GENDER EQUALITY: RECOGNIZING THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF WOMEN TO SCIENCE AND EDUCATION - Edited by Eunice O. Osakinle and Juliet C. Alex-Nmecha

GENDER EQUALITY: RECOGNIZING THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF WOMEN TO
SCIENCE AND EDUCATION
Eunice O. Osakinle
Juliet C. Alex-Nmecha
SCIENCE AND EDUCATION DEVELOPMENT INSTITUTE, NIGERIA
Knowlegde for Global Development

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All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission of this publication may be

made without written permission.
This first edition published 2014 by

2 Church Avenue, Oke Eri Quarters
Oba Ile
P. O. Box 214, Akure
Ondo State
Nigeria
+2348122469297
ISBN:

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Vision
To Become a Centre of Excellence Recognized Worldwide in Skill
Development and Research
Mission
To Be a Role Model of Academic Excellence in Science and Education

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BOARD
Abulude, F.O. (Nigeria) - President/CEO
LIST OF ADVISORY BOARD MEMBERS

Balogun G. A. Sanni
Saag Chemical (Nig.) Ltd, 4 Sanni Way, Off Godwin Omonua, Off Banks Way, Isolo
Illasamaja, Lagos, Lagos State, Nigeria.
Prof. Mohammad S. Mubarak
Chemistry Department, University of Jordan, Amman-11942, JORDAN.
Prof. T. T. Adebolu
Department of Microbiology, Federal University of Technology, Ondo State, Akure,
Nigeria.
Prof. Francisco Torrens
Universitat de Valncia, InstitutUniversitari de Cincia Molecular, Universitat de
Valncia, Edificid'Instituts de Paterna, Valncia, Spain.
Hon. Niyi Jones Akinyugha
30B, Olufumilayo Str., Dideolu Estate, P. O. Box 4822K, Ikeja, Lagos, Nigeria.
Prof. V. A. Aletor
Elizade University, Ilara Mokin, Ondo State, Nigeria.
Prof. E. A. Aderinola
Department of Agricultural Economics, Federal University of Technology, Akure,
Ondo State, Nigeria.
Mr. Olusola Akitimehin
Akinrinaye Street, Ilesha Garage, Akure, Nigeria.

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Our books and journals are indexed by different international indexers of repute. The
books are made available on our website as open access where interested readers will
have the opportunity of free access to them.
Interested individuals who are ready to initiate a good book title can send a proposal, if
found presentable to the general public then we take over from there till it is published.
I will advise interested people to contact the registrar of the institute.
On this note, I am taking my time to thank the authors of each chapter. Your time,
money spent and efforts are acknowledged. More grease to your elbows.
Lastly, I wish to thank the staff members of the institute whom I say have put in their
best to the success of this book project.
I wish the users of this book good luck.
God bless you all.

Abulude, F.O.
President/CEO
SEDInst, Nigeria.

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PREFACE
No doubt women are marginalized in developing countries. No matter how highly
placed, they are expected to end up in the kitchen. With this fact, the UN members
states saw the need to protect girls and women status by initiating a commission which
is known as Commission on the Status of Women (CSW). In 2000, the UN established
eight Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) part of the focus was to improve
maternal health, promote gender equality and empower women. The question is how
far has this influenced girl child and women status in members states?
The contributions of authors are expected to bring some insights to the question posed.
Eunice O. Osakinle
Faculty of Education,
Ekiti State University,
Ado-Ekiti, Nigeria.
University of Port Harcourt,
P.O. Box 294 Uniport, Choba
Rivers State. Nigeria.

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CONTENTS
Board
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Contents
Acknowledgments
vi
Preface
vii
CHAPTER ONE
Introduction
CHAPTER TWO
Women and Environment: Gender Issue
CHAPTER THREE
Gender, Women in Science and Education
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CHAPTER FOUR
The Role of Women in Harvesting, Processing and
Marketing of Vitellaria Paradoxa (Shea Butter) Seeds
in Savanna Area of Oyo State, Nigeria.
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CHAPTER FIVE
Women Empowerment: A Case of Restoration of the
Dignity of Womanhood (ROTDOW)
37
CHAPTER SIX
Women in Science and Education in India
40
CHAPTER SEVEN
My View on Millennium Development Goals (MGDs)
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CHAPTER EIGHT
The Role of Women in Ensuring Food Security in Nigeria
CHAPTER NINE

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51
The Price of Peace
60
CHAPTER TEN
Women and Science Laboratory Technology Profession
62
CHAPTER ELEVEN
Encouraging More Women Participation in Nigerias
Cassava Processing Industry
67
Memorable Quotes
91
Science and Education Update
93

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CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
Post 2015 Agenda
The eight millennium Development Goals (MDGs) was established by the UN
member states in 2000. Their focus was to be accomplished by 2015 are in eight
priority areas: eradicate extreme poverty and child mortality, combat diseases such
as HIV/AIDS and malaria, achieve universal primary education, improve maternal
health, promote gender equality and empower women, develop a global partnership
for development and ensure environmental sustainability.
No doubt, the agenda has been a success in some countries, but there is a need to
step up efforts to make it more successful. At the 58th session of the United Nations
Commission on the Status of Women (CSW) which was held on the 1- 15th March,
2014 at the UN Headquarters in New York, it was reported that MDGs have made a
meaningful impact in many areas, but inequalities between men and women in
many parts of the world is still a problem. This is a barrier to sustainable
development to member states.
The gender gap is noticed especially in science and education. On this note, selected
authors were invited to submit articles which are relevant to inequality between men
and women. Here in this book, their papers are presented.
It is believed that gender inequality, women empowerment and human rights of
women and girls would stand-alone in national and international developments in
the coming years. Every governments machineries should be put in place to make
these a reality.

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CHAPTER TWO
WOMEN AND ENVIRONMENT: GENDER ISSUE
Deepali, Ashish Singhal1 and Namita Joshi2
1Department
2Department
of Law, Sharda University, Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh
of Environmental Sciences, Kanya Gurukul Campus, Gurukul

Kangri University, Haridwar
ABSTRACT
We all are surrounded by the environment and everything that is available
in the environment affects us. There is a close relationship between women
and the environment as they have been associated with the environment
from a very long time. Actually each and every activity of a woman is
related with the environment either household or any other activity
whatever it is. In house women do washing, cleaning, cooking etc. Rural
women also take part in agricultural activities and to manage household
resources like clean water, cooking fuel and fodder for domestic animals.
The main issue here is that are women more ecofriendly than men? In the
industrialized and more developed countries women use organic food
material and products made up of recycled material. Women had taken part
and were leading the environmental movements like chipko movement in
Uttarakhand. Women can sustain environment and environment also affect
health of the women, and her family. Women's involvement in health and
environmental decisions works to the benefit of individuals, society and the
environment itself.
KEYWORDS: Environment, women, household, agricultural activities,
Uttarakhand

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INTRODUCTION
The environment is everything around us, indoors or outdoors. The air we breathe,
water we drink, the ground we walk on, and food we eat are all part of our
environment. It is important that we should know what things in the environment
can affect our health and what we can do to help protect ourselves and our family.
Before 1970 there was lacking of consideration of a connection between women and
environment. But in the early 1970s an interest in women and their connection with
the environment was sparked by a book written by Esther Boserup entitled,
Woman's Role in Economic Development (Tiondi, 2001). In the early 1980s, policy
makers and governments became more attentive of environment and gender issues
(http://www.gdrc.org/1). Whereas women were previously neglected or ignored,
there was increasing attention paid to the impact of women on the natural
environment and, in return, the effects the environment has on the health and wellbeing of women. Or in other words it can be said that women have a great role in
making good environment for their families. Women can sustain environment and
environment also affect health of the women, and her family.
Women sustaining environment
"Women have a vital role in environmental management and development. Their
full participation is therefore is essential to achieving sustainable development". All
women have relationship with environment but the approach is different from
Urban Areas. It has also been observed that women from rural and hilly areas are
more close to the nature and environment. From ancient times women and
environment are related to each other in many ways. Some are described as under:
a) Women and water
In several poor communities across Asia, Africa, and South America, millions of
women and children spend several hours day collecting water from distant areas,
often polluted sources especially for their households, often from contaminated
sources such as rivers, unprotected springs, and shallow wells. Women play an

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important role in water management. Usually they work as collectors, users and
managers of water in the household as well as farmers of agricultural crops.
Because of these roles, women have considerable knowledge about water
resources, including quality and reliability, restrictions and acceptable storage
methods, and are keys to the success of water resources development and
irrigation policies and programmes. Providing physically accessible clean water
is essential for enabling women and girls to devote more time to the pursuit of
education, income generation and even the construction and management of
water and sanitation facilities (UN Water, 2006). A study jointly conducted by
World Bank and International Water and Sanitation Centre (IRC) of community
water and sanitation projects in 88 communities in 15 countries also that
womens participation was strongly associated with water and sanitation project
effectiveness (Van Wijk-Sijbesma, 1998).
At the Second World Water Forum in The Hague (2000) it was recognized that, in
addition to being prime users of domestic water, women used water in their
key role in food production and that women and children are most vulnerable to
water-related disasters (www.un.org).
It has become increasingly accepted that women should play an important role in
water management and that this role could be enhanced through the strategy of
gender mainstreaming. Gender mainstreaming is the process of assessing the
implications for women and men of any planned action, including legislation,
policies or programmes, in all areas and at all levels. It is a strategy for making
womens as well as mens concerns and experiences an integral dimension of the
design, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of policies and programmes
in all spheres so that women and men benefit equally (Economic and Social
Council , 1997). It is also argued that gender main streaming helps to empower
women and so furthers broader goals of equality within society, contributing to
poverty alleviation and social inclusion.

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b) Women and food production

Women also play a substantial role in food production, although it varies
regionally and from country to country. They take part in agricultural field as
labor, process and storage of harvested crops etc. In Africa, women produce over
70% of the food, while in Asia, the figure stands at 60% (Aureli and Brelet,
2004).Despite the fact that 43 percent of the agricultural labor force producing a
large portion of the worlds food crops are women, and that enabling women to
access productive resources to the same extent as men would increase yields on
their farms by 2030 percent potentially reducing the number of hungry people
in the world by 1217 percent (http://typo3.fao.org). Besides, women also
prepare meals for the men of the household and even the laborers.
c) Women and climate change

Women are the most likely to suffer from climate change, but they are also the
most capable of creating change and adaptation within their communities.
Women, particularly those in poor countries, are affected differently by climate
change than men. They are among the most vulnerable to climate change, partly
because in many countries they make up the larger share of the agricultural work
force and partly because they tend to have access to fewer income-earning
opportunities. Women manage households and care for family members, which
often limits their mobility and increases their vulnerability to sudden weatherrelated natural disasters. Drought and erratic rainfall force women to work
harder to secure food, water and energy for their homes. Girls drop out of school
to help their mothers with these tasks. This cycle of deprivation, poverty and
inequality undermines the social capital needed to deal effectively with climate
change. The increasing scarcity of resources has already led to wars being fought
over access to water and arable land. And with war, too often there is a surge in
violence against women.

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Environment affecting women health

Pollutants in the environment can contribute to some illnesses that are more
common in older adults. Indoor and outdoor air pollution can aggravate the
symptoms of cardiovascular and lung diseases, including high blood pressure,
chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and asthma. These conditions are more
common in women over the age of 50 than in men over 50.
Older adults may be more susceptible to the health effects of toxic chemicals. People
who are exposed to pollutants over the course of a lifetime may have health
problems when they are older. For instance, long-term exposure to pesticides may
cause cancer or dementia. Lead is a toxic metal that may be stored in bones. In
postmenopausal women who were exposed to lead early in life, bone loss can release
lead into the blood stream. This may cause kidney damage, increase the risk of high
blood pressure, and decrease cognitive functions.
Exposure to some toxic substances including lead, mercury, arsenic, cadmium,

pesticides, solvents, and household chemicals can increase the risk of miscarriage,
preterm birth, and other pregnancy complications. These and other environmental
toxins can also harm the developing bodies of fetuses and infants. Women who are
pregnant or nursing or who plan to become pregnant should take special care to
avoid exposure to certain chemicals discussed here.
Womens rights to environmental resources

Women are considered the primary users of natural resources (Land, forest, and
water), because they are the ones who are responsible for gathering food, fuel, and
fodder (Abzug, 1995). According to the World Bank in 1991, "Women play an
essential role in the management of natural resources, including soil, water, forests
and energy...and often have a profound traditional and contemporary knowledge of
the natural world around them( www.gdrc.org2). However, in the developing
countries women are not directly involved in agriculture instead they are the ones

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who spend most of their time working on the farms to feed the household.
Shouldering this responsibility leads them to learn more about soil, plants, and trees
and not misuse them. On the other hand, rural women tend to have a closer
relationship with land and other natural resources, which promotes a new culture of
respectful use and preservation of natural resources and the environment, ensuring
that the following generations can meet their needs (UN Chronicle, 1997). The link
between women and environmental resources has been well documented.
Role of Women in Environmental Movement

Women in India are playing a crucial role in protection and conservation of
environment. Women in our country have brought a different perspective to the
environment debate, because of their different experience base. They understand
clearly that economics and environment are compatible. Their experience reveals to
them that soil, water and vegetation, necessary for their day-to-day living, requires
care and good management. Environmental degradation is related not only to the
biosphere alone, but to the social sphere as well.
Chipko movement
There are some movements initiated by the women to conserve the environment.
One of the famous movement is Chipko movement. Infact it is the first
environmentalist movement which was inspired by women. Chipko movement
(Women tree-huggers in India) name comes from a Hindi word meaning "to stick".
The movement was an act of defiance against the state government's permission
given to a corporation for commercial logging. During this movement women of the
villages resisted, embracing trees to prevent their felling to safeguard their lifestyles
which were dependent on the forests. Deforestation could qualitatively alter the
lives of all village residents but it was the women who agitated for saving the
forests. Organized by a non-governmental organization that Chandi Prasad Bhatt
led, the Chipko movement adopted the slogan "ecology is permanent economy"
(Grewal, 2008).

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Green Belt movement

Another movement, which is one of the biggest in women and environmental
history, is the Green Belt movement. Nobel Prize winner Wangari Maathai founded
this movement on the World Environment Day in June 1977. In the starting
ceremony a few women planted seven trees in Maathai's backyard. By 2005, 30
million trees had been planted by participants in the Green Belt movement on public
and private lands. The Green Belt movement aims to bring environmental
restoration along with society's economic growth. This movement led by Maathai
focused on restoration of Kenya's rapidly diminishing forests as well as empowering
the rural women through environmental preservation, with a special emphasis on
planting indigenous trees (Greenbelt Movement, 2006).
Navdanya Movement
Navdanya also known as the 'Nine Seeds Movement' seeks to empower local Indian
farmers to move away from growing any genetically modified organism (GMOs) on
their land and return to organic, chemical-free practices. This movement has reached
over 5,000,000 Indian farmers and created over 65 seed banks around India
(www.navdanya.org). Navdanya fights to eliminate the commercialization of
indigenous knowledge also known as Biopiracy (Yamey, 2006'. Navdanya
addresses multiple other international issues including climate change, food
security, misapplication of technology, food sovereignty, fair trade, and many others
(www.navdanya.org1). This movement also created a learning center entitled Bija
Vidyapeeth. Bija Vidyapeeth, in collaboration with Schumacher College in the
United Kingdom, seeks to educate participants in sustainability and ecological
principles (www.navdanya.org2).
Kenyan land takeover
In Kenya, starting in the mid-1980s, women protested against the elites and big
foreign corporations who were coercing and controlling the production of the land.
Rather than allowing food to be grown for survival, women were pressured by both

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their husbands and the government to cultivate coffee for foreign profit. Protests
continued and gained strength over the next couple of decades. The protests
eventually ended in a Kenyan power shift enforcing democratic national elections
which resulted in redistribution of land possible (Perkins et al., 2005).
Still many women activist are working for environmental protection like Maneka
Gandhi, an environmentalist & politician, Medha Patekar, a social worker &
environmentalist. But the problem of present day environment protection cannot be
solved with the involvement of a few selected groups of women. It requires a global
involvement of the entire women community. Today, there is need of participation
of every woman of every class / every locality, and also that any woman should not
underestimate her role.
CONCLUSION
Although there are environmental issues which directly affect the lives of every
human, animal, plant, etc., the relationship between women and the environment
remains unique and worth addressing. Women are also more likely to be working in
agriculture or environmental movements and performing many tasks associated
with environmental management and play a major role in the agricultural sector,
which forms the economic mainstay of the country (Boserup, 1970). They are
involved in various activities of farming including planting, weeding, harvesting
and processing agricultural produce (Thomas Slayter, 1988). They are also
responsible for saving seeds for the planting season.
It is notable that women's perspectives and values for the environment are
somewhat different than men's. Women give greater priority to protection of and
improving the capacity of nature, maintaining farming lands, and caring for nature
and environment's future (Jiggins, 1994). In daily activities women buy green and
ecofriendly products and also use more organic and products made from recycled
material. In a study it was observed that 52% of females want to recycle more, while

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just 33% of males do. 51% of women want to incorporate reusables into their world,
like cloth grocery bags, but just 30% of men do. And, while just 32% of men want to
reduce their homes energy use, 48% of women have this goal.
According to a 2003 study by the Institute for Womens Policy Research, Womens
higher levels of empathy, altruism, and personal responsibility make them more interested in
environmentalism as a way to protect not only themselves and their families, but also
others. If empathy is indeed the key to sustainable living, women come out ahead as
most research shows that while both genders can express empathy, women are more
likely to do so.
REFERENCES
1. Tiondi, T. (2001). Women, environment and development: Sub-Saharan Africa
and
Latin
America.
Theses
and
Dissertations.
Paper
1549.
http://scholarcommons.usf.edu/etd/1549
2. 1http://www.gdrc.org/. "The Global Development Research Center". Retrieved

4/10/2012.
3. 2 http://www.gdrc.org/gender/gender-envi.html
4. Van Wijk-Sijbesma, C. (1998). Gender in Water Resources Management, Water

Supply and Sanitation: Roles and Realities Revisited. International Research
Centre for Water and Sanitation. Delft, the Netherlands.
5. UN Water (2006). Gender, Water and Sanitation: A Policy Brief This policy brief
was developed by the Inter-agency Task Force on Gender and Water (GWTF), a
sub-programme of both UN-Water and the Interagency Network on Women and
Gender Equality (IANWGE) in support of the International Decade for Action,
Water for Life, 20052015.

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6. http://typo3.fao.org/fileadmin/templates/gender/docs/FAO_FinalGender_Pol
icy_2012.pdf
7. Aureli, A. and Brelet, C. (2004). Women and Water: An ethical issue. Series on
Women and Ethics, Essay 4.Paris, France: UNESCO.
8. http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/public/w2000-natdisasters-e.pdf
Making risky environments safer: Women building sustainable and disasterresilient communities, Women2000 and Beyond (New York, Division for the
Advancement of Women, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, United
Nations, 2004).
9. Economic and Social Council (1997). Conclusions 1997/2 on mainstreaming the

gender perspective into all policies and programmes in the United Nations
system, the Report of the Economic and Social Council for 1997 (Official Records
of
the
General
Assembly,
Fifty-second
Session,
Supplement
No.
(A/52/3/Rev.1), p 33.
10. Grewal, J. (Spring 2008). Theorizing Activism, Activizing Theory: Feminist

Academics in Indian Punjabi Society. NWSA Journal. Vol. 20, Number 1.
11. Green
Belt
Movement.
(2006).
Retrieved
November
15,
2006
from http://www.wangarimaathai.or.ke/
12. 1Navdanya. Accessed March 5, 2012.http://www.navdanya.org/home
13. Yamey, G. (February 2006). The Bittersweet Sounds of the Modern Food Chain.
Plos
Biology.
Vol.4,
Issue
2,
pp.
0165-0166.
Accessed
March
5,
2012.http://www.plosbiology.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pb
io.0040047

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14. 2Navdanya.
Accessed
March
2,
2012.http://www.navdanya.org/earth-
university
15. Perkins, E., Kuiper, E., Quiroga-Martnez, R., Turner, T. E., Brownhill, L.S.,
Mellor, M., Todorova, Z., Jochimsen, M.A. and McMahon, M. (2005).
Explorations: feminist ecological economics. Feminist Economics Vol. 11, Iss. 3
107-150
16. Boserup E (1970) Womens Role in Economic Development. New York, Martins
Press.
17. Thomas-Slayter, B. (1988). Household strategies for adaptation and change:

Participation in Kenyan rural women's associations (Working paper). Michigan
State University. Pp 23.
18. Abzug, B. (1995). Women and the Environment. International Authors Series.
New York: The Department of Public Information.
19. United Nations Chronicle (January 1997). From Silent Spring to vocal vanguard.
34(3), 35-38. Retrieved December 13, 2006, from ProQuest database.
20. Jiggins, J. (1994). Changing the Boundaries: Women-Centered Perspectives on

population and the Environment. New York: Island Press.

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CHAPTER THREE
GENDER, WOMEN IN SCIENCE AND EDUACTION
University of Port Harcourt, P.O. Box 294 Uniport Choba Rivers State. Nigeria
Juliet C. Alex-Nmecha, a librarian recalls the positive roles women contributed to

science and education and the effects on the people in Nigeria and Africa as a
whole. As regards to gender, the MGDs projects have led girl-child and women to
their recognition. When men and women work together they create better progress
in outcomes of nations. In her contributions to knowledge, Alex-Nmecha has
published many papers on these subject areas - gender inequality in education,
women in transformation agenda, women in peace and conflict resolution and
women in globalization. Recommendations were made to the government as
follows: recognizing and publishing the contributions of women scientists and
technologist through the award of national honors, provision of adequate science
laboratory facilities in schools, adequate remunerating science & technology
teachers, adequate funding of research projects, government should empower both
men and women, medical team should be sent on regular training, there should be
creation of jobs for the youths especially girl-child.
Could you describe your background?

I am Mrs. Juliet C. Alex-Nmecha, from Rumuekini town in Akpor, a clan
in Obio/Akpor Local Government Area of Rivers State. I studied in Rivers
State College of Education and obtained the Nigerian Certificate in
Education (N.C.E) and Bachelor of Education (B.ED) in 1995 and 2001
respectively. Later I proceeded to Imo State University Owerri where I
studied Library and Information Science in Masters Level and bagged
Masters in Library Science (M.Ls). Hence I have got experience in writing
papers on women ranging from women in politics, the role of women

13
social clubs in achieving transformation etcetera. Also my experience as a

librarian has exposed and given me ideas to attend to users who are of
different gender.
RESEARCH INTEREST:
Gender, Preservation of E-Gadgets used in the Library and Electronic
Information Retrieval and Dissemination in Reference Unit of the Library.
When did you become involved in your profession?

I became involved in my profession as a librarian since 2006 till date.
What have been your contributions to academics?

My contributions to knowledge have been that on my work on gender
inequality in Education an analysis of women in Administrative cadre of
tertiary institutions in Rivers State, that the study will motivate women in
administration to be firm and face the task before them.
-
When men and women work together they create better progress in
outcomes of the organization.
The works I have published have contributed in boosting or adding to

works done in respect to gender inequality in education, women in
transformation agenda, women in peace and conflict resolution and
women in globalization.
What do you understand by MDGs?

The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) was formed as a corrective
measure to combat poverty and other societal ills. The MDGs are eight
international development goals that all 192 United Nations member
states and at least 23 international organizations have agreed to achieve by
the year 2015. The goals include to:

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1.
Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger.
2.
Achieve universal primary education.
3.
Promote gender equality and empower women.
4.
Reduce child mortality rates
5.
Improve maternal health
6.
Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases.
7.
Ensure environmental sustainability.
8.
Developing a global partnership for development.
What have been your contributions to MDGs?

My contributions to MDGs are as follows: (1) I have written works on
gender equality as a means of achieving transformation in Nigeria. (2)
deliver talks in churches during women programmes on how our women
will take care of their homes which involves the up keep of their children
to avoid domestic accidents, drug abuse, and reduce mortality rates and
how to take their body seriously in terms of body exercises, intake of fruits
and attend ante natal regularly in case of pregnant mothers to avoid poor
maternal health. In terms of the first goal, I have sponsored three young
people (two girls and a boy) to undergo apprenticeship for the girls, the
first is on her own now as a seamstress and sells in her shop assorted
design of materials while the other works in hair dressing salon after she
underwent training in her choice of career. For the boy among the girls, I
am glad that he has completed his GNP window/door training and joins

15
his master in doing most contracts he gets and receives pay for doing
work for him. The three persons affect lives in one way or the other which
will as well create positive impact in the development of where they find
themselves and the country in general.
What have been the contributions of women in Science and Education to MDGs in
your country?
The contribution of women in Science and Education to MDGs in Nigeria

is an issue that concerns women. Hence currently Nigerian women are
really trying to see that the 8 millennium development goals are achieved
through advocacies that concerns politics, Economic Development Science
and Education. Anugwom (2009) states that three male dominated
professions, the Nigerian Medical Association, the Nigerian Bar
Association and Institute of Chartered Accountants of Nigeria, have been
led by female presidents. And he further states that the creation of the
National Commission for women and ministerial portfolio for women
Affairs has given way for women growth educationally.
In terms of Science, women are striving seriously in this 21st century since
the society is going technological. Women from the earliest times have
contributed to science. The teaching of geometry during the medieval
translation of Eucid Element (C 1310 AD) shows when women involved
in science. An Egyptian woman known as Merit Ptah was a chief
Physician
and
female
scientist
as
early
as
2700
BCE.
(en.wikipedia.org/wiki/women-in-science). As women contributed in

other countries, so they also did in Nigeria. In 2013, two Nigerian Women
bagged the UNESCO-L Oreal women in science partnership award for
their contributions to the advancement of scientific knowledge in the
country. These women are Prof. Francisca Okeke, the first female Head of

16
Department, University of Nigeria, Nsukka. She contributed to the

scientific study of climate change. It so happened that in Africa and Arab
nations, she was the only recipient. The second awardee from the
University of Port Harcourt by name Dr. Eucharia Nwaichi an
Environmental Biochemist who contributed to the scientific solution to
Environmental Pollution. (www.vanguardngr.com/2013/03/2-nigeria).
Prof. Okekes every day dream is to encourage young girls for science
oriented subjects and technology education.
What challenges have women and you faced in the course of contributing to MDGs
goals in your country?
In course of contributing to MDGs goals, women (including me) have been

faced with the following challenges-
a. Funding-There is lack of funding to carry out researches concerning

women and how the societal problems affect the people considering
the MDGs.
b. Low number of women to carry out advocacies concerning women

empowerment and gender equality.
c. Lack of sponsorship on girls who are willing to go to school or embark

on training like hairdressing, Fashion and designing, Bead making, hat
making etc.
d. HIV/AIDs enlightenment campaign has not been easy due to few

numbers of people who would come out to educate the people, most
especially in the rural areas.

17
Have you encountered any family difficulties in your chosen career?
I have encountered family difficulties in my chosen career in terms of

childbearing, general up keep of the family as a woman is not easy. At
times when it is time to work on a paper there would be distractions like
darling, I want to eat, mummy, my finger is paining me or stomach is
disturbing me. And at times financial difficulties due to that may arise in
the family; my career might be at stake.
Have you encountered any resistance when talking of gender issues?

Too much resistance when talking of gender issues, the male whenever I
bring up gender issues will look at me as not having respect. They might
not say it out but their utterances will speak for them. A man once told me
whether you like it or not women will remain under men and serve
them. And in course of discussing gender issues, a male colleague said
any man who accepts what women are saying in gender is known as a
woman wrapper, they wont let me say a word, but they oppose
vehemently.
How do you see the future of women in Science and Education in your country?
The future of women in science and education in Nigeria is promising
since they (women in science) have realized that development strives will
not come by men in science alone but with collective efforts of men and
women in science. Like the UNESCO LOreal award winner Prof. Okeke
states that she has been encouraging girls to take up science subjects
seeing the benefits. For education the sky is not the limit of women as they
work harder everyday to be educated.
What advice do you have for girl child and women on the issue of gender equality?

18
My advice for a girl-child and women concerning gender equality issue is

for them to be firm and move ahead knowing full well that Rome was not
built in a day assuring them definitely that there will be equality one day
provided they remain focused in their various careers.
What can women expect for the future in the world scene?
Women will expect in the future in the world scene, more women
competing with their male counterparts in all ramifications and excelling
in their day to day activities.
What do you expect from the government of your country which has not been done?
What I expect from the government of my country which has not been
done are:
1. Recognizing and publishing the contributions of women scientists and
technologist through the award of national honours.
2. Provision of adequate science laboratory facilities in schools.
3. Adequately remunerating science & technology teachers to boost their

morale and increase their level of commitment.
4. Funding research projects on various aspects of the problems of

women
access
to
science
&
technology
education
(www.freepatentsonline.com/article/C...).
5. Government should empower both men and women in order to

eliminate poverty and hunger.

19
6. Our medical team should be sent on regular training abroad in order to

tackle the MDGs 4,5 and 6 effectively.
7. There should be creation of jobs for the youths, young school leavers
and the unemployed to combat crimes and other social vices.
REFERENCES
Anugwom, E. E. (2009). Women, Education and Work in Nigeria. Nigeria:
Department of Sociology/Anthropology. University of Nigeria, Nsukka.
http://en.wikipedia.org /wiki/female_education_in_Nigeria.
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/women-in-science)
www.freepatentsonline.com/article/C...).
www.vanguardngr.com/2013/03/2-nigeria)

20
CHAPTER FOUR
THE ROLE OF WOMEN IN HARVESTING, PROCESSING AND MARKETING
OF VITELLARIA PARADOXA (SHEA BUTTER) SEEDS IN SAVANNA AREA OF
OYO STATE, NIGERIA.
Arabomen, O., Ademola, I.T and Geply, J.J
Forestry Research Institute of Nigeria, P.M.B 5054, Jericho, Ibadan
ABSTRACT
This study examined the role of women in the harvesting, processing and
marketing of Shea seeds a non-wood forest product (NWFPs) with a view of
establishing their contribution to small scale forest based enterprise in Saki,
Oyo state. Data were obtained from a random sample of three categories of
respondents; gatherers/harvesters, processors and marketers of Shea butter
in the study area by means of structured questionnaire. The data collected
were analyzed using descriptive statistics such as frequency table and
percentages for clarity purpose. Results from the analysis revealed that
women were more actively involved in the Shea business across all levels
with 73.3% gatherers, 100% processors and 70.70% marketers/middlemen,
this is probably because women are involved in the provision of food
security and family welfare in most communities worldwide (Arabomen et
al, 2009). Twenty-nine (96.67%) of the processors and all the gatherers had
Vitellaria paradoxa stands on their farmland which served as a major
source of V. paradoxa fruits from which the Shea is processed while others
without tree stands collected the fruits from nearby forest lands. The result
also showed the rate of collection of shea nut by harvesters. 10%, 10%,
20%, 23.33%, 6.67% and 16.67% gathered between 1, 4, 5, 6, 8 and 10
tons of shea nuts respectively while 13.33% gathered less than 1 ton per
annum. The average per capital income generated by the different
categories of respondents in the business showed that harvesters (6.67%)
earned between 10,000 and 50,000, 23.33% earned above >50,000, 26.67%
earned above >90,000 and 43.33% earned above >130,000 as annual
income for their families. This study has shown that small scale forest-based
enterprises are fast becoming the main stay of scores of people who have
suffered under ravaging scourge of unemployment especially in rural
communities and it is been recognized as an important factor in poverty,
inequality and malnutrition issues around the world.
KEYWORDS: Women, Vitellaria paradoxa, Forest-based enterprise,
Harvesting, Processing

21
INTRODUCTION
Forestry plays a vital role in the sustainable livelihood of people. A livelihood is
sustainable when it can cope with and recover from stresses and shocks and
maintain capabilities and assets both now and in the future, while not undermining
the natural resource base (DFID, 1998). Forests provide a wide range of benefits at
the local, national and global levels. People are dependent upon natural resources
for meeting a large number of their basic needs of life. The type of resources and
utilization patterns, however vary by ecological zone and socio-cultural area. The
contribution of NWFPs therefore, to forestry sector in particular and rural dwellers
generally in most countries is significant, though it had been undervalued in the past
(Arabomen, et al. 2009). Non-wood forest products are a huge variety of materials
derived from forests excluding timber and fuel wood. NTFPs include bark, roots,
tubers, corms, leaves, flowers, seeds, fruits, sap, resins, honey, fungi, and animal
products such as meat, skins, bones, and teeth. NTFPs are harvested from forest
areas and are produced in farmers' fields. They are used for food and medicine and
as a source of income. NTFPs are consumed in rural and urban homes, and are
traded in local, regional, and international markets. NTFPs provide small but
significant sources of income, particularly for women and for families that do not
have access to agricultural markets. NTFPs also provide critical supplies of food
during periods when agricultural crops fail or are otherwise scarce. Transportation
costs largely determine whether what the most important source of rural household
income is: low value-to-weight ratio agricultural crops that can be produced
consistently in large quantities or high value-to-weight ratio NTFPs that are
available inconsistently in relatively small quantities. In the South-West and NorthWest provinces of Cameroon the value of NTFP production and marketing exceeded
U.S. $19 million in 1999, and contributed 2.8% to the regional economy. In contrast,
timber, in this predominantly logged-over area, contributed 5% and agricultural
crops 27%. In unlogged areas of old-growth forest, the value of timber is
considerably higher (Laurie Clark et al, 1999).

22
Deforestation has become a major concern in Nigeria as populations increase and

pressure on the forest and savanna increases. The rate of fuel wood consumption for
example across the entire Sudano-Sahelian region is on the rise and is a major factor
in the degradation of the land (Odihi, 2003). Throughout Nigeria, it is estimated that
70% of the population use fuel wood for their cooking needs while another 20 % use
at least some wood for food production. Therefore the use of fuel wood coupled
with growing populations has contributed to the rising deforestation in the country.
Increasing deforestation coupled a move towards more intensive agriculture
threatens the traditional agricultural system across the region (Boffa, 1999).
Traditional agricultural systems involve a fallow period coupled with the leaving of
trees in fields for a parkland system (Boffa, 1999). More and more these parkland
systems are been thinned out and the fallow periods are being shortened, thus
reducing the amount of trees to remain on the landscape as the need for agricultural
land increases, some argue that multi-purpose uses of tree species and the economic
viability of tree products should be explored (Boffa, 1999). One of the trees often
identified as valuable economically throughout much of the region is Vitellaria
paradoxa. In the past two decades the link between conservation and income
generation has been emphasized in much of the environment and natural resource
literature regarding Africa (Dankleman and Davidson, 1998; Western et al, 1994;
Leaky, 1999). Groups such as World Wide Fund for nature (WWF) and the
International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) have called for conservation
programs designed to benefit local communities in order to provide incentives to
preserve biodiversity (Brechen et al, 2003). One method has been encouraged
through marketing of NTFPs. This market based conservation approach strives to
provide an economic incentive in order to conserve the resource on which it is based
(Kainer et al, 2003). V. paradoxa is distributed within the Sudano-Sahellian landscape
from Senegal in the West to Ethiopia in the East. In this 5000km wide belt the tree
grows in the Sudanian, Sudano-Sahellian and Guinean Savanna zones between the
Rainforests and the dry land Sahel region (Karin, 2004). V. paradoxa belongs to the
Sapotaceae family divided into two species Nilotica and Paradoxa. It is a deciduous

23
tree of medium size with a spherical crown. It often reaches heights of about 1015meters, with rare recorded occasions of up to 25m (Maydell, 1990) and girths of
about 175m with profuse branches and a thick waxy and deeply fissured bark that
makes it resistant to fire. Been a slow growing and light demanding tree, the flowers
appear from December to March, greenish yellow in color and occur in terminal
groups of approx 30 to 40. They are insect pollinated often associated with bees
(Maydell, 1990; Joker, 2000; Maranz and Wiseman, 2003). V. paradoxa thrives on dry
sandy soils that have good humus cover, but occur on a variety of soil types (Hall, et
al, 1996). It has an extensive root system which helps it to tolerate the extended dry
season (up to eight months) and occasional droughts of the savanna. It fruits from
15years of age and continues with longevity of 200 to 300 years (Hall et al, 1996;
Joker, 2000). The fruit is yellow-green, elliptical, and about 5-8cm long and 3-4cm
wide. Each fruit contains one large oval to slightly round, red brown to dark brown
seed usually referred to as the Shea nut (Maydell, 1990; Maranz and Wiseman,
2003). The shell of this nut is shiny, smooth and fragile. The nuts are recalcitrant in
nature having high moisture content, this makes storage of unprocessed seeds
difficult and viability is often lost within two to three weeks after fruit maturity
(Danthu et al, 2000; Maranz and Wiseman, 2003). The tree has no capacity for
vegetative propagation and can only be done through its seed and according to
legend no one owns the Shea tree because it germinates and grows on its own. In
Mali, Karter et al (1992) found that regeneration has become a problem particularly
in areas that have a larger livestock population. Livestock and fires are the main
barriers to regeneration of the tree. It thrives best on agricultural land where it is
protected from fires and livestock. Vitellaria paradoxa is a forest tree not only valued
for its medicinal purpose but also for its highly nutritional potential. V. paradoxa
stands serve as park species as the leaves could be fed to animals. Stands of V.
paradoxa also serve as erosion control on forest and degraded lands, nutrient
enrichment capacity as it significantly influence the fertility of tropical soils by
maintaining soil organic matter, used as wind break being a tool for fighting against
desertification etc.

24
On the international market there are over 150 NTFPs of major importance, one of
which is Shea butter (Carr et al, 2000). Shea butter is processed from nut of Vitellaria
paradoxa tree, and is sold on the local markets throughout the savanna regions of
Africa and on the International market for use in cosmetics and chocolate making.
Shea butter is a natural botanical product derived from the seed of the wild savanna
fruit tree Vitellaria paradoxa found from Senegal to Ethiopia and Uganda. As a
medicinal, cosmetic and cultural product, Shea butter is unique in the world. It is a
precious natural resource of the ancient savanna woodland and has long been in the
domain of women. Since the days of Pharoah, Shea butter has been prized for its
healing properties in skin care based on the activity of its unique and active natural
compounds including Karitene and Butyrospermol, along with high levels of
Allantoin which is known to promote healing and regeneration of healthy skin. Shea
butter has been appreciated internationally in recent years as an active therapeutic
ingredient in the most elegant and effective hair and skin care products; even a tiny
fraction of Shea butter in the ingredient lists adds great value to any cosmetic
formulation. It is used as an anti-inflammatory substance and an emollient to soothe
dry, chapped or damaged skin and to activate healing of wounds. It moisturizes hair
as well as skin with deep penetrative properties. Prices paid to producers are three
to five times higher than local prices for traditional Shea butter. Been a source of
income to women it helps to maintain a healthy household, providing income for
food, clothing, education and medicare and a wide variety of productive
investments which help develop the local economy. With increased household
income from its sustainable use, the value of the living tree has been increased and
greater economic power given to women from this ancient resource. There are many
reported uses of Vitellaria paradoxa in its range. The oil from the kernel of the Shea
seed is the principal source of fat in many local diets (Saul et al, 2003), although in
some areas it is not used for that purpose (Booth and Wickens, 1998). The wood can
serve as a source of quality fuel wood and sturdy tools (Booth and Wickens, 1998s;
Boffa et al, 2000; Kristensen and Lykke, 2003).

25
In Nigeria, the activities and roles of women in forestry development are numerous
ranging from collection of seeds and fruits through nurturing and conservation to
processing and marketing of forest products. Women are more knowledgeable on
types of tree species that are useful to their families and so they leave these
undisturbed during land clearing (Aiyeloja and Popoola, 2005). Womens role in all
aspects of live: social, political and economic has been a subject of increasing interest
to development planners in countries throughout the world. They are the de facto
resources managers in the environment in which they are trying to survive. Also they
are very knowledgeable about the use of plants in traditional medicine and are
deeply concerned about the alarming rate of harvesting forest resources (Ajayi et al,
1997). The vital role women play in utilizing and conserving the forest and its
resources makes it not logical but critical, they therefore should be included in forest
development programs. Women and their children are collectors of fruits, foods,
seeds, leaves, herbs, fuel wood and other products for members of their family.
Women utilize many NTFPs which provide livelihood especially during the dry
season when they rely on forests foods such as snails, mushroom, wildlife and other
products (Ozon-Eson, 2002). Exposure of rural women to forestry related programs
would assist in poverty reduction in families in particular and society at large, for
example, planting and tending of fruit trees by women in their home stead will
make them more readily available in the society (Agbogidi et al, 2005) since they play
vital role in nation building (IFPRI, 2004). This study aims to assess the role of
women in harvesting, processing and marketing of Vitellaria paradoxa in Savanna
Area of Oyo State, Nigeria with a view to determine its contribution to household
economy.
METHODOLOGY
Study Area
The study was conducted in Saki town along the Guinea Savanna zone of Nigeria
cutting across latitudes 8-90 North. It is bordered in the West by the Republic of
Benin, to the North by Kwara State, to the east by Orelope Local Govt and to the

26
South by Atisbo Local Govt in Oyo State. The town houses two Local Government
Areas; Saki East and Saki West with a projected population figure for 1996 at 388,225
(NPC, 1991). The people are Agrarian in nature involved in local and international
trade of many Non-Timber Forest Products including Shea-nuts. Being a border
town, there are lots of commercial activities and foreign goods that are traded.
DATA COLLECTION
Data were obtained with the use of structured questionnaires and personal interview
across Saki East and West Local Government Areas of the town. The questionnaires
were designed to elicit information on the demographic and socio-economic
characteristics of respondents, economic activities in relation to harvesting,
processing and marketing of the product, methods of harvesting, waste management
patterns etc. Purposive and simple random sampling techniques were used to select
three main categories of respondents; harvesters/gatherers, processors and
marketers/retailers. A total number of one hundred and twenty (120) questionnaires
were administered distributed to the gatherers/harvesters (30), processors (60)
middlemen/marketers retailers/end-users (30). Data collected were analyzed using
descriptive statistics such as percentages and frequency for clarity purpose.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
All
the
questionnaires
for
all
categories
were
answered
except
the
middlemen/marketers where 58 (96.67%) were answered leaving 2 (3.33%)

unanswered. It was observed that the marketers also acted as middle men and were
more available and involved in the Shea business than other groups hence the
number of questionnaires administered to them doubled that of the others.
Table 1 shows the demographic and socio-economic characteristics of the

respondents who engaged in Shea butter business across levels of production
respectively. It was revealed that women were more actively involved in the Shea
business across all levels of with 73.3% gatherers, 100% processors and 70.70%

27
marketers/middlemen, this is probably because women are involved in the

provision of food security and family welfare in most communities worldwide
(Arabomen et al, 2009). Twenty-nine (96.67%) of the processors had Vitellaria
paradoxa stands on their farmlands and 100% of the gatherers too. This served as a
major source of V. paradoxa fruits from which the Shea is processed and a source of
shade to both the farmers and their crops. Others without tree stands collected the
fruits from nearby forest lands.
Table 2 shows the rate of collection of shea nut by harvesters. It was observed that
most of the gatherers (86.67%) sold to produce-buyers and these were those that
gathered the seeds largely between 1-10 tons/annum on the average. 10%, 10%, 20%,
23.33%, 6.67% and 16.67% gathered between 1, 4, 5, 6, 8 and 10 tons of shea nuts
respectively while 13.33% gathered less than 1 ton and sold directly to processors.
Table 3 shows the average per capital income generated by the different categories of
respondents in Shea butter business. It was revealed that the middlemen/marketers
had the highest income followed by the harvesters while the processors had the least
income generated from this business; this is because of the low level of average
yearly production of shea butter. Some processors (93.33%) processed only the shea
nuts they get on their farms while others (6.67%) bought more to complement their
harvest. In all, the processors were able to gather between 100-400g of the shea nuts
per annum on the average. This implies that the processors processed on a relatively
small scale majorly while the bulk of the nuts were sold to produce buyers through
middlemen/marketers. Harvesters (6.67%) earned between 10,000 and 50,000 from
shea nut gathering and sale, 23.33% earned between >50,000 and 90,000, 26.67%
earned between >90,000 and 130,000 and 43.33% earned between >130,000 and
170,000 as annual income for their families.

28
STAGES IN THE PROCESSING OF SHEA NUT AS INDICATED BY

RESPONDENTS.
The traditional method of shea butter processing is arduous and labor intensive
requiring large amounts of water and fuel wood. The total time required to process
the shea butter excluding harvesting and drying is about 5-6hrs or more.
The following stages involved in the processing of shea nut/seed is highlighted

below.
Bury fruits in pits to allow fermentation (i.e. disintegration of the fleshy part)
Boil the remaining nut to remove any fruit pulp remaining
Either sun dry the nut for 5-10 days or roast over a fire or traditional oven for
2-3days
Remove nuts and dehull either with a mortar and pestle or crack between two
stones/rocks
Dry the nuts to reduce the moisture content to minimum
Pound the kernels into a thick paste
Mix paste with hot water and knead to a dough-like consistency
Wash dough in cold water to separate the liquid and solid fats
Wash the solid fat (shea butter) again in cold water and heat

29
Dish into containers (of various shapes and sizes) and allow it to cool, then it
is ready for sale.
RE-USE AND DISPOSAL OF Vitellaria paradoxa WASTES GENERATED IN

THE STUDY AREA
There is a possible environmental threat from the activities involved in shea butter
production. Four (13.33%) of the processors used part of the shell of the shea nut as
domestic fuel while 86.67% disposed of it indiscriminately at dump sites.
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The following conclusions can be drawn from study findings:
Women are the key actors in the production-utilization chain of shea-butter

activities in the study area this is because women are primary resource users
and as such they do much of the hard work needed to maintain their homes
and restore the surrounding environment (Odebode, 2003).
Shea butter activities were the primary occupation of the harvesters/gatherers

which attributed for the high income generated.
A non-timber forest product is a profitable enterprise that meets the nutrition

and diet needs of rural dwellers.
Based on study findings the following recommendations are made:
Many afforestation programs have failed because the needs of most affected
women group were overlooked (Williams, 1992; Sonthierner, 1999; Rojar,
1993; Armitage and Hyma, 1997). Hence women should be empowered and
encouraged to participate in forestry related activities because of their mother
nature to care for those things committed to their hands.

30
Waste disposal is still one of the problems in Nigeria. Proper waste disposal
channels should be provided to prevent environmental hazards.
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Aiyeloja, A.A and Labode Popoola (2005). The role of small scale forest based
enterprises in sustainable forest management. Proceedings of the 30th annual conference
of the Forestry Association of Nigeria, Kaduna. Popola, L., Mfon, P and Oni, P.I (eds)
pp 179-185.
Ajayi, S.T., Adebisi, L.A and Fasola, Y.R (1997). The role of women in conservation of
endangered species, Proceedings of annual conference of the Forestry Association of
Nigeria, Ibadan. 22nd-26th sept, 1997, pp 138-144.
Arabomen, O., Baiyewu, R.A., Areo, O.S., Ademola, I.T and Akerekoro, R.W (2009).
Socio- economic impact of non-timber forest products on rural dwellers of oluyole
local govt
area. Proceedings of the 33rd annual conference of the Forestry Association of
Nigeria, 25th-29th October, 2010, pp 384-393.
Armitage, D and Hyma, R (1997). Sustainable community based forestry

development: policy
and
programs
frameworks
to
enhance
womens
participation. Singapore Journal of Tropical Geography. 18(1): 1-19.
Boffa, J.M (1999). Agroforestry parkland systems in sub-saharan Africa: FAO

conservation Guide 34. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
Nations.

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Boffa, J.M., Taonda, S., Dickey, J and Knudson, D (2000). Field-scale influence of
Karite (Vitellaria paradoxa) on Sorghum production in the Sudan zone of Burkina
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Booth, F and Wicens, G (1988). Non-timber uses of selected arid zone trees and
shrubs in Africa: FAO conservation guide 19. Rome: Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations.
Brechin, S., Wilhusen, P., Fortwangler, C and West, P (2003). The road less traveled:
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Fortwangler and P. West
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nature:
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international
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state university of New York press.
Dankelman, I. and Davidson, J (1988). Women and environment in the third world:
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Danthu, P., Gueye, A., Boye, A., Bauwens, D and Sarr, A (2000). Seed storage
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Butyrospermum parii, Cordyla pinnata and Saba senegalensis). Seed Science Research, 10.
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Hall, J., Aebischer, D., Tomlinson, H., Osei-Amaning, E and Hindle, J (1996).
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IFPRI, (2004). The changing face of malnutrition. In: International Food Policy
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34
TABLE
1:
DEMOGRAPHIC
RESPONDENTSGATHERERS
AND
SOCIO-ECONOMIC
PROCESSORS
CHARACTERISTICS
OF
MIDDLEMEN/MARKETERS
________________________________________________________________________________
VARIABLES
FREQ
%
FREQ
%
FREQ
%
________________________________________________________________________________
GENDER
MALE
8
26.70
0
0
17
23.30
FEMALE
22
73.30
30
100
41
76.70
AGE (YEARS)
31-40
41-50
51-60
5
11
10
13.33
50.00
36.67
3
27
25
0
30
0
0
100
0
0
56
2
7
23
0
23.33
76.67
0
10
48
0
EDUCATIONAL BACKGROUND
PRIMARY
2
6.67
SECONDARY
1
3.33
ADULT EDUCATION 1
3.33
NONE
26
86.67
10
1
0
19
33.33
3.33
0
63.34
24
0
5
29
41.38
0
8.62
50.0
PRIMARY OCCUPATION
FARMING
30
TRADING
0
CIVIL SERVANT
0
ARTISAN
0
CRAFTSMAN
0
OTHERS
0
30
0
0
0
0
0
100
0
0
0
0
0
0
58
0
0
0
0
0
100
0
0
0
0
SECONDARY OCCUPATION
FARMING
0
0
TRADING
2
6.67
NONE
28
93.33
0
0
30
0
0
100
0
0
58
0
0
100
FARM SIZE
2
3
4
5
NONE
4
10
13
2
1
13.33
33.33
43.33
6.67
3.33
0
0
0
0
58
0
0
0
0
100
MARITAL STATUS
SINGLE
MARRIED
WIDOWED
0
28
2
FAMILY SIZE
1-6
7-12
13
4
26
0
4
3
9
4
0
16.67
36.67
33.33
0
93.33
6.67
13.33
86.67
0
100
0
0
0
0
0
13.33
43.33
30.0
13.33
0
4
15
11
5.17
46.55
43.10
0
96.55
3.45
17.24
82.76
0

35
TABLE 2: AVERAGE RATE/TONNE/ANNUM OF SHEA NUT OBTAINED BY HARVESTERS

NUMBER OF COLLECTORS
4
3
0
0
3
6
7
0
2
0
5
RATE (TONNES/ANNUM)
13.33
10
0
0
10
20
23.33
0
6.67
0
16.67
<1
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
TABLE 3: INCOME GENERATED FROM SHEA BUTTER ACTIVITIES BY RESPONDENTS

GATHERERS
MIDDLEMEN/MARKETERS
ANNUAL INCOME
(000N)
10-50
>50-90
>90-130
>130-170
>170-210
FREQ
2
7
8
13
0
%
6.67
23.33
26.67
43.33
0
PROCESSORS
FREQ
0
14
16
0
0
%
0
46.67
53.33
0
0
FREQ
3
5
25
21
4
5.17
8.62
43.10
36.21
6.90

36
CHAPTER FIVE
WOMEN EMPOWERMENT: A CASE OF RESTORATION OF THE DIGNITY OF
WOMANHOOD (ROTDOW)
Sabainah Olabisi Ibikunoluwa Omolona
Restoration of the Dignity of Womanhood, Akure, Ondo State, Nigeria
Mrs Sabainah Olabisi Ibikunoluwa Omolona, 56years old from Ekiti State,
Nigeria is the founder of Restoration of The Dignity of Womanhood
(ROTDOW). This foundation was established in 2008. This organization
uses different creative strategies to be involved in the post-2015 agenda of
the UN eight Millennium Development Goals. Through the programs of
the organization, a lot has been achieved on children and women
advancement.

My organization has been involved in training and seminars in schools
MDGs were set by leaders of 189 countries in September, 2000 at the United
Nations in New York. It is a set of ambitious goals that are time bound and
measurable- to be reached by 2015. Nigeria has worked in tandem with the
global vision to achieve these goals.
They include:
1.
Eradicating extreme poverty and hunger

37
2.
Achieve universal primary education
3.
Promote gender equality and empower women
4.
Reduce child mortality
5.
Improve maternal health
6.
Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria, and other diseases
7.
Ensure environmental sustainability
8.
Develop a global partnership for development
My organization has been involved in several advocacy programs, major

sensitization programs with focus on Goals 3, 4, 5, 6.
We have empowered women by organizing training workshops in craft, bead

making, and entrepreneurial skills, so they can have some independence in
providing for themselves, their children and family.
We have embarked on community advocacy on immunization, participated in

house-to-house polio vaccination, mass deworming of primary school pupils.
We have improved maternal health by encouraging community women in

seeking early antenatal care, use of intermittent preventive treatment (IPT),

38
training of traditional birth attendants in basic delivery skills and knowing

when to refer potentially difficult cases.
We have collaborated with major organization like the Society for family
health, HealthCare International etcetera in fighting the scourge of malaria
and HIV. We organize town-hall meetings, community advocacies to
practically demonstrate the importance and use of long lasting insecticide,
free malaria test, sale of arteminisin combination therapy at affordable rates.
We likewise organize free HIV counseling and testing.
your country?
Women in recent times have taken the bull by the horns to educate and
empower themselves in Nigeria. These has gone in the way of mass media
campaigns, community mobilization and prodding sitting government in
doing what is right by allocating more funds to education, women
empowerment, allowing more women into more decisive government
positions.

39
CHAPTER SIX
WOMEN IN SCIENCE AND EDUCATION IN INDIA
Ashish Singhal
Department of Law, Sharda University, Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India
Science and technology have been an integral part of Indian civilization and
culture. Women and men have been active in science from the inception of
human civilization. One of the defining marks of humanity is the ability to
affect and predict our environment. Science is the creation of structure. For
our world and technology, the use of structure has been stepping stone to our
progress. Women and men have researched and solved each emerging need.
At a glance, women in general might look like one of the many housewives
simple, docile, unassuming and humble. But make no mistake, for behind this
simple straight face is a razor sharp brain, and an uncanny ability to execute,
to convert thought into action without much ado.
Since Independence, Indians have been promoting science and technology as

one of the most important elements of national development. The Scientific
Policy of 1958 and the Technology Policy Statement of 1983 enunciated the
principles on which growth of science and technology in India has been based
over the past several decades and inspires us till date. The major scientific
revolutions of the last century have opened the doors to many remarkable
technologies in the fields of health, agriculture, communication and energy,
among many others. Science and Technology are powerful instruments in the
tasks of national reconstruction, economic resurgence and maintenance of
national security.

40
The very first technical name was male Imhotep the architect of the first
pyramid and the second was female En HeduAnna (c. 2354BCE). Certainly
women were questioners and thinkers long before that, but unfortunately it
was an untapped resource. Most myths and religions place the beginnings of
agriculture, laws, civilization, mathematics, calendars, time keeping and
medicine into the hands of women. Women contributed in all the spheres of
technical advancement of humanity.
They held the same burdens of
scholarship as the men did, and accomplished just as much. Women were and
are resourceful, passionate and creative about their work as any other male
scientist.
In the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries most women did not have access to
institutions of higher learning and laboratories, which prevented them from
participation in the scientific revolution. The singular exceptions in the 19th
century being Mary Somerville and Agnes Pockels.
The Academie des
Sciences of Paris, The Royal Society of London did not allow women into their
meetings and were strictly male bastions. The Academie des Sciences of Paris
was founded in 1666 and elected its first female member in 1962, The Royal
Society of London was founded in 1662 and elected its first female member in
1945. These societies were important meeting places for the observation of
new experimental results and the discussions of new ideas.
The Third World Organisation for women in Science (TWOWS) officially

launched in 1993, is the first international forum to unite eminent women
scientists and scientific institutions in the South, with the objective of
strengthening their role in the development process and promoting their
representation in scientific and technological leaderships.
Although we are a traditional country where women are respected as

MatriShakti over the years women have overcome the traditional mind sets

41
and have excelled in professions like teaching, medicine and pure sciences.
Women have made important contributions in all walks of life and made
inroads into new fields like engineering and information technology. Of the
women science graduated 88 % of the science degree holders are in pure
science, 8% in medicine and 3% in engineering and technology.
However, there has been a recent spurt of women joining the engineering and
information technology fields. The field of biotechnology has revolutionized
the industrial growth of the world. In India, our own Kiran Mazumdar is an
example for women entrepreneurs to follow and emulate. Kiran Mazumdar
Shaw, biotech entrepreneur and CEO of Biocon India group, is one of the
many scientists India should be proud of.
She started Biocon in 1978
collaborating with an Irish firm, started two joint ventures, Biochemizyme and
Biocon-Quest India Ltd. She has held positions in industry councils, including
Vice-President, Association of Women Entrepreneurs of Karnataka. She was
awarded Rotary Award for Best Model Employer, National Award for Best
Small Industry and most noteworthy is the Padmashri in 1989 from the
Government of India. She was accorded a very prestigious assignment as a
Chairperson of the Vision Group on Biotechnology to draw up the States
Biotech Policy.
In 1978, the worlds first test tube baby, Louise Joy Brown was conceived. In
India, Dr Indira Hinduja produced first scientifically documented test tube
baby. In 1986, Indias first test tube baby Harsha was born. Female ovum is
fertilized with male sperm in a test tube, with suitable environmental
conditions, and observed under microscope for more than three days. The
fertilized egg is then put back into mothers womb and hence called test tube
baby.
Producing test tube babies is not an easy task even in advanced
countries. Dr Indira Hinduja has rejected opportunities to settle abroad so that

she can serve our country/India.

42
The worlds first programmer was Lady Augusta Ada Lovelace of England in
1852. She is credited with telling a machine what to do by using punch cards
to programme algebraic patterns. Indian women have excelled in almost all
fields which hitherto were fortified by men. Women are storming Information
and Technology field and in the late nineties the number of women in
computing and internet industries has registered a sharp rise.
The IT
landscape is full of women who are busy writing programmes, running

network systems and delivering applications to clients on time. Recently a
Japanese magazine concluded that Indian women are number one amongst
women from various countries in acquiring and applying IT knowledge.
Deb Agarwal, a top scientist at a national laboratory and Radha Ramaswami

Basu, a high-tech entrepreneur, are the two Indian women among the top 25
women on Web award winners for this year. Agarwal, a computer scientist at
the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, serves the comprehensive
Nuclear Test Ban Treaty Organisation as an expert in the area of reliable
multicast communication. Basu is CEO, www.support.com. She was general
manager for international software at Hewlett Packard. She is also the cofounder of Maitri, an empowering organization for South Asian Women in the
Bay Area.
In June 1963, Valentina Tereshkova, the first woman astronaut, made 48 orbits
in Vostok 6. Sally Ride and Kathryn Sullivan along with five men were aboard
the space shuttle Challenger in 1984 for the first time. It was the first time a US
woman Kathryn Sullivan walked in space. Kalpana Chawla from Haryana
was qualified from over 2962 applicants to earn herself a place in space shuttle
Columbia for a 16 day out of the world experience. The NASA chief called her
a Terrific Astronaut.

43
Women have also accepted the challenges of the oceans and have participated
in expeditions dealing with ocean research. Dr Aditi Pant is the first Indian
woman to participate in the cruise to the icy continent, Antarctica.
The
expedition was for a period of 4 months and the participants had to explore
this continent under rough weather conditions.
Shahnaz Husain is the mother of all herbal cosmetics in world. Her creams and
lotions have found their way into salons in different parts of the globe. She
has 650 salons at 104 countries. It is all due to her sheer innovation,
determination and hard work.
Madhuri Mathur, an intelligent lady made the life of ladies in kitchen easier by
bringing out the idea of, a kitchen machine that would blend, chop, mince and
grind that culminated into sumeet mixer.
Although there is no disparity existing in the emoluments of male and female

scientists and technologists an imbalance does exist in the decision making
policies and in the exercise of authority which is solely dominated by men.
Women do not get scientific recognition and are rarely recommended and
nominated for awards, expertships.
But the pattern occupying positions of
authority has changed progressively during the past years and the trend appears
to be encouraging. Many women with high qualifications and experience have
reached the top. From these observations, it can be concluded that given the
requisite qualifications and opportunities the women in science and technology in
India can be achievers and thereby boost the growth of science and technology of
our country.

44

I did my PhD from CCS University, Meerut (U.P.) and presently teaching LLB and
LLM classes in Sharda University, Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India.

I become involved in teaching profession since last three years.

I secured First position in college for securing highest marks in LLB exam. My
twenty two research papers & a book have been published in International journals
in U.S.A., Germany and in Indonesia. I have more than 10 years experience of
Advocacy & teaching for LL.B. and LL.M. classes. I have worked as Assistant
Professor and HOD in renounced Universities of India named as Subharti
University, Meerut (U.P.) and Invertis University, Bareilly
(U.P.).I also supervised
eight students for their LL.M. dissertation.

The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) were established in 2000 by the UN
Member States. They had to be achieved by 2015 in eight priority areas: eradicate
extreme poverty and child mortality; combat diseases such as HIV/AIDS and
malaria; achieve universal primary education; improve maternal health; promote
gender equality and empower women; develop a global partnership for
development and ensure environmental sustainability.
I have made a research on women, education and environment sustainability during
my Ph.D work and research paper publications.

45
your country?
The contribution of women in science and technology in MDGs in India is very
progressive. There are lots of scientific inventions and changes in law about
improvement of women conditions.
The challenges we have faced in the course of contributing to MDGs goals in our
country are rigid behavior of society towards girl, lack of money, castism,
regionalism, backwardness and brain drain.
No, I have not encountered any family difficulty in my chosen career.

There are lots of incidences in India published in newspaper and social media about
gender issues.
The future of women in science and technology in India is very bright compare to
neighbouring country in Asia Pacific.
The advice for women about gender equality is You are also the part of society.so
dont be afraid about your right, equality of opportunity and employment. Be
focused towards your goal and achieve it.

46
The women have to try the best and get it by their efforts with the help of peoples in
society and on national and international level. World organizations have provided
different platforms to secure the goal.
In our country various schemes have been implemented for the welfare of the
weakest section of the society. But still there is a need to protect the interest of
women by launching several welfare schemes and making laws. For example there is
a debate to give 50 percent reservation to women in parliament and state legislature.
Bill is pending still not passed by parliament. So the government of India should
pass a legislature by providing 50 percent reservation to women in parliament, state
legislature and jobs also.

47
CHAPTER SEVEN
MY VIEW ON MILLENNIUM DEVELOPMENT GOALS (MGDs)
Eunice O. Osakinle
Faculty of Education, Ekiti State University, Ado-Ekiti. Nigeria.
Dr (Mrs) Eunice O. Osakinle holds the position of Senior Lecturer at
Faculty of Education, Ekiti State University, Ado-Ekiti, Nigeria. As a
counselor of great repute, she has been involved and committed to the
development of women and girl-child. Dr Osakinle has been campaigning
for women rights in conflicts and post-conflicts settings. She has been a
representative of her university and non-governmental organizations
(NGOs) in national and international MGDs conferences, workshops and
seminars. She is a renowned professional who had many published books
and articles with reputable local and international publishing houses.

I am married with children. I hold a Ph.D in Guidance and Counselling.
RESEARCH INTEREST: GENDER AND REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH ISSUES

Since year 2000, I started as the Federal Polytechnic Ado-Ekitis Counsellor and later
to the Department of Guidance and Counsellor in Ekiti State University Ado-Ekiti.
I have turned out many graduates in Guidance and Counselling and four Post
Graduates in Guidance and Counselling.

48

The goals are meant for a better standard living of the people e.g. Better health,
access to portable water, poverty eradication, infrastructural development, Maternal
and Child health care and Reduction of infant morbidity and mortality.
I have written so many articles locally and internationally on HIV/AIDS awareness,
prevention and other reproductive health issues.
your country?
We try to preach it as the opportunity arises in gatherings. Eg Women programme in
Churches and other related programs.
A few places are hard to get to. The poverty level is so high that some families still
find it difficult to feed themselves and their children but still keep procreating.
Yes
Yes
The future of women is put a no value level and a few men feel that women are to
be heard and not seen. This situation still impoverishes the family where
women are illiterates and cannot contribute to the resources of the family.

49
As much as possible, the girl-child and women should be determined to work
harder i.e. through self-sponsor or otherwise to make sure they are educated and get
employed(self or Government) so that they can contribute to the family economy
thereby lifting their heads higher and be better citizens of the country.
Women can expect that with better education, the future is bright and from science
they can get all they need.
The Government is expected to seek from the different States of the Federation
women who have education and can deliver some goods.
Women have brains like men and can do assignments given. Women can be
Speakers in Houses of assemblies, be Governors of States and Presidents of
Countries as we have in Liberia.

50
CHAPTER EIGHT
THE ROLE OF WOMEN IN ENSURING FOOD SECURITY IN NIGERIA.
Bolarin, F.M1, Adamade, C.A 2
1 Processing
2AIDE
and Storage Engineering Department,
Department, National Center for Agricultural Mechanization, P.M.B 1525,

Ilorin, Kwara State, Nigeria
ABSTRACT
Nigeria like all other countries of the world must put in a lot of effort in
ensuring food security through appropriate processing and storage. This
topic looks at women involvement in food processing, and storage especially
in Nigeria which is a developing world in ensuring food security. The
women have an important role to play in ensuring food security in this
country. This paper reviews the role of women in ensuring food security in
Nigeria, how these roles are being perform and the different ways in which
they can be involved are highlighted in this paper.
KEYWORDS: Women, food processing, food storage, food security.
INTRODUCTION
Food security in any country will enhance that countries political, social and
economic stability. In the 70s more than 800 million people in developing countries
were undernourished with several millions of others dependent on emergency food
and each year, although such is falling sharply. In Nigeria today, we depend each
year on produce from agriculture. Survey carried out on post-harvest food loses in
some communities in Nigeria revealed that as much as 20-30% of total grain
production 30-50% of root and tuber and usually high percentage of fruits and
vegetables are lost with a substantial amount recorded during storage. (Mijinyawa,
2002).

51
Women produce between 60 and 80 percent of the food in most developing countries
and are responsible for half of the world's food production, yet their key role as food
producers and providers and their critical contribution to household food security is
only now becoming recognized.
Women in Africa contribute up to an estimated 70% of labour involved in food

production and nearly 100% in rural food Processing (Kaul et al (1992).
FAO studies confirm that while women are the mainstay of small-scale agriculture,
the farm labour force and day-to-day family subsistence, they have more difficulties
than men in gaining access to resources such as land, credit and productivityenhancing inputs and services.
Women, as a result of gender biases, are the cheapest source of labour and as such
are multinationals main employees (women represent 40% of the labour force in the
food processing sector). The new jobs provided are low paying, require little skill
and thus offer few opportunities for women to improve their economic, social and
political situation. In addition to reinforcing gender inequities, this employment is
also much unprotected. Globalisation of the world economy has enabled
multinationals to quickly close down operations and re-locate in a different country.
Not only are women unable to increase their skills and earn a fair.
In many African countries women provide:
33% of the workforce
70% of the agricultural workers
60-80% of the labour to produce food for household consumption and sale
100% of the processing for basic food stuffs
90% of household water and fuel wood
80% of food storage and transport from farm to village
90% of the hoeing and weeding work

52
60% of the harvesting and marketing activities.(FAO)
In view of the above, women has a vital role to play in ensuring food security in
Nigeria.
Definition of Food Security, Processing and Storage
Food Security
Food security does not necessarily imply food self- sufficiency alone. The key
elements of food security are adequacy of food, not only in terms of quantity but also
in quality, as well as stability of supply and access by all the people to food at all
time. This implies that adequate and nutritionally balanced aggregate and food
supply be made available to satisfy the need of all regions of the country in all
seasons, an action that require efficient food storage, processing, preservation,
transportation and distribution system Okunadewa (2002).
Food security is a concept that has evolved during the 1990s far beyond a traditional
focus on the supply of food at the national level. This concept has been given general
definitions in time past but in recent times, there has been divergence of ideas on
what food security really means. Food security, in fact, has been defined by FAO not
only in terms of access to and availability of food, but also in terms of resource
distribution to produce food and purchasing power to buy food where it is not
produced.
According to World Bank, food security was defined as access by all people at all
times to enough food for an active and healthy life.
Reutlinger (1987) defined food security as access by all people at all time to enough
food for an active healthy life aimed at ensuring that hunger and malnutrition are
eradicated on sustainable basis. The essential elements are the availability of food
and the ability to acquire it. Omo Ohiokpehal (2003) reported that the SADC (1997)

53
regional conference agreed that the working definition of food security should be:
Food Security = Food availability + food access and acquisition + food use.
Food Processing
This is the set of methods and techniques used to transform raw ingredients into
food or to transform food into other forms for consumption by humans or animals
either in the home or by the food processing industry. Food processing typically
takes clean, harvested crops or slaughtered and butchered animals products and
uses these to produce attractive, marketable and often long lift food products. Food
processing improves food nutritionally by removing toxic substances, extending
shelf life and making it more palatable.
Food Storage
This is the process of treating and handling food in order to increase the shelf life of
the food. Food storage has been identified, as a major aspect of increasing food
security, and any effort that is aimed at increasing food security must be matched
with equal if not greater effort at providing adequate and efficient storage facilities.
Overview/ Background of Food security
Food is a basic necessity of life. Its importance is seen in the fact that it is a basic
means of sustenance and an adequate food make in terms of quantity and quality, is
a key for healthy and productive life (Omonona et al 2007).
Achieving food security in its totality continues to be a challenge not only for
developing country like Nigeria but for the developed world. Food insecurity has
the potential to influence food intake and ultimately the health and nutritional status
of household.
We may distinguish between national food security and household food security.
This distinction is necessary because aggregates supply of food, from domestic

54
sources or impact or both are prerequisite but certainly not a sufficient condition for
a food security situation in a country, in other words, adequate availability of food
for every citizen. Food security at household level is a subset of a national level and
it requires that all individual and household have access to sufficient food either by
producing it themselves or by generating sufficient to demand for it.
WOMEN IN FOOD PROCESSING.
Foods are processed to improve their digestibility and to enhance their appeal to the
consumer. Processing also serves to extend the availability of foods beyond the area
and season of production, thus stabilizing supplies and increasing food security at
national and household levels. A particularly important aspect of food processing is
that it permits great diet diversity, giving consumers access to a wider choice of
products and hence to a better range of vitamins and minerals than they would
otherwise consume.
Food processing is considered a traditional activity and as such many women are
involved in this sector as unpaid family members, home-based (or piece rate)
workers and self-employed. Womens vulnerability to market liberalisation policies,
structural adjustment programmes (e.g. privatisation and downsizing the public
sector) and globalisation has increased the attention they have received in the past
few years. Broadly speaking, womens employment opportunities are constrained by
their limited resource base and society. A limited resource base refers to womens
lower education levels and literacy, fewer skills and restricted access to productive
resources (e.g. land, raw materials, credit). The second element refers to the gender
constraints that exist in society. For example, perceptions regarding womens
work and it are worth as well as religious practices that require women to remain in
the home. These two factors are inter-related and influence one another
considerably. For instance, gender biases prevent women and girls from fully
benefiting from available educational opportunities and/ or developing the
necessary skills to enter male dominated professions. As stated in the introduction,

55
these constraints frequently relegate women to unskilled, low paying jobs that offer
little security and contribute to their high participation in the informal sector (White,
1999)
On a larger scale, agro-industries convert commodities into processed foods which

are usually more stable and more marketable than the raw, untreated commodity.
They can thus make available certain types of food, e.g. animal protein, often at low
prices, to consumers who would not otherwise have access to them. They can also
ensure year-round availability of seasonal, perishable products and provide food in
a more convenient form than the raw material (FAO, 1997)
Women as a result of gender biases are the cheapest source of labour and as such are
multinationals main employees (women represent 40% of the labour force in the
food processing sector). The new jobs provided are low paying, require little skill
and thus offer few opportunities for women to improve their economic, social and
political situation. In addition to reinforcing gender inequities, this employment is
also much unprotected. Globalisation of the world economy has enabled
multinationals to quickly close down operations and re-locate in a different country.
Not only are women unable to increase their skills and earn a fair wage, but the jobs
they do obtain are liable to disappear without notice (White, 1999)
In Africa, it is estimated that women contribute 70 percent of all time expended on

food production, 100 percent on food processing, 50 percent on food storage and
husbandry, 60 percent on marketing and 90 percent on beer brewing (Elias, 1990).
The role of women in food storage

According to a local Pakistan proverb the definition of a rich person is the one that
has stored enough grains to last the year round. Another proverb adds that if one
who has enough grains in the house then even his foolishness is taken as

56
intelligence. Grain storage is highly important for food security both locally and
nationally.
Women play an important role in grain storage everywhere and they are familiar
with different stages and steps of storage processes, (Spate irrigation Network
Pakistan, 2010) and their role cannot be over emphasized. Perry (1985) pointed out
clearly that while agricultural planners often stereotype women as consumers rather
than producers, rural women actually account for more than half of the food
produced in the Third World and also play a leading role in the storage and
processing of food.
In some developing countries an estimated 25 percent of all food produced is never

consumed by humans. Instead it spoils or is eaten by insects, rats and other pests.
Measures to correct this situation can be taken in fields, households, shops and
warehouses.
CONCLUSION
The role of women in ensuring food security in Nigeria cannot be overemphasized;
women have a greater role to play in doing these. A lot of measure has to be put in
place in the processing and storage of food in order to ensure food security in
Nigeria. If all the above-mentioned ways can be adhered to, food security can be
achieved.
RECOMMENDATION
The following are measures to be taken in order to ensure availability of food all
year round.
Control of rats by trapping, poison, rat-proofing grain stores, etc;
Control of insects by use of insecticides, better food stores and airtight food
containers;

57
Control of fungi and food rot by storage of food in as dry a state as possible
and by use of better containers;
Control of birds by destruction, especially in millet and wheat areas;
Protective measures against monkeys, baboons, porcupines, wild pigs and
other destructive animals, even elephants;
educating people about safe and hygienic food storage at home. (FAO1997.)
REFERENCES
FAO (1997) - FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED
NATIONS Agriculture food and nutrition for Africa A resource book for teachers
of agriculture Rome,
Kaul R. N (992). Gender issues in farming part II; selected care studies in
development and extension of farm and other equipment to women in northern
Nigeria. Journal for farming system Research Extensions, 1992 3:2, pp 25 38
Mijinyawa Yahaya (2002). Farm structures, Ibadan Pg. 32-37
Okunmadewa Folusho (2002). Food security and policy in Nigeria breaking the jinx,
processing on the first international Conference of the West African Society for
Agricultural Engineering, Abuja pg. 2-12.
Omonona, Bolarin Titus, Agoi, Grace Adetokunbo (2007). Household, Evidence from
security situation among Nigerians. Journal of Central European Agricultural Vol. 8. No
3 Pg. 79-406.
Perry, A (1985). Bearing the burden, West Africa, April 22 p. 785
Reutlinuger Scalamo (1987). Food scarcity and poverty on developing countries.

58
Spate irrigation Network Pakistan (2010). Improving Local Grain Storage, Pakistan,
pg 1
Suzanne White (1999). Womens Employment in the Agro and Food processing
Sector South Asia and East Africa. Draft Report submitted to the Aga Khan
Foundation.
World Bank (1986). Poverty and hunger: - Issues and option for food security on
developing countries a world bank policy study, Washington

59
CHAPTER NINE
THE PRICE OF PEACE
Culled from Christian Women Mirror. The Magazine for Building Godly Women.
Published by Deeper Christian Life Ministry, Gbagada, Lagos, Nigeria
Peace is an expensive asset everyone seeks to possess. In fact, nations of the world
spend very huge amount of money seeking for peace, yet true peace comes from
God alone. Anyone or family that seeks inward peace or a peaceful coexistence with
others must first have peace that comes from God.
The bible exhorts in Hebrew 12: 14, Follow peace with all men. All men here
includes your spouse. The woman especially should develop and maintain peace in
the home. She must possess the virtues of patience, tolerance, thoughtfulness, and
forgiveness. Here are a few list of the price to pay to have peace in your marriage.
1. Love. Love fosters forgiveness and reconciliation in the family and is

therefore. Essential for peace in the home.
2. Humility. This is the ability to admit that you are wrong and apologize
readily. It is a powerful ingredient that can truly work miracles in marriages.
Pride, selfishness and unwillingness to look deep inside ones own heart and
admit ones own faults can cause bickering in the home. When disagreements
arise, dont always think you are right. Be reasonable and try to see your
spouses viewpoint.
3. Understanding. Understanding fosters peace in the home. Try and
understand what your partner is saying or what he wants, even if you dont
agree.
4. Care about spouse. You wont find peace by being self centered. Youll
begin to enjoy your marriage only when genuinely care about your spouse.

60
5.
Forgiveness. This is important because if you dont forgive your spouse, you
cant be at peace with him. You will always remember where he hurts you,
and when you have ill feelings, you hurt yourself. But when you forgive,
you set spouse and yourself free from emotional pains and agonies.
Note, however, that a relationship where peace doesnt exist, all sorts of vices:
quarrelling, bickering, dishonesty, lack of trust, hatred, and poor communication
thrive there. As a couple, you must follow peace with each other, and ensure the
peace is sustained by prayer and love. Inner peace and peaceful coexistence in
marriage dont occur by accident; you must consistently work towards them,
even in the midst of difficulties and unpleasant circumstances.
Dear reader, the only way you can have peace in your marriage is to give the
Prince of PEACE a place in your heart and home, whilst developing the foregone,
strategies that strengthen the bonds of peace. When you have peace with God,
yourself and your spouse, you will open the door to success in your endeavours.

61
CHAPTER TEN
WOMEN AND SCIENCE LABORATORY TECHNOLOGY PROFESSION
Abulude, Francis Olawale
Science and Education Development Institute, Akure, Ondo State, Nigeria
INTRODUCTION
Before I make my points in this write up permit me to briefly introduce Science
Laboratory Technology in Nigeria. Due to time and space I will not be able to give
the full account, but I will try to give a few details. In the 70s, the University of
Ibadan (UI) was a center for the training of technologists and technicians as a PartTime programme, students were trained to sit for the City and Guilds of London (C
& G) examinations in conjunction with The Institute of Science Technology, London.
The certificates awarded were i. Science and Laboratory Technicians Certificate Part
One to Three. Most of the technologists then were products of UI Laboratory
Technology Training Scheme (LTTS). Later there was the need to increase the
number of training schools then other universities now introduced their centers
(LTTS) who later produced their graduates. Polytechnic institutions followed suit.
Later it was it was observed that the certificates (Part One and Two C & G) were not
equivalent to OND and HND and because of the high foreign exchange, the idea of
writing C & G examination was discarded. At the mid of 80s there was the birth
Institute of Science Technology (NIST), located in Ibadan, Oyo State. NIST was
saddled with responsibility of conducting examinations, successful candidates were
awarded Science Technologists Intermediate Certificate and Final Diploma and
grant licenses to practice. Within a few years of its existence of NIST, its products
were called to serve the nation through National Youth Service Corps (NYSC) and
gain employment with secondary and tertiary institutions, industries, government
parastatals just to mention a few.

62
Presently, the NIST has transformed into Nigerian Institute of Science Laboratory
Technology (NISLT) by the Act (as contained in the Federal Republic of Nigeria
Official Gazette No. 47 of 23rd July, 2003 volume 90 pages 199-220). Inauguration of
the council was held on the 27th May, 2004 by the then Honourable Minister of
Science and Technology.
Laboratory technology is the hub of science throughout the modern world. In

Nigeria, Federal and State governments are trying their best on national
development, part of their efforts is developing and sustaining educational
institutions laboratories. To man these laboratories are technicians and technologist.
Science Laboratory Technology (SLT) is a noble profession. Men have excelled
therein, there is nothing that should stop women too. The saying goes thus
whatever men do, women does it better
I have attended workshops, seminars and conferences of three different professional
bodies, I know the attendances to these functions by women, but at SLT functions
the participation is far less compared to others and the ratio of women to men of
membership is far less, although I have not carried out empirical research on this,
but this is my observation. I have decided within me, that if I have the opportunity
of encouraging women to embrace this profession I will do it. Therefore the aim of
this paper is to make clarion call to women to make this profession their chosen
career. To attempt this, I would introduce SLT, provide the entry requirement and
job opportunities.
Institutions of Learning
The Polytechnics and Universities are the two citadels of Knowlegde where students
are trained and awarded certificates. The Polytechnics award ND Science Laboratory
Technology and HND with options, while the universities award B. Sc/B. Tech in
SLT with options. The graduates of Polytechnics are designated as Assistant

63
Technologist (ND) and Technologist (HND), while those of the universities are
Scientists.
In the Polytechnic, students spend two years for the ND, one year for the industrial
training and two years to bag HND thereafter a year of NYSC. Five years is spent in
the University for the Bachelors degree.
Entry Requirements
Bachelors Degree
i) Five-credit level passes in SSCE/GCE; O.L. in not more than two sittings, in
Physics, Chemistry, Biology, Mathematics and English Language.
ii) Candidates with OND, ND or University Diploma in SLT at merit level pass
provided they have (i) above.
iii) GCE A/L, IJME plus (i) above
National Diploma
The minimum entry requirement into the National Diploma in Science and
Laboratory Technology programme is four Credit level passes in Senior Certificate
Examination (SSCE) or National Examination Council (NECO) in not more than two
sittings. The subjects must include the following: Mathematics and any two of the
following: Biology or Agricultural Science, Chemistry and Physics. Entrants must
possess at least credit grades in Biology, Chemistry, Physics and English Language.
Candidates who have successfully completed the Board's recognized Pre-National
Diploma (Science and Technology) course may be admitted into the programme.
Higher National Diploma

Candidates are required to satisfy SSCE/GCE/NECO/NABTEB entry requirements
for the corresponding National Diploma programme. Candidates are required to
have completed a relevant National Diploma Programme not below LOWER

64
CREDIT classification. Candidates are required to have at least one year post- ND
industrial work experience.
Areas of specialization
i.
Biochemistry and Chemistry Technology
ii.
Biomedical Technology
iii. Geology and Mining Technology

iv. Industrial Chemistry and Petrochemical Technology
v.
Microbiology Technology
vi. Physics/with Electronics Technology

vii. Physics with Production Technology
Job Specifications
Assistant Technologist
Washing of glassware, preparation of solutions / reagents, responsible for ensuring
the operation of laboratory instrumentation, assistance in lecture demonstrations,
running of research laboratories, supervision of other junior laboratory staffs and
other duties allocated by technologist and Head of Department.
Technologist
Preparation of solution and reagents
Assisting with student experiments
Adviser on good laboratory practice and health and safety
Helping to perfect techniques in the laboratory
Carrying out minor repairs of laboratory equipment
Performing other duties allocated by technologist in charge
Performing stock control
Indenting for stores and relevant equipment for the store
Assisting with security, health and safety in the laboratory
Organizing training programme for junior staff

65
Supervising and coordinating the activities of junior officers in various units of the
laboratory
Administration of laboratories
Rendering appropriate reports on the activities of the laboratories
Advising on policy matters relating to laboratory technology
Budgeting and ordering for laboratory equipment and chemical reagents
Membership of Profession
Before a qualified woman can practice in Nigeria, there is a statutory professional
categories of membership (corporate and non-corporate) which has to be registered
with. The NISLT does this.
Corporate Membership
Corporate Membership refers to members licensed to practice as professionals. Only
two grades of corporate membership now exist - Associate and Fellow.
A person shall be registered as Associate member of the Institute if he/she has
completed a course of study in Science Laboratory Technology and holds either
B.Sc./B.Tech or HND in Science Laboratory Technology awarded by accredited
Institutions of higher learning.
Upgrading to Fellowship
There are two methods of upgrading from Associateship to the Fellowship grade of
the Institute either by research supervised by a PhD holder or experience About 15
years in service.

66
Non Corporate Membership

A qualified woman must possess ND or OND or equivalent. It is gratifying to note
that individuals who are found qualified by their deeds and support to the Institute
are confirmed with Honorary Fellow of the Institute.
Subject to the provisions of the Institute's Act, a person admitted into the
membership shall be registered and be entitled to use the appropriate title after
names; however, only the corporate members (i.e. the first two categories) are fully
licensed as science laboratory practitioners. Such members are issued licenses to
practice as Science Laboratory Technologists. The licenses are renewed annually
with the payment of annual subscriptions.
Career opportunities
1. Science-related businesses (food industry, chemical industry, Petrochemical
industries, pharmaceutical industry, biotechnology, consulting laboratories)
2. Local authority laboratories (primarily environmental)
3. Research laboratories (Research Institutes, universities)
4. Secondary school teacher
5. Secondary and tertiary educational institutions
6. Private laboratories
7. Scientific products warehousing and distribution outlets.
CONCLUSION
With this brief introduction of SLT, I will make this clarion call for women and girls
to make the choice of this noble profession. Women already therein should strife
hard to project the image of their chosen profession.

67
CHAPTER ELEVEN
ENCOURAGING MORE WOMEN PARTICIPATION IN NIGERIAS CASSAVA
PROCESSING INDUSTRY
O. A. Oyelade
Farm Power and Machinery Department, National Centre for Agricultural
Mechanization (NCAM), P. M. B. 1525, Ilorin, Kwara State, Nigeria.
ABSTRACT
Hunger is a serious issue facing Africa that is mainly caused by poverty. In
Nigeria today, the high unemployment rate has added to the number of
those dying of hunger in the country. Cassava is one of the most affordable
staples and a key income generating arable crop in Nigeria. It is important
in the country at a time like this when the price of crude oil has fallen in the
international market calls for the promotion of other sectors of the economy
that can generate income for the country. Cassava which the country
produces at a very huge amount needs to be processed for export as the only
way of generating internal revenue for the country which the country could
use for infrastructural development. The cassava processing industry
which could speed up action towards this development is currently faced
with lots of problems that call for governments urgent attention in
addressing these problems. Therefore, this paper discusses how women
participation in the cassava processing industry in Nigeria could be
increased and encouraged as a way of increasing the level of productivity
which will greatly help in reducing the poverty and hunger rates
experienced in the country.
KEYWORDS: Women, gari, cassava, industry, machines, crop

68
INTRODUCTION
Agriculture is a major contributor to Nigeria's Gross Domestic Product, with cassava
playing a leading role. Cassava is one of the most affordable staples and is
predominantly the key income generating arable crop. In addition to providing food
for consumption, employment to rural youths, cassava products can be exported to
generate more foreign earnings. Its relative ease of production, high resistant ability,
moderate ability to withstand drought in the face of any prevailing climate
variability, give cassava an advantage over other crops as regards hunger and
poverty reduction (Ndife 1983, Oladele et al., 2011).
Cassava also became popular with the introduction and implementation of SAP
since 1986 with increasing output. This policy made those imported cereals to be
more costly, making cassava a relatively cheap source of energy. This increasing
trend in output has continued to make Nigeria, the world leading producer of
cassava since the beginning of 1990s with an estimated contribution of 40 million
metric tonnes per annum and an average yield of 10.2 tonnes per hectare (Nigeria
National Report 2006). According to Yakasai (2010), cassava constitute 15% peels and
85% fresh tuber flesh, with the flesh made up of 30% starch, 63% water content, 2%
protein, 1 2% fiber, with trace vitamins and minerals. Cassava (Manihot spp.) has
been identified alongside yams, rice, maize, sorghum, and millet as the main food
crops in Nigeria (NEEDS, 2014). It is a perennial root crop that grows in non-ideal
conditions and represents a major staple crop in Africa, South America and Asia and
was introduced in Nigeria by returnee slaves from America (Nwibo et al., 2011).
Cassava is the basis of many products, including food. In Africa and Latin America,
cassava is mostly used for human consumption, while in Asia and parts of Latin
America it is also used commercially for the production of animal feed and starch
based products (Ojekunle, 2010).
In Africa, cassava provides a basic daily source of dietary energy. Roots are
processed into a wide variety of granules, pastes, flours, etc., or consumed freshly

69
boiled or raw. In most of the cassava-growing countries in Africa, the leaves are also
consumed as a green vegetable, which provides protein and vitamins A and B. In
Southeast Asia and Latin America, cassava has taken on an economic role. Cassava
starch is used as a binding agent, in the production of paper and textiles, and as
monosodium glutamate, an important flavoring agent in Asian cooking. In Africa,
cassava is beginning to be used in partial substitution for wheat flour (Ojekunle,
2010). According to Food and Agriculture Organization (2004), most starch factories
buy cassava roots from growers in their neighborhood, directly or through agents.
Some factories, however, own their cassava plantations. Cassava processing in
Nigeria has been described by (Food and Agriculture Organization, 2004) at five
levels. Common terms used to describe these capacity levels were household (or
cottage), micro, small, medium and large. Household level processing typically did
not employ any outside labour. The household consumed virtually all the processed
products and sold a small amount to raise income for additional household needs.
According to Food and Agriculture Organization (2004), most Nigerian processors
fell within this category. At micro processing capacity the employment of one or two
units of labour might take place while processing a variety of products. This
enterprise used batch processing. Batch processing might take four hours per day
and this would be sufficient for the owner/operator. Nigeria had a few processors in
this category. The Small and medium processing operations typically employ three
to ten workers and were very sparse in Nigeria at present. Large scale processing
was virtually non-existent in Nigeria.
Household or Traditional cassava processing, according to International Institute for

Tropical Agriculture (2004), had a number of undesirable attributes. It was timeconsuming, provided low yields, and lacked storage capabilities. Drying of fresh
cassava roots or dewatered pulp was normally carried out traditionally using solar
heat. Two problems were associated with the sun-drying: sanitation, since the
materials were often spread on the ground to dry; and difficulties in drying during
the rainy season (Kwaitia, 1988). Cassava root shape, according to Bello (2013),

70
varied among cultivars. Roots with irregular shapes were difficult to harvest and
peel by hand thereby resulting in great losses of useable root materials. The varietal
differences in dry mater content and starch content and quality influenced the
output and quality of the processed products (Bello, 2013).
Cassava has become the magic crop in Nigeria as a result of the Presidential
initiative on cassava some years ago with good export potential (Iyagba and
Anyanwu, 2012). It was observed by Nweke et al., (1994) that many soils are used for
growing cassava but high tuber yield can only be obtained in friable and light soils.
Most food crops produced in the country come from the efforts of the small-scale
resource poor farmers who depend largely on traditional farming systems for their
agricultural inputs. Women play a significant role in agriculture, the world over.
About 70% of the agricultural workers, 80% of food producers, and 10% of those
who process basic foodstuffs are women and they also undertake 60 to 90% of the
rural marketing; thus making up more than two-third of the workforce in
agricultural production (FAO, 1995). Therefore this paper tends to discuss the
various operations women are involved in the cassava processing industry in
Nigeria and see areas that call for urgent attention for encouraging more women
participation in the industry which is seen as the only way of ensuring food security,
reducing poverty and hunger rates in Nigeria.
CULTIVATION AND MANAGEMENT PRACTICES OF CASSAVA AS A CROP
According to James et al., (2000), cassava is one of the most common food crops
grown and consumed in many parts of Africa. The crop grows well in various soil
types and ecologies. It can be planted alone or in association with many other crops,
like maize, groundnuts, vegetables, and rice. Growing cassava is not very labour
intensive and usually requires 75 125 person-days per hectare from land
preparation to harvesting. The storage roots can be harvested 9 18 months after
planting. Under traditional farming practices, one can expect between 8 and 15
tonnes of storage roots per hectare of land planted only with cassava.

71
It was also noted by James et al., (2000), that there is need to combine plant
production and plant protection practices in order to grow a healthy crop of cassava.
These practices include site selection, soil improvement, variety and planting
material selection, and planting and post-planting measures against weeds, pests
and diseases. Likewise their study further stated that loamy soil is the best soil for
growing cassava because such soils are rich in nutrients, low in gravel, hold water
well, and are easy to work or till. Sandy and clayey soils are not the most suitable
soils for growing cassava.
According to (www.cassavabiz.org/agroenterprise/ent images/cassava_02.pdf),

several improved varieties of cassava have been recommended and released in
Nigeria. The most commonly grown of these varieties are TMS 30572, 4(2)1425,
92/0326 and NR 8082 because they are stable across the environments. However,
there is need to select the variety with the highest performance in ones farm site and
environs. Stems of improved varieties can be obtained from National Seed Service
(NSS), state offices of Agricultural Development Programmes (ADP), the Cassava
Growers Association (CGA) and several out-growers who produce quality stems for
sale. Stems are usually tied in bundles each having 50 stems that are 1 meter long.
Fifty of such bundles are needed to plant 1 hectare of land.
Planting should be done as soon as rain becomes steady in the area. This varies from
March to November in the rain forest, April to August in the derived savanna, May
to July in the Southern Guinea savanna (SGS) and July to August in the Northern
Guinea savanna (NGS). Stakes can be planted vertically (buds facing up with twothird of the stake in the soil), horizontally (whole stake buried 3-5 cm in the soil) or
inclined (buds facing up with two-third of the stake buried in the soil at an angle of
about 45o). When stakes are planted vertically tuberous roots bulk deep into the soil,
this gives more stability to the plant against lodging, it makes harvesting very
difficult. This orientation is recommended for sandy soils. Stakes planted

72
horizontally produce multiple stems and more tuberous roots but they are
comparatively smaller in size. The roots are produced near the surface and they are
easily exposed to mechanical damage and to rodents. However, in loamy and rich
soils the multiple stems and roots are at an advantage resulting in high yields. Stakes
that are inclined on the ridge produce tuberous roots in the same direction. The
inclination of the stem and roots provide a leverage which makes harvesting easier
than in the other orientations. In shallow and clayey soils, stakes should be inclined.
In the rain forest and derived savanna, farmers incline their stakes at planting. The
optimum plant population for high root yield is 10,000 plants per hectare obtainable
when plants are spaced at 1 x 1 m. This population is seldom achieved at harvest due
to losses caused by genetic and environmental factors. In order to harvest a plant
population near the optimum an initial plant population per hectare of 12,300 at 0.9 x
0.9 m is recommended. Plant spacing and population will vary depending on if
cassava
is
planted
sole
or
in
association
with
other
crops
(www.cassavabiz.org/agroenterprise/ent images/cassava_02.pdf).
Cassava is compatible with many crops when intercropped. The best intercrops of
cassava in Nigeria include maize, melon, groundnut, cowpea and vegetables. Other
less important intercrops particularly in the South-south and Southeastern Nigeria
include yam, cocoyam, sweet potato, plantain and banana. None or high branching
varieties of cassava are best for intercropping. Profuse and low branching varieties
will shade light off the intercrops. In medium and large-scale farms maize is the best
intercrop. This is one of the major limiting factors to production accounting for more
than 25% of the total cost and time of production. Integrated weed control (cultural,
mechanical and chemical) is recommended. The ideal combination will depend on
the agroecology, weed spectrum and level of infestation, soil type and cropping
system (www.cassavabiz.org/agroenterprise/ent images/cassava_02.pdf).
On the use of fertilizer, its recommendation should be based on soil analysis but
when such soil analyses are not done, then the use of land history and vegetation as

73
a guide becomes necessary. Lands naturally inundated with Chromolaena odorata

(Akintola taku) as weed can support a good cassava crop without fertilizer while the
presence of Spear grass or poorly established vegetation is a signal for fertilization.
Under continuous cultivation in the forest zone apply a first dose of 200 kg (4 bags)
of N: P: K 15:15:15 per hectare or a full small matchbox per plant at 4-6 weeks after
planting (June-July). A second dose of 100 kg of muriate of potash or a half-full small
matchbox per plant at 14-16 weeks after planting (September) should also be
applied. In the savanna zone, apply a first dose of 200 kg (4 bags) of N: P: K 15:15:15
per hectare or a full small matchbox per plant at 4-6 weeks after planting and a
second dose of 50 kg of muriate of potash per hectare. Fertilizer should be applied in
holes of 5 cm deep and 10 cm radius from the plant. Fertilizer should not be applied
when
the
soil
is
dry
(www.cassavabiz.org/agroenterprise/ent
images/cassava_02.pdf).
During harvesting of cassava, all parts of the crop (stems, leaves and tuberous roots)
can be harvested for specific markets. There is usually a high demand for planting
materials of improved varieties at the beginning of the planting season. Stems could
be harvested, packaged and sold to increase the profit margin from the farm. Stem
harvesting can be total or partial. In total harvesting all the stems are pruned leaving
only the stumps to regrow while in partial harvesting a few stems are pruned from
plants having multiple stems. In a well-established production field 400 or more
bundles of stem can be harvested per hectare. Leaves of cassava can serve as
vegetable and silage. As vegetable, harvest only the young succulent leaves and
process. As silage for animal feed, all the green leaves including the young parts of
the stem are harvested, chopped and ensiled. During harvesting of tuberous roots,
cassava plants can be harvested at 9 18 months after planting to give root yields
ranging from 15 50 tons or more per hectare depending on the variety,
environment (soil fertility status, acidity level, moisture level and sunshine hours)
and agronomic practices adopted. Roots should be harvested only when there is a
ready market. Avoid excessive bruising of the roots during harvesting otherwise it

74
deteriorates very rapidly. For quality products, roots should be processed as soon as
they are harvested and not later than 48 hours. The major quality trait for market
acceptability of roots is dry matter content. It is usually high soon after the rains and
during the harmattan period but low in plants recovering from stress particularly
during the reflushing of new leaves (www.cassavabiz.org/agroenterprise/ent
images/cassava_02.pdf).
USES AND IMPORTANCE OF CASSAVA AS A CROP

Fleshly harvested cassava has a very short storage life; the tubers cannot be stored
longer after harvest before decaying but when processed into any of the two
principal products flour or gari, its shelf life increases. Processing procedures are
aimed at reducing cyanide, improving storability, providing convenience and
palatability (Oladele et al., 2011). Cassava is used mainly for two main purposes in
Nigeria: 90% as human food and between 5 and 10% as secondary industrial
material (used mostly as animal feed). About 10% of Nigerias industrial demand
consists of HQCF used in biscuits and confectioneries, dextrin pre-gelled starch for
adhesives, starch and hydrolysates for pharmaceuticals produces and as seasonings.
Seventy percent of cassava processed as human food is gari. Other common cassava
products for human consumption are lafun and fufu/Akpu. Processed products can be
classified into primary and secondary products. Processed products of cassava such
as gari, fufu, starch, chips, pellets are primary products which are obtained directly
from raw cassava roots, while the secondary products are obtained from the further
processing of primary products (e.g. glucose syrup, dextrin, and adhesive are
obtained from starch). Among all the products of cassava, gari is the favoured
derivative as it has a longer shelf-life than the other processed products (Igberi and
Awoke, 2013). According to Ezedinma et al., (2006), seventy percent of the labour
involved in the production and processing of cassava in Nigeria is done by women
in rural areas.

75
When cassava is processed, value has been added to the produce. Some of the valueadded forms in which it is utilized are gari, fufu, tapioca, ethanol, starch, cassava
flour, cassava chips, glucose syrup, lafun, livestock feed, cassava-based adhesive, etc.
Cassava processing could be manually done or could be mechanized. The manually
prepared ones do not require sophisticated equipment. The widespread uses of
cassava following the processing have added more value to the produce. This has
assisted in stemming the spate of poverty. Several researchers are of the view that
cassava processing and the value added products have tremendously led to
sustainable poverty alleviation (Nnadi and Akwiwu, 2005; Nwajiuba, 1995).
PROBLEM OF CASSAVA PROCESSING IN NIGERIA
Cassava processing is constrained by a lack of steady supply of tubers throughout
the year, high transport cost to processing centres, inadequate processing equipment
and low returns from small-scale processing (Root and Tuber Expansion
Programme, 2003; Asiedu, 1989). Poor quality of locally produced cassava products
has been traced to problem associated with labour intensive operations such as
peeling, grating, milling, dewatering, toasting, sifting, etc. It was reported that gari
processing takes an average of 90 hours to process 100 kg of gari per person. It was
further iterated that 65% of the total time could be spent on peeling and 25% in
roasting (William, 1979). To alleviate some of these problems encountered by
traditional processors, various processing machines are developed for these
operations such as peeling, grating of various sizes, pressing, sieving, frying,
chipping and milling.
The major problem of cassava is that it is extremely perishable and the harvested
tuber must be processed to curb postharvest losses (Davies, 1991; Adenugba and
John, 2014). Peeling in cassava processing has been major bottleneck in the
mechanization of cassava due to the varying shapes and sizes of cassava tubers. It
was reported by Ojekunle (2010) that cassava as a root crop requires considerable
labour to harvest. Because they are highly perishable, roots must be processed into a

76
storable form soon after harvest. Many cassava varieties contain cyanogenic
glucosides, and inadequate processing can lead to chronic toxicity. Various
processing methods, such as grating, sun drying, and fermenting, are used to reduce
the cyanide content. It was also noted by Adenugba and John (2014) that the
liberation of hydrogen cyanide, a deadly poison makes cassava has a major
disadvantage during its preparation as a food. Careful preparation is therefore
needed to initiate the various chemical interactions needed to eliminate this poison.
Various food crops have production, processing and marketing problems. Some of
these problems include production methods, storage equipment and appropriate
technology, agricultural development policies and research and lower levels of
education (Abott, 2007). In Nigeria, cassava is a major food staple and the
production of processed cassava` known as gari is carried out on a large scale. Like
all traditional cassava processing, gari production is labour-intensive. It is usually
undertaken by a small group of people on behalf of a larger community, either at
village level, or in large gari kitchens in towns, with many people working together
in one unit. This tedious and potentially dangerous work is carried out mainly by
women (Adenugba and John, 2014).
A typical gari preparation area consists of a large, open-sided shed, often poorly
ventilated. Many women work in these sheds, often with children around them.
Hydrogen cyanide is generated at various stages of preparation, particularly when
the fermented gari is fried in open pans. Given the ubiquity of cassava as a staple
food, and women's responsibility for its processing on a domestic and commercial
basis, the implications for women's health are important. Aside from the effects of
eating toxic cassava, women are exposed to the air pollution connected with its
processing (Adenugba and John, 2014). In the report presented by Adenugba and
John, (2014), women and children constitute the most vulnerable groups who
actively take part in the production of gari. The traditional methods that are still
largely in use in gari processing site expose woman to more activities in the gari

77
processing sites, as a result increasing the tendencies of their exposure to

occupational hazards. These hazards in the work place according to The Safety and
Health Act (2005) can be physical, biological, chemical, ergonomic or psychosocial.
In a study carried out in Doma Local Government Area of Central Nigeria (Bello et
al., 2013) which centres on the distribution of processing methods adopted by
women cassava processors in the study area showed that the traditional method of
processing cassava was employed. Results of the study implied that women
processors were primarily involved in traditional cassava processing described as
laborious, time consuming, low yielding and lacking storage facilities (IITA, 2014).
Traditional processing method of cassava as observed in the study area involved a
combination of activities which were performed in stages such as peeling, pressing,
steaming, slicing, grating or seeping, fermenting, roasting, drying and milling.
Likewise in a study carried out in Central Gonja district of the Northern region of
Ghana (Yidana et al., 2013) on the livelihoods of women processors showed that
cassava processors in the study area were constrained with inadequate storage
facilities, poor packaging materials, health problems, low price of processed
products and inadequate fund for the expansion of their scale of processing. The
consequences of all these could drastically reduce the level of processing and
economic returns affecting the standards of living of the processors.
New mechanical technologies for cassava harvesting and processing are required to
generate the rate of growth in cassava production realized in Nigeria from 1987 to
1992. Further improvement in yield-increasing technologies alone will not generate
the same level of cassava production growth because genetic technologies which
increase yield will only add to the existing labour bottlenecks at the harvesting and
processing stages. Yield-increasing genetic technologies are important but
insufficient engine of growth of the cassava sector. The challenge is to augment the
yield-increasing genetic technologies with mechanical technologies in order to break

78
the new labour bottlenecks at the harvesting and processing stages and transform
cassava to play an additional role as a livestock feed and industrial raw material.
ROLE OF MEN AND WOMEN IN NIGERIAS CASSAVA PROCESSING
INDUSTRY
Over the years, it is believed that some crops are designated as women crops for
planting and processing. These include vegetables, groundnuts and cassava while
yam and tree crops such as cocoa and palm produce are said to be mens (Ajayi,
1995). Women are active in the cassava industry and that they are more predominant
in the processing and marketing than men folk who dominate the production of
cassava roots (Adegeye et al., 1999). He further stated that women activities in root
production have increased due to mens off farm employment or part-time work off
the farm therefore women are involved in weeding, harvesting, transportation,
storage, processing and marketing.
In a study carried out by (Ojekunle, (2010), men predominantly engaged in machine

operations while women undertook cassava processing operations that were
prominently manual. Peeling, washing, frying, sifting and drying was almost done
manually and by women. Women were dominant in operating milling machines
powered by petrol engines and electric motors. About 65% women were favourably
employed in the cassava processing centres and this was similar to the report of
Ajibola, (1995). There was higher share of female labour in cassava processing which
called for an urgent need for appropriate gender sensitive machines and equipment
for cassava processing. Similar observation in Kaduna State, Nigeria was also
recorded by Atala and Tafa (1995).
In another study carried out by Davies et al., (2008), involvement of women were
noticeable in the following cassava processing operations such as peeling, sifting,
frying and drying while men predominantly undertake grating, pressing and milling

79
operations which had been mechanized. Some of the processors in the study area
complained of non-assistance from government in all the processing centres.
Women traditionally are known to play more active role in cassava production,
processing, storage and marketing (Nsoanya and Nenna, 2011). These findings
support (Adisa and Okunade, 2005; Akinnagbe et al., 2008) who asserted that women
are the backbone of agricultural sector, and being responsible for 80% food
production. This implies that they are highly instrumental to food production and
food security and are responsible to a large degree for the welfare of the family.
HYDROGEN CYANIDE A MAJOR PROBLEM ENCOUNTERED DURING

CASSAVA PROCESSING OPERATIONS
Hydrogen cyanide known as a deadly poison is generated at various stages of
preparation, particularly when fermented gari is fried in open pans. Gari which
serves as a major food product from cassava calls for the urgent need to seek better
ways of reducing the danger hydrogen cyanide poses to ones health after being
exposed to the deadly poison.
Hydrogen
cyanide,
as
reported
by
(www.cdc.gov/noish/ershdb/EmergencyResponseCard_29750038.html),
is
systemic chemical asphyxiant. It interferes with the normal use of oxygen by nearly
every organ of the body. Exposure to hydrogen cyanide can be rapidly fatal. It has
whole-body (systemic) effects, particularly affecting those organ systems most
sensitive to low oxygen levels: the central nervous system (brain), the cardiovascular
system (heart and blood vessels), and the pulmonary system (lungs). According to
(en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen-cyanide), a hydrogen cyanide concentration of
300 mg/m3 in air will kill a human within 10 60 minutes.../../../../../../Engr.
Oyelade/Desktop/cassa1/Hydrogen
cyanide
Wikipedia,
the
free
encyclopedia.htm - cite_note-cyanidecode1-38 a hydrogen cyanide concentration of

3500 ppm which is about 3200 mg/m3 will kill a human in about 1 minute.

80
Hydrogen cyanide gas in air is explosive at concentrations over 5.6%, which is far
above its toxicity level.
Hydrogen cyanide can affect the body by ingestion, inhalation, skin contact, or eye
contact. The Emergency Response Safety and Health Database provide useful
information
on
how
to
treat
someone
exposed
to
hydrogen
cyanide
(www.cdc.gov/noish/ershdb/EmergencyResponseCard_29750038.html).
WAY FORWARD
ENCOURAGING THE MECHANIZATION OF CASSAVA PROCESSING
OPERATION
In the various research works examined in this paper really showed that the
traditional method of processing cassava still persist in so many places in Nigeria
with little application of mechanization. With the continuous use of the traditional
method for the processing of cassava in Nigeria, this country is far away from
meeting what it will take to feed its ever-teeming population. Therefore, there is the
urgent need for government to conduct an extensive survey into the level of
mechanization in our various cassava processing centres in Nigeria. The outcome of
this survey exercise will assist the federal government to project the number of
cassava processing machines needed in each of the geopolitical zone for the purpose
of ensuring food security in Nigeria. In view of this, all federal government
establishments in Nigeria into the development of agricultural machines and
equipment with the assistance of local fabricators within the catchment area should
endeavour to come up with the development of a very low-cost machine for all
processing stages of cassava which farmers could afford for boosting up their
production level.
The three tiers of government in Nigeria are called upon to develop more cassava
processing centres and empower the youth who are within their active age in
manning these centres. The amount of money Nigerian government spends in

81
importing food on yearly basis to feed her ever-teeming population could be

diverted into laudable projects such as the creation of more cassava processing
centres in the country where cassava products such as cassava chips could be
exported to other countries. The money derived from cassava exports will earn this
nation lot of foreign exchange, now that the price of crude oil has drastically
dropped in the international market thereby making oil dependent countries in the
world to search for other alternative of generating internal revenue for their country.
Agricultural engineers in the country should work hand-in-hand in coming up with
a mechanical peeler that will address the bottleneck associated with cassava peeling
operation. Although, no perfect mechanical cassava peeler have been developed
successfully in the country from the findings of Kamal and Oyelade (2010). This calls
for all agricultural engineers in the country to come together as a team in addressing
this great challenge affecting the cassava processing industry in Nigeria.
CREATING JOB OPPORTUNITIES FOR THE JOBLESS YOUTHS BY SCALING
UP THE PROCESSING LEVEL OF CASSAVA
The rate of processing cassava in Nigeria needs to be scaled up with the introduction
of more cassava processing machines into the system that will help in reducing
wastages emanating from unprocessed harvested cassava in the farm site. Nigeria
needs lots of money for capital projects which the agricultural sector on its own can
provide through cassava exports. A lot of jobless youths in the country are out there
waiting for job opportunities which the Nigerian government can provide if
government is fully ready to build more cassava processing centres in the country
and get these youths employed in order to increase the production rate of cassava
products that the country can export for revenue generation. This aspect will
definitely promote the creation of large-scale production of cassava products in
Nigeria.

82
IMPROVED ROAD NETWORK

The condition of our roads in Nigeria is nothing to write home about as government
pays little or no attention to road rehabilitation. Cassava is a crop that needs to be
processed immediately after harvest before it starts to deteriorate. With the poor
situation of our roads, freshly harvested farm produce may be difficult getting it
transported to the nearby market thereby making the food available in the nearby
market to be purchased at high prices. With the provision of good roads by our
government, Nigeria stands the chance of producing more cassava products for
home consumption, industrial use and exports.
ORGANIZING FREE TRAININGS FOR WOMEN PROCESSORS
As a way of encouraging women processors into cassava processing operation,
government should endeavour to organize free trainings on quarterly basis in
passing across the recent processing techniques and machines in-use in increasing
the processing rate of cassava. More importantly, women need this type of free
training as a way of knowing how we can produce cassava products that is
completely free from toxic.
ENCOURAGING THE YOUTHS TO GO INTO CASSAVA PROCESSING
A lot of research articles have stated that youths in the country are no more
interested in farming activities. They prefer jobs that will earn them quick money
than going into farming business that will take them months or years before they can
get back the money invested into it. Government needs to address all areas that
make farming a lucrative business in Nigeria. One of the areas that need urgent
attention is the accessibility to fund through the provision of bank loans. Over the
years, Union Bank of Nigeria have been the only commercial bank that is deeply
involved in granting our farmers agricultural loans under the Agricultural Credit
Guarantee Scheme Fund (ACGSF) managed by the Central Bank of Nigeria (CBN).
There is need for more commercial banks in Nigeria to join this scheme so as to

83
encourage all commercial banks in lending out money to those willing to go into
farming business.
ENCOURAGING MENS PARTICIPATION IN MACHINE OPERATION
Engines serving as prime movers for the various motorized cassava processing
machines could either be powered by diesel or petrol engine. Diesel engines are
preferred much better to petrol engines because they can handle heavier work and
also minimize fuel consumption during operation. With the problem of having
regular supply of electricity in the country, most machines that are developed for
cassava processing machines are either run by diesel or petrol engine. Some
manufacturers could either make use of any of these engines for their machines
based on their customers demand. For our cassava processing centres, it is advisable
that all processing machines to be purchased should be diesel engine driven for
ensuring durability of the machine. Men available in the cassava processing centres
should play a supportive role to our women processors in helping them to operate
all machines which will definitely make these women proactive by creating more
time for them in handling more processing operations other than using part of their
productive time in operating these machines.
OVERCOMING HEALTH RISK
The poverty level in Nigeria today has given rise for more uneducated people in the
country to be involved in the processing operation of cassava thereby increasing
their level of health risk when exposed to the deadly poison called hydrogen cyanide
which occurs during the processing of cassava. Presently, studies have shown that
many into cassava processing in Nigeria are those in the households (cottage) level
whose production level is mainly for home consumption thereby exposing our
environment to various kinds of environmental hazards that can lead to food
contamination and water pollution when the liquid of hydrogen cyanide gets in
contact with food and water.

84
Because of the low level of education of our people involved in cassava processing
operation, government should endeavour to carry out a sensitization programme
that will involve all households in Nigeria into cassava processing on how to keep
their environment clean after processing of cassava into its various products. It sad
seeing some of the cassava processing centres visited some years ago who left their
processing machines unwashed after the days operation thereby making all forms
of flies to fly over the place. At times some of these processing centres are left with a
kind of irritating odour emanating from their surroundings. This unhygienic means
of processing cassava will definitely impose more danger to our health. Government
is called upon to provide clinics in all the cassava processing centres built in Nigeria
considering the involvement of little children who in one way or the other assist
their mothers during processing of cassava. These clinics that will serve as
emergency units are really needed around these cassava processing centres for any
cassava processor who may need the attention of a medical expert at any time of the
day.
PROVISION OF BOREHOLES
Boreholes are really needed during the development plan of building more cassava
processing centres in Nigeria. The availability of water through the provision of
boreholes in the cassava processing centres will reduce the risk women and their
little children face in the search for water within the neighbourhood before they can
begin any cassava processing operation for the day. With the provision of water,
hygienic situation in our cassava processing centres will be improved upon most
especially in the areas of having enough water to wash all machines used during the
days operation after close of work and more importantly using the water to wash
the entire place as a way of keeping the whole environment clean.
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expanding the cassava industry (production, processing and marketing) in Nigeria
prepared for FADU, LFN and NIRADO. Department of Agricultural Economics
University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria.
Adenugba, A. A and P. John., Hazardous Conditions of Women in Gari Processing

Industry in Ibadan, South West, Nigeria.
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Ajayi, S. (2005). Gender roles in subsistence crop production in Kwara State, Nigeria.
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Ajibola, O. O. (1995). Food Technology Profiles for women in Nigeria. A survey

report prepared for Technoserve Nigeria.
Akinnagbe. O. M., Agwu A. E.,
Igbokwe E. M., (2008). Agricultural Extension
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Atala, T. K and Tafa, A (1991). Survey of Women Groups in Kaduna State. In: Part of
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Davies, R. M. (1991). A Survey of Cassava Processing Machinery in Oyo State of

Nigeria, Project Report, Agricultural Engineering Dept., University of Ibadan,
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Davies, R. M.., M. O. Olatunji, W. Burubai, (2008). A Survey of Cassava Processing

Machinery in Oyo State. World Journal of Agricultural Sciences. 4 (3): 337 - 340.
Ezedinma, C., Dixon, A. G. O., Sanni, L., Okechukwu, R., Akoroda, M., Lemehi, J.
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FAO (1995). A synthesis report of the African Region: Women, agriculture and rural
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Assistance in Support of Rural Women in Preparation for the Fourth World
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Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) (2004). Draft working notes on Selected
Chapters of World Cassava Economy: Recent trends and Medium-term Outlook
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of Kuje Area Council Federal Capital Territory, Abuja, Nigeria. Bayero Journal of Pure
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Yidana J. A., Osei-Kwarteng, M., Amadu, Y. (2013). The impact of cassava processing
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90
MEMORABLE QUOTES
A Woman is like a Rose if you treat her well, she will bloom; otherwise, she
will wither
Marriage is for better or worse. So, dont jump out of it, but make it work
Women and cats will do as they please, and men and dogs should relax and get
used to the idea.
Robert A. Heinlein
Being a woman is a terribly difficult task, since it consists principally in dealing
with men.
Joseph Conrad
Well-behaved women seldom make history.
Laurel Thatcher Ulrich
Well-behaved women seldom make history.
Laurel Thatcher Ulrich
You educate a man; you educate a man. You educate a woman; you educate a
generation.
Brigham Young
A girl should be two things: classy and fabulous.
Coco Chanel
A woman has to live her life, or live to repent not having lived it.
D.H. Lawrence
What would men be without women? Scarce, sir...mighty scarce.
Mark Twain
No woman, no cry
-
Bob Marley

91
In politics, If you want anything said, ask a man. If you want anything done,
ask a woman.
Margaret Thatcher
No woman really wants a man to carry her off; she only wants him to want
to do it.
Elizabeth Peters
-
How wrong is it for a woman to expect the man to build the world she
wants, rather than to create it herself?
Anas Nin
I'm tough, I'm ambitious, and I know exactly what I want. If that makes me a
bitch, okay.
Madonna
All little girls should be told they are pretty, even if they aren't.
Marilyn Monroe
Better to be strong than pretty and useless.
Lilith Saintcrow
A girl should be two things: who and what she wants.
Coco Chanel
Good girls go to heaven, bad girls go everywhere.
Mae West
Not knowing you can't do something, is sometimes all it takes to do it.
Ally Carter
Courage, sacrifice, determination, commitment, toughness, heart, talent, guts.

That's what little girls are made of; the heck with sugar and spice.
Bethany Hamilton

92
SCIENCE AND EDUCATION UPDATE

What can women expect for the future in Africa?
The future is in the hands of women because we have seen the local, national and
international bodies coming up with wonderful instruments such as the UN
resolution 1325 (on women peace and security), but what we are not seeing is how
all those who are in power are actually making sure that they are being
implemented. In case of the UN Resolution 1325, many countries have said that this
is the way to improve womens participation in peace building but up until today,
women still arent at the table!
We want the future with women of all walks of life (academia, activists, technicians
from government, human rights defenders) where they have a space to identify
together the gaps in peace processes because men and women dont have the same
understanding of peace. Men seem to consider that peace making is lets stop
fighting, lets reconstruct what we spoiled in terms of infrastructures, and lets
share power. But peacebuilding works only if the intervention is holistic, keeping
the women most affected at the heart of the response, taking the social and cultural
dimensions into account.
-
Ruth Ojiambo Ochieng, African woman leader and activist based in Uganda
(Dimitra Newsletter No 25, June, 2014).
AN APPLE A DAY COULD KEEP OBESITY AWAY
Scientists at Washington State university have concluded that non-digestible

compounds in apples specifically, Granny Smith apples may help prevent
disorders associated with obesity such as low-grade, chronic inflammation that can
lead to diabetes. The balance of bacterial communities in the colon of obese people is
disturbed.

93
What determines the balance of bacteria in our colon is the food we consume. Reestablishing a healthy balance of bacteria in the colon stabilizes metabolic processes
that influence inflammation and the sensation of feeling satisfied, or satiety.
-
Source: Sciencedaily.com
DIGITAL PUBLISHING
Digital publishing has come of age, no doubt it has surpassed the use of book
publishing. In Africa especially Nigeria this phenomenon of publishing has
increased. Reading is increasing, e-journals, e-books, EPUBs, digital magazines,
digital libraries and catalogues are the products of digital publishing which can be
referred to as electronic publishing. It has become common especially in scientific
publishing compared to about Five years back. Books, magazines, and newspapers
are now read through tablet reading devices which are generated by online vendors.
E-reader is a mobile electronic device that is designed primarily for the purpose of
reading e-books and digital periodicals. Most book retailers and multiple third-party
developers offer free (and in some third-party cases, premium paid) e-reader
applications for the Mac and PC computers as well as for Android, Blackberry, iPad,
iPod, iPhone, Windows Phone and Palm OS devices to allow the reading of e-books
and other documents independently of dedicated e-book devices.
Social media allow for interaction on a global scale, make it possible for users to add
content or commentary and to form groups quickly. Presently, some of the social
media networks which are common are: online social networks (Facebook, MySpace,
etc.), blogs, micro-blogs (Twitter, etc.), sharing sites (YouTube, Flickr, etc.), podcasts,
wikis (Wikipedia, etc.) and widgets /apps such as those available for mobile devices.
-
Abulude Olawale

94

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2. 1http://www.gdrc.org/. "The Global Development Research Center". Retrieved

4. Van Wijk-Sijbesma, C. (1998). Gender in Water Resources Management, Water

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9. Economic and Social Council (1997). Conclusions 1997/2 on mainstreaming the

10. Grewal, J. (Spring 2008). Theorizing Activism, Activizing Theory: Feminist

12. 1Navdanya. Accessed March 5, 2012.http://www.navdanya.org/home

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17. Thomas-Slayter, B. (1988). Household strategies for adaptation and change:

20. Jiggins, J. (1994). Changing the Boundaries: Women-Centered Perspectives on

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When did you become involved in your profession?

What have been your contributions to academics?

The works I have published have contributed in boosting or adding to

What do you understand by MDGs?

Knowlegde for Global Development

Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger.

Achieve universal primary education.

Promote gender equality and empower women.

Reduce child mortality rates

Improve maternal health

Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases.

Ensure environmental sustainability.