Messerschmitt Bf-110 G4 (1941)

The Bf-110 was the first Luftwaffe radar-equipped fighter. It was equipped
with a bulky nose-mounted antenna system which cut its top speed by
25 mph. The Telefunken FuG 212 Lichtenstein radar was able to detect
targets from ranges of 200 m out to 5 km. The armament consisted of four
20 mm and four 7.9 mm guns firing forward and a 20 mm cannon firing
vertically upward.

Approaches to
Implementation

Original cavity magnetron, 1940

ow that we have reviewed the basic concepts of

radar, this chapter examines their practical considerations and implementation. Although radar
design varies greatly, it is possible to get a rough
idea of what is involved by considering two different types: (1)
noncoherent pulsed radar, where only the amplitude of echoes
is measured; and (2) coherent pulsed radar, where both the
amplitude and the phase of echoes are measured.
Noncoherent pulsed radar is associated with older radar forms
like the all-weather interceptors in the 1950s and 1960s, which
were often referred to as simple pulsed radar. Noncoherent
pulsed radar is still very widely used in marine navigation and
surveillance applications and in other configurations.
Coherent radar systems are far more capablealbeit more
complex and expensive. They are often referred to as pulseDoppler radars and are used for almost all military and an
increasing number of civil functions. Because both echo
amplitude and phase are measured, coherent radars are able to
determine Doppler velocity, which both improves performance
and supports a much wider variety of applications.
One other technology development that improves performance
and capability still further is electronically scanned array
(ESA) antennas (though they add even more complexity and
expense). Electronic scanning, in effect, allows the radar beam
to be pointed anywhere at any time. It also enables adaptation to local conditions, thereby improving detection of targets
against clutter and other sources of interference.

2.1 Noncoherent Pulsed Radar

This form of radar (Fig. 2-1) is capable of automatic searching, single-target tracking, and real-beam ground mapping. It is
the workhorse of older military systems and, in ground-based

Figure 2-1. This is a Saab Microwave Systems PS-05 multipurpose

pulse Doppler radar in a Gripen aircraft.

15

16

PART I: Overview of Airborne Radar

PULSED RADAR

Duplexer
Transmitter

Modulator

Synchronizer

Di
lay

sp

Video
Processor

Receiver

Receiver
Protection
Device

Indicator
Servo
Controls

Power
Supply

Figure 2-2. Elements outlined in blue must be added to the

transmitter, receiver, antenna, and display for even a simple generic
noncoherent pulsed radar.

form, is still widely used for maritime surveillance from both

commercial and leisure craft. Indeed, it is the most common
form of radar. The transmitter is called a magnetron (whose
development is said to have been responsible for helping the
Allies win World War II). The magnetron has become even
more ubiquitous as the power source in the microwave oven.
Remember from Chapter 1 that a pulsed radar system consists
of four basic functional elements: transmitter; receiver; timeshared antenna; and display. However, to implement even a
simple practical noncoherent radar system, several other elements are also required, the most important of which are
included in Figure 2-2.
Synchronizer. This unit enables time synchronization of the
transmitter and indicator by generating a continuous stream
of very short, evenly spaced pulses. Through being fed to the
modulator and indicator, these pulses designate the times at
which successive radar pulses are to be transmitted.
Modulator. Upon receipt of each timing pulse, the modulator
produces a high-power pulse of direct current (DC) energy and
supplies it to the transmitter, acting in effect as a switch to turn
the transmitter on and off.
Transmitter. This high-power oscillator, generally a magnetron
(Fig. 2-3), generates a high-power radio frequency wave for the
duration of the input pulse from the modulator. In effect, this
converts the DC pulse to a pulse of radio frequency energy.
How it does this is illustrated in the blue panel on pages 1819.
The wavelength of the energy is typically between 3 and 10 cm.
The exact value either may be fixed by the design of the magnetron or may be tunable by an operator over a range of about
10%. The wave is radiated into a metal pipe (Fig. 2-4) called a
waveguide, which conveys it to the duplexer.

Figure 2-3. The magnetron transmitter tube converts pulses of

direct current (DC) power to pulses of microwave energy.

Duplexer. Essentially a waveguide switch (Fig. 2-5), the

duplexer connects the transmitter and the receiver to the
antenna while maintaining a separation between the transmitter and receiver. This is to avoid the high-power transmitted signal from damaging the delicate and highly sensitive
components of the receiver. The duplexer is usually a passive
device that is sensitive to the direction of flow of the radio
waves. Thus, it allows the waves coming from the transmitter to pass with negligible attenuation to the antenna while
blocking their flow to the receiver. Similarly, when echo

From
Transmitter

Duplexer

Antenna

To
Receiver

Figure 2-4. A waveguide is a metal pipe down whichradio waves

may be ducted. The width is usually about three-quarters of the
wavelength, and the height is roughly half the wavelength.

Figure 2-5. A duplexer is a device that passes the transmitters high-power

pulses to the antenna and the received echoes from the antenna to the
receiver. It separates the transmitter and receiver sides of the radar system.

17

CHAPTER 2: Approaches to Implementation

signals return to the radar, the duplexer allows the waves

coming from the antenna to pass with negligible attenuation
to the receiver while blocking their way to the transmitter.
Antenna. In simple radars, the antenna generally consists of a
radiator and a parabolic-shaped reflector (often called a dish),
which are mounted on a common support. In its most rudimentary form, the radiator is little more than a horn-shaped
nozzle on the end of the waveguide coming from the duplexer.
The horn directs the radio wave arriving from the transmitter
onto the dish, which reflects the wave in the form of a narrow
beam (Fig. 2-6). Echoes intercepted by the dish are reflected
into the horn and conveyed by the same waveguide to the
duplexer and then to the receiver.
Generally, the antenna is mounted on gimbals, which allow it to
be pivoted about both the azimuth and elevation axes. In some
cases, a third gimbal may be provided to isolate the antenna
from the roll of the platform (e.g., aircraft, ship). Transducers on
the gimbals may provide the indicator with signals proportional
to the displacement of the antenna about each axis.

Dish

Receiver. Typically, the receiver is of a type called a superheterodyne (Fig. 2-8). It translates the received signals to a lower
frequency at which they can be filtered and amplified more
using simpler and less costly equipment. Translation is accomplished by beating the received signals against the output of
a low-power oscillator (called the local oscillator, or LO) in a
device called a mixer. The frequency of the resulting signal,
called the intermediate frequency (IF), equals the difference
between the signals original frequency and the LO frequency.
The output of the mixer is amplified by a tuned circuit (IF
amplifier). It filters out any interfering signals as well as the
electrical background noise lying outside the band of frequencies occupied by the received signal.

Beam

Figure 2-6. The antenna for a simple pulsed radar consists of a

single feed and a parabolic dish reflector. The parabolic reflector
forms the transmitted beam and also reflects the returned echoes
into the feed.

Receiver Protection. Because of electrical discontinuities (mismatch of impedances) between the antenna and the waveguide,
some of the energy of the radio waves ends up being reflected
from the antenna back to the duplexer. Since the duplexer performs its switching function purely on the basis of direction of
flow, there is nothing to prevent this reflected energy from flowing onto the receiver (just as the radar echoes do). The reflected
energy amounts to only a very small fraction of the transmitters
output. However, because of its high power, the reflections are
strong enough to potentially damage the receiver. To prevent
the reflections from reaching the receiver and to block any of
the transmitters energy that has leaked through the duplexer,
an additional receiver protection device is employed.
The receiver protection device (Fig. 2-7) is a high-speed microwave switch, which automatically blocks any radio waves strong
enough to damage the receiver. Besides leakage and energy
reflected by the antenna, the device also stops any exceptionally strong signals that may be received from outside the radar
echoes received when the radar is inadvertently fired up in a
lab or is operated while facing, say, a wall at point-blank range.

Feed

To Duplexer

From
Antenna

(a)

From
Antenna

(b)

To
Receiver

To
Receiver

Figure 2-7. The receiver protection device (a) allows the weak
echoes to pass from the duplexer to the receiver with negligible
attenuation and (b) blocks any signals strong enough to damage
the receiver.

RECEIVER

Video
To
Indicator

Envelope
Detector

IF
Amplifier

fs fLO

fs
fLO

From
Receiver
Protection
Device

Local
Oscillator

Figure 2-8. The receiver translates the received radio waves (signal)
to a lower frequency (IF), amplifies them, filters out signals of other
frequencies, and produces a video output proportional to the
received signals amplitude.

18

PART I: Overview of Airborne Radar

The Venerable Magnetron

eveloped in the early years of World War ii, the magnetron Was
the breakthrough that first made high-power microwave
radars practical. Because of its comparatively low cost, small
size, light weight, high efficiency, and rugged simplicity (plus
its ability to produce high output powers with moderate input
voltages), the magnetron has been widely used in radar transmitters ever since. It is the workhorse of commercial and leisure craft civil marine radar systems, both of which are used
for surveillance and navigation. It is highly reliability and longlasting and because of continuous development is now very
affordable.

Time 2
+

Velocity
Electron

Force Due to
Magnetic Field

cylindrical electrode (anode), with a gap (called the interaction space) in between.
Heater
Heate
Voltage
Time 3
+
Velocity
Direction of
Externally Applied
Magnetic Field

Force
rce Due
D to
Magnetic Field
Mag

The magnetron is one of a family of vacuum tube oscillators

and amplifiers that utilizes the force exerted by a magnetic
field whose direction is normal to the electrons velocity
when the electron moves through it and causes its path
to curve. The greater the electrons speed, the greater the
curvature.
Time 1
+

Force Due to
Magnetic Field

Electron

Velocity
Electron

Evenly distributed around the inner circumference of the

anode are resonant cavities opening into the interaction
space. The cathode is heated so that it emits electrons, which
form a dense cloud around it. An externally mounted permanent magnet produces a strong magnetic field within the
interaction space, normal to the axis of the electrodes.
Anod
Anode
Resonant
Cavity
Cathode

These tubes are called cross-field tubes because the electric

field that produces the electrons motion is normal to the
magnetic field. Slicing a magnetron in two would reveal a
cylindrical central electrode (cathode) ringed by a second

Interaction
In
Space

CHAPTER 2: Approaches to Implementation

19

The Venerable Magnetron continued

+

Electron
Cloud
Output

To cause the tube to generate radio waves, a strong DC

voltage is applied between the electrodes (cathode negative, anode positive). Attracted by the positive voltage, the
electrons accelerate toward the anode. But as the velocity
of each electron increases, the magnetic field produces an
increasingly strong force on the electrons, causing them
to follow curved paths that carry them past the openings of
the cavities.

Electron
Cloud

The electrons forming the spokes are gradually slowed down

bytheir interaction with the traveling wave and in the process
give up energy to the wave, thereby increasing its power. The
slowing, of course, reduces the curvature of each electrons
path, with the result that the electron soon reaches the anode.
By the time it does, however, it has transferred to the radio
wave up to 70 percent of the energy it acquired in being accelerated by the inter-electrode voltage. (What remains of the
energy is absorbed as heat in the anode and must be carried
away by a cooling system.) The spent electrons are returned to
the cathode by the external power source, so the transfer of
energy from the power source to the radio wave continues as
long as the DC power issupplied.
Meanwhile, a tiny antenna inserted in one of the cavities
bleeds the energy of the radio wave off into a waveguide. This
is the output port of the tube. A magnetrons frequency may
be varied over a limited range by changing the resonant frequency of the cavities through such techniques as lowering
plungers into them.
Over the years a number of refinements have been made to
the basic magnetron design. In one, a coaxial resonant output
cavity is added.

Much as a sound wave builds up in a bottle when you blow air

across its opening, an oscillating electromagnetic field (radio
wave) builds up as a result of the electrons sweeping past the
cavity openings. As with the sound wave, the frequency of the
radio wave is the resonant frequency of the cavities.
It all starts with a minute, random disturbance that initiates
an electromagnetic oscillation in one of the cavities. This
oscillation propagates from cavity to cavity via the interaction space. The electric field of this radio wave causes the
electrons sweeping past the cavity openings during one peak
of each cycle to slow down and move out toward the anode
and those sweeping past during the other to speed up and
move in toward the cathode. Consequently, the electrons
quickly bunch up and form swirling spokes whose rotation
is synchronized with the travel of the radio wave around the
interaction space.

Concentric
Output Cavity

Output

Energy is bled into it through slots in alternate cavities. The

magnetron is tuned by changing the output cavitys resonant
frequency.

20

PART I: Overview of Airborne Radar

Finally, the amplified signal is applied to an envelope detector that produces an output voltage corresponding to the peak
amplitude (or envelope) of the signal. This signal is supplied
to the indicator so that its magnitude can be portrayed on a
screen and the presence or absence of a target can be determined by an operator. Alternatively, the output of the envelope
detector can be further processed such that only automatically
detected targets are presented to the radar operator.

Target Blip

CRT
Display

Range Trace

Range Sweep Voltage

(+)
Vertical
Deflection
(-)

Beam
Intensity

Display Systems. These systems are used to (1) display the

received echoes in a format that will satisfy the operators
requirements; (2) control the automatic searching and tracking
functions; and (3) extract the desired target data when tracking
a target.
Any of a variety of display formats may be used, only one of
which (the B display, or B-scope) will be described here (see
the blue panel for details of the most common types of display).

Video Output of Receiver

Target
Echo
Time

Figure 2-9. Triggered by timing pulses from synchronizer, a linear

increase in the vertical deflection voltage produces a range sweep.
The video output of the receiver intensifies the beam, producing
a target blip. The strong video spikes are leakage of transmitted
pulse through duplexer.

In the B form of display, targets are displayed as bright spots,

or blips, on a rectangular grid representing range and azimuth
angle. In early systems a video amplifier raised the receiver
output to a level suitable for controlling the intensity of the display tubes cathode ray beam. The operator generally sets the
gain of the amplifier so that noise spikes make the beam barely
visible (Fig. 2-9). Target echoes strong enough to be detected
above the noise will then produce a blip.
To control the vertical and horizontal positions of the beam,
each timing pulse from the synchronizer triggers the generation
of a linearly increasing voltage that causes the beam to trace a
vertical path from the bottom of the display to the top. Since
the start of each trace is thus synchronized withthe transmission of a radar pulse, if a target echo is received thedistance
from the start of the trace to the point at which the target blip
appears will correspond to the round-trip transit time for the
echo or target range. For this reason the trace is called the
range trace and the vertical motion of the beam is the range
sweep.
Meanwhile, the azimuth signal from the antenna is used to
control the horizontal position of the range trace, and the elevation signal may be used to control the vertical position of a
marker on the edge of the display, where an elevation scale is
provided.
As the antenna executes its search scan, the range trace sweeps
back and forth across the display in unison with the azimuth
scan of the antenna. Each time the antenna beam sweeps
across a target, a blip appears on the range trace, providing
the operator with a plot of the range versus the azimuth of
the target. The typical location of the displays in a cockpit is
shown in Figure 2-10.

Figure 2-10. In the cockpit of a Typhoon aircraft, the combining

glass for the head-up display is in the center of the windscreen.

Modern systems use a digital display, and targets are painted

onto the display by deriving the positional data from the
synchronizer and antenna. Processing is applied to the

CHAPTER 2: Approaches to Implementation

21

Common Radar Displays

Azimuth
0

A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e

Target

Noise

ng

Ra

Range

Sector PPI Display. Gives an undistorted picture of region being

scanned in azimuth. Commonly used for sector ground mapping.
Display. Plots amplitude of receiver output versus range on
horizontal line, called a range trace. Simplest of all displays but
rarely used because it does not indicate azimuth.

E
l
e
v
a
t
i
o
n

0
R
a
n
g
e

270

Target
0

Azimuth

Display. Shows target position on plot of elevation angle

versus azimuth. Useful in pursuit attacks since display corresponds to pilots view through windshield. Commonly projected on windshield as Head-Up Display.

180

PPI Display. Targets displayed in polar plot centered on radars

position. Ideal for radars that provide 360 azimuth coverage.

Target

R
a
n
g
e

Target

Patch Map
Az

R
a
n
g
e

Crossrange

()

0
Azimuth

(+)

Display. Targets displayed as blips on a rectangular plot

of range versus azimuth. Widely used in fighter applications, where horizontal distortion near zero range is of little
concern.

Imaging. In high-resolution synthetic aperture radar (SAR)

ground mapping, a rectangular patch map may be displayed.
This is a detailed image of a specific area of interest at a given
range and azimuth angle. The range dimension of the image
is displayed vertically, and the cross-range dimension (i.e.,
dimension normal to the line of sight to the patch) appears
horizontally. Alternatively, a continuous scrolling image can be
generated as the radar flies its trajectory, allowing surveillance
of a much broader area.

22

PART I: Overview of Airborne Radar

ANTENNA SERVO

Desired
Position

Actual Position

envelope-detected signals, which identify targets and reject

noise and clutter automatically. Digital displays also allow
additional information such as speed and heading to be
easily incorporated and routinely use color to improve the
readability.

Amplifier

Of the other forms of display, the plan position indicator (PPI)

is by far the most common, but all are able to exploit digital
displays and exploit the inherently greater flexibility this offers.

Motor

Figure 2-11. An antenna servo compares actual position of the

antenna with the desired position, amplifies the resulting error
signal, and uses it to drive the antenna in the direction to reduce
error to zero.

Antenna Servo. This unit positions the antenna in response

to control signals generated by angle tracking systems such as
lobing and monopulse. A separate servo channel is provided
for each gimbal. Their operation is illustrated in Fig. 2-11. The
voltage obtained from a transducer on the gimbal is subtracted
from the control signal, thereby producing an error signal proportional to the error in the antennas position. This signal is
then amplified and applied to a motor that rotates the antenna
about the gimbal axis to reduce the error to zero.
So that the search scan, which is usually much wider in azimuth than in elevation, will be unaffected by the attitude of
the aircraft, stabilization may be provided (Fig. 2-12). If the
antenna has a roll gimbal, the roll position of the antenna is
compared with a reference provided by a vertical gyro and the
resulting error signal is used to correct the roll position of the
antenna.

Figure 2-12. The antennas search scan is stabilized in pitch and

roll so that the region searched will be unaffected by changes in
aircraft attitude.

Otherwise, the azimuth and elevation error signals are resolved

into horizontal and vertical components on the basis of the
reference provided by the gyro.
Power Supply. In airborne radar, power is typically supplied
as a 115 volt, 400 Hz primary power source and has to be
converted to the various DC forms required by the radar. This
is thejob of the power supply. It first transforms the 400 Hz
power to the standard voltages required and then converts
them to DC and smooths them. When necessary, the power
supply regulates the DC voltages so they remain constant,
regardless of changes in current or voltage drawn by the system. Though these tasks are superficially mundane, elegant
techniques have been devised to accomplish them at a minimum cost in weight and dissipated power. The antenna servo
is generally operated directly off the 400 Hz supply and the
relays operated off the aircrafts 28 volt DC supply.

Figure 2-13. With a pistol grip hand control, the operator gains
control of the antenna by pressing a trigger. Fore and aft motion
controls the position of the range maker. Right and left motion
controls antenna azimuth. A tilt switch controls elevation.

Automatic Tracking. Where automatic tracking is required,

three additions must be made to the system to provide the
necessary feed signals to the antenna servo. First, some means
must be provided for isolating the target echoes in time (i.e.,
range). Second, lobing or monopulse, as described in the preceding chapter, must be added to the antenna. Third, controls
must be provided with which the operator can lock the radar
onto the targets echoes.
For lock-on, the operator uses a handheld control such as pistol grip (Fig. 2-13) to position a marker at any desired point on

CHAPTER 2: Approaches to Implementation

23

the range trace. Depressing a switch or button tells the system

that the operator has aligned the marker with the target he
wishes to track.
To lock onto a target, the operator takes control of the antenna
with the hand control, aligns the antenna in azimuth to center the range trace on the target blip, adjusts the elevation of
the antenna to maximize the brightness of the blip, runs the
marker up the trace until it is just under the blip, and presses
the lock-on button.

Automatic Range Tracking

o control the timing of a range gate so it automatically folloWs

(tracks) the changes in a targets range, a range-tracking

servo is employed.

late gate opens when the early gate closes and thus samples
the returns passed by the second half of the tracking gate.
Range Gate

Target
Ta
rget Return

To
Antenna
Servo

From
Receiver

Range Servo
Early Gate

Tracking
ng Gate

Contro
ntrol
Circuitry
Circuitr

Early Gate
Late Gate
Late Gate
Time

Typically, it samples the returns passed by the tracking gate

with two secondary gatesthe early and late gateseach of
which remains open only half as long as the tracking gate. The
early gate opens when the tracking gate opens and samples
the return passed by the first half of the tracking gate. The

After processing to smooth erratic disturbances, signals proportional to the azimuth, elevation, and range tracking errors
are supplied to the antenna servo. Subsequently, the antenna is
adjusted to maintain the peak of the beam on the target being
tracked (Fig. 2-14).
Where extremely precise tracking is desired, rate-integrating
gyros may be mounted on the antenna. They establish azimuth and elevation axes to which the antenna servo is slaved,
thereby holding the antenna solidly in the same position,
regardless of disturbances due to the aircrafts maneuvers. This
feature is called space stabilization.

The range servo continuously adjusts the timing of the tracking gate to equalize the outputs of the early and late gates,
thereby keeping the tracking gate centered on the target. In
this way the operation of the earlylate-gate technique is
very similar in concept to that of monopulse except that it
operates in the range domain rather than the angle domain.

Range
Gate

Receiver

From Hand
Control

Servo

Figure 2-14. For automatically tracking a target, echoes are isolated

by closing an electronic switch (called the range gate) at the exact
time each echo will be received.

24

PART I: Overview of Airborne Radar

The tracking error signals are smoothed and have corrections

added to them to anticipate the effect of the aircrafts acceleration with respect to the targets relative position. They are then
applied to torque motors, which precess the gyros, thereby
changing the directions of the reference axes to reduce the
tracking errors to zero.
Figure 2-15. In early radars, ground clutter was avoided by keeping
the radar beam from striking the ground, but this limited the radars
tactical capability.

The principal shortcoming of the simple noncoherent pulsed

radar is that it cannot easily differentiate between targets and
clutter. In early radars (Fig. 2-15), clutter was avoided by keeping the radar beam from striking the ground. As can be imagined, this seriously limits the radars ability. To overcome these
limitations, coherent forms of radar were developed to enable
retention of echo signal phase and amplitude.

2.2 Coherent Pulse-Doppler Radar

This form of radar (Fig. 2-16) can be identical in size or even
smaller than its noncoherent counterpart yet provides a radical improvement in performance. It can detect small targets
at long ranges (even when their echoes are buried in strong
ground clutter) by exploiting phase to compute Doppler velocities. If the Doppler velocity of a moving target is substantially
different from that of stationary clutter, the two may easily be
differentiated.

Figure 2-16. The pulse Doppler radar on this F-15 is the

mechanically steered APG-63. (Courtesy of Raytheon Company.)

PULSEDOPPLER
RADAR

Exciter

Transmitter

Duplexer
Planar
Array
Antenna

LO & Ref.
Signals

lay
sp
Di

Signal
Processor

Receiver

Receiver
Protection
Device

Controls

Radar Data
Processor

Coherent pulse-Doppler radar can track targets either singly or

several at a time while continuing to search for more. It can
detect and track moving targets on the ground or in the air,
and it can make real-time high-resolution SAR ground images
where the resolution at long range is the same as at short
range. A simplified functional diagram of a pulse-Doppler
radar is shown in Figure 2-17.
Coherence is achieved by providing a LO signal that synchronizes the transmitter and the receiver such that the phase of
the transmitted signal is always the same and therefore the
relative phase between the transmitted signal and the received
echo is due only to movement of the target. In conjunction
with phase coherent radars there has been and continues to
be rapid improvements in digital signal processing. Together
these permit received echoes to be processed into detections
and tracks in a manner that has much greater automation,
allowing the operator to concentrate more on ensuring mission
success. Comparing the diagram of the noncoherent pulsed
radar (Fig. 2-2) with Figure 2-17 reveals the following obvious
differences in the latter:

Drive

Power
Supply

Figure 2-17. This shows the principal elements of a pulse-Doppler

radar. Boxes with blue borders were introduced with this generic
system. Data processor controls all elements, verifies their
operation, and isolates faults.

Addition of a computer called the radar data processor

Addition of a unit called the exciter
Elimination of the synchronizer (its function is absorbed
partly by the exciter but mostly by the data processor)
Elimination of the modulator (its task is reduced to the point
where it can be performed in the transmitter)

CHAPTER 2: Approaches to Implementation

25

Addition of a digital signal processor

Elimination of the indicator (its functions are absorbed partly
by the signal processor and partly by the data processor)
These elements, although typical of the class of radar, by no
means represent the only form of configuration. In fact, digital
technology can enable direct synthesis of waveforms for transmission and direct digitization at radio frequency. This provides an ever-increasing flexibility and range of implementable
designs. The aforementioned elements, together with some
important differences in the transmitter, antenna, and receiver,
are briefly described in the following paragraphs to show how
they work together to enable coherent pulse-Doppler radar.
The Exciter. This element generates a continuous, highly stable,
low-power signal of the desired frequency1 and phase for the
transmitter, the LO signals, and a reference-frequency signal
for the receiver.

1. The frequency is selectable over a fairly wide range by the

operator.

The Remarkable Gridded Traveling Wave Tube

(tWt) amplifier is one of the key

developments of the 1960s that made it possible to
have truly versatile multimode radar systems. With the
TWT, for the first time both the width and repetition frequency of radars high-power transmitted pulses could
be controlled precisely. Further, they could also be readily
changed, almost instantaneously, to a wide variety of values within the power handling capacity of the tube. Added
to these capabilities were those of the basic TWT: the high
degree of coherence required for Doppler operation; versatile, precise control of radio frequency; and the ability to
conveniently code the pulses radio frequency or phase for
pulse compression.
he traveling Wave tube

The Basic TWT. The TWT is one of a family of linear beam

vacuum tube amplifiers (including the klystron) that convert
the kinetic energy of an electron beam into microwave energy.
In simplest form, a TWT consists of four elements:
An electron gun, which produces the high-energy electron
beam
A helix, which guides the signal to be amplified

Helix

Microwav
icrowave
Output

Collector
Collec
Electron
Beam

Electromagnet

The microwave input signal is introduced at one end of the

helix. Although the speed of the signal is essentially that of
light, because of the greater distance the signal must cover in
spiraling down the helix its linear speed is slowed to the point
where it travels slightly slower than the electrons in the beam.
For this reason, the helix is called a slow-wave structure.
As the signal progresses, it forms a sinusoidal electric field that
travels down the axis of the beam. This field speeds up the
electrons that happen to be in positive nodes and slows down
those in the negative nodes. The electrons therefore tend to
form bunches around the electrons at the nulls whose speed
is unchanged.

A collector, which absorbs the unspent energy of the

electrons that are returned to the gun by a DC power
supply
An electromagnet (solenoid), which keeps the beam from
spreading because of the repulsive forces between electrons. (Alternatively, a chain of periodic permanent magnets
(PPMs) is often used, called thus because polarities of adjacent magnets are reversed.)

Microwav
icrowave
e
Input

Electron
Gun

Helix

Positive Node
(Accelerating
(Acc
elerating Fo
Force)
rce)

Beam

Direction
of Travel
Helix

Negative Node
Nod
(Retarding Force)

26

PART I: Overview of Airborne Radar

The Remarkable Gridded Traveling Wave Tube continued

The traveling bunches in turn produce a strong electromagnetic field. Since it travels slightly faster than the signal,
this field transfers energy from the electrons to the signal,
thereby amplifying it and slowing the electrons. The longer
the helix, the more the signal is amplified. In high gain tubes,
attenuators (severs) must be placed at intervals (of 20 to 35 dB
gain) along the helix to absorb backward reflections that
would cause self-oscillation. They reduce the gain somewhat
(about 6 dB each) but have only a small effect on efficiency.
When the signal reaches the end of the helix, it is transferred to a waveguide that is the output port of the tube.
The remaining kinetic energy of the electrons (which may
amount to as much as 90 percent of the energy originally
imparted by the gun) is absorbed as heat in the collector
and must be carried away by cooling. Much of the unspent
energy, though, can be recovered by making the collector
negative enough to decelerate the electrons before they
strike it. Kinetic energy is thus converted to potential energy.
High-Power TWTs. Both the average and the peak power of
helix TWTs are somewhat limited. As the average power is
increased, an increasing number of electrons are intercepted
by the helix, and it becomes difficult to remove enough
of the resulting heat to avoid damage to the helix. As the
required peak power is increased, the beam velocity must be
increased, and a point is soon reached where the helix must be
made too coarse to provide good interaction with the beam.
In high-power tubes, therefore, other slow-wave structures are
generally used. The most popular is a series of coupled cavities.
Cavityy
Cavit

Beam
Signal Path
Through
Coupling Holes
Co

Control Grid. While a pulsed output can be obtained by

turning the tube on and off, the pulses can be formed much
more conveniently by interposing a grid between the cathode that emits the electrons and the anode whose positive
voltage relative to the cathode accelerates them. A lowvoltage control signal applied to this grid can turn the beam
on and off. Tokeep the grid from intercepting electrons and
being damaged, it is placed in the shadow of a second grid
that is electrically tied to the cathode. To eliminate all output
between pulses, the low-voltage microwave input signal may
be pulsed.
Shadow
Grid

Controll
Contro
Grid

Focusing
Electrode

Accelerating
Anode

Beam

Cathode

HV

Control Signal

+HV

Advantages. Besides the advantages listed earlier, the

TWT can provide high-power outputs with gains of up to
10,000,000 or more and efficiencies of up to 50 percent. Lowpower helix tubes have the added advantage of providing
bandwidths of as much as two octaves (maximum frequency
four times the minimum). In high-power tubes, though,
where other slow-wave structures must be used, this is generally reduced to between 5 and 20 percent, although some
coupled cavity tubes having much greater bandwidths have
been built.

Transmitter. The transmitter is typically a high-power TWT

amplifier (Fig. 2-18). The TWT is switched on and off to cut
coherent pulses from the exciters signal and then amplifies
the pulses to the desired power level for transmission. As
explained in the panel above, the tube is turned on and off by
a low-power signal applied to a control grid.
By appropriately modifying this signal, the width and repetition frequency of the high-power transmitted pulses can
easily be changed. Similarly, by modifying the exciters
low-power signal, the frequency, phase, and power level of
the high-power pulses can also be readily be changed or

CHAPTER 2: Approaches to Implementation

Continuous Wave
from Exciter

Gridded
Traveling
Wave Tube
Amplifier

27

To
Duplexer

Low-Power
Control
Signal

Figure 2-18. TWTs amplify low-power signals from the exciter to

thelevelsrequired for transmission and can readily be turned on and off
with low-power control signal. (Courtesy of DoD.)

Figure 2-19. By switching the TWT with a low-power control

signal, the width and pulse repetition frequency of the high-power
pulses can readily be changed. By modifying the low-power input
provided by the exciter, the frequency, phase, and power of the
transmission waveforms can readily be changed or modulated.

modulated for pulse compression (Fig. 2-19) and diversity of

waveform.
Antenna. The antenna could again be a parabolic dish or
of a type called a planar array, which, instead of employing a central feed that radiates the transmitted wave into a
reflector, consists of an array of many individual radiators
distributed over a flat surface (Fig. 2-20). The radiators are
slots cut in the walls of a complex of waveguides behind the
antennas face.
Though a planar array is more expensive than a dish antenna,
its feed can be designed to distribute the radiated power across
the array to minimize the radiated sidelobes, which provides
enhanced moving target indication performance and clutter
rejection. The feed can readily be adapted to enable monopulse measurement of angle-tracking errors.
Receiver. In this example the receiver (Fig. 2-21) differs in a
number of respects from earlier descriptions.

RECEIVER

Digitized Signals
to Signal
Processor

Reference Signal
from Exciter
Q
I

Analog-toDigital
Converter

Q
I

Synchronous Video
Detector

Video Frequency
Signals

Figure 2-20. With a planar array antenna, radio waves are radiated
though slots cut in a complex of waveguides behind the face of
theantenna.

fLO 2
IF
Amplifier

Low-Noise
Preamplifier

IF
Amplifier

fIF 2

Received Signals
From Protection
Device

Local Oscillator
Signals from Exciter
fLO 1

fIF 1

Figure 2-21. In the receiver of a generic coherent pulse-Doppler radar system, to enable digital Doppler filtering, in-phase (I) and quadrature (Q)
signals are generated either using video outputs or by direct digital demodulation in a Hilbert transform. To enable monopulse tracking, two
receiver channels each with I and Q must be provided.

28

PART I: Overview of Airborne Radar

First, a low-noise amplifier (LNA) ahead of the mixer increases

the power of the incoming echoes so that they can better compete with the electrical noise inherently generated in the mixer.
The LNA dominates the system noise level and consequently is
the ultimate limit of sensitivity of the radar system.
Second, more than one intermediate frequency translation is
generally performed to avoid problems with image frequencies
(see Chapter 5). This usually results in the signals being taken
down to baseband (i.e., an IF of zero). However, alternatively
in some modern systems, just one IF with digitization may
occur at this frequency. Demodulation then follows, digitally,
in the signal processor. This not only provides the flexibility to
eliminate image frequencies but also allows small errors such
as unwanted transmitter modulations to be compensated.
Thus, I and Q samples can be generated at baseband via a
3 dB splitter and a 90 phase retardation (or advancement) of
one of the channels, followed by digitization. Alternatively, the
output at IF or baseband can be digitized and demodulation
accomplished in the digital domain using a Hilbert transform.
The vector sum of the I and Q samples is proportional to the
energy of the sampled signal, and the inverse tangent of the
ratio of Q to I provides the phase measurement.
Signal Processor. This processor is a digital computer specifically designed to efficiently perform the vast number of repetitive additions, subtractions, and multiplications required for
real-time signal processing. The data processor loads the program into the signal processor for the currently selected mode
of operation.
As required by this program, the signal processor sorts the
digitized echo data by time of arrival and hence range (Fig.
2-22), stores the numbers for each range interval in memory
locations called range bins, and filters out the bulk of the
unwanted ground clutter on the basis of its Doppler frequency.
By forming a bank of narrowband filters for each range bin via
a Fourier transform, the processor then integrates the energy of
successive echoes having the same Doppler frequency. Thus,
if the target has a significantly different radial velocity from the

SIGNAL PROCESSOR

Target
Positions,
to Display

Stores
Target
Hits

Detects
Targets

Scan
Converter

Threshold
Detector

Doppler
Filter
Banks

Threshold
Setting

Sort Signals
in Each Range
Increment by
Doppler
Frequency

Antenna
Azimuth
from Data
Processor

Q
I

Clutter
Filters
Filter Out
Strong Clutter

Q
I

Range
Bins

Q
I

Digitized Video
From Receiver

Sort Signals by
Range Increment

Figure 2-22. The signal processor sorts radar returns by range, storing them in range bins, filters out the clutter, and then sorts the returns in each
range bin by Doppler frequency. Targets are detected automatically.

CHAPTER 2: Approaches to Implementation

clutter, it may be much more easily detected, often competing

only with lower power noise.
By examining the outputs of all the filters, the processor determines the level of the background noise and residual clutter,
just as a human operator would do by observing the range
trace on an A display. On the basis of increases in amplitude
above this level, it automatically detects the target echoes.
Rather than supplying the echoes directly to the display, the processor temporarily stores the targets positions in its memory.
Meanwhile, it continuously scans the memory at a rapid rate and
provides the operator with a continuous bright TV-like display of
the positions of all targets (Fig. 2-23). This feature, called digital
scan conversion, gets around the problem of target blips fading from the display during the comparatively long azimuth scan
time. Synthetic blips of uniform brightness on a clear background
indicate the target positions, and this makes them extremely easy
to see. This is a minimal capability, and the flexibility of digital processing and displays makes it possible for much more
advanced modes of operation, as will be seen later in this book.
For example, airborne SAR provides fine-resolution 2D imaging, in range and azimuth. Transmitting wide bandwidth pulses
and employing large amounts of pulse compression achieves
simultaneously long detection ranges and high range resolutions. To provide fine azimuth resolution, echoes from many
pulses in the form of multiple range bins are stored in the
processor as the aircraft flies through the sky. These are then
integrated for each range bin across successive pulses to form
the synthetic aperture and hence the high-resolution image.
Data Processor. This is a general-purpose digital computer; the
data processor controls and performs routine computations for
all units of the radar. It schedules and carries out the selection
of operating modes, such as long-range search, track-whilescan, and SAR mapping. Receiving inputs from the aircrafts
inertial navigation system, it stabilizes and controls the antenna
during search and track. On the basis of inputs from the signal
processor, it controls target acquisition, making it necessary for
the operator to only bracket the target to be tracked, with a
symbol on the display.
During automatic tracking, the data processor computes
thetracking error signals in such a way as to anticipate the
effects of all measurable and predictable variables (e.g.,the
velocity and acceleration of the radar, the bearing of theaircraft, the limits within which the target can reasonably be
expected to change its velocity, the signal-to-noise ratio). This
process yields extraordinarily smooth and accurate tracking.
Throughout, the data processor monitors all operations of the
radar, including its own. In the event of a malfunction, it alerts
the operator to the problem and, through built-in tests, isolates
the failure to an assembly that can readily be replaced on the
flight line.

Figure 2-23. In the signal processor, a stored program for the

selected mode of operation is automatically entered by the data
processor. (Courtesy of Selex ES.)

29

30

PART I: Overview of Airborne Radar

Monolithic Microwave Integrated Circuits

n the 1980s and early 1990s, defense advanced research projects

Agency (DARPA) Microwave and Millimeter Wave Monolithic
Integrated Circuits program made advancements in monolithic microwave integrated circuits (MMICs). These developments made it possible to take full advantage of active
electronically scanned array (AESA) radar architectures. MMICs
assembled in transmit/ receive modules that are placed at the
very front end of the radar result in extremely low loss both in
transmit and receive. Modern airborne radars use thousands of
these transmit/receive modules in a spatially combined transmitter, and virtually all of them use MMICs.

MMICs are solid-state circuits made with semiconductor wafer

processing procedures. They leverage semiconductor processing tool development from the silicon integrated circuit industry; however, for higher frequency circuits, materials other
than silicon are used.
This type of circuit is extremely reliable and is predicted to
last on the order of a million hoursgreater than 100 years.
An AESA that uses thousands of MMIC-based modules leads
to graceful degradation in performance if some modules fail
early. MMICs are smaller and weigh less compared with tubebased transmitters and are therefore highly suitable for use in
airborne AESAs. They operate at tens of volts, whereas tubebased amplifiers use thousands of volts.
Gallium ArsenideA Blessing and a Curse. Gallium arsenide
(GaAs) is a compound semiconductor material made from elemental gallium and arsenic. Its electron transport properties
are superior to silicon and thus make it well suited for the highfrequency transistors required for MMICs used in X-band and
higher-frequency radars. GaAs has a higher saturated electron
velocity and higher electron mobility (a measure of how fast
electrons can move in a material), which allows transistors that
use it to operate at frequencies above 300 GHz. GaAs devices
have less internally generated noise, at high frequencies, than
silicon devices as a result of higher carrier mobilities and lower
device parasitics.
However, the high-frequency performance advantages of
GaAs dont come without some drawbacks. The compound
is hard to make and is brittle, meaning it breaks easily compared with silicon. GaAs is not abundant in nature like silicon,
and large-diameter wafers that are stoichiometrically balanced are expensive. Unlike silicon, GaAs has poor thermal
conductivity, so any heat produced in the transistors formed
on the GaAs surface must dissipate via conduction through
the substrate. In addition, in contrast to silicon, GaAs has no
native oxide, so it is difficult to produce mainstream metal
oxide semiconductors (MOS) transistors. As a result, metal
semiconductor field-effect transistors (MESFETs) are used for
GaAs MMIC circuits.

Metal Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistors

The bipolar junction transistor was invented by researchers at
Bell Labs in 1949 after attempts to make MESFETs were unsuccessful due to poor material quality. Later on, with improvements in materials, MOS transistors in silicon became available.
These structures were not well suited for GaAs devices since
there is no native oxide for GaAs.
The first GaAs transistors were made by placing a metal gate
directly on the semiconductor and relying on the resultant
Schottky barrier junction to control current flow using a gate
voltage. Low-resistance ohmic contacts are required to make
the drain and source connections. These early transistors were
isolated from one another using an etching process that produced mesas where the active transistors were formed. When
the source is grounded and the drain is connected to a positive voltage, large numbers of electrons will flow in the active
region until a negative gate voltage with respect to the source
is applied. At a sufficiently high negative gate voltage, a depletion region will spread across the active region and effectively
pinch off the channel and stop the electron flow. For welldesigned transistors, a small change in gate voltage results
in a large change in current flow. This parameter is called the
transistors transconductance and is the basis by which amplification is achieved.
Source

Gate

Drain

Active
Layer

Buffer
Layer
Semi-insulating
Substrate

Schottky Barrier GaAa

Fet

Pseudomorphic High-Electron-Mobility Transistors. In the

basic MESFET structure, efforts to increase transconductance
by adding more free electrons to the active region resulted
in a decrease in the mobility of those electrons. In the 1980s,
advanced growth techniques permitted the inclusion of precise layers of different materials such as InGaAs and AlGaAs.
Adding these different materials, called pseudo-layers or bandgap-engineered layers, resulted in strained layer structures that
exhibited enhanced performance. These layers allowed for the
introduction of a planar-doped region of silicon atoms and for
the presence of free electrons, which are preferred from an

CHAPTER 2: Approaches to Implementation

31

Monolithic Microwave Integrated Circuits continued

energy perspective, in the indium gallium arsenide (InGaAs)
channel region.
Because of these new layers, a large number of electrons could
be added to the materials system. In addition, since they were
separated from the parent atoms, they could move at high
velocities in the undoped channel region. A high number of
electrons could also move at high velocity in a narrow and easily controlled channel. These material enhancements, along
with very narrow gate length geometries, gate recess structures, and thick plating, have served as the workhorse transistor technology for MMICs since the mid-1990s. However, there
is now a new kid in town!

Gate
Source

Drain
n+-GaAs Capping

Si Planar -doping

0.15m n - AIGaAs
AIGaAs Spacer
InGaAs Channel

are cost-effective. However, in continuous wave or long-pulsewidth applications, these technologies may be challenged
thermally and at higher frequencies are not suitable. Groundbased, airborne, and shipboard AESAs being developed today
are L-band, S-band, or X-band. Technologies appropriate for
these frequency bands are silicon carbide (SiC), GaAs, gallium
nitride (GaN), and indium phosphide (InP). Silicon germanium
(SiGe) operates in these bands but is a low-power technology
(<1 W at X-band).
GaN is not without problems. Currently there are no largediameter bulk GaN wafers. As a result, GaN layers must be
grown (deposited) on another substrate. Suitable substrates
are sapphire and SiC. For MMICs, SiC substrates are preferred
due to their high thermal conductivities. Fortuitously, this
material combination provides revolutionary increases in
power density for microwave devices. At a given frequency,
GaN has at least a factor of five higher power density. This
means that GaN-based MMICs can be one-third to onefourth the size as a similar-power GaAs MMIC or that, for a
given area, a GaN-based MMIC can deliver a factor of three
or four higher power. As a result of the increase in power per
unit area, all advanced AESA development programs are considering GaN in their designs.

GaAs Buffer
Current Flow

Current Flow

GaAs Substrate
Gate
Source

Semiconductor technologies that are available for an AESA

application depend primarily on the frequency of operation.
At ultra high frequencies, silicon bipolar and silicon laterally diffused metal oxide semiconductors (LDMOSs) are available and

As computing technology continues to advance, the distinction

between the signal and data processors is becoming blurred
with all functions being carried out within the radar systems
computer.

2.3 Exploiting Coherency

Electronically Scanned Radar Systems. Electronically scanned
antennas have been a major development of radar systems in
the last 15 or more years and are now often the antenna of
choice in most new systems. The simplest and most common,
the passive electronically scanned array (PESA), is a planar
array antenna in which a computer-controlled phase shifter is
inserted in the feed system immediately behind each radiating

AlGaN/GaN Epitaxial Layer

SiC Substrate

Drain

32

PART I: Overview of Airborne Radar

PASSIVE
ESA

Phase Front*

Phase Shifters
Radiating Elements

* Plane of Equal Phase

Figure 2-24. By controlling the phase of the signals transmitted and

received by each radiating element, the phase shifters in a PESA can steer
the radar beam anywhere within the field of regard.

element (Fig. 2-24). By individually controlling the phase shifters, the beam formed by the array can be steered anywhere
within a fairly wide field of regard. These antennas are often
known as phased arrays.

ACTIVE
ESA

Phase Front*

T/R Modules
Radiating Elements

* Plane of Equal Phase

Figure 2-25. In an AESA, transmit/receive modules steer the

radar beam by controlling the phase and amplitude of the signals
radiated and received by each radiator.

A more versatile, but considerably more expensive, implementation is the active electronically scanned array (AESA).
It differs from the passive ESA in that it has a tiny solid-state
transmitter/receiver (T/R) module inserted behind each radiating element (Fig. 2-25). To steer the beam, provisions are
included in each module for controlling both the phase and
the amplitude of the signals the module transmits and receives.
The transmitter and receiver components are assembled in one
single T/R module. This module integrates the electronic phase
shifter, the solid-state power amplifier, the LNA, circulators,
and a duplexer. It is also common for the module to have
self-test features so that the overall performance of the system
can be assessed. This is known as a built-in test environment
(BITE). A limiter is sometimes added between the LNA and
antenna. Further details may be found in Chapter 9.
A problem with phase steering arrays is that the large bandwidths required for high range resolution reduce the ability to
steer the beam. There are two competing alternatives. One is
photonic true-time-delay (TTD) beam steering. Here, the phase
of the signals radiated and received by the individual T/R modules of an active ESA is controlled by introducing variable time
delays in the elements feeds in the form of optical fibers. Their
lengths, and hence the time the signals take to pass through
them, are varied by switching segments of fiber of selectable
length into and out of each feed. This greatly broadens the
span of frequencies over which the antenna can operate. The
approach is to use digital beam steering. This provides the most
flexibility and not only is consistent with steering the beam but
also enables the beam pattern to be adjusted to avoid ground
reflections or to reduce sources of interference.

Figure 2-26. Since the radar beam has no inertia, with electronic
steering it can be jumped anywhere within the field of regard in
less than a millisecond.

ESAs have many advantages, one of the more important of

which is extreme beam agility (Fig. 2-26). Because the beam
(as opposed to the conventional gimbaled antenna) has

CHAPTER 2: Approaches to Implementation

33

no inertia, it can, for example, interactively jump to one or

another of several targets at any time. It can dwell on a target
for whatever length of time is optimum for tracking without
appreciably interrupting the beams search scan. Among the
special advantages of the active ESA is the ability to radiate
multiple individually steerable beams on different frequencies
(Fig. 2-27).
Low Probability of Intercept Radar. Keeping a radars signals
from being intercepted and detected by an enemy is especially
challenging. As seen in Chapter 1, because of the spreading of
the radio waves occurring both on the way out to a target at a
range, R, and on the way back to the radar the strength of the
targets received echoes decreases as 1/R 4. The strength of the
radars signals received by the target, however, decreases only
as 1/R2 (Fig. 2-28).

Figure 2-27. With an active ESA, the radar can even simultaneously
radiate multiple, independently steerable beams on different
frequencies.

To get around this huge handicap, an entire family of low probability of intercept (LPI) features has been developed:

Taking full advantage of the radars ability to coherently

integrate the target echoes
Interactively reducing the peak transmitted power to the
minimum needed at the time for target detection
Radar Signal Received
by Target: P 1/R2

Spreading the radars transmitted power over an immensely

broad band of frequencies
Supplementing the radar data with target data obtained from
infrared and other passive sensors and off-board sources

Power,
P

Turning the radar on only when absolutely necessary

Astonishing as it may seem, by combining these and other
LPI techniques the radar can detect and track targets without its signals being usefully intercepted by the enemy.
Electronically scanned antennas can also play a useful role
by transmitting a broad beam and maximizing gain only on
receive. In this way the power density that can be intercepted
is reduced still further.

Target Echoes Received

by Eadar: P 1/R 4
Range, R

Figure 2-28. This graph shows the handicap surmounted by a radar

designed to have a low probability of its signals being usefully
intercepted.

Stealthy Radar for Stealthy Aircraft. Viewed broadside, the

antenna of a conventional radar alone may have a radar cross
section (RCS) many times that of a fighter aircraft. To put such
an antenna in the nose of a stealth aircraft would be grossly
counterproductive, to say the least. In fact, the first U.S. stealth
fighter (Fig. 2-29) didnt even carry a radar.
The first of several measures required to minimize the RCS of
a radar antenna is to mount it in a fixed position on the aircraft
structure, tilted so that its face will not reflect radio waves in
the direction of an illuminating radar. The radar beam cannot
then, of course, be easily steered mechanically, but electronic
steering offers a solution.
Advanced Processing. Electronic beam steering, null steering, and LPI, along with other advanced techniques, depend
critically on immensely high digital processing throughputs.

Figure 2-29. Since no radar at the time had both a low RCS antenna
and a low probability of its signals being usefully intercepted by
an enemy, the first U.S. stealth fighter, the F-117, was not equipped
with a radar.

34

PART I: Overview of Airborne Radar

Orders-of-magnitude increases in throughput have been realized through the use of highly sophisticated technology and
the distribution of processing tasks among a great many (hundreds) of individual processing elements, operating in parallel
and sharing bulk memories. This trend of increasing processing power is set to continue.
A further enhancement to processing efficiency is integrated
processing. Rather than providing separate processors for the
aircrafts radar, electro-optical, and electronic warfare systems,
a single integrated processor serves them all. Size, weight, and
cost are thereby reduced.
With dramatically reduced memory costs, it has become possible to perform both signal and data processing in real time
with commercial processing elements. Indeed, it is the commercial world that leads the way in this regard, with computer
gaming consoles often having more processing power than
a fighter radar. Where space and the ability to dissipate heat
are at a premium, it is often processor efficiency that limits
processing speed. Modern processors require significant prime
power and disperse much heat that has to be effectively and
efficiently removed.

2.4 Summary
Illustrative of the various approaches to implementation are
two generic designs: (1) simple noncoherent pulsed radar; and
(2) the more modern coherent pulse-Doppler radar.
The noncoherent pulsed radar employs a magnetron transmitter, a parabolic-reflector antenna, and a superheterodyne
receiver. Triggered by timing pulses from a synchronizer, a
modulator provides the magnetron with pulses of DC power,
which it converts into high-power microwave pulses. These are
fed through a duplexer to the antenna. Echoes received by the
antenna are fed via the duplexer through a protection device
to the receiver, which amplifies and converts them into video
signals for display.
The coherent pulse-Doppler radar differs from the simple
pulsed radar through measurement of amplitude and phase.
The transmitter, such as a traveling wave tube amplifier, cuts
pulses of selectable width and PRF from an exciters low-power
continuous wave signal and can be modulated for pulse compression. The antenna may be a planar array having a monopulse feed in both azimuth and elevation. The receiver features
a low-noise amplifier and either or both analog and digital
demodulation, which results in in-phase and quadrature data
channels from which both amplitude and phase can be evaluated. The I and Q data are then further processed in a highperformance computer. It sorts them by range and Doppler
frequency, filters out the ground clutter, and automatically
detects the target echoes, storing their locations in a memory
continuously scanned to provide a TV-like display. All operations of the radar are controlled by a digital computer (radar

CHAPTER 2: Approaches to Implementation

data processor), which loads the program for the selected

mode of operation into the signal processor.
Combined with electronic scanning, the coherent pulseDoppler radar is able to provide more advanced modes of
operation such as low probability of intercept and a reduction
in antenna RCS, which contributes to improved aircraft stealth.

Further Reading
S. Kingsley and S. Quegan, Understanding Radar Systems,
SciTech-IET, 1999.
M. Skolnik, Introduction to Radar Systems, 3rd edition,
McGraw-Hill, 2002.
P. Lacomme, J. C. Marchais, J. P. Hardange, and E. Normant, Air
and Spaceborne Radar Systems: An introduction, Elsevier,
2007.

Test your understanding

1. What is the key difference between
noncoherent pulsed radar and coherent
pulsed radar?
2. In addition to a transmitter, receiver,
antenna, and duplexer, what additional
components are needed to construct a
working radar system?
3. What three further subsystems are
required to enable automatic tracking?
4. Name the four elements comprising a
TWT, and describe the function of each
one.
5. Explain the difference between an active
phased array and a passive phased array
radar system.

35