FUN TIME WITH ALGEBRA

What is the missing number?

OK, the answer is 6, right? Because 6 2 = 4. Easy stuff.

Well, in Algebra we don't use blank boxes, we use a letter (usually an x or y, but any
letter is fine). So we write:

It is really that simple. The letter (in this case an x) just means "we don't know this yet",
and is often called the unknown or the variable.
And when we solve it we write:

Algebra - Basic Definitions

It may help you to read Introduction to Algebra first

What is an Equation
An equation says that two things are equal. It will have an equals sign "=" like this:

That equation says: what is on the left (x + 2) is equal to what is on the right (6)
So an equation is like a statement "this equals that"

Parts of an Equation
So people can talk about equations, there are names for different parts (better than
saying "that thingy there"!)
Here we have an equation that says

4x 7 equals 5, and all its parts:

A Variable is a symbol for a number we don't know yet. It is usually a letter like x or y.
A number on its own is called a Constant.
A Coefficient is a number used to multiply a variable (4x means 4 times x, so 4 is a
coefficient)
Sometimes a letter stands in for the number:

Example: ax2 + bx + c

x is a variable

a and b are coefficients

c is a constant

An Operator is a symbol (such as +, , etc) that shows an operation (ie we want to do

something with the values).

A Term is either a single number or a variable, or numbers and variables multiplied

together.
An Expression is a group of terms (the terms are separated by + or signs)
So, now we can say things like "that expression has only two terms", or "the second term
is a constant", or even "are you sure the coefficient is really 4?"

Exponents

The exponent (such as the 2 in x2) says how many times to

use the value in a multiplication.
Examples:
82 = 8 8 = 64
y3 = y y y
y2 z = y y z

Exponents make it easier to write and use many multiplications

Example: y4z2 is easier than y y y y z z, or even yyyyzz

Polynomial
Example of a Polynomial: 3x2 + x - 2
A polynomial can have constants, variables and the exponents 0,1,2,3,...
But it never has division by a variable.

Monomial, Binomial, Trinomial

There are special names for polynomials with 1, 2 or 3 terms:

Like Terms

Like Terms are terms whose variables (and their exponents such as the 2 in x2) are
the same.
In other words, terms that are "like" each other. (Note: the coefficients can be different)

Example:

(1/3)xy2

-2xy2

6xy2

Are all like terms because the variables are all xy2

Why Use a Letter?

Because:
it is easier to write "x" than drawing empty boxes (and easier to say
"x" than "the empty box").
if there are several empty boxes (several "unknowns") we can use a
different letter for each one.
So

x is simply better than having an empty box. We aren't trying to make words with it!

And it doesn't have to be x, it could be

y or w ... or any letter or symbol we like.

How to Solve
Algebra is just like a puzzle where we start with something like "x 2 = 4" and we want
to end up with something like "x = 6".
But instead of saying "obviously x=6", use this neat step-by-step approach:

Work out what to remove to get "x = ..."

Remove it by doing the opposite (adding is the opposite of subtracting)

Do that to both sides

Here is an example:

We want to
remove the "-2"

To remove it, do
the opposite,
in this case add 2:

Do it to both sides:

Which is ...

Solved!

Why did we add 2 to both sides?

To "keep the balance"...

In Balance
Add 2 to Left Side

Out of Balance!
Add 2 to Right Side Also

In Balance Again
Just remember this:

To keep the balance, what we do to one side of the "="

we should also do to the other side!
See this in action at the Algebra Balance Animation .

Another Puzzle
Solve this one:

= 12
x + 5 = 12

Start with:

What we are aiming for is an answer like "x = ...", and the plus 5 is in the way of that!
We can cancel out the plus 5 by doing a subtract 5 (because 55=0)

So, let us have a go at subtracting 5 from both sides:

x+5 5 = 12 5

A little arithmetic (55 = 0 and 125 = 7) becomes:

x+0 = 7

x=7

Which is just:

Solved!
(Quick Check: 7+5=12)

Have a Try Yourself

Solve the following
1:

2:
x+9 = 11

3:

x-10 = 0

4:
x+7 = 17

5:

2+x = 8

6:
9+x = 16

7:

x+5 = 13

8:

-9+x = -2

x+7 = 9

9:
10:
x-9
= -7

-10+x = 0

A Puzzle
What is the missing number?

The answer is 2, right? Because 2 4 = 8.

Well, in Algebra we don't use blank boxes, we use a letter. So we might write:

But the "x" looks like the "" ... that can be very confusing ... so in Algebra we
don't use the multiply symbol () between numbers and letters:

We put the number next to the letter to mean multiply:

4x

In English we say "four x equals eight", meaning that 4 x's make 8.

And the answer is written:

How to Solve
Instead of saying "obviously x=2", use this neat step-by-step approach:

Work out what to remove to get "x = ..."

Remove it by doing the opposite

Algebra - Substitution
"Substitute" means to put in the place of another.

Substitution
In Algebra "Substitution" means putting numbers where the letters are:

When we have:

And we know that x=6 ...

... then we can "substitute" 6 for x:

Example: When x=2, what is 10/x + 4 ?

Put "2" where "x" is:

10/ 2 + 4 = 5 + 4 = 9

Example: When x=5, what is x + x/2 ?

Put "5" where "x" is:

5 + 5 /2 = 5 + 2.5 = 7.5
Example: If x=3 and y=4, then what is x2 + xy ?

Put "3" where "x" is, and "4" where "y" is:

3 2 + 3 4 = 33 + 12 = 21
Example: If x=3 (but we don't know "y"), then what is x2 + xy ?
Put "3" where "x" is:

3 2 + 3 y = 9 + 3y
(that is as far as we can get)
As that last example showed, we may not always get a number for an answer, sometimes
just a simpler formula.

Negative Numbers
When substituting negative numbers, put () around them so you get the calculations
right.

Example: If x = 2, then what is 1 x + x2 ?

Put "(2)" where "x" is:

1 (2) + (2) 2 = 1 + 2 + 4 = 7

In that last example:

the (2) became +2

the (2)2 became +4

because of these special rules:

Rule
Two like signs
become
a positive sign

Adding or

Multiplying or

Subtracting

Dividing

3+(+2) = 3 + 2
=5
6(3) = 6 + 3
=9

32=6

(3) (2) = 6

Two unlike signs become a negative

sign

7+(2) = 7 2 =
5

3 (2) = 6

8(+2) = 8 2 =
6

(3) 2 = 6

Equations and Formulas

What is an Equation?
An equation says that two things are equal. It will have an equals sign "=" like this:

That equations says: what is on the left (x + 2) is equal to what is on the right (6)
So an equation is like a statement "this equals that"

What is a Formula?
A formula is a special type of equation that shows the relationship between
different variables.
A variable is a symbol like

x or V that stands in for a number we don't know yet.

Example: The formula for finding the volume of a box is:

V = lwh
V stands for volume, l for length, w for width, and h for height.

When l=10, w=5, and h=4, then:

V = 10 5 4 = 200
A formula will have more than one variable.

These are all equations, but only some are formulas:

x = 2y - 7

Formula (relating x and y)

a2 + b2 = c2

Formula (relating a, b and c)

x/2 + 7 = 0

Not a Formula (just an equation)

Without the Equals

Sometimes a formula is written without the "=":

Example: The formula for the volume of a box is:

lwh
But in a way the "=" is still there, because we can write V = lwh if we want to.

Subject of a Formula
The "subject" of a formula is the single variable (usually on the left of the "=") that
everything else is equal to.

Example: in the formula

s = ut + at2
"s" is the subject of the formula

Changing the Subject

One of the very powerful things that Algebra can do is to "rearrange" a formula so that
another variable is the subject.
Rearrange the volume of a box formula (V = lwh) so that the width is the subject:
Start with:

V = lwh

divide both sides by h:

V/h = lw

divide both sides by l:

V/(hl) = w

swap sides:

w = V/(hl)

So now when you want a box with a volume of 12m3, a length of 2m, and a height of 2m,
you can calculate its width:
w = V/(hl)
w = 12m3 / (2m 2m) = 12/4 = 3m

Introduction to Inequalities
Inequality tells us about the relative size of two values.
Mathematics is not always about "equals"! Sometimes we only know that something is
bigger or smaller

Example: Alex and Billy have a race, and Billy wins!

What do we know?
We don't know how fast they ran, but we do know that Billy was faster than Alex:

Billy was faster than Alex

We can write that down like this:

b>a
(Where "b" means how fast Billy was, ">" means "greater than", and "a" means how fast
Alex was)

We call things like that inequalities (because they are not "equal")

Greater or Less Than

The two most common inequalities are:
Symbol

Words

Example Use

>

greater than

5>2

<

less than

7<9

They are easy to remember: the "small" end always points to the smaller number, like
this:

Greater Than Symbol: BIG > small

Example: Alex plays in the under 15s soccer. How old is Alex?
We don't know exactly how old Alex is, because it doesn't say "equals"
But we do know "less than 15", so we can write:

Age < 15
The small end points to "Age" because the age is smaller than 15.

... Or Equal To!

We can also have inequalities that include "equals", like:
Symbol

Words

Example Use

greater than or equal to

x1

less than or equal to

y3

Example: you must be 13 or older to watch a movie.

The "inequality" is between your age and the age of 13.
Your age must be "greater than or equal to 13", which is written:

Age 13

Solving Inequalities
Sometimes we need to solve Inequalities like these:
Symbol

Words

Example

>

greater than

x+3>2

<

less than

7x < 28

greater than or equal to

5x-1

less than or equal to

2y + 1 7

Solving
Our aim is to have

x (or whatever the variable is) on its own on the left of the

inequality sign:
Something like:
or:

x<5
y 11

We call that "solved".

How to Solve
Solving inequalities is very like solving equations ... we do most of the same things ...

... but we must also pay attention to the direction of the inequality.

Direction: Which way the arrow "points"

Some things we do will change the direction!

< would become >

> would become <
would become
would become

Safe Things To Do
These are things we can do without affecting the direction of the inequality:

Add (or subtract) a number from both sides

Multiply (or divide) both sides by a positive number

Simplify a side

Example: 3x < 7+3

We can simplify 7+3 without affecting the inequality:

3x < 10

But these things will change the direction of the inequality ("<" becomes ">" for
example):

Multiply (or divide) both sides by a negative number

Swapping left and right hand sides

Example: 2y+7 < 12

When we swap the left and right hand sides, we must also change the direction of the
inequality:

12 > 2y+7
Here are the details:

Adding or Subtracting a Value

We can often solve inequalities by adding (or subtracting) a number from both sides (just
as in Introduction to Algebra ), like this:

Solve: x + 3 < 7
If we subtract 3 from both sides, we get:

x+3-3<7-3
x<4
And that is our solution: x < 4
In other words, x can be any value less than 4.

What did we do?

We went from this:

x+3 < 7

To this:

x<4

And that works well for adding and subtracting, because if we add (or subtract) the
same amount from both sides, it does not affect the inequality
Example: Alex has more coins than Billy. If both Alex and Billy get three more coins each,
Alex will still have more coins than Billy.

What If I Solve It, But "x" Is On The Right?

No matter, just swap sides, but reverse the sign so it still "points at" the correct value!
Example: 12 < x + 5
If we subtract 5 from both sides, we get:

12 - 5 < x + 5 - 5
7<x
That is a solution!
But it is normal to put "x" on the left hand side ...
... so let us flip sides (and the inequality sign!):

x>7
Do you see how the inequality sign still "points at" the smaller value (7) ?
And that is our solution: x > 7
Note: "x" can be on the right, but people usually like to see it on the left hand side.

Multiplying or Dividing by a Value

Another thing we do is multiply or divide both sides by a value (just as in Algebra Multiplying ).

But we need to be a bit more careful (as you will see).

Positive Values
Everything is fine if we want to multiply or divide by a positive number:

Solve: 3y < 15
If we divide both sides by 3 we get:

3y/3 < 15/3

y<5
And that is our solution: y < 5

Negative Values

When we multiply or divide by a negative number

we must reverse the inequality.

Why?
Well, just look at the number line!
For example, from 3 to 7 is an increase,
but from -3 to -7 is a decrease.

-7 < -3

7>3

See how the inequality sign reverses (from < to >) ?

Let us try an example:

Solve: -2y < -8

Let us divide both sides by -2 ... and reverse the inequality!

-2y < -8

-2y/-2 > -8/-2

y>4
And that is the correct solution: y > 4
(Note that I reversed the inequality on the same line I divided by the negative number.)
So, just remember:
When multiplying or dividing by a negative number, reverse the inequality

Multiplying or Dividing by Variables

Here is another (tricky!) example:

Solve: bx < 3b
It seems easy just to divide both sides by b, which would give us:
x<3
... but wait ... if b is negative we need to reverse the inequality like this:
x>3
But we don't know if b is positive or negative, so we can't answer this one!
To help you understand, imagine replacing b with 1 or -1 in that example:

if b is 1, then the answer is simply x < 3

but if b is -1, then we would be solving -x < -3, and the answer would be x > 3

So:
Do not try dividing by a variable to solve an inequality (unless you know the variable is
always positive, or always negative).

A Bigger Example
Solve: (x-3)/2 < -5
First, let us clear out the "/2" by multiplying both sides by 2.
Because we are multiplying by a positive number, the inequalities will not change.

(x-3)/2 2 < -5 2
(x-3) < -10
Now add 3 to both sides:

x-3 + 3 < -10 + 3

x < -7
And that is our solution: x < -7

Two Inequalities At Once!

How do we solve something with two inequalities at once?

Solve:

-2 < (6-2x)/3 < 4

First, let us clear out the "/3" by multiplying each part by 3:
Because we are multiplying by a positive number, the inequalities will not change.

-6 < 6-2x < 12

Now subtract 6 from each part:

-12 < -2x < 6

Now multiply each part by -(1/2).
Because we are multiplying by a negative number, the inequalities change direction.

6 > x > -3
And that is the solution!
But to be neat it is better to have the smaller number on the left, larger on the right. So
let us swap them over (and make sure the inequalities point correctly):

-3 < x < 6

Summary

Many simple inequalities can be solved by adding, subtracting, multiplying

or dividing both sides until you are left with the variable on its own.

But these things will change direction of the inequality:

Multiplying or dividing both sides by a negative number

Swapping left and right hand sides

Don't multiply or divide by a variable (unless you know it is always

positive or always negative)

Exponents

The exponent of a number says how many times to use the number in a multiplication.

In 82 the "2" says to use 8 twice in a multiplication,

so 82 = 8 8 = 64
In words: 82 could be called "8 to the power 2" or "8 to the second power", or simply "8
squared"
Exponents are also called Powers or Indices.
Some more examples:

Example: 53 = 5 5 5 = 125

In words: 53 could be called "5 to the third power", "5 to the power 3" or simply "5
cubed"

Example: 24 = 2 2 2 2 = 16

In words: 24 could be called "2 to the fourth power" or "2 to the power 4" or simply
"2 to the 4th"

Exponents make it easier to write and use many multiplications

Example: 96 is easier to write and read than 9 9 9 9 9 9

You can multiply any number by itself as many times as you want using
exponents.
Try here:

34 = 3 3 3 3 = 81
2015 MathsIsFun.com v0.81

In General
So in general:

an tells you to multiply a by itself,

so there are n of those a's:

Other Way of Writing It

Sometimes people use the ^ symbol (above the 6 on your keyboard), as it is easy to
type.
Example: 2^4 is the same as 24

2^4 = 2 2 2 2 = 16

Negative Exponents
Negative? What could be the opposite of multiplying?

Dividing!
A negative exponent means how many times to divide one by the number.

Example: 8-1 = 1 8 = 0.125

You can have many divides:

Example: 5-3 = 1 5 5 5 = 0.008

But that can be done an easier way:

5-3 could also be calculated like:

1 (5 5 5) = 1/53 = 1/125 = 0.008

In General
That last example showed an easier way to handle negative exponents:

Calculate the positive exponent (a )

Then take the Reciprocal (i.e.

1/an)

More Examples:

Negative Exponent

Reciprocal of Positive Exponent

Answer

4-2

1 / 42

= 1/16 = 0.0625

10-3

1 / 103

1/1,000 =
0.001

(-2)-3

1 / (-2)3

1/(-8) =
-0.125

What if the Exponent is 1, or 0?

If the exponent is 1, then you just have the number itself (example 91 = 9)

If the exponent is 0, then you get 1 (example 90 = 1)

But what about 00 ? It could be either 1 or 0, and so people say it

is "indeterminate".

It All Makes Sense

My favorite method is to start with "1" and then multiply or divide as many times as the
exponent says, then you will get the right answer, for example:

Example: Powers of 5
.. etc..
52

155

25

51

15

50

5-1

15

0.2

5-2

155

0.04

.. etc..

If you look at that table, you will see that positive, zero or negative exponents are really
part of the same (fairly simple) pattern.

Be Careful About Grouping

To avoid confusion, use parentheses

() in cases like this:

(-2)2 = (-2) (-2) = 4

With () :

-22 = -(22) = - (2 2) = -4

Without () :

(ab)2 = ab ab

With () :

ab2 = a (b)2 = a b b

Without () :

Reciprocal In Algebra
Turn it upside down!

Reciprocal of a Number
To get the reciprocal of a number, just divide 1 by the
number.

Examples:
Number

Reciprocal

As a Decimal

/2

= 0.5

/8

= 0.125

/1,000

= 0.001

1,000

Reciprocal of a Variable

If you are given a variable "x", its reciprocal is "1/x".

Likewise, if you are given something more complicated
like "x/y" then the reciprocal is just "y/x". In other
words turn it upside down.

Example: What is the Reciprocal of x/(x-1) ?

Answer: take x/(x-1) and flip it upside down:

(x-1)

/x

x
(x-1)
A Fraction

Flipping a Flip
If you take the reciprocal of a reciprocal you end up back where you started!

Example:
The reciprocal of

ax/y is y/ax

The reciprocal of

y/ax is ax/y

(back again)

Example: What is:

1
1

Answer:

Notation
The reciprocal of "x" is shown as:

/w

/x

or

x-1 (see exponents)

Squares and Square Roots

First learn about Squares, then Square Roots are easy.

How to Square A Number

To square a number, just multiply it by itself ...
Example: What is 3 squared?

3 Squared

=33=9

"Squared" is often written as a little 2 like this:

This says "4 Squared equals 16"

(the little 2 says the number appears twice in multiplying)

Squares From 12 to 62
1 Squared

12

11

2 Squared

22

22

3 Squared

32

33

4 Squared

42

44

16

5 Squared

52

55

25

6 Squared

62

66

36

The squares are also

on the Multiplication Table:

Negative Numbers
We can also square negative numbers.

Example: What happens when we square (5) ?

Answer:

(5) (5) = 25
(because a negative times a negative gives a positive )
That was interesting!

When we square a negative number we get a positive result.

Just the same as squaring a positive number:

(For more detail read Squares and Square Roots in Algebra )

Square Roots
A square root goes the other way:

3 squared is 9, so a square root of 9 is 3

A square root of a number is ...

... a value that can be multiplied by itself to give the original number.
A square root of 9 is ...

... 3, because when 3 is multiplied by itself we get 9.

It is like asking:

What can we multiply by itself to get this?

To help you remember think of the root of a tree:
"I know the tree, but what is the root that made it?"
In this case the tree is "9", and the root is "3".

Here are some more squares and square roots:

Decimal Numbers
It also works for decimal numbers.
Try the sliders below. Note: the numbers here are only shown to 2 decimal places.
9
3
2015 MathsIsFun.com v 0.81

Using the sliders (remembering it is only accurate to 2 decimal places):

What is the square root of 8?

What is the square root of 9?

What is the square root of 10?

What is 1 squared?

What is 1.1 squared?

What is 2.6 squared?

Negatives
We found out before that we can square negative numbers:

Example: (3) squared

(3) (3) = 9
And of course 3 3 = 9 also.

So the square root of 9 could be 3 or +3

Example: What are the square roots of 25?

(5) (5) = 25
5 5 = 25
So the square roots of 25 are 5 and +5

The Square Root Symbol

This is the special symbol that means "square root", it is sort of like a tick,
and actually started hundreds of years ago as a dot with a flick upwards.
It is called the radical, and always makes mathematics look important!
We use it like this:

and we say "square root of 9 equals 3"

Example: What is 25?

Well, we just happen to know that 25 = 5 5, so when we multiply 5 by itself (5 5) we

will get 25.
So the answer is:

25 = 5
But wait a minute! Can't the square root also be 5? Because (5) (5) = 25 too.

Well the square root of 25 could be 5 or +5.

But when we use the radical symbol we only give the positive (or zero)
result.

Example: What is 36 ?
Answer: 6 6 = 36, so 36 = 6

Perfect Squares
The Perfect Squares (also called "Square Numbers") are the squares of the whole
numbers :

Perfect
Squares:

16

25

36

49

64

10

11

12

13

14

81 100 121 144 169 196 225

Try to remember at least the first 10 of those.

Calculating Square Roots

It is easy to work out the square root of a perfect square, but it is really hard to work
out other square roots.

Example: what is 10?

Well, 3 3 = 9 and 4 4 = 16, so we can guess the answer is between 3 and 4.

Let's try 3.5: 3.5 3.5 = 12.25

Let's try 3.2: 3.2 3.2 = 10.24

Let's try 3.1: 3.1 3.1 = 9.61

...

15

etc
...

Getting closer to 10, but it will take a long time to get a good answer!

At this point, I get out my calculator and it says:

3.1622776601683793319988935444327
But the digits just go on and on, without any pattern.
So even the calculator's answer is only an approximation !

Note: numbers like that are called Irrational Numbers , if you want to know more.

The Easiest Way to Calculate a Square Root

Use your calculator's square root button!

And also use your common sense to make sure you have the right answer.

A Fun Way to Calculate a Square Root

There is a fun method for calculating a square root that gets more and more accurate
each time around:
a) start with a guess (let's guess 4 is the square root of 10)
b) divide by the guess (10/4 = 2.5)
c) add that to the guess (4 + 2.5 = 6.5)
d) then divide that result by 2, in other words halve it. (6.5/2 = 3.25)
e) now, set that as the new guess, and start at b) again

Our first attempt got us from 4 to 3.25

Going again (b to e) gets us: 3.163

Going again (b to e) gets us: 3.1623

And so, after 3 times around the answer is 3.1623, which is pretty good, because:
3.1623 x 3.1623 = 10.00014
Now ... why don't you try calculating the square root of 2 this way?

How to Guess
What if we have to guess the square root for a difficult number such as "82,163" ... ?
In that case we could think "82,163" has 5 digits, so the square root might have 3 digits
(100x100=10,000), and the square root of 8 (the first digit) is about 3 (3x3=9), so 300
is a good start.

Square Root Day

The 4th of April 2016 is a Square Root Day, because the date looks like 4/4/16
The next after that is the 5th of May 2025 (5/5/25)

Cubes and Cube Roots

To understand cube roots, first we must understand cubes ...

How to Cube A Number

To cube a number, just use it in a multiplication 3 times ...

Example: What is 3 Cubed?

3 Cubed

Note: we write down "3 Cubed" as

(the little

333

33

means the number appears three times in multiplying)

Some More Cubes

4 cubed

43

444

64

5 cubed

53

555

125

27

6 cubed

63

666

216

Cube Root
A cube root goes the other direction:
3 cubed is 27, so the cube root of 27 is 3

27

The cube root of a number is ...

... a special value that when cubed gives the original number.
The cube root of 27 is ...
... 3, because when 3 is cubed you get 27.

Note: When you see "root" think

"I know the tree, but what is the root that produced it?"
In this case the tree is "27", and the cube root is "3".

Here are some more cubes and cube roots:

Example: What is the Cube root of 125?

Well, we just happen to know that 125 = 5 5 5 (if you use 5 three times in a
multiplication you will get 125) ...

... so the answer is 5

The Cube Root Symbol

This is the special symbol that means "cube root", it is the"radical" symbol (used
for square roots) with a little three to mean cube root.

You can use it like this:

(we say "the cube root of 27 equals 3")

You Can Also Cube Negative Numbers

Have a look at this:

5 5 5 = 125

When we cube 5 we get 125:

5 5 5 = 125

When we cube 5 we get 125:

So the cube root of 125 is 5

Perfect Cubes
The Perfect Cubes are the cubes of the whole numbers :
1 2 3

10

11

12

13

14

15

etc

Perfect
1 8 27 64 125 216 343 512 729 1000 1331 1728 2197 2744 3375 ...
Cubes:
It is easy to work out the cube root of a perfect cube, but it is really hard to work out
other cube roots.

Example: what is the cube root of 30?

Well, 3 3 3 = 27 and 4 4 4 = 64, so we can guess the answer is between 3 and
4.

Let's try 3.5: 3.5 3.5 3.5 = 42.875

Let's try 3.2: 3.2 3.2 3.2 = 32.768

Let's try 3.1: 3.1 3.1 3.1 = 29.791

We are getting closer, but very slowly ... at this point, I get out my calculator and it says:

3.1072325059538588668776624275224...
... but the digits just go on and on, without any pattern. So even the calculator's answer
is only an approximation !
(Further reading: these kind of numbers are called surds which are a special type
of irrational number )

nth Root
The "nth Root" used n times in a multiplication gives the original value

" nth ? "

1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th, ... nth ...
Instead of talking about the "4th", "16th", etc, if we want to talk generally we say the
"nth".

The nth Root

The "2nd" root is the square root

The "3rd" root is the cube root

etc!

Just like the square root is used two times in a

multiplication to get the original value.

And the cube root is used three times in a

multiplication to get the original value.

...

...

...
The nth root is used n times in a multiplication to get
the original value.

So it is the general way of talking about roots

(so it could be 2nd, or 9th, or 324th, or whatever)

The nth Root Symbol

This is the special symbol that means "nth root", it is the"radical" symbol (used
for square roots) with a little n to mean nth root.

Using it
We could use the nth root in a question like this:
Question: What is "n" in this equation?

Answer: I just happen to know that 625 = 54, so the 4th root of 625 must be 5:

Or we could use "n" because we want to say general things:

Example: When n is odd

(we talk about this later).

Why "Root" ... ?

When you see "root" think
"I know the tree, but what is the root that produced it?"
Example: in 9 = 3 the "tree" is 9, and the root is 3.

Properties
Now we know what an nth root is, let us look at some properties:

Multiplication and Division

We can "pull apart" multiplications under the root sign like this:

(If n is even, a and b must both be 0)

This can help us simplify equations in algebra, and also make some calculations easier:
Example:
It also works for division:

(a0 and b>0)

(b cannot be zero, as we can't divide by zero)

Example:

Addition and Subtraction

But we cannot do that kind of thing for additions or subtractions !

Example: Pythagoras' Theorem says

a2 + b2 = c 2

So we can calculate c like this:

c = (a2 + b2)
Which is not the same as c = a + b, right?
It is an easy trap to fall into, so beware. It also means that, unfortunately, additions and
subtractions can be hard to deal with when under a root sign.

Exponents vs Roots
An exponent on one side of the "=" can be turned into a root on the other side of the
"=":
If

then

Example:

nth Root of a-to-the-nth-Power

(when n is even b must be 0)

When a value has an exponent of n and we take the nth root we get the value back
again...

... when a is positive (or zero):

(i.e. for a 0)

Example:

... or when the exponent is odd:

(i.e. when n is odd)

Example:

... but when a is negative and the exponent is even we get this:

Did you see that -3 became +3 ?

... so we have:

(when n is even)

(Note: |a| means the absolute value of a, in other words any negative becomes a
positive)
Example:
So that is something to be careful of! Read more at Exponents of Negative Numbers .
Here it is in a little table:

n is odd
a0
a<0

nth Root of a-to-the-mth-Power

n is even

Now let's see what happens when the exponent and root are different values (m and n).

Example:
So ... we can move the exponent "out from under" the nth root, which may sometimes be
helpful.
But there is an even more powerful method ... we can combine the exponent and root
to make a new exponent, like this:

Example:
That is because the nth root is the same as an exponent of (1/n):
Example:

2 = 2 (the square root of 2)

Fractional Exponents
Also called "Radicals" or "Rational Exponents"

Whole Number Exponents

First, let us look at whole number exponents :

The exponent of a number says how many times to use the number
in a multiplication.
In this example: 82 = 8 8 = 64

In words: 82 could be called "8 to the second

power", "8 to the power 2" or simply "8 squared"

Another example: 53 =5 5 5 = 125

Fractional Exponents
But what if the exponent is a fraction?

An exponent of 1/2 is actually square root

And an exponent of 1/3 is cube root
An exponent of 1/4 is 4th root
And so on!

Why?
Let's see why in an example.
First, the Laws of Exponents tell us how to handle exponents when we multiply:

Example: x2x2 = (xx)(xx) = xxxx = x4

Which shows that x2x2 = x(2+2) = x4
So let us try that with fractional exponents:

Example: What is 9 9 ?

9 9 = 9(+) = 9(1) = 9
So 9 times itself gives 9.
What do we call a number that, when multiplied by itself, gives another number?
The square root !
See:

9 9 = 9
And:

9 9 = 9
So 9 is the same as 9

Try Another Fraction

Let us try that again, but with an exponent of one-quarter (1/4):

Example: x

x x x x = x(+++) = x(1) = x
So x, when used 4 times in a multiplication gives x, and so x is the 4th root of x.

General Rule
It worked for , it worked with , in fact it works generally:

x1/n = The n-th Root of x

So we can come up with this:
A fractional exponent like 1/n means to take the n-th
root:

Example: What is 271/3 ?

Answer: 271/3 =

27 = 3

What About More Complicated Fractions?

What about a fractional exponent like

43/2 ?

That is really saying to do a cube (3) and a square root (1/2), in any order.
Let me explain.
A fraction (like m/n) can be broken into two parts:

a whole number part (m) , and

a fraction (1/n) part

So, because m/n = m (1/n) we can do this:

The order does not matter, so it also works for m/n = (1/n) m:

And we get this:

A fractional exponent like m/n means:

Do the m-th power, then take the n-th root
OR Take the n-th root and then do the m-th power

Some examples:

Example: What is 43/2 ?

43/2 = 43(1/2) = (43) = (444) = (64) = 8

or

43/2 = 4(1/2)3 = (4)3 = (2)3 = 8

Either way gets the same result.

Example: What is 274/3 ?

274/3 = 274(1/3) =

(274) =

(531441) = 81

or

274/3 = 27(1/3)4 = (

27)4 = (3)4 = 81

It was certainly easier the 2nd way!

Now ... Play With The Graph!

See how smoothly the curve changes when you play with the fractions in this animation,
this shows you that this idea of fractional exponents fits together nicely:

Graph of y = x(m/n)
m=1
n=2

y = x(1/2)
= x0.5
2015 MathsIsFun.com v 0.81

Things to try:

Start with m=1 and n=1, then slowly increase n so that you can see 1/2, 1/3 and
1/4

Then try m=2 and slide n up and down to see fractions like 2/3 etc

Now try to make the exponent -1

Lastly try increasing m, then reducing n, then reducing m, then increasing n: the
curve should go around and around

Surds
When we can't simplify a number to remove a square root (or cube root etc) then it is a
surd.
Example: 2 (square root of 2) can't be simplified further so it is a surd
Example: 4 (square root of 4) can be simplified (to 2), so it is not a surd!
Have a look at some more examples:

Number

Simplified

As a Decimal

Surd or
not?

1.4142135...(etc)

Surd

1.7320508...(etc)

Surd

Not a surd

0.5

Not a surd

11

2.2239800...(etc)

Surd

Not a surd

1.2457309...(etc)

Surd

11

27

The surds have a decimal which goes on forever without repeating, and are Irrational
Numbers .
In fact "Surd" used to be another name for "Irrational",
but it is now used for a root that is irrational.

How did we get the word "Surd" ?

Well around 820 AD al-Khwarizmi (the Persian guy who we get the name "Algorithm"
from) called irrational numbers "'inaudible" ... this was later translated to the
Latin surdus ("deaf" or "mute")

Conclusion

When it is a root and irrational, it is a surd.

But not all roots are surds.

Simplifying Square Roots

To simplify a square root: make the number inside the square root as small as possible
(but still a whole number ):

Example: 8 is simpler as 22
Get your calculator and check if you want: they are both the same value!
The useful rule to remember is when a and b are not negative:

And this is how to use it:

Example (continued)

8 = (42) = 4 2 = 22
(Because the square root of 4 is 2)
Here is another example:

Example: simplify 12
12 is 4 times 3:

12 = (4 3)
Use the rule:

(4 3) = 4 3
And the square root of 4 is 2:

4 3 = 23

So 12 is simpler as 23
And here is how to simplify in one line:

Example: simplify 18
18 = (9 2) = 9 2 = 32
It often helps to factor the numbers (into prime numbers is best):

Example: simplify 6 15
First we can combine the two numbers:

6 15 = (6 15)
Then we factor them:

(6 15) = (2 3 3 5)
Then we see two 3s, and decide to "pull them out":

(2 3 3 5) = (3 3) (2 5) = 310

Fractions
There is a similar rule for fractions:

Example: simplify 30 / 10
First we can combine the two numbers:

30 / 10 = (30 / 10)
Then simplify:

(30 / 10) = 3

Some Harder Examples

Example: simplify (20 5) / 2
See if you can follow the steps:

(20 5)/2
((2 2 5) 5)/2
(2 2 5 5)/2
2 5 5
2 5
52
Example: simplify 212 + 93
First simplify 212:

212 = 2 23 = 43
Now both terms have 3, we can add them:

43 + 93 = (4+9)3 = 133

Surds
Note: a root we can't simplify further is called a Surd . So 3 is a surd. But 4 = 2 is
not a surd.

Laws of Exponents
Exponents are also called Powers or Indices

The exponent of a number says how many times to use the number
in a multiplication.
In this example: 82 = 8 8 = 64

In words: 82 could be called "8 to the second

power", "8 to the power 2" or simply "8 squared"

Try it yourself:

34 = 3 3 3 3 = 81
2015 MathsIsFun.com v0.81

So an Exponent saves us writing out lots of multiplies!

Example: a7

a7 = a a a a a a a = aaaaaaa

Notice how we wrote the letters together to mean multiply? We will do that a lot here.

Example: x6 = xxxxxx

The Key to the Laws

Writing all the letters down is the key to understanding the Laws
Example: x2x3 = (xx)(xxx) = xxxxx = x5
Which shows that x2x3 = x5, but more on that later!
So, when in doubt, just remember to write down all the letters (as many as the exponent
tells you to) and see if you can make sense of it.

All you need to know ...

The "Laws of Exponents" (also called "Rules of Exponents") come from three ideas:
The exponent says how many times to use the number in a multiplication.
A negative exponent means divide, because the opposite of multiplying is
dividing

A fractional exponent like 1/n means to take the nth root:

If you understand those, then you understand exponents!

And all the laws below are based on those ideas.

Laws of Exponents
Here are the Laws (explanations follow):

Law

Example

x1 = x

61 = 6

x0 = 1

70 = 1

x-1 = 1/x

4-1 = 1/4

xmxn = xm+n

x2x3 = x2+3 = x5

xm/xn = xm-n

x6/x2 = x6-2 = x4

(xm)n = xmn

(x2)3 = x23 = x6

(xy)n = xnyn

(xy)3 = x3y3

(x/y)n = xn/yn

(x/y)2 = x2 / y2

x-n = 1/xn

x-3 = 1/x3

And the law about Fractional Exponents:

Laws Explained
The first three laws above (x

= x, x0 = 1 and x-1 = 1/x) are just part of the natural

sequence of exponents. Have a look at this:

Example: Powers of 5
.. etc..
52

155

25

51

15

50

5-1

15

0.2

5-2

155

0.04

.. etc..
Look at that table for a while ... notice that positive, zero or negative exponents are
really part of the same pattern, i.e. 5 times larger (or 5 times smaller) depending on
whether the exponent gets larger (or smaller).

The law that xmxn = xm+n

With xmxn, how many times do we end up multiplying "x"? Answer: first "m" times,
then by another "n" times, for a total of "m+n" times.

Example: x2x3 = (xx)(xxx) = xxxxx = x5

So, x2x3 = x(2+3) = x5

The law that xm/xn = xm-n

Like the previous example, how many times do we end up multiplying "x"? Answer:
"m" times, then reduce that by "n" times (because we are dividing), for a total of
"m-n" times.

Example: x4/x2 = (xxxx) / (xx) = xx = x2

So, x4/x2 = x(4-2) = x2
(Remember that x/x = 1, so every time you see an x "above the line" and one
"below the line" you can cancel them out.)
This law can also show you why x0=1 :

Example: x2/x2 = x2-2 = x0 =1

The law that (xm)n = xmn

First you multiply "m" times. Then you have to do that "n" times, for a total of
mn times.

Example: (x3)4 = (xxx)4 = (xxx)(xxx)(xxx)(xxx) = xxxxxxxxxxxx = x12

So (x3)4 = x34 = x12

The law that (xy)n = xnyn

To show how this one works, just think of re-arranging all the "x"s and "y"s as in
this example:

Example: (xy)3 = (xy)(xy)(xy) = xyxyxy = xxxyyy = (xxx)(yyy) = x3y3

The law that (x/y)n = xn/yn

Similar to the previous example, just re-arrange the "x"s and "y"s

Example: (x/y)3 = (x/y)(x/y)(x/y) = (xxx)/(yyy) = x3/y3

The law that

OK, this one is a little more complicated!
I suggest you read Fractional Exponents first, or this may not make sense.

Anyway, the important idea is that:

x1/n = The n-th Root of x

And so a fractional exponent like

43/2 is really saying to do a cube (3) and

a square root(1/2), in any order.

Just remember from fractions that m/n = m (1/n):

Example:
The order does not matter, so it also works for m/n = (1/n) m:

Example:

And That Is It!

If you find it hard to remember all these rules, then remember this:

you can work them out when you understand the

three ideas near the top of this page

Oh, One More Thing ... What if x= 0?

Positive Exponent (n>0)

0n = 0

Negative Exponent (n<0)

Undefined! (Because dividing by 0 is undefined)

Exponent = 0

Ummm ... see below!

The Strange Case of 00

There are two different arguments for the correct value of 00.
00 could be 1, or possibly 0, so some people say it is really "indeterminate":
x0 = 1, so ...

00 = 1

0n = 0, so ...

00 = 0

When in doubt ...

00 = "indeterminate"

Using Exponents in Algebra

You might like to read the page on Exponents first.

Whole Number Exponents

The exponent "n" in

an says how many times to use a in a

multiplication:

Example: 53 = 5 5 5 = 125

The "3" says to use 5 three times in a multiplication

In words: 53 could be called "5 to the third power", "5 to the power 3" or simply "5
cubed"

Negative Exponents
A negative exponent

an is equal to 1/an (1 divided by the

positive exponent)

Example: 53 = 1/53 = 1/125 = 0.008

Also ... by just changing the signs of the exponents we get:

A positive exponent

an is equal to 1/an (1 divided by the

negative exponent)

So, we can move an expression between the top and bottom (numerator and
denominator) of a fraction by simply changing the sign of the exponent.

Example: x1 = 1/x (a simple reciprocal )

Example: 53 = 1/53 = 1/125 = 0.008

Variables with Exponents

How to Multiply and Divide them

What is a Variable with an Exponent?

A Variable is a symbol for a number we don't know yet.
It is usually a letter like x or y.
An exponent (such as the 2 in x2) says how many times
to use the variable in a multiplication.

Example: y2 = yy
(yy means y multiplied by y, because in Algebra putting two letters next to each other
means to multiply them)
Likewise z3 = zzz and x5 = xxxxx

Exponents of 1 and 0
Exponent of 1
When the exponent is 1, we just have the variable itself (example x1 = x)
We usually don't write the "1", but it sometimes helps to remember that x is also x1

Exponent of 0
When the exponent is 0, we are not multiplying by anything and the answer is just "1"
(example y0 = 1)

Multiplying Variables with Exponents

So, how do we multiply this:

(y2)(y3)
We know that y2 = yy, and y3 = yyy so let us write out all the multiplies:

y2 y3 = yyyyy
That is 5 "y"s multiplied together, so the new exponent must be 5:

y2 y3 = y5
But why count the "y"s when the exponents already tell us how many?
The exponents tell us there are two "y"s multiplied by 3 "y"s for a total of 5 "y"s:

y2 y3 = y2+3 = y5
So, the simplest method is to just add the exponents!
(Note: this is one of the Laws of Exponents )

Mixed Variables
When we have a mix of variables, just add up the exponents for each, like this (press
play):

With Constants
There will often be constants (numbers like 3, 2.9, etc) mixed in as well.
Never fear! Just multiply the constants separately and put the result in the answer:
(Note: "" means multiply. In Algebra we don't like to use "" because it looks too much
like the letter "x")
Here is a more complicated example with constants and exponents:

Negative Exponents
Negative Exponents Mean Dividing!

x-1 = 1x

x-2 = 1x2

x-3 = 1x3

etc...

Get familiar with this idea, it is very important and useful!

Dividing
y3
So, how do we do this?

y2

Let's write out all the multiplies:

yy
y
yy

Now we can remove any matching "y"s that are

both top and bottom (because y/y = 1), so we are left with:

So 3 "y"s above the line get reduced by 2 "y"s below the line, leaving only 1 "y" :

y3

yyy
=

y2

= y3-2 = y1 = y

yy

OR, we could have done it like this:

y3
= y3y-2 = y3-2 = y1 = y

y2

So ... just subtract the exponents of the variables we are dividing by!
Here is a bigger demonstration, involving several variables:
The "z"s got completely cancelled out! (Which makes sense, because z2/z2 = 1)
To see what is going on, write down all the multiplies, then "cross out" the variables that
are both top and bottom:

x3 y z2
xy z
2

xxx y zz
=

x yy zz

xx
=

xx
=

x2
=

But once again, why count the variables, when the exponents tell you how many?
Once you get confident you can do the whole thing quite quickly "in place" like this: