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Plantphysiology
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Forthescientificjournalofthesamename,seePlantPhysiology(journal).
Plantphysiologyisasubdisciplineofbotanyconcernedwiththe
functioning,orphysiology,ofplants.[1]Closelyrelatedfieldsincludeplant
morphology(structureofplants),plantecology(interactionswiththe
environment),phytochemistry(biochemistryofplants),cellbiology,
genetics,biophysicsandmolecularbiology.
Fundamentalprocessessuchasphotosynthesis,respiration,plant
nutrition,planthormonefunctions,tropisms,nastic
movements,photoperiodism,photomorphogenesis,circadianrhythms,
environmentalstressphysiology,

Agerminationrateexperiment

seedgermination,dormancyandstomatafunctionandtranspiration,both
partsofplantwaterrelations,arestudiedbyplantphysiologists.
Contents[hide]
1 Aims
2 Biochemistryofplants
2.1 Constituentelements
2.2 Pigments
3 Signalsandregulators
3.1 Planthormones
3.2 Photomorphogenesis
3.3 Photoperiodism
4 Environmentalphysiology
4.1 Tropismsandnasticmovements
4.2 Plantdisease
5 History
5.1 Earlyhistory
5.2 Currentresearch
6 Economicapplications
6.1 Foodproduction
7 Seealso
8 References
8.1 Furtherreading
9 Externallinks
9.1 Scientificjournals

Aims

[ edit ]

Thefieldofplantphysiologyincludesthestudyofalltheinternalactivitiesofplantsthosechemicalandphysical
processesassociatedwithlifeastheyoccurinplants.Thisincludesstudyatmanylevelsofscaleofsizeandtime.
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Atthesmallestscalearemolecularinteractionsofphotosynthesisandinternaldiffusionofwater,minerals,and
nutrients.Atthelargestscalearetheprocessesofplantdevelopment,seasonality,dormancy,
andreproductivecontrol.Majorsubdisciplinesofplantphysiologyincludephytochemistry(thestudyof
thebiochemistryofplants)andphytopathology(thestudyofdiseaseinplants).Thescopeofplantphysiologyasa
disciplinemaybedividedintoseveralmajorareasofresearch.
First,thestudyofphytochemistry(plantchemistry)isincludedwithin
thedomainofplantphysiology.Tofunctionandsurvive,plantsproduce
awidearrayofchemicalcompoundsnotfoundinother
organisms.Photosynthesisrequiresalargearrayofpigments,enzymes,
andothercompoundstofunction.Becausetheycannotmove,plants
mustalsodefendthemselveschemically
fromherbivores,pathogensandcompetitionfromotherplants.Theydo
thisbyproducingtoxinsandfoultastingorsmellingchemicals.Other
compoundsdefendplantsagainstdisease,permitsurvivalduring
drought,andprepareplantsfordormancy,whileothercompoundsare
usedtoattractpollinatorsorherbivorestospreadripeseeds.

Fivekeyareasofstudywithinplant
physiology.

Secondly,plantphysiologyincludesthestudyofbiologicalandchemical
processesofindividualplantcells.Plantcellshaveanumberoffeaturesthatdistinguishthemfromcells
ofanimals,andwhichleadtomajordifferencesinthewaythatplantlifebehavesandrespondsdifferentlyfrom
animallife.Forexample,plantcellshaveacellwallwhichrestrictstheshapeofplantcellsandtherebylimitsthe
flexibilityandmobilityofplants.Plantcellsalsocontainchlorophyll,achemicalcompoundthatinteractswithlightin
awaythatenablesplantstomanufacturetheirownnutrientsratherthanconsumingotherlivingthingsasanimals
do.
Thirdly,plantphysiologydealswithinteractionsbetweencells,tissues,andorganswithinaplant.Differentcells
andtissuesarephysicallyandchemicallyspecializedtoperformdifferentfunctions.Rootsandrhizoidsfunctionto
anchortheplantandacquiremineralsinthesoil.Leavescatchlightinordertomanufacturenutrients.Forbothof
theseorganstoremainliving,mineralsthattherootsacquiremustbetransportedtotheleaves,andthenutrients
manufacturedintheleavesmustbetransportedtotheroots.Plantshavedevelopedanumberofwaystoachieve
thistransport,suchasvasculartissue,andthefunctioningofthevariousmodesoftransportisstudiedbyplant
physiologists.
Fourthly,plantphysiologistsstudythewaysthatplantscontrolorregulateinternalfunctions.Likeanimals,plants
producechemicalscalledhormoneswhichareproducedinonepartoftheplanttosignalcellsinanotherpartof
theplanttorespond.Manyfloweringplantsbloomattheappropriatetimebecauseoflightsensitivecompounds
thatrespondtothelengthofthenight,aphenomenonknownasphotoperiodism.Theripeningoffruitandlossof
leavesinthewinterarecontrolledinpartbytheproductionofthegasethylenebytheplant.
Finally,plantphysiologyincludesthestudyofplantresponsetoenvironmentalconditionsandtheirvariation,a
fieldknownasenvironmentalphysiology.Stressfromwaterloss,changesinairchemistry,orcrowdingbyother
plantscanleadtochangesinthewayaplantfunctions.Thesechangesmaybeaffectedbygenetic,chemical,and
physicalfactors.

Biochemistryofplants

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Mainarticle:Phytochemistry
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Thechemicalelementsofwhichplantsareconstructed
principallycarbon,oxygen,hydrogen,nitrogen,phosphorus,sulfur,etc.
arethesameasforallotherlifeformsanimals,fungi,bacteriaand
evenviruses.Onlythedetailsofthemoleculesintowhichtheyare
assembleddiffers.
Despitethisunderlyingsimilarity,plantsproduceavastarrayofchemical
compoundswithuniquepropertieswhichtheyusetocopewiththeir
environment.Pigmentsareusedbyplantstoabsorbordetectlight,and
areextractedbyhumansforuseindyes.Otherplantproductsmaybe
usedforthemanufactureofcommerciallyimportantrubberorbiofuel.
Perhapsthemostcelebratedcompoundsfromplantsarethose
withpharmacologicalactivity,suchassalicylicacidfromwhichaspirinis
made,morphine,anddigoxin.Drugcompaniesspendbillionsofdollars
eachyearresearchingplantcompoundsforpotentialmedicinalbenefits.

Constituentelements

[ edit ]

Latexbeingcollectedfrom
atappedrubbertree.

Furtherinformation:Plantnutrition
Plantsrequiresomenutrients,suchascarbonandnitrogen,inlargequantitiestosurvive.Suchnutrientsare
termedmacronutrients,wheretheprefixmacro(large)referstothequantityneeded,notthesizeofthenutrient
particlesthemselves.Othernutrients,calledmicronutrients,arerequiredonlyintraceamountsforplantstoremain
healthy.Suchmicronutrientsareusuallyabsorbedasionsdissolvedinwatertakenfromthesoil,
thoughcarnivorousplantsacquiresomeoftheirmicronutrientsfromcapturedprey.
Thefollowingtableslistelementnutrientsessentialtoplants.Useswithinplantsaregeneralized.

Element

Macronutrientsnecessaryinlargequantities
Formofuptake Notes

Nitrogen

NO3 ,NH4+

Nucleicacids,proteins,hormones,etc.

Oxygen

O2H2O

Cellulose,starch,otherorganiccompounds

Carbon

CO2

Cellulose,starch,otherorganiccompounds

Hydrogen

H2O

Cellulose,starch,otherorganiccompounds

Potassium

K+

Cofactorinproteinsynthesis,waterbalance,etc.

Calcium

Ca2+

Membranesynthesisandstabilization

Magnesium

Mg2+

Elementessentialforchlorophyll

Phosphorus H2PO4
Sulfur

SO42

Nucleicacids,phospholipids,ATP
Constituentofproteins

Element

Micronutrientsnecessaryinsmallquantities
Formofuptake Notes

Chlorine

Cl

PhotosystemIIandstomatafunction

Iron

Fe2+ ,Fe3+

Chlorophyllformation

Boron

HBO3

Crosslinkingpectin

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Manganese

Mn2+

Activityofsomeenzymes

Zinc

Zn2+

Involvedinthesynthesisofenzymesandchlorophyll

Copper

Cu+

Enzymesforligninsynthesis

Molybdenum MoO42
Nickel

Pigments

Ni2+

Nitrogenfixation,reductionofnitrates
Enzymaticcofactorinthemetabolismofnitrogencompounds

[ edit ]

Mainarticle:Biologicalpigment
Amongthemostimportantmoleculesforplantfunctionarethepigments.
Plantpigmentsincludeavarietyofdifferentkindsofmolecules,
includingporphyrins,carotenoids,andanthocyanins.Allbiological
pigmentsselectivelyabsorb
certainwavelengthsoflightwhilereflectingothers.Thelightthatis
absorbedmaybeusedbytheplanttopowerchemicalreactions,whilethe
reflectedwavelengthsoflightdeterminethecolorthepigmentappearsto
theeye.

Spacefillingmodelof
thechlorophyllmolecule.

Chlorophyllistheprimarypigmentinplantsitisaporphyrinthatabsorbs
redandbluewavelengthsoflightwhilereflectinggreen.Itisthepresence
andrelativeabundanceofchlorophyllthatgivesplantstheirgreencolor.
Alllandplantsandgreenalgaepossesstwoformsofthispigment:
chlorophyllaandchlorophyllb.Kelps,diatoms,andother
photosyntheticheterokontscontainchlorophyllcinsteadofb,red
algaepossesschlorophyllaand"d".Allchlorophyllsserveastheprimary
meansplantsusetointerceptlighttofuelphotosynthesis.
Carotenoidsarered,orange,oryellowtetraterpenoids.Theyfunctionas
accessorypigmentsinplants,helpingtofuelphotosynthesisbygathering

Anthocyaningives
thesepansiestheirdarkpurple
pigmentation.

wavelengthsoflightnotreadilyabsorbedbychlorophyll.Themostfamiliar
carotenoidsarecarotene(anorangepigmentfoundincarrots),lutein(ayellowpigmentfoundinfruitsand
vegetables),andlycopene(theredpigmentresponsibleforthecoloroftomatoes).Carotenoidshavebeenshown
toactasantioxidantsandtopromotehealthyeyesightinhumans.
Anthocyanins(literally"flowerblue")arewatersolubleflavonoidpigmentsthatappearredtoblue,according
topH.Theyoccurinalltissuesofhigherplants,providingcolorinleaves,stems,roots,flowers,andfruits,though
notalwaysinsufficientquantitiestobenoticeable.Anthocyaninsaremostvisibleinthepetalsofflowers,where
theymaymakeupasmuchas30%ofthedryweightofthetissue.[2]Theyarealsoresponsibleforthepurple
colorseenontheundersideoftropicalshadeplantssuchasTradescantiazebrina.Intheseplants,the
anthocyanincatcheslightthathaspassedthroughtheleafandreflectsitbacktowardsregionsbearing
chlorophyll,inordertomaximizetheuseofavailablelight
Betalainsareredoryellowpigments.Likeanthocyaninstheyarewatersoluble,butunlikeanthocyaninsthey
areindolederivedcompoundssynthesizedfromtyrosine.Thisclassofpigmentsisfoundonlyin
theCaryophyllales(includingcactusandamaranth),andnevercooccurinplantswithanthocyanins.Betalainsare
responsibleforthedeepredcolorofbeets,andareusedcommerciallyasfoodcoloringagents.Plant
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physiologistsareuncertainofthefunctionthatbetalainshaveinplantswhichpossessthem,butthereissome
preliminaryevidencethattheymayhavefungicidalproperties.[3]

Signalsandregulators

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Plantsproducehormonesandothergrowthregulatorswhichacttosignal
aphysiologicalresponseintheirtissues.Theyalsoproducecompounds
suchasphytochromethataresensitivetolightandwhichservetotrigger
growthordevelopmentinresponsetoenvironmentalsignals.

Planthormones

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Mainarticle:Planthormone
Planthormones,knownasplantgrowthregulators(PGRs)or
phytohormones,arechemicalsthatregulateaplant'sgrowth.Accordingto
astandardanimaldefinition,hormonesaresignalmoleculesproducedat
specificlocations,thatoccurinverylowconcentrations,andcausealtered
processesintargetcellsatotherlocations.Unlikeanimals,plantslack
specifichormoneproducingtissuesororgans.Planthormonesareoften
nottransportedtootherpartsoftheplantandproductionisnotlimitedto
specificlocations.
Planthormonesarechemicalsthatinsmallamountspromoteand
influencethegrowth,developmentanddifferentiationofcellsandtissues.
Hormonesarevitaltoplantgrowthaffectingprocessesinplantsfrom
floweringtoseeddevelopment,dormancy,andgermination.Theyregulate

AmutationthatstopsArabidopsis
thalianarespondingtoauxincauses
abnormalgrowth(right)

whichtissuesgrowupwardsandwhichgrowdownwards,leafformation
andstemgrowth,fruitdevelopmentandripening,aswellasleafabscissionandevenplantdeath.
Themostimportantplanthormonesareabscissicacid(ABA),auxins,ethylene,gibberellins,andcytokinins,though
therearemanyothersubstancesthatservetoregulateplantphysiology.

Photomorphogenesis

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Mainarticle:Photomorphogenesis
Whilemostpeopleknowthatlightisimportantforphotosynthesisinplants,fewrealizethatplantsensitivitytolight
playsaroleinthecontrolofplantstructuraldevelopment(morphogenesis).Theuseoflighttocontrolstructural
developmentiscalledphotomorphogenesis,andisdependentuponthepresenceofspecializedphotoreceptors,
whicharechemicalpigmentscapableofabsorbingspecificwavelengthsoflight.
Plantsusefourkindsofphotoreceptors:[1]phytochrome,cryptochrome,aUVBphotoreceptor,
andprotochlorophyllidea.Thefirsttwoofthese,phytochromeandcryptochrome,arephotoreceptorproteins,
complexmolecularstructuresformedbyjoiningaproteinwithalightsensitivepigment.Cryptochromeisalso
knownastheUVAphotoreceptor,becauseitabsorbsultravioletlightinthelongwave"A"region.TheUVB
receptorisoneormorecompoundsnotyetidentifiedwithcertainty,thoughsomeevidence
suggestscaroteneorriboflavinascandidates.[4]Protochlorophyllidea,asitsnamesuggests,isachemical
precursorofchlorophyll.
Themoststudiedofthephotoreceptorsinplantsisphytochrome.Itissensitivetolightintheredandfar
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redregionofthevisiblespectrum.Manyfloweringplantsuseittoregulatethetimeoffloweringbasedonthe
lengthofdayandnight(photoperiodism)andtosetcircadianrhythms.Italsoregulatesotherresponsesincluding
thegerminationofseeds,elongationofseedlings,thesize,shapeandnumberofleaves,thesynthesisof
chlorophyll,andthestraighteningoftheepicotylorhypocotylhookofdicotseedlings.

Photoperiodism

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Mainarticle:Photoperiodism
Manyfloweringplantsusethepigmentphytochrometosenseseasonal
changesindaylength,whichtheytakeassignalstoflower.Thissensitivity
todaylengthistermedphotoperiodism.Broadlyspeaking,floweringplants
canbeclassifiedaslongdayplants,shortdayplants,ordayneutral
plants,dependingontheirparticularresponsetochangesindaylength.
Longdayplantsrequireacertainminimumlengthofdaylighttostarts
flowering,sotheseplantsflowerinthespringorsummer.Conversely,
shortdayplantsflowerwhenthelengthofdaylightfallsbelowacertain
criticallevel.Dayneutralplantsdonotinitiatefloweringbasedon

Thepoinsettiaisashortdayplant,
requiringtwomonthsoflongnights
priortoblooming.

photoperiodism,thoughsomemayusetemperaturesensitivity
(vernalization)instead.
Althoughashortdayplantcannotflowerduringthelongdaysofsummer,itisnotactuallytheperiodoflight
exposurethatlimitsflowering.Rather,ashortdayplantrequiresaminimallengthofuninterrupteddarknessin
each24hourperiod(ashortdaylength)beforefloraldevelopmentcanbegin.Ithasbeendetermined
experimentallythatashortdayplant(longnight)doesnotflowerifaflashofphytochromeactivatinglightisused
ontheplantduringthenight.
Plantsmakeuseofthephytochromesystemtosensedaylengthorphotoperiod.Thisfactisutilized
byfloristsandgreenhousegardenerstocontrolandeveninducefloweringoutofseason,suchasthePoinsettia.

Environmentalphysiology

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Mainarticle:Ecophysiology
Paradoxically,thesubdisciplineofenvironmentalphysiologyisontheone
handarecentfieldofstudyinplantecologyandontheotherhandoneof
theoldest.[1]Environmentalphysiologyisthepreferrednameofthe
subdisciplineamongplantphysiologists,butitgoesbyanumberofother
namesintheappliedsciences.Itisroughlysynonymous
withecophysiology,cropecology,horticultureandagronomy.The
particularnameappliedtothesubdisciplineisspecifictotheviewpointand
goalsofresearch.Whatevernameisapplied,itdealswiththewaysin
whichplantsrespondtotheirenvironmentandsooverlapswiththefield
ofecology.
Environmentalphysiologistsexamineplantresponsetophysicalfactors
suchasradiation(includinglightandultravioletradiation),temperature,fire,
andwind.Ofparticularimportancearewaterrelations(whichcanbe
measuredwiththePressurebomb)andthestress
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PhototropisminArabidopsis
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light.[5]

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ofdroughtorinundation,exchangeofgaseswiththeatmosphere,aswell

light.[5]

asthecyclingofnutrientssuchasnitrogenandcarbon.
Environmentalphysiologistsalsoexamineplantresponsetobiologicalfactors.Thisincludesnotonlynegative
interactions,suchascompetition,herbivory,diseaseandparasitism,butalsopositiveinteractions,such
asmutualismandpollination.

Tropismsandnasticmovements

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Mainarticles:TropismandNasticmovement
Plantsmayrespondbothtodirectionalandnondirectionalstimuli.Aresponsetoadirectionalstimulus,such
asgravityorsunlight,iscalledatropism.Aresponsetoanondirectionalstimulus,suchastemperatureorhumidity,
isanasticmovement.
Tropismsinplantsaretheresultofdifferentialcellgrowth,inwhichthecellsononesideoftheplantelongates
morethanthoseontheotherside,causingtheparttobendtowardthesidewithlessgrowth.Amongthecommon
tropismsseeninplantsisphototropism,thebendingoftheplanttowardasourceoflight.Phototropismallowsthe
planttomaximizelightexposureinplantswhichrequireadditionallightforphotosynthesis,ortominimizeitin
plantssubjectedtointenselightandheat.Geotropismallowstherootsofaplanttodeterminethedirectionof
gravityandgrowdownwards.Tropismsgenerallyresultfromaninteractionbetweentheenvironmentand
productionofoneormoreplanthormones.
Nasticmovementsresultsfromdifferentialcellgrowth(e.g.epinastyandhiponasty),orfromchangesinturgor
pressurewithinplanttissues(e.g.,nyctinasty),whichmayoccurrapidly.Afamiliarexample
isthigmonasty(responsetotouch)intheVenusflytrap,acarnivorousplant.Thetrapsconsistofmodifiedleaf
bladeswhichbearsensitivetriggerhairs.Whenthehairsaretouchedbyaninsectorotheranimal,theleaffolds
shut.Thismechanismallowstheplanttotrapanddigestsmallinsectsforadditionalnutrients.Althoughthetrapis
rapidlyshutbychangesininternalcellpressures,theleafmustgrowslowlytoresetforasecondopportunityto
trapinsects.[6]

Plantdisease

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Mainarticle:Phytopathology
Economically,oneofthemostimportantareasofresearchin
environmentalphysiologyisthatofphytopathology,thestudy
ofdiseasesinplantsandthemannerinwhichplantsresistorcopewith
infection.Plantaresusceptibletothesamekindsofdiseaseorganismsas
animals,includingviruses,bacteria,andfungi,aswellasphysicalinvasion
byinsectsandroundworms.
Becausethebiologyofplantsdifferswithanimals,theirsymptomsand
responsesarequitedifferent.Insomecases,aplantcansimplyshed

Powderymildewoncropleaves

infectedleavesorflowerstopreventthespreadofdisease,inaprocess
calledabscission.Mostanimalsdonothavethisoptionasameansofcontrollingdisease.Plantdiseases
organismsthemselvesalsodifferfromthosecausingdiseaseinanimalsbecauseplantscannotusuallyspread
infectionthroughcasualphysicalcontact.Plantpathogenstendtospreadviasporesorarecarriedby
animalvectors.
OneofthemostimportantadvancesinthecontrolofplantdiseasewasthediscoveryofBordeauxmixtureinthe
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nineteenthcentury.Themixtureisthefirstknownfungicideandisacombinationofcoppersulfateandlime.
Applicationofthemixtureservedtoinhibitthegrowthofdownymildewthatthreatenedtoseriouslydamage
theFrenchwineindustry.[7]

History

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Furtherinformation:Historyofbotany

Earlyhistory

[ edit ]

SirFrancisBaconpublishedoneofthefirstplantphysiologyexperimentsin
1627inthebook,SylvaSylvarum.Bacongrewseveralterrestrialplants,
includingarose,inwaterandconcludedthatsoilwasonlyneededtokeep
theplantupright.JanBaptistvanHelmontpublishedwhatisconsideredthe
firstquantitativeexperimentinplantphysiologyin1648.Hegrewawillow
treeforfiveyearsinapotcontaining200poundsofovendrysoil.Thesoil
lostjusttwoouncesofdryweightandvanHelmontconcludedthatplants
getalltheirweightfromwater,notsoil.In1699,JohnWoodwardpublished
experimentsongrowthofspearmintindifferentsourcesofwater.Hefound
thatplantsgrewmuchbetterinwaterwithsoiladdedthanindistilledwater.
StephenHalesisconsideredtheFatherofPlantPhysiologyforthemany
experimentsinthe1727book[8]thoughJuliusvonSachsunifiedthepieces
ofplantphysiologyandputthemtogetherasadiscipline.HisLehrbuchder
Botanikwastheplantphysiologybibleofitstime.[9]

JanBaptistvanHelmont.

Researchersdiscoveredinthe1800sthatplantsabsorbessentialmineral
nutrientsasinorganicionsinwater.Innaturalconditions,soilactsasa
mineralnutrientreservoirbutthesoilitselfisnotessentialtoplantgrowth.Whenthemineralnutrientsinthesoil
aredissolvedinwater,plantrootsabsorbnutrientsreadily,soilisnolongerrequiredfortheplanttothrive.This
observationisthebasisforhydroponics,thegrowingofplantsinawatersolutionratherthansoil,whichhas
becomeastandardtechniqueinbiologicalresearch,teachinglabexercises,cropproductionandasahobby.

Currentresearch

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OneoftheleadingjournalsinthefieldisPlantPhysiology,startedin1926.Allitsbackissuesareavailableonline
forfree.[1] Manyotherjournalsoftencarryplantphysiologyarticles,includingPhysiologiaPlantarum,Journalof
ExperimentalBotany,AmericanJournalofBotany,AnnalsofBotany,JournalofPlantNutritionandProceedingsof
theNationalAcademyofSciences.

Economicapplications
Foodproduction

[ edit ]

[ edit ]

Furtherinformation:AgricultureandHorticulture
Inhorticultureandagriculturealongwithfoodscience,plantphysiologyisanimportanttopicrelating
tofruits,vegetables,andotherconsumablepartsofplants.Topicsstudiedinclude:climaticrequirements,fruit
drop,nutrition,ripening,fruitset.Theproductionoffoodcropsalsohingesonthestudyofplantphysiology
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coveringsuchtopicsasoptimalplantingandharvestingtimesandpostharveststorageofplantproductsfor
humanconsumptionandtheproductionofsecondaryproductslikedrugsandcosmetics.

Seealso

[ edit ]

Biomechanics

Biologyportal

Phytochemistry

Ecologyportal

Plantanatomy

Environmentportal

Plantmorphology
Plantsecondarymetabolism
Branchesofbotany

References

[ edit ]

1.^ a b c FrankB.SalisburyCleonW.Ross(1992).Plantphysiology.Brooks/ColePubCo.ISBN0534151620.
2.^TrevorRobinson(1963).Theorganicconstituentsofhigherplants:theirchemistryandinterrelationships.Cordus
Press.p.183.
3.^Kimler,L.M.(1975)."Betanin,theredbeetpigment,asanantifungalagent".BotanicalSocietyofAmerica,Abstractsof
papers36.
4.^Fosket,DonaldE.(1994).PlantGrowthandDevelopment:AMolecularApproach.SanDiego:AcademicPress.
pp.498509.ISBN0122624300.
5.^plantphys.net
6.^AdrianCharlesSlackJaneGate(1980).CarnivorousPlants.Cambridge,Mass.:MITPress.p.160.ISBN9780262
191869.
7.^KingsleyRowlandSternShelleyJansky(1991).IntroductoryPlantBiology.WCB/McGrawHill.p.309.ISBN9780
697099488.
8.^Hales,Stephen.1727.VegetableStatickshttp://www.illustratedgarden.org/mobot/rarebooks/title.asp?
relation=QK711H341727
9.^DuaneIsely(1994).101Botanists.IowaStatePress.pp.216219.ISBN9780813824987.

Furtherreading

[ edit ]

Lambers,H.(1998).Plantphysiologicalecology.NewYork:SpringerVerlag.ISBN0387983260.
Larcher,W.(2001).Physiologicalplantecology(4thed.).Springer.ISBN3540435166.
FrankB.SalisburyCleonW.Ross(1992).Plantphysiology.Brooks/ColePubCo.ISBN0534151620.

Externallinks

[ edit ]

AmericanSocietyofPlantBiologists
NewPhytologistfreeTansleyReviews
PlantPhysiologyonlinestudyaid
PlantEcophysiologyGroupUniversidaddeLaLaguna

Scientificjournals

[ edit ]

GeneralandAppliedPlantPhysiology
JournalofPlantPhysiology
PlantPhysiology
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