The Urinary System

Kidneys produce urine

Ureters transport urine to bladder
Urinary bladder - stores urine
Urethra transports urine to exterior
Functions of the urinary system
Homeostatic regulation of blood plasma
Regulating blood volume and pressure
Regulating plasma ion concentrations
Stabilizing blood pH
Conserving nutrients
Filter many liters of fluid from blood
Excretion - The removal of organic waste products from body fluids
Urea
Uric acid
Creatinine
Elimination - The discharge of waste products into the environment
KIDNEY
Location:
lie against the dorsal cavity wall in a retroperitoneal in the superior lumbar region
extends from T1 to T2
*right kidney positioned slightly lower than the left

right: below liver

left: below spleen
STRUCTURE:
Size- large soap or tightly clenched fist
Consist of million nephrons
Adult Kidney:
12 cm long
6cm wide
3 cm thick
External anatomy:
renal hilium- indent where ureter emerges along wth blood vessels lymphatic vessels
and nerves
3 layer of tissue:
Renal capsule- continuous wth outer coat of ureter, barrier against taruma, maintain
kidney shape
Adipose capsule- mass of fatty tissue that protects kidney from trauma and holds it in
place.
Renal fascia- thin layer of connective tissue that anchors kidney to surrounding
structure and abdominal wall.
Internal anatomy:
Renal cortex- superficial
-outer cortical zone
-inner juxtamedullary zone
Renal columns- portions of cortex that extend between renal pyramids
Renal medulla- inner region
Several cone shaped renal pyramids- base faces cortex and renal papilla points toward
hilium.
Renal lobe renal pyrmid overlying cortex area, and of each adjacent renal column.

Blood and Nerve supply of the kidneys

Blood supply
Although kidneys constitute less than 0.5% of total body mass, they receive 20-25% of
resting cardiac output
Left and right renal artery enters kidney
Branches into segmental, interlobar, arcuate, interlobular arteries
Each nephron receives one afferent arteriole
Divides into glomerulus capillary ball
Reunite to form efferent arteriole (unique)
Divide to form peritubular capillaries or some have vasa recta
Peritubular venule, interlobar vein and renal vein exits kidney
Renal nerves are part of the sympathetic autonomic nervous system
Most are vasomotor nerves regulating blood flow
FUNCTIONS of the KIDNEYS
They filter blood plasma, separate waste from the useful chemicals and eliminate the
wastes while returning the rest to the bloodstream.
They regulate blood volume and pressure by eliminating or conserving water as
necessary.
They regulate the osmolarity of the body fluids by controlling the relative amounts of
water and solutes eliminated.
They secrete the enzyme renin, which activates hormonal mechanism that control
blood pressure and electrolyte balance.
They secrete the hormone erythropoietin, which controls the red blood cell count and
oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood.
They function with the lungs to regulate the PCO (Partial Pressure of Carbon Dioxide)
and acid-base balance of the body fluids.

They contribute to calcium homoestasis through their role in synthesizing calcitriol

(Vitamin D)
They detoxify free radicals and drugs with the use of peroxisomes.
In times of starvation, they carry out gluconeogenesis; they deaminite amino acids
(remove the -NH group), excrete the amino group as ammonia (NH), and synthesize
glucose from the rest of the molecule.
What is nitrogenous waste?
Nitrogenous waste is a metabolic waste produced by our body (urine).
such as urea, uric acid and creatinine.
Urea
- about 50% of the nitrogenous waste
- a by-product of protein catabolism
*Proteins are broken down to amino acids, and then the NH group is removed from
each amino acid. The NH forms ammonia, which is exceedingly toxic but which the
liver quickly converts to urea, as less harmful waste.
Uric acid
- a product of the metabolic breakdown of purine nucleotides.
Creatinine
- Is fairly constant rate by the body (depending on muscle a breakdown product
of creatine phosphate in muscle, and is usually produced at a mass).
Definition of the following:
Polyuria
- it is a condition of excessive production and passage of urine
- greater than 2.5 or 3 L/day
Causes:

- Diabetes mellitus
- it may be due to various chemical substance like caffeine and alcohol
Anuria
- failure of the kidneys to produce urine
- below 50 ml/day
Causes:
- Failure of kidney function, which can have multiple causes including
medications or toxins
- Stones or tumours in the urinary tract which causes an obstruction to urinary
flow
Oliguria
- or hypouresis; is the decreased output of urine
- more than 400-500 ml/day
- may be sign of dehydration, kidney failure, UTI (urinary tract infection)
Diuresis
- is the raise in the kidneys producing urine that normally results in an
equivalent increase in urine expelled by the body
Causes:
- Renal failure
- Diabetes insipidus
- Diabetes mellitus
- Medications
NEPHRONS AND URINE FORMATION

NEPHRONS
- It is the functional unit of
the kidney, the structure that
actually produces urine in the
process of removing waste and
excess substances from the blood.
- there are approximately
1.3 MILLION of them in each kidney.
Its function is vital fo
r homeostasis. It is regulated by the endocrine system by hormones
such as antidiuretic hormone,
aldosterone, and parathyroid hormone.
Each nephron has its own supply of blood from two capillary regions from
the renal artery.
Each nephron is composed of an initial filtering component (the renal corpuscle) and a
tubule specialized for reabsorption and secretion (the renal tubule).
Your nephrons help:
Remove excess water,wastes and other substances from your blood.
Return substances like sodium, potassium or phosphorus whenever any of these
substances run low in your body.

FUNCTION OF THE NEPHRON

Blood comes in from the AFFERENT ARTERIOLES.
Plasma leaks out and enters the glomerular capsule. The plasma contains nutrients,
which need to be reabsorbed, as well as waste products.

As the plasma moves through the proximal convoluted tubule, all of the nutrients, and
most of the water, and most of the ions are reabsorbed back out of the nephrons and
into the blood.
In the Loop of Henle, almost all of the rest of the water and salt are reabsorbed into
blood.
Everything that is not reabsorbed (waste products) goes into the collecting duct and is
excreted as urine. This is also how the water-salt balance is maintained, as well as the
acid-base balance. The kidneys can remove or retain acids as well.
Each nephron is composed of an initial filtering component
(the renal corpuscle) and a tubule specialized for reabsorption and secretion (the renal
tubule).
The renal corpuscle filters out large solutes from the blood, delivering water and small
solutes to the renal tubule for modification.
The Glomerulus
-The glomerulus is the site in the nephron where fluid and solutes are filtered out of
the blood to form a glomerular filtrate.
The glomerulus is a tiny blood vessel or capillary, which looks like a ball of yarn.
Actual filtering of your blood occurs in the glomerulus.
A small, intertwined group of capillaries within nephrons of the kidney that filter the
blood to make urine.
Each of your glomeruli acts like a sieve that helps keep normal proteins and cells in
your bloodstream and allows wastes, excess fluid and other substances to pass.
GLOMERULUS
The glomerulus is the first part of the nephron, where the filtration occurs.
The glomeruli are located only in the renal cortex.
A glomerulus (ball of yarn) is a tuft of capillaries surrounded by a glomerular capsule
(Bowmans capsule) made of simple squamous epithelium. The capillaries fits in the
capsule like a fist punched into an underinflated balloon.
The capsule collects the plasma from the arterioles and drains it into the convoluted
tubules, which empty into a collecting duct, which exits the body.

The plasma is further filtered along the way. The good nutrients are reabsorbed back
into the blood.
GLOMERULUS

The Tubule
also called renal or kidney tubule.
is a tiny tube where the wastes, extra fluid and other
recyclable substances like sodium and potassium
filtered out from the glomerulus pass through.
Portion of the renal tubule which closed end of the renal tubule is enlarged and cupshaped and completely surrounds the glomerulus
Your kidneys measure out chemicals like sodium, phosphorus, and potassium and
release them back to the blood to return to the body when need arises. In this way,
your kidneys regulate the your bodys level of these substances. The right balance is
necessary for you to function properly
Structure of the Nephrons
A. wedge-shaped section of kidney tisssue indicating the positioning of nephrons in the
kidney.
B. detailed anatomy of a nephron and its associated blood supply. Part of distal
convuluted tubule and afferent anteriole have been sectioned to reveal the location of
the juxtaglomerular apparatus.
C. diagrammatic view of the relationship of the visceral layer of the glomerular capsule
to the glomerular capillaries.
D. scanning electron micrograph of podocytes clinging to the glomerular capillaries.
Proximal Convoluted Tubule

is a section of the renal tubule located in the kidney's cortex that is responsible for the
reabsorption of the majority of ultrafiltrate.
This area absorbs all
nutrients and 2/3 of
the water and salt.
Only about 1% of the
fluid filtered by the kidney
actually becomes urine
The Loop of Henle
It is a next duct of the renal tubule in line to collect the scraps left by the proximal
tubule.
is a long duct mainly located in the kidney's medulla that creates a concentration
gradient, called a countercurrent exchange system, that allows for the reabsorption of
water.
The loop of Henle (sometimes known as the nephron loop) is a U-shaped tube that
consists of a descending limb and ascending limb.
This is where 1/3 of water and salt is reabsorbed. It is located in the renal medulla.
The entire loop of Henle has three different parts
One is called the thin descending limb of Henle, the next in line is called the thin
ascending limb of Henle, and the final part is called the thick ascending limb of Henle.
thin descending limb of Henle
which descends into the medulla, is very permeable to water. This allows for the
reabsorption of water back into the blood.
The thin and thick ascending limbs are not permeable to water and instead reabsorb
ions like sodium, chloride, calcium, and potassium.
Distal Convoluted Tubule and Connecting Tubule

is a duct of the renal tubule located in the kidney's cortex that reabsorbs calcium,
sodium, and chloride and regulates the pH of urine by secreting protons and absorbing
bicarbonate.
The reason this is called the distal, as opposed to proximal, convoluted tubule is
because it is the segment farthest away in terms of position and connection to the
renal corpuscle.
will then connect to a section called the connecting tubule, which will do many of the
same things as the distal convoluted tubule, but it is not, however, considered to be a
part of the renal tubule.
Juxtaglomerular Apparatus
The distal end of the renal
tubule passes next to the
glomerulus to form the
juxtaglomerular apparatus
(juxta means next to).
The juxtaglomerular apparatus (JGA)
consists of cells located in and
around the glomerulus and the
glomerular capsule.
If blood pressure is too low, the JGA releases adenosine, which causes
vasoconstriction of the afferent arteriole. This will slow the filtration rate so less water is
lost, and blood pressure increases.
Urine Production
Filtration filtrate of blood leaves kidney capillaries
Reabsorption nutrients, water, and essential ions reclaimed
Secretion active process of removing undesirable molecules

Collecting Duct (tubule)

Receives urine from distal convoluted tubules, empties into the calyx, which empties
into the ureter.
Collecting Duct (tubule)
More water leaves the tube by osmosis, since the tube is surrounded by salty tissue.
Some urea leaves by diffusion, and may be cycled through the system.
URINE FORMATION
The rates at which different substances are excreted in the urine represent the sum of
three renal processes, (1) glomerular filtration, (2) reabsorption of substances from the
renal tubules into the blood, and (3) secretion of substances from the blood into the
renal tubules.
Urine formation begins with filtration from the glomerular capillaries into Bowman's
capsule of a large amount of fluid that is virtually free of protein.
Most substances in the plasma, except for proteins, are freely filtered so that their
concentrations in the glomerular filtrate in Bowman's capsule are almost the same as
in the plasma.
Glomerular Filtration
Urine formation begins when the fluid portion of the blood is filtered by the glomerulus
and enters the glomerular capsule as glomerular filtrate.
Urine Formation
Filtration Pressure
The main force responsible for moving substances by filtration through the glomerular
capillary wall is the hydrostatic pressure of the blood inside.
Due to plasma proteins, osmotic pressure of the blood resists filtration, as does
hydrostatic pressure inside the glomerular capsule.

Filtration Pressure

 The main force responsible for moving substances by filtration through the
glomerular capillary wall is the hydrostatic pressure of the blood inside.
Due to plasma proteins, osmotic pressure of the blood resists filtration, as
does hydrostatic pressure inside the glomerular capsule.
Urine Formation
Filtration Rate
The factors that affect the filtration rate are filtration pressure, glomerular
plasma osmotic pressure, and hydrostatic pressure in the glomerular
capsule.
When the afferent arteriole constricts in response to sympathetic
stimulation, filtration pressure, and thus filtration rate, declines.
When the efferent arteriole constricts, filtration pressure increases,
increasing the rate of filtration.
When osmotic pressure of the glomerular plasma is high, filtration rate
decreases.
When hydrostatic pressure inside the glomerular capsule is high, filtration
rate declines.
On average, filtration rate is 125 milliliters per minute or 180 liters in 24
hours, most of which is reabsorbed farther down the nephron.
Regulation of Filtration Rate
Glomerular filtration rate is relatively constant, although sympathetic
impulses may decrease the rate of filtration.
Another control over filtration rate is the renin-angiotensin system, which
regulates sodium excretion.
Presence of angiotensin II also increases the secretion of
aldosterone, which stimulates reabsorption of sodium.
The heart can also increase filtration rate when blood volume is high.
Tubular Reabsorption

 Changes in the fluid composition from the time glomerular filtrate is formed
to when urine arrives at the collecting duct are largely the result of tubular
reabsorption of selected substances.
Most of the reabsorption occurs in the proximal convoluted tubule, where
cells possess microvilli with carrier proteins.
Carrier proteins have a limited transport capacity, so excessive amounts of
a substance will be
excreted into the urine.
Glucose and amino acids are reabsorbed by active transport,
water by osmosis, and proteins by pinocytosis.
Sodium and Water Reabsorption
Sodium ions are reabsorbed by active transport, and negatively charged
ions follow passively.
As sodium is reabsorbed, water follows by osmosis.
Regulation of Urine Concentration and Volume
Most of the sodium ions are reabsorbed before the urine is excreted under
the direction of the hormone, aldosterone
Normally the distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct are impermeable
to water unless the hormone ADH is present.
Urea and Uric Acid Excretion
Urea is a by-product of amino acid metabolism; uric acid is a by-product of
nucleic acid metabolism.
Urea is passively reabsorbed by diffusion but about 50% of urea is
excreted in the urine.
Most uric acid is reabsorbed by active transport and a small amount is
secreted into the renal tubule.
Tubular Secretion
Tubular secretion transports certain substances, including penicillin,
histamine, phenobarbital, hydrogen ions and potassium ions, from the
plasma into the renal tubule.

 Active transport mechanisms move excess hydrogen ions into the renal
tubule along with various organic compounds.
Potassium ions are secreted both actively and passively into the distal
convoluted tubule and the collecting duct.
Composition of Normal Urine
Normal Constituents of Urine
Nitrogenous waste products-urea, uric acid, and creatinine.
Electrolytes-sodium chloride, sulfates and phosphates.
Pigment-from bile compounds, foods and dugs.
Composition of Urine
Water
Urea
Uric acid
Creatine
Ammonia
Sodium
Potassium
Chlorides
Phosphates
Sulphates
Oxalates

o Urine is a typically sterile liquid by-product of the body secreted by

the kidneys through a process called urination and excreted through the urethra.
o Urine is an aqueous solution of greater than 95% water. Other constituents
include urea, chloride, sodium, potassium, creatinine and other dissolved ions,
and inorganic and organic compounds.
o Urine can acquire strong odors due to bacterial action, and in particular the
release of ammonia from the breakdown of urea.
o Urine gets its yellow color from a pigment called urochrome. That color normally
varies from pale yellow to deep amber, depending on the concentration of the
urine.
o The range is 4.5 to 8, but urine is commonly acidic (ie 5.5-6.5) due to metabolic
activity. Acidic urine (low pH) may be caused by diet (eg, acidic fruits such as
cranberries) and uric acid calculi.
o The density of normal urine ranges from 0.001 to 0.035.
o "Normal" urine can be clear or cloudy.
Composition of Urine Collected for 24 Hours
Componen
t

Amoun
t

Remark

Urea

25.035.0 g

60%-90% of nitrogenous material; derived from the metabolism of amino

acids into ammonia

Creatinine

1.5 g

Derived from creatine, nitrogenous substance in muscle tissue

Uric acid

0.4-1.0
g

Common component of kidney stones; derived from catabolism of nucleic

acid in food and cell destruction

Hippuric
acid

0.7 g

Benzoic acid is eliminated from the body in this form; increase with highvegetable diets

Other
substances

2.9 g

Carbohydrates, pigments, fatty acids, mucin, enzymes, hormones, may be

present in small amounts depending on diet and health

Organic

Inorganic

Sodium
chloride

15.0
g

Principal salt; varies with intake

Potassium

3.3 g

Occurs as chloride, sulfate, and phosphate salts

Sulfate

2.5 g

Derived from amino acids

Phosphate

2.5 g

Occurs primarily as sodium compounds that serve as buffers in the blood

Ammonium

0.7 g

Derived from protein metabolism and glutamine in kidneys; amount varies depending on blood
and tissue fluid acidity

Magnesium

0.1 g

Occurs as chloride, sulfate, phosphate salts

Calcum

0.3 g

Occurs as chloride, sulfate, phosphate salts

Urine Color
Normal Urine color Pale yellow, Yellow, Dark yellow, and amber. The yellow
color of the urine is caused by the presence of a pigment named urochrome.
*Urochrome is a breakdown product of hemoglobin related to the bile pigments, found
in the urine and responsible for its yellow color.