s. And it helped
defined the state of todays sample-based synthesizers. It was one of the first synthesizers to have built
in sample ROM that can be used as an oscillator. The samples were short (on the theory that the attack
is the most important portion of the synthesizer, and that the attack produces realism) - but it was
enough to give the synthesizer a good sound. Another big thing in the synthesizer that gave the D-50 the
edge was a fairly complete built in effects system: reverb, chorus, equalizer. Many synthesizers had
built in FX before (such as a single chorus unit or reverb unit), but none with the level the D-50 had.
After the D-50, sample-based synthesizers almost always arrived with a complete FX system inside to
beef up the sound. Add a digital analog emulation, and you had a very warm synthesizer that produ ced
a LARGE portion of the synth sounds of the late 80s. Other synthesizers (such as the Korg M1, with its

multitimbral mode) helped define the state of todays sample-based synthesizer further, but the D-50
was the start of synthesizers moving towards the completely sample-based level.
Yamaha VL1. This last one is tricky, as it was not a particular success due to its cost. But it seems to be
the beginning of a new era of synthesizers: modeling. The Yamaha VL1 was the first commercially
available modeling synthesizer on the market. It was expensive, and could only do a few things (such as
play a saxophone). But it could do those things very well. And it inspired a new round of modeling
synthesizers: analog modelers (such as the Clavia Nord Lead) and ones that can do all sorts of wacky
modeling effects (the Korg Prophecy, a low-priced solo synthesizer that HAS been a commercial
success). Like the Synclavier and Fairlight, the VL1 may be seen as the start of a new beginning.

XIII. For the technocrats: Building your own synthesizers

Im not going to go into too much detail here this is more for beginners, after all. (: Nevertheless, it is
EASILY possible to build your own synthesizer if you are into electronics and can do simple electronics
assembly especially analog synthesizers. Analog synthesizers, after all, are nothing more then applications of
common electronic circuits (such as the oscillator, filter, and amplifier).
Many people look at building your own synthesizer as a way of saving money. Most home-built synthesizers
tend to be modulars, and from that perspective you DO save money (vs. buying a new modular synthesizer).
However, compared to the cost of buying a pre-wired synthesizer, a modular still will be more expensive
(especially considering the cost of panels and PCBs for the hobbyist, the highest costing part of a do-ityourself synthesizer). It certainly DOES take a lot of time to complete and a fair in vestment in money. If you
are unfamiliar with electronics, I wouldnt recommend it.
Nevertheless, many would be interested in doing synthesizers yourself. After all, it is your synthesizer, it is
unique, and its fun to build. (: There is a mailing list devoted to this subject, and it is an excellent place to start.
You can access this mailing list at:
http://www.sara.nl/Rick.Jansen/Emusic
This page not only contains links to the Synth-DIY list, it also contains links to other DIY projects. The Music
Machine pages of Hyperreal (http://www.hyperreal.com/music/machines/) also contain several schematics for
do-it-yourselfers.

XIV. Synthesizer publications

These are magazines that are mostly dedicated to the art of electronic music: synthesizers, keyboards, and the
like. While many other magazines review electronic equipment, these have the focus.
I am sure I am missing several magazines in this list, so email me at cgould@gate.net to be included!

KEYBOARD MAGAZINE

Address:1601 W. 23rd St. Suite 200

Lawrence, KS 66046-0127
Phone: 1-800-289-9919 (US)
WWW: http://www.keyboardmag.com/
Email: nfi@neodata.com

Subscription: $25.95, 12 monthly issues

FUTURE MUSIC

Phone:+44 1225 822511

Fax:+44 1458 274378
Web:http://www.futurenet.co.uk/
Email:subs@futurenet.co.uk
Subscription:45 pounds, monthly

ELECTRONIC MUSICIAN

Address:Subscription, Customer Service

PO Box 41525
Nashville, TN 37204
Phone:1-800-843-4086
Email:sunbeltful@aol.com

SOUND ON SOUND

Address:Media House
Trafalgar Way
Bar Hill
Cambridge CB3 8SQ
United Kingdom
Phone: +44 (0)1954 789 88
Web: http://www.sound-on-sound.co.uk/
Email:publisher@sospubs.co.uk

XV. Synthesizer resources on the net

Heres some very good places to start looking at on the net. This tends to be more general, and not specific
theres plenty of places which are incredibly specific, covering one synthesizer only in detail!
If anyone has any good general, link-related resources they would like to add to this list, feel free. This is BY
FAR incomplete!
http://www.xs4all.nl/~rexbo/index.htm Digital Sound page, a comprehensive page on sampling.
http://www.midifarm.com/ - The MIDI Farm, a nice place with links and MIDI files.
http://www.eeb.ele.tue.nl/midi/index.html MIDI Home Page, a long-lasting and nice resource for MIDI users.
http://www.midiweb.com/ - Another very large site dedicated to MIDI.
http://www.synthzone.com/ - Everything you want to know about the synthesizer.

http://netrunner.net/~jshlackm/index.html A large collection of MIDI and musician links.

http://www.aitech.ac.jp/~ckelly/SMF.html A collection of links for Standard MIDI files on the net.
http://www.hyperreal.com/music/machines - Music Machines, a good collection of analog synthesizer archives.

XVI. Acknowledgements, revision history, and conclusion

I would like to acknowledge the following web sites, books, and other places of research

cbm@headspace.com for help on the synthesis section.

pHreak@techno.org for some pointers to Keyboard Magazines reference library, where another good
introduction to synthesizers exists.
Electric Sound: The Past and Promise of Electronic Music, by Joel Chadabe. Much of the historical
information and trivia comes from this book.
http://www.keyboardmag.com/ for some clarification on some of the vocabulary terms (and being a
good reference book!)
The folks who wrote the manuals for all my keyboards: The Korg X5, Roland D-50 and Juno 106,
Oberheim Matrix 1000, Yamaha DX27, and the Typhoon OS for the TX16W. They were helpful in
gathering terms. Some manuals actually were well written.
Atomic@netcom.com for the tracking generator explanation
http://www.neuroinformatik.ruhr-uni-bochum.de/ini/PEOPLE/heja/sy-prog/node63.html it had a good
description of synthesizer techniques already written up.
Paul Reller, whose electronic music class added to some of the terms.
cgould@gate.net
VERSION HISTORY:
04/08/97 - Version 0.1a - First release to the public! Pre-web page post. And its BIG.
04/11/97 - Version 0.2 - Some minor corrections. Posted to the web page!
05/01/97 - Version 0.3 - More minor corrections.

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(C) 1997 Chad Gould