Metals and its Alloys

A metal (from Greek mtallon, "mine, quarry, metal") is a material (an element, compound,
or alloy) that is typically hard, opaque, shiny, and has good electrical and thermal conductivity.
A metal is of various opaque, fusible, ductile, and typically lustrous substances that are good
conductors of electricity and heat, form cations by loss of electrons, and yield basic oxides and
hydroxides; especially : one that is a chemical element as distinguished from an alloy

History of Metals
There are currently 86 known metals but before the 19th century only 24 had been discovered
and, of these 24 metals, 12 were discovered in the 18th century.
The Metals of Antiquity, were the metals upon which civilization was based.
Gold 6000BC - Stone Age man learned to fashion gold into jewelry. The popularity of

gold is largely due to its scarcity, value and mankinds fascination with the metal.
Copper 4200BC - The use of copper in antiquity is of more significance than gold as the

first tools, implements and weapons were made from copper.

Silver 4000BC - Silver had been widely used throughout time as a basis for monetary

systems and played central roles in the currencies of the Roman and Chinese Empires.
Lead 3500BC - It is believed that lead smelting began at least 9,000 years ago, and the
oldest known artifact of lead is a statuette found at the temple of Osiris on the site of

Abydos dated circa 3800 BC.

Tin 1750BC - First smelted in combination with copper around 3500 BC to produce

bronze. The oldest artifacts date from around 2000 BC.

Iron, smelted 1500BC - The discovery of smelting around 3000 BC led to the start of the

Iron Age around 1200 BC and the prominent use of iron for tools and weapons.
Mercury 750BC - Known to ancient Chinese and Indians before 2000 BC, and found in
Egyptian tombs dating from 1500 BC.

Metals in the Periodic Table

Alkali Metals
o

Alkaline Earth Metals

o

The alkali metals are a group (column) in the periodic table consisting of
the chemicalelements lithium (Li), sodium (Na) potassium (K), rubidium (Rb), cae
sium(Cs), and francium (Fr). The alkali metals have very similar properties: they
are all shiny, soft, highly reactive metals at standard temperature and pressure
and readily lose their outermost electron to form cations with charge +1.

The alkaline earth metals are a group of chemical elements in the periodic
table with very similar properties. They are all shiny, silvery-white,
somewhat reactive metals at standard temperature and pressure and readily lose
their two outermost electrons to form cations with charge 2+ and an oxidation
state, or oxidation number of +2.

Transition Metals

Most scientists describe a "transition metal" as any element in the d-block of

the periodic table, which includes groups 3 to 12 on the periodic table.

Post-transition Metals
o

Lanthanides
o

In chemistry, post-transition metals are the metallic elements in the periodic

table located between the transition metals (to their left) and the metalloids (to
their right). Usually included in this category are gallium, indium and
thallium; tin and lead; and bismuth.
The lanthanide series
of
chemical
fifteen metallic chemical
elements with atomic
from lanthanum through lutetium.

elements comprises
numbers 57
through

the
71,

Actinides
o

The actinide series encompasses the 15 metallic chemical elements with atomic
numbers from 89 to 103, actinium through lawrencium.

Types of Metals

Base Metals
o

Ferrous Metals
o

The term "ferrous" is derived from the Latin word meaning "containing iron". This
can include pure iron, such as wrought iron, or an alloy such as steel.

Non-ferrous Metals
o

A base metal is a common and inexpensive metal, as opposed to a precious

metal such as gold or silver.

A non-ferrous metal is any metal, including alloys, that does not contain iron in
appreciable amounts.

Noble Metals

Noble metals are metals that are resistant to corrosion or oxidation, unlike
most base metals. They tend to be precious metals, often due to perceived rarity.
Examples include gold, platinum, silver, rhodium, Iridium and palladium.

Precious Metals
o

A precious metal is a rare, naturally occurring metallic chemical element of

high economic value. Chemically, the precious metals tend to be
less reactive than most elements. They are usually ductile and have a high lustre.
Historically, precious metals were important as currency but are now regarded
mainly as investment and industrial commodities. Gold, silver, platinum,
and palladium each have an ISO 4217 currency code.

Mechanical Properties
These properties are described in terms of the types of force or stress that the metal must
withstand and how these are resisted. Common types of stress are compression, tension, shear,
torsion, impact, 1-2 or a combination of these stresses, such as fatigue.

Hardness
o

o
o

Resistance of metal to plastic deformation, usually by indentation. However, the

term may also refer to stiffness or temper, or to resistance to scratching,
abrasion, or cutting. It is the property of a metal, which gives it the ability to resist
being permanently, deformed (bent, broken, or have its shape changed), when a
load is applied. The greater the hardness of the metal, the greater resistance it
has to deformation.
Hardness measurement can be defined as macro-, micro- or nano- scale
according to the forces applied and displacements obtained.
Can be measured with:

Rockwell Hardness Test

The Rockwell Hardness test is a hardness measurement based

on the net increase in depth of impression as a load is applied.

Brinell Hardness Test

Brinell hardness is determined by forcing a hard steel or carbide

sphere of a specified diameter under a specified load into the
surface of a material and measuring the diameter of the
indentation left after the test. The Brinell hardness number, or
simply the Brinell number, is obtained by dividing the load used, in
kilograms, by the actual surface area of the indentation, in square
millimeters.The result is a pressure measurement, but the units
are rarely stated.

Vickers Hardness Test

Knoop Hardness

The hardenability of a metal alloy is the depth up to which a material is hardened

after putting through a heat treatment process.The unit of hardenability is the
same as of length. It is an indication of how deep into the material a certain
hardness can be achieved. It should not be confused with hardness, which is a
measure of a sample's resistance to indentation or scratching. It is an important
property for welding, since it is inversely proportional to weldability, that is, the
ease of welding a material.
Measured by a Jominy test developed by Walter E. Jominy and A.L. Boegehold.

Brittleness
o

Barcol hardness is a method that a hardness value obtained by

measuring the resistance to penetration of a sharp steel point
under a spring load. The instrument, called the Barcol impressor,
gives a direct reading on a 0 to 100 scale.

Hardenability
o

Mohs hardness is defined by how well a substance will resist

scratching by another substance. It is rough measure of the
resistance of a smooth surface to scratching or abrasion,
expressed in terms of a scale devised (1812) by the German
mineralogist Friedrich Mohs. The Mohs hardness of a mineral is
determined by observing whether its surface is scratched by a
substance of known or defined hardness.

Barcol Hardness

The shore scleroscope measures hardness in terms of the

elasticity of the material. A diamond-tipped hammer in a
graduated glass tube is allowed to fall from a known height on the
specimen to be tested, and the hardness number depends on the
height to which the hammer rebounds; the harder the material,
the higher the rebound.

Mohs Hardness

In this test, a pyramid-shaped diamond indenter with apical

angles of 130 and 17230 (called a Knoop indenter) is pressed
against a material. Making a thombohedral impression with one
diagonal seven times longer than the other. The hardness of the
material is determined by the depth to which the Knoop indenter
penetrates.

Shore

Vickers hardness is a measure of the hardness of a material,

calculated from the size of an impression produced under load by
a pyramid-shaped diamond indenter. Devised in the 1920s by
engineers at Vickers, Ltd., in the United Kingdom, the diamond
pyramid hardness test, as it also became known, permitted the
establishment of a continuous scale of comparable numbers that
accurately reflected the wide range of hardnesses found in steels.

A material is brittle if, when subjected to stress, it breaks without significant

deformation (strain). Breaking is often accompanied by a snapping sound.

Ductility

o
o

In materials science, ductility is a solid material's ability to deform

under tensile stress; this is often characterized by the material's ability to be
stretched into a wire.
Ductility is the property that enables a material to stretch, bend, or twist without
cracking or breaking.
Tensile testing can be used to measure the ductility of the metal.

Malleability
o

Malleability is a material's ability to deform under compressive stress; this is often

characterized by the material's ability to form a thin sheet by hammering or
rolling.
Ductility

Malleability

Machinability
o
o

Machinability is the ease or difficulty with which a material lends itself to being
machined.
The term machinability refers to the ease with which a metal can be cut
permitting the removal of the material with a satisfactory finish at low cost.
Machinability can be quantified by the following methods:

Tool life method

o

Tool forces and power consumption method

o

The forces required for a tool to cut through a material is

directly related to the power consumed. Therefore, tool
forces are often given in units of specific energy.

Surface finish method

Machinability rating

Plasticity
o

o
o

Machinability can be based on the measure of how long a

tool lasts.

In physics and materials science, plasticity describes the deformation of a

material undergoing non-reversible changes of shape in response to applied
forces. For example, a solid piece of metal being bent or pounded into a new
shape displays plasticity as permanent changes occur within the material itself.
The
plasticity
of
a
material
is
directly
proportional
to
the ductility and malleability of the material.
Plasticity is the ability of a material to deform permanently without breaking or
rupturing. This property is the opposite of strength.

Strength or Ultimate tensile strength

Strength is the property that enables a metal to resist deformation under load.
The ultimate strength is the maximum strain a material can withstand. Tensile
strength is a measurement of the resistance to being pulled apart when placed in
a tension load.

Tensile strength

Shear strength

In materials science, fatigue is the weakening of a material caused by repeatedly

applied loads. It is the progressive and localized structural damage that occurs
when a material is subjected to cyclic loading. The nominal maximum stress
values that cause such damage may be much less than the strength of the
material typically quoted as the ultimate tensile stress limit, or the yield stress
limit.
Fatigue resistance - the ability to resist breaking after repeated deformation such
as bending - enables the use of metals in springs, levers and gears.

Toughness
o

In physics, elasticity is the tendency of solid materials to return to their original

shape after being deformed. Solid objects will deform when forces are applied on
them. If the material is elastic, the object will return to its initial shape and size
when these forces are removed.

Fatigue
o

Compressive strength is the ability of a material to withstand

pressures acting on a given plane.

Elasticity
o

Shear strength is the ability of a material to resist being fractured

by opposing forces acting in a straight line but not in the same
plane.

Compressive strength

Tensile strength is the ability of a metal to resist being pulled apart

by opposing forces acting in a straight line. It Is expressed as the
number of pounds of force required to pull apart a bar of material
1 inch wide and 1 inch thick. The tensile test is the one most often
used to measure the strength of metals.

Toughness is the property that enables a material to withstand shock and to be

deformed without rupturing. Toughness may be considered as a combination of
strength and plasticity.
Toughness is the ability of a material or metal to resist fracture, plus the ability to
resist failure after the damage has begun.

Corrosive Resistance
o

Corrosive resistance is the resistance to eating away or wearing by the

atmosphere, moisture, or other agents, such as acid.

Electrical Properties
Metals are excellent conductors of electricity. In general, conductivity increases with decreasing
temperature, so that, at absolute zero (-273C), conductivity is infinite; in other words, metals
become superconductors.

Electrical Conductivity
o

o
o
o
o
o

Electrical conductivity or specific conductance measures a material's ability to

conduct an electric current. . Its SI unit is siemens per metre (S/m) and CGSE
unit is reciprocal second (s1).
The unit is named after Ernst Werner von Siemens.
Metals are good conductors because the molecules in the metal are very tightly
packed together and allow the electrons to move freely.
Silver is the best conductor when compared to all other metals but is restricted
due to high cost.
Most widely used conductor is copper: inexpensive, abundant, and soft.
When weight is important, aluminum is used, which is half as good as copper and
more resistant to corrosion.

Electrical Resistance
o
o

o
o

Electrical Resistance is an intrinsic property that quantifies how strongly a given

material opposes the flow of electric current.
Silver, aluminum, iron and other metals have a low resistance (and a high
conductivity). Wood, paper, and most plastics have a high resistance (and a lowconductivity).
In general, electrical resistivity of metals increases with temperature.
The unit of measurement for electrical resistance is called the ohm. The ohm was
named
for
German
physicist
Georg
Simon
Ohm.

Thermal
Properties
Heat
material
to
Metals are a

conductivity is the ability of a

conduct or transfer heat.
good conductor of heat.
Thermal Conductivity
o
In physics, thermal

conductivity is the property of a material to conduct

heat. It
is evaluated primarily in terms of Fourier's Law for heat conduction.
o It is relatively similar to electrical conductivity
o Thermal conductivity is harnessed in automobile radiators and cooking utensils.
o Following the WiedemannFranz law, thermal conductivity of metals is
approximately proportional to the absolute temperature (in kelvin) times electrical
conductivity. In pure metals the electrical conductivity decreases with increasing
temperature and thus the product of the two, the thermal conductivity, stays
approximately constant. In alloys the change in electrical conductivity is usually
smaller and thus thermal conductivity increases with temperature, often
proportionally to temperature.
Coefficient of Linear Expansion
o The coefficient of linear expansion is the increase in length of a body for a given
rise in temperature. The increase is the changed length of a rod for each degree
that the temperature is increased. Metal expands when heated and contracts
when cooled. It increases not only in length, but also in breath and thickness. The
increase in unit length when a solid is heated one degree is called the coefficient of linear expansion.

References
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http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/policy/navy/nrtc/14250_ch1.pdf
"Visual Elements: Group 1 The Alkali Metals". Visual Elements. Royal Society of Chemistry.
Retrieved 13 January 2012.
"Visual Elements: Group 2The Alkaline Earth Metals". Visual Elements. Royal Society of Chemistry.
Retrieved 13 January 2012.
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p.341-2

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http://www.calce.umd.edu/TSFA/Hardness_ad_.htm
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Brittleness. Retrieved from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brittleness
Ductility. Retrieved from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ductility
Machinability. Retrieved from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machinability
J. Lubliner, 2008, Plasticity theory, Dover

Ultimate Tensile Strength. Retrieved from

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultimate_tensile_strength#cite_note-1.
Elasticity. Retrieved from
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elasticity_(physics)#cite_ref-1.
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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_resistivity_and_conductivity
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Thermal Conductivity. Retrieved from

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CHE 435
Fundamentals of Material Science

Metals and its Alloys

Submitted by:
Luomar Jake E. Cabatas
Mary Jane Jumawan

Submitted to:
Engr. Angelita Fernandez
Instructor

April 24, 2015