Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
Diploma thesis
Author:
Rasmus Birkelund Nielsen
Mauritio B. G. M. Nielsen
Supervisors:
Kim Hjgaard-Hansen
February 3, 2012
ii
Synopsis:
Titel:
Physical Layer measurements in 3GPP
LTE
Denne rapport beskriver throughput
Tema:
Kommunikationssystemer
Projektperiode:
3. november 2011
3. februar 2012
Forfattere:
Mauritio Birk Georg Musil Nielsen
Rasmus Birkelund Nielsen
Vejleder:
Kim Hjgaard-Hansen
Oplagsantal: 4
Sideantal: 97
Bilagsantal: 1 praktikrapport
Afsluttet: 3. februar 2012
Rapportens indhold er frit tilgngeligt, men offentliggrelse (med kildeangivelse) m kun ske efter
aftale med forfatterne.
iv
Synopsis:
Title:
Physical Layer measurements in 3GPP
LTE
This report describes throughput meaSubject:
Communication Systems
Project period:
November 3rd, 2011
February 3rd, 2012
Authors:
Mauritio Birk Georg Musil Nielsen
Rasmus Birkelund Nielsen
Supervisors:
Kim Hjgaard-Hansen
Copies: 4
Page count: 97
Appendix: 1 internship report
The contents of the report is freely available however, publication (with reference) may only happen
per agreement with the author(s).
vi
Chapter 1
Preface
This project has been made by Rasmus Birkelund Nielsen and Mauritio Birk
Georg Musil Nielsen, as part of the diploma thesis in Electronic Engineering
at Aalborg University. The overall theme of the project is based on Communication Systems, and was conducted over the period from November
3rd , 2011 to February 3rd , 2012.
The supervisor for this project is Kim Hjgaard-Hansen, ph.d student
at Networking & Security, associated with School of Information and
Communication Technology, at Aalborg University. Futhermore, the group
would like to give a special credit the employees at Agilent Technologies,
Aalborg for their help and guidance throughout the internship and on this
project.
vii
viii
Contents
1 Preface
vii
2 Introduction
3 Project Goal
Analysis
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Multiple
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Multiple
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6 Concepts Of Interference
6.1 Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.1.1 Johnson-Nyquist noise .
6.1.2 Gaussian noise . . . . .
6.1.3 Signal-to-Noise ratio . .
6.2 Interference . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2.1 Co-Channel Interference
6.2.2 Intersymbol interference
6.3 Intermodulation . . . . . . . . .
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6.4
6.5
II
In Denmark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Measurements
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7 Introduction
7.1 Throughput measurement . . . . . . . . .
7.2 Intermodulation Distortion measurement .
7.2.1 Directional coupler . . . . . . . . .
7.3 Case: Downlink blocks Uplink . . . . . . .
7.4 Key Performance Indicator (KPI) . . . . .
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8 Initial test
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8.1 Setup and test procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
8.2 Observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
8.3 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
9 Intermodulation Distortion test
9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . .
9.2 Setup and test procedure . . .
9.3 Observation . . . . . . . . . . .
9.3.1 13-01-2012 . . . . . . . .
9.3.2 14-01-2012 . . . . . . . .
9.3.3 15-01-2012 . . . . . . . .
9.4 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . .
III
Assesment
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10 Final conclusion
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11 Perspective
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IV
63
Appendices
A MIMO
64
66
D Modulation schemes
70
D.1 BPSK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
D.2 QPSK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
D.3 QAM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
E Attenuation measurement report
E.1 Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E.2 Requirements and equipement . .
E.3 Test setup . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E.3.1 Connectivity setup . . . .
E.3.2 Location . . . . . . . . . .
E.4 Performing the measurement . .
E.5 Results 08-12-2011 . . . . . . . .
E.5.1 Summary . . . . . . . . .
E.6 Results 11-12-2011 . . . . . . . .
E.6.1 Summary . . . . . . . . .
E.7 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . .
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xii
List of Abbreviations
3GPP
ACK
Acknowledgement
AMC
ARQ
AS
Access Stratum
BLER
Co-Channel Interference
CDM
Code-Division Multiplexing
Cycle Prefix
CQI
eNB
evolved-Node B
EPC
EPS
FDD
Frequency-division Duplexing
FDM
Frequency-Division Multiplexing
GP
Guard Period
GSM
Inter-Symbol Interference
KPI
LTE
MAC
MME
MCS
Non-Access Stratum
PDN
PDU
PHY
Physical layer
PSK
QAM
RB
Ressource Block
RLC
RRC
RSRP
RV
Redundancy Version
xiv
SDM
Space-Division Multiplexing
SINR
SNR
Signal-to-Noise Ratio
TDD
Time-division Duplexing
TDM
Time-Division Multiplexing
User Equipment
xv
xvi
List of Figures
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
5.1
5.2
5.3
8
9
5.8
6.1
6.2
24
25
7.1
7.2
29
29
5.4
5.5
5.6
5.7
xvii
11
11
12
12
13
18
19
20
7.3
8.1
attenua. . . . . .
in kbit/s.
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9.1
9.2
9.3
9.4
9.5
9.6
9.7
9.8
9.9
9.10
9.11
9.12
9.13
9.14
9.15
9.16
9.17
9.18
xviii
31
34
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83
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96
List of Tables
5.1
5.2
14
6.1
6.2
24
26
8.1
33
72
73
74
81
82
84
5.3
xxi
15
17
xxii
Chapter 2
Introduction
Over the last few decade, wireless telecommunication have increased
dramatically, especially after the introduction of the cellular phone, which
now can not only transmit voice, but as well receive e-mail, browse the
World Wide Web, and much more. In wireless telecommunication different
standards are used in order to provide connectivity for the user in the rapid
grow in the usage of the frequency spectrum. With the fusion of usage in the
wireless telecommunication that include the same task as before only was
possible in the normal wired communication(modem, ADSL, broadband and
a lot more), the demand for speed and availability from the daily user have
become increasingly real. This is seen especially in studies which have shown
that up to 88 % of danish families have at least one household computer,
and with 86 % of these families having internet access (og Telestyrelsen
2011). Thus the introduction of LTE. With this new technology, a wide
range of improvements are brought forward, such as improved connectivity
and availibility, as well as higher speeds.
In some countries, LTE is still under deployment, however in most Western
countries it is currently available by Telecom Service Providers. In Denmark,
LTE is provided on two frequency bands. One of these are the 1800 MHz
bandwidth, which as of May 1st, 2011, was released for commercial use
with other telecommunication technologies, other than Global System for
Mobile Communications (GSM). This enables LTE to use this frequency
band. The 1800 MHz frequency is divided into two sub frequency bands.
1710-1785 MHz is dedicated to uplink, and 1805-1880 MHz is dedicated to
downlink (og Telestyrelsen 2009c).
This project deals with the use of Telia Nttjnster Norden ABs
1761.3-1773.1 MHz uplink and 1856.3-1868.1 MHz downlink.
Since
Telia bought Orange A/S in 2004, Telia was able to increase their
1800 MHz band to 1761.3-1784.9 MHz uplink and 1856.3-1879.9 MHz
downlink (og Telestyrelsen 2009b).
The focus of this project is primarily to examine how poor signal strength
Chapter 3
Project Goal
The purpose of this project is to examine how LTEs physical layer
throughput is affected by disturbances, such as noise and interference,
from other communication technologies in the same frequency band. These
disturbances are seen from a user applications point of view, by introducing
noise in various ways into the channel. This may be done either directly into
the channel or by introducing distortion from third order intermodulation
products, over the channel bandwidth, afterwhich the effects on the system
are analysed.
During the project, this report will include;
A pre-analysis of the physical layer in the LTE standard, from
preliminary experiments
with focus on LTEs adaptive modulation mechanism
A theoretical inference of how physical throughput is affected by
different levels of Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR).
Experiments on deployed LTE networks with the introduction in
different levels of SNR.
A comparison of theoretical and experimental results.
This project will mainly focus on the 1800 MHz frequency area.
Part I
Analysis
Chapter 4
4.1
Network architecture
Figure 4.1: The network architecture in LTE, showing how the system is
split and interconnected.
The functional split between the eNB and the MME results in two logical
gatway entities being defined. The Serving Gateway (S-GW) acts as a
local mobility anchor for the user plane, during handovers and anchoring
LTE and other 3GPP technologies, while at the same time forwarding and
receiving, user data packets. The Packet Data Network Gateway (P-GW)
allows interfacing with other external Packet Data Networks (PDNs) such
as the Internet, along with other IP functions. Furthermore, the P-GW
acts as an anchor between 3GPP and non-3GPP technologies, like WiMAX.
The eNB functions mainly by performing header compression, ciphering and
providing a reliable delivery of packets.
4.2
Protocol architecture
Besides SAE are the NAS protocols. These form the highest stratum of
the control plane between the User Equipment (UE) and MME. The
NAS performs functions such as Evolved Packet System (EPS) bearer
management, authentication and security control.
6
Figure 4.2: The protocol stack in the user plane. It consists of 3 layers.
Layer 1 is the Physical layer, Layer 2 consisting of 3 sublayers; MAC, RLC,
PDCP, and Layer 3 as the RRC layer.
The protocol stack is divided into three layers, where Layer 2 is
subdivided into three sublayers, namely the MAC, RLC and PDCP.
Figure 4.3 on the following page shows the protocol stack for the control
plane. MAC, RLC and PDCP behave exactly as they do in the user plane,
however they function mainly to carry control messaging from the RRC.
Figure 4.3: The protocol stack for the control plane. It functions exactly as
in the user plane, however serves mainly as a carrier for control messaging
from the RRC which may contain NAS messaging, rather than user data.
As mentioned before, Layer 2 consists of the three sublayers. The
main functions of the MAC layer is to perform multiplexing of data from
logical channels, which are then to be delivered to the physical layer via the
transports channels. Moreover, the MAC performs error correction from
HARQ, and diciding which UEs will be allowed to send or receive data on
the shared physical resource (Rumney 2009).
The RLC acts as an interface between the higher layers of the stack and the
MAC layer. Basically it acts more as a router, since its main purpose is to
interface and buffer because the MAC has no buffer capabilities (Rumney
2009).
Next is the PDCP layer. This layer performs functions such as header
compression, and decompression, ciphering and passing Serving Data Units
(SDUs) and Packet Data Units (PDUs) (Rumney 2009).
Finally, is the Physical layer (PHY). This is the lowest layer in the LTE
protocol and covers the downlink transmission from the eNB to the UE,
and the uplink transmission from the UE to eNB. The physical layer is of
particular interest, and it is in this layer that will be primarily focused on.
In figure 4.4 on the next page is a simple overview of the system.
Figure 4.4: Overview of the ideal system. The main focus of the
measurements will be on the physical layer downlink side.
It is the physical layer KPIs that are of main interest. The PHY layer
will be discussed in further detail in chapter 5.
Chapter 5
5.1
The Physical layer of LTE covers the downlink and uplink tranmission
between the UE and the eNB base transceiver station. The Physical layer
supports two multiple access schemes. These multiple access schemes are
OFDMA and SC-FDMA, which will be discussed in detail later in this
chapter. Addtionally to OFDMA and SC-FDMA, both paired and unpaired
spectra are supported by using Frequency-division Duplexing (FDD) and
Time-division Duplexing (TDD), respectively.
5.2
Architectural Overview
There are defined two types of Physical layer channels. These two types are;
the physical channels, which carry information from the higher layers, as well
as data, and the physical signals, which are generated in the physical layer
for cell identification, radio channel estimation, and system synchronization.
Two types of frames are also defined in the Physical layer; type 1 for FDD
and type 2 for TDD.
5.2.1
The frame structure defines frame, subframe, slot and symbol in the time
domain. Each time length is defined in units of TS = 1/(15000 2048) =
32.55 ns.
10
Figure 5.1: Frame structure for type 1 for FDD mode. (Rumney 2009)
The frame structure seen in figure 5.1 is frame type 1 defined for FDD
mode. Each frame consistes of 10 subframes, which consists for 2 slots. One
radio frame is 10 ms long. In FDD mode, both the uplink and downlink
scheme use the same frame structure however, they uses different spectra.
Frame structure type 2 is defined for TDD mode, and is seen in figure 5.2.
Figure 5.2: Frame structure for type 2 for TDD mode. (Rumney 2009)
Frame structure type 2 is also defined for 7 different configurations,
where each radio frame is 10 ms long and consists of two half frames.
Futhermore, each half frame consists of 5 subframes, which are 1 ms long.
The 7 configurations of frame structure type 2 can be seen in table 4.2-2 in
3GPP (2011b).
Inter-Symbol Interference (ISI) and cyclic prefixing
In OFDM systems, as well as SC-FDMA in this context, one of the key
advantages is the introduction of a Guard Period (GP) between each symbol.
This GP gives the ability to protect against multipath delay spread, and thus
11
eliminates ISI. If the GP is longer than the delay spread in the channel, and
each OFDM symbol is cyclically extended into the GP, then the ISI can
be completely removed. In figure 5.3, an example of an OFDM symbol
structure can be seen.
Figure 5.3: OFDM symbol structure for normal cyclic prefix case. (Rumney
2009)
By cyclic prefixing, the symbol will be prefixed with a repetition of the
symbol sequence itself (Haykin 2000). Thus by introducing cyclic prefixing,
OFDM and SC-FDMA systems are able to protect against multipath spreads
of up to 10 km. In figure 5.4 the last part of the OFDM signal is added in
the beginning if the OFDM signal. The length of the cyclic prefix is chosen
to accommodate the wireless channels maximum delay spread.
12
(a)
(b)
Figure 5.5: Ressource grid for 1 uplink slot (a) and 1 downlink slot (b)
The Ressource Block (RB) is the smallest unit, that can be scheduled.
It physically occupies 180 kHz in frequency, and 0.5 ms in time. Thus for
a channel bandwidth of 10 MHz (including guardspaces, etc.), a maximum
of 50 RBs can be alotted. For the full channel bandwidth of 20 MHz, there
are 100 RBs available.
In most systems the transmission bandwidth is fixed, however OFDM
systems enables the possibilty for flexible bandwidths. Subcarrier spacing
is determined by an inverse of the FFT intergration time, thus giving LTE
the flexibility of having six different transmission bandwidth configurations
to choose from. The different transmission bandwidth configurations can be
seen in table 5.1 on the following page
13
1.4
10
15
20
Configuration in MHz
Configuration in RB
1.08
6
2.7
15
4.5
25
9
50
13.5
75
18
100
14
Triplet received
Interpreted as
000
001
010
100
111
110
101
011
0 (error free)
0
0
0
1 (error free)
1
1
1
15
5.3
5.3.1
AMC
16
CQI Index
Modulation
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
Out of range
QPSK
QPSK
QPSK
QPSK
QPSK
QPSK
7
8
9
16-QAM
16-QAM
16-QAM
10
11
12
13
14
15
64-QAM
64-QAM
64-QAM
64-QAM
64-QAM
64-QAM
5.3.2
17
5.3.3
Two of the main concerns to the LTE uplink, however, was the power
consumption in the UE terminals, as well as high Peak-to-Average Power
Ratio (PAPR) which is a comparison of the peak power detected over
a period of samples at the time period. SC-FMDA can be seen as
a DFT-spread OFDMA by using the time domain data signals and
transform it to frequency domain by a DFT before parsing through OFDMA
modulation. This techniques reduce the instantaneous transmit power
implying increase power-amplifier efficiency, low-complexity and flexible
bandwidth assignment. Using SC-FDMA allows the usage of a single
carrier transmission system such as GSM and Code-Division Multiple Access
(CDMA). These types of systems have a low PAPR. SC-FDMA utilizes a
single-carrier transmitting signal in contrast to OFDMA that use a multicarrier transmission scheme. In 5.7 on the next page a graphical comparison
of OFDMA and SC-FDMA are shown.
18
19
5.4
Summary
In this chapter details of the Physical layer has been described. At first
an architectural overview of the physical layer in LTE has been given.
The Physical Layer consists of several error correction mechanisms, which
enables the opportunity for a low probability of error. The use of both
OFDMA for downlink and SC-FDMA for the uplink is only possible since
the introduction of powerful and small DSP(Digital signal processor). This
give a range of improvement by access mode seen in OFDMA and low power
consumption as in SC-FDMA.
20
Chapter 6
Concepts Of Interference
In this chapter, some concepts of interference will be discussed. Interference
can be found everywhere in a communication system, and can cause errors
stemming from transmitted symbols interfering with eachother or from a
noisy channel resulting in a receiver having trouble with distinguishing
between wanted signal and background noise.
In the following sections, noise and interference will be discussed, and
afterwards some aspects on intermodulation, and what influences if makes
on a communication system.
6.1
Noise
One way that interference can be regarded as, is noise. Noise comes
in different forms and can be defined as an unwanted and random
signal or disturbance. It can originate from different places, and given
a communication system, can be introduced either before or after the
decoder/encoder. In this section, two types of noise will be considered.
These are Johnson-Nyquist noise and Gaussian noise.
6.1.1
Johnson-Nyquist noise
Thermal noise, which it is also known as, arises from the random motion of
electrons in a conductor. Thermal noise is expressed as
PdB = 10 log10 (kB T f 1000)
21
(6.1)
where,
P is the noise power,
kB is Boltzmanns constant,
T is the absolute temperature
f is the frequency bandwidth
6.1.2
[dBm]
J
K
[K]
[Hz]
Gaussian noise
(6.2)
This means that some noise signal will be directly added to the transmitted
signal.
6.1.3
Signal-to-Noise ratio
Psignal
Pnoise
(6.3)
where P is the average power. SNR is also most often expressed in decibels.
Thus in dB, SNR is defined as,
Psignal
SNRdB = 10 log10
(6.4)
Pnoise
22
6.2
Interference
6.2.1
Co-Channel Interference
CCI, also known as crosstalk stems from when two different tranmitters
attempst to transmit using the same frequency. Since the frequency
spectrum over the last decade has become more and more crowded due
to other technologies, it is becoming increasingly more difficult to divide
the different frenquency bands required for these technologies. In mobile
communications, the frequency spectrum is divided into non-overlapping
cells. However, due to the crowded spectrum, it is neccessary to reuse
frequencies. It is here where CCI arises. Even though two cells using the
same frequency and situated far away from eachother, a signal from the
undesired transmitters may still arive. This will lead to the signal from far
away will be received and interfere with closer and correct signals.
6.2.2
Intersymbol interference
6.3
Intermodulation
In non-linear systems, all signals will produce second and third order
products around their centerfrequencies. Given two frequencies f1 and
f2 , these will produce second order products at 2f1 , f1 + f2 , 2f2 and the
inverse. However, since the second order product are situated far away from
their main frequencies, they will no immediate significance, and can thus
be filtered away. On the other hand, with second order products removed,
third order products are still in range of the signal of interest. Figure 6.1
on the next page shows how the problem of third order products still are in
effect.
23
TX1
1710
1720
1730
1740
1750
1760
1770
1785
1900
1920
1940
1960
1980
2000
2020
2050
1890
1910
1930
1950
1970
1990
2010
2040
1880
1900
1920
1940
1960
1980
2000
2030
1870
1890
1910
1930
1950
1970
1990
2020
1860
1880
1900
1920
1940
1960
1980
2010
1850
1870
1890
1910
1930
1950
1970
2000
1840
1860
1880
1900
1920
1940
1960
1990
1825
1845
1865
1885
1905
1925
1945
1975
(6.5)
is met.
This means that intermodulation distortion will directly occur on the high
band-edge of RXs downlink area, given the case that some signals are generated on the high band-edge of the frequency area dedicated to uplink, at
the same time with a signal on the low band-edge on the frequency area
dedicated to downlink.
6.4
In Denmark
With Hi3G and TDC together, offering LTE downlink on 1805.1-1836.9 MHz (og Telestyrelsen
2009a, 2010), and Telia having the downlink on 1856.3-1879.9 MHz (og Telestyrelsen
2009c) and uplink on 1761.3-1784.9 MHz, this phenomenon is very much evident.
25
RX2
Hi3G 1805
Hi3G 1815
TDC 1825
TDC 1835
Telia TX
1750
1760
1770
1785
1860
1880
1900
1920
1850
1870
1890
1910
1840
1860
1880
1900
1825
1845
1865
1885
6.5
Summary
26
Part II
Measurements
27
Chapter 7
Introduction
Two main types of measurements were performed. The initial tests were
made in order to establish what channel condition which are being dealt
with, as well as to confirm that the network responds as expected. The
second type of measurement was made to determine what would happen in
case some unwanted signal would move in on the center frequency and cross
it.
7.1
Throughput measurement
7.2
7.2.1
Directional coupler
The directional coupler work by having two transmission lines close to each
other see figure 7.1 on the next page. These closely align transmission lines
passing energy through the one that is not block in the end.
28
7.3
7.4
RB
RBs are the physical amount of bandwidth which can be scheduled on the
eNB and are allocated to the UE. These were discussed in further detail in
chapter 5 on page 10.
Physical Throughput
Physical throughput can be defined as the actual throughput of data being
transmitted in the physical layer. It is measured in kbit/s.
30
RSRQ = #RBdB +
(7.1)
(7.2)
P
I+N
(7.3)
where,
P is the signal power,
I is interference power
N is the noise power
CQI
The CQI report, uses measurements performed on the downlink conditions,
inorder to report to the scheduler on which combination of modulation and
coding would have resulted in a 10 % Block Error Ratio (BLER), if this
combination had been used. In figure 7.3 the method how the UE reports
CQI to the eNB is shown.
Figure 7.3: UE reporting CQI to the eNB, which afterwards sends a request
of which modulation and coding the UE should use next.
31
32
Chapter 8
Initial test
Before being able to determine how LTE will react when the connection is
introduced to a blocker, it is neccessary to determine how it reacts when LTE
begins to suffer from a bad channel conditions. Therefore it is neccessary to
find out, a method of introducing noise in the channel. One way to do this,
is by attenuating the signal from the base station to the UE. Doing this
will hopefully result in LTE attempting to perform rate adaption, by either
changing the modulation scheme, requesting retransmission or in some other
manner, inorder to sustain a reliable and stable conenction.
The goal with this initial measurement is to gain some insight into the effects
on throughput, SNR, and RSSI among others. Especially identify what
happens, when some attenuation is introduced into the communications
path.
Inorder to realise this measurement, some different equipments and
measurement tools are needed. In table 8.1, an overview of the equipment
which has been utilised is listed.
Device
AAU-nr.
Attenuators
3 dB attenuator
6 dB attenuator
10 dB attenuator
20 dB attenuator
1800 MHz IFA antenna
Note
8.1
Figure 8.1 on the next page shows the test setup. To perform this
measurement, the attenuation in the communication path was increased
33
Figure 8.1: Test setup for measurement the impact of different attenuation
while downloading in the 1800 MHz band.
With the attenuators in place, what this means is that generally less
power which is radiated on the antenna will be transferred to the dongle.
To perform these measurements it is neccessary to create some traffic,
because it is imperative to make sure that as many ressource blocks are
allocated, since the resource blocks aloocates the amount of bandwidth
available. Basically, it is neccessary, to attempt to force the eNB to schedule
as many resources as possible. When a connection has been established,
the measurements are performed. The first measurement is made with no
attenuation. This is to have control measurment as a comparison to the
ones made with attenuation.
Two sets of measurements with the attenuators were performed over the
course of two days. They were performed in 2011 on December 8th and
December 11th , and will be referred as Meas-1 and Meas-2, accordingly.
Common for all plots in the following chapter, is that the time in minutes
are plotted on the X-axis.
In Meas-1, a simple explanation as to why each measurement run stands out,
regarding to time duration is that during the measurements it was deemed
that a 4 minute measurement was more then enough. So inorder to have
time for other measurement they were shortened. Since these were static
test, it seemed not to make any difference. Of course, this goes against
34
8.2
Observations
After performing the measurement 1 it could be seen from figure 8.2, that
the attenuators clearly had some effect.
35
36
would not occur, the control measurement should have been done another
way. This will be discussed in the final conclusion in chapter 10 on page 57.
However, when looking at figure 8.8 on the preceding page, one may notice
that suddenly around 3 minutes into the measurement the CQI index begins
to rise. Recalling figure 8.6 on the previous page, throughput begins to fall,
around the same time. This may seem unexpected, but when looking at the
RBs in figure 8.9, drops significantly to slightly above an average of 40 RBs.
38
8.3
Summary
39
Chapter 9
Intermodulation Distortion
test
9.1
Introduction
9.2
In figure 9.1 on the next page the test setup. The setup was only performed
in a SISO configuration due to lack of coupler. This is an very important
aspect in this measurement case since this half of the throughput. In good
signal condition we might theoretical be able to see throughput of 20M bit/s.
40
Figure 9.1: Test setup for measurement the intermodulation on 1800 MHz
band
9.3
Observation
9.3.1
13-01-2012
By selecting two frequencies 1869.7 MHz and 1870.2 MHz the impact
of intermodulation distortion was measured. The only variable in these
measurement was the attenuation on the signal (that used 1869.7 MHz and
1870.2 MHz) generated from the SMIQ. The intermodulated signal from the
SMIQ was set to a level of attenuation of -80dB from the start and every
minute decreased by -20dB ending with -40dB after 5 minutes.
41
42
43
44
45
9.3.2
14-01-2012
In this measurement setup the goal was to see if the modulation of the
intermodulation distortion signal from the SMIQ 06B signal generator, had
any impact on the performance on the network. The center frequency in
Telias 1800 MHz ban is1868.2 and it was used to start the measurement by
moving the intermodulated distorted signal from the center of the frequency
and out of the range of Telias bandwidth. Every minute the intermodulated
distorted signals was moved 1 MHz up in the frequnecy band with 8 steps.
All the steps was performed with a -40dB on the intermodulated signal.
Figure 9.14 on the next page illustrate the concept in this measurement.
After 8 step with 1 MHz each the intermodulated distorted signal is out of
the bandwidth of Telias downlink frequency.
46
47
Figure 9.17: Resource Block with different modulation on the intermodulated distorted signal
The Resource Block number stays relative stable on the maximum
number that this 10 MHz bandwidth can provide. The different modulations
form did not cause any unexpected drops in the Resource Block count since
the only disturbance is on the UE.
48
In figure 9.20 on the previous page both BPSK and QPSK stays together
and decrease from 8 and down to 3 and up again. 16QAM and 64QAM more
or less independent on each other. The range from 16QAM starts at 5 CQI
and decrease down to 3 and moves up to 8. 64QAM stays in the range of 8
to 5.
9.3.3
15-01-2012
This measurement is an semi reproduction of the measurement above (1401-2012). In figure 9.21 the basic of the measurement setup is displayed.
In this measurement the whole bandwidth of 10 MHz is affected by the
intermodulated distorted signal. This gives a range from 1863.21873.2MHz
that the intermodulated signal is moved through. The x-axis increase in
1 MHz every 30sec. This was don because of the length of the measured
range of 16 MHz and to ensure that the 5 MHz modulated distorted signal
of 5 MHz was out of the 10 MHz bandwidth from Telias downlink range.
The measurement was executed in to level of attenuation -40dB and -60dB.
50
51
53
9.4
Summary
In the results from the 13-01-2012 the attenuation level of the intermodulated distorted signal influence the measurement significantly. Both in
54
1869.7 MHz and in 1870.2 MHz the throughput decrease while increasing
the signal power from the SMIQ 06B to the LTE dongle. RSRQ decrease
(in 1870.2 dramatically) while RB stays untouched at 49. SINR moves from
approximately +15dB to -15dB. MCS index increase in both measurement
op to 20 and stabilising.
From the results 14-01-2012 the no major impact on the difference modulation types that was use on the intermodulated distorted signal affected the
LTE signal. Only the level of the intermodulated distorted signal affected
the performance on the network. The power level of the intermodulated
signal was visible in the RSSI measurement.
In the last measurement form the 15-01-2012 the whole Telia 10 MHz bandwidth was used to cross with the intermodulated distortion signal from the
SMIQ. Two levels of attenuation on the intermodulated distortion signal
was used and the impact of the signal was visible both in throughput and
in SINR
55
Part III
Assesment
56
Chapter 10
Final conclusion
The goal of this project was to examine how LTEs physical layer throughput was affected by outside disturbance on the channel. These disturbances
could stem from different sources, and was in this project regarded as disturbances from noise and interference from other communication technologies,
present in the same frequency band.
During this project two main sets of measurements were orchestrated in
order to examine the effects on LTE physical layer throughput, as could be
seen in chapters 8 on page 33 and 9 on page 40.
From the initial test in chapter 8 on page 33 it could overall be concluded
that adding attenuation directly in to the channel had a real affect on how
LTE adapts to poor channel quality. In figures 8.2 on page 35 and 8.6
on page 37, it could clearly be seen that when adding more attenuation
into the channel, physical throughput fell, between every measurement run.
Experiences from the initial measurement, were the basis on the following
measurement, with the blocker circuit.
During initial studies it was noticed that in the case stated in section 7.3
on page 29, is indeed real, and can be approximated in real-life on a deployed
LTE network. This can directly be seen in figure 9.12 on page 46. As the
attenuation of the blocking signal decreases, it can clearly be seen that the
CQI index falls from what appears to be a 16-QAM modulation, and as the
blocking signal becomes more distinct, CQI index drops to a level indicating
QPSK or the like. E.g. a lesser efficient modulation.
A better understanding on how to perform real-life measurements on
deployed communication networks, mostly due to learning-by-doing-aspect
of performing the measurements. However, it should be noted that to be
able to actually find the phenomenon it was based on knowledge gained from
57
58
Chapter 11
Perspective
The project started by focusing on other aspect than measuring intermodulation. This progress in learning by doing has led to some of the problems
seeing in this project by different kind of measurement. There has been
many initialize measurement leading to this project goal. Usually when
making measurements a plan for how it should be done is produced first
and then the measurement could be produced. In our case this was most of
all not possible since the shorten of equipment. This lead to measurement
performed with no goal. One of the main improvement to perform these kind
of measurement with both more precision and reliable data is by selecting
the level of attenuation on a smaller scale than the -10dB intervals. The
measurement of the impact with modulation was only produced since the
post processing was after that the equipment had to be delivered back three
day after borrowing it. Since it was over a weekend some of the questions
had to be resolved after the measurement and then it was to late. One of the
interesting aspect in this case studies is that the intermodulated distorted
signal did not react on the modulation but only in the level of attenuation.
In further studies the smaller interval on attenuation in a intermodulated
distorted signal interference could show some more accurate data collection.
But at the same time the real life measurement is a dangerous area to perform measurement on since a wide range of variable has to be under control
or needed to be suppress. All the measurement was performed sequential
while the network performance varies in time and in the end all the measurement was placed above each other (look like parallel). This is one of the
main risk which one must consider before stating the measurement. These
uncertainties makes the measurement hard to reproduce and can only been
as a case study. Laboratories measurement would eliminate these uncertainties and give a wider control to all of the variables that is not under control
in a real life measurement. This project only focus on real life measurement
since the experiences from Agilent Technologies internship.
In the future the use of MIMO will increase since the performance of the
59
network only will be better. LTE supports an 4x4 MIMO connection and
this will increase the throughput dramatically in urban environments since
the best condition of multipath.
The use of IFA antenna in the measurement is maybe a problem to
represent a standard UE since the design of the IFA direct emphasize
download frequencies in the 1800 MHz band. Normally this would not be
the case and other antenna designs would be used to accommodate tx and
rx antenna in the big range of 17001800 MHz band on one antenna. By
using the IFA antenna only the downlink communication is preferred and
dos not reflect an normally UE device.
One of the interesting aspect in the intermodulation distortion in LTE
on the upcoming transmission to the released 800 MHz band. In this band
the television is sending its long range and with another power level than
the LTE network dos. Perhaps some intermodulation distortion will occur
if not certain requirement is met.
60
Bibliography
3GPP.
E-UTRA UE radio transmission and reception.
Technical
specification Release 10.4.0, 3GPP, October 2011a. URL http://www.
3gpp.org/ftp/Specs/archive/36_series/36.101/36101-a40.zip.
3GPP. Physical Channels and Modulation. Technical specification Release
10.3.0, 3GPP, September 2011b. URL http://www.3gpp.org/ftp/
Specs/archive/36_series/36.211/36211-a30.zip.
3GPP. E-UTRA Physical layer procedure. Technical specification Release
10.3.0, 3GPP, September 2011c. URL http://www.3gpp.org/ftp/
Specs/archive/36_series/36.213/36213-a30.zip.
Ian D. Flintoff, Martin P. Robinson, Stuart J. Porter, and Andrew C.
Marvin. Addressing the Risk of EMC Problems with Mobile Radio
Transmitters. Compliance Engineering, 2000. URL http://ce-mag.com/
archive/2000/sepoct/flintoft.html.
Simon Haykin. Communication Systems. Wiley, 4th edition, May 2000.
ISBN 0-471-17869-1.
Ingmar Land and Bernard H. Fleury. Digital modulation 1, February
2007.
URL http://kom.aau.dk/project/navcom/CourseWebSites/
DigitalModulation1/notes.pdf. Lecture note.
IT og Telestyrelsen.
Tilladelse til brug af frekvenser til oprettelse
og drift af radioanlg i DCS1800, December 2009a. URL http:
//www.itst.dk/frekvenser-og-udstyr/frekvenstilladelser-mv/
tilladelser-udstedt-efter-auktion-eller-udbud/
1800-mhz-frekvensbandet/filarkiv-tk7/TK7%201800-tilladelse%
20til%20Hi3G%20Denmark%20ApS.pdf. Article.
IT og Telestyrelsen.
Tilladelse til brug af frekvenser til oprettelse
og drift af radioanlg i DCS1800, December 2009b. URL http:
//www.itst.dk/frekvenser-og-udstyr/frekvenstilladelser-mv/
tilladelser-udstedt-efter-auktion-eller-udbud/
1800-mhz-frekvensbandet/filarkiv-tk4/Tilleg%20nr.%205%20til%
20TK4%201800%20frekvenstilladelse.pdf. Article.
61
IT og Telestyrelsen.
Tilladelse til brug af frekvenser til oprettelse
og drift af radioanlg i DCS1800, December 2009c. URL http:
//www.itst.dk/frekvenser-og-udstyr/frekvenstilladelser-mv/
tilladelser-udstedt-efter-auktion-eller-udbud/
1800-mhz-frekvensbandet/filarkiv-tk3/Tilleg%20nr.%204%20til%
20TK3%201800%20frekvenstilladelse.pdf. Article.
IT og Telestyrelsen.
Tilladelse til brug af frekvenser til oprettelse
og drift af radioanlg i DCS1800, October 2010.
URL http:
//www.itst.dk/frekvenser-og-udstyr/frekvenstilladelser-mv/
tilladelser-udstedt-efter-auktion-eller-udbud/
1800-mhz-frekvensbandet/filarkiv-tk1/Tilleg%20nr.%203%20til%
20TK1%201800%20frekvenstilladelse.pdf. Article.
IT og Telestyrelsen.
Det digitale samfund 2010, September
2011.
URL http://www.itst.dk/statistik/publikationer/
det-digitale-samfund/2010/det-digitale-samfund-2010.
Article.
Moray Rumney, editor. LTE and the evolution to 4G: Design and test.
Agilent Technologies, 2nd edition, May 2009. ISBN 978-988-17935-1-5.
Jochen Schiller. Mobile Communications. Addison-Wesley Professional, 1st
edition, January 2000. ISBN 0-201-39836-2.
Alan Way. What is MIMO?, December 2009. URL http://www.youtube.
com/watch?v=VLAgYUQCgD8. Sprirent Communications.
Jim Zyren. Overview of the 3GPP Long Term Evolution Physical Layer,
July 2007. URL http://www.freescale.com/files/wireless_comm/
doc/white_paper/3GPPEVOLUTIONWP.pdf. Freescale Semiconductor.
62
Part IV
Appendices
63
Appendix A
MIMO
MIMO is one of the main advantages that LTE is using to increase/improve
the data throughput and link range without using more bandwidth or by
increasing the transmitted power.
In figure A.1 the simplified MIMO configuration sends the data in half
of the time (Grey sends DA and Blue sends TA) by sending it parallel and
making use of the both the antenna. In this case the throughput is being
increased by a factor of two. To illustrate the increase of link range A.1
Tx0 and Tx1 both sends first DA and then both sends TA. This increase
the range but decrease the throughput to the same speed as a singe antenna
configuration.
65
Transmitter (Tx0,Tx1),
Appendix B
66
Code-Division Multiplexing (CDM) is a relatively new scheme in communication, which inherents some security features. In CDM, tranmisison channels use the same frequency, coherent in time. The seperation of channels
is done by assigning each channel its own code (Schiller 2000). This is an
advantage, due to the fact that the code space is huge, in comparison to the
frequency space (Schiller 2000). Different codes have to be assigned to each
receiver, and therefore provides a form of security. On the other hand, CDM
has the disadvantage of requiring a more complex receiver. It must know the
code and be able to separate the channel with user data from background
noise combined with other signals and environmental noise. In adiition to
this, the receiver must be precisely synchronized with the transmitter, in
order to perform the decoding correctly.
67
Appendix C
Figure C.1: Channel access using FDMA, TDMA, and CDMA in relation
to each other. (Flintoff et al. 2000)
These three access methods are based on their matching multiplexing
schemes, FDM, TDM and CDM.
FDMA is a channel access method which is based on FDM and provides
different frequency bands to each data stream of the communication
protocol. Time-Division Multiple Access (TDMA) is based on TDM and
thus provides different timeslots to different data streams, in a repetative
framestructure. For example, User A is allotted timeslot 1 and User B is
given timeslot 2, etc. untill the final user has been reached. However, for
TDMA to work efficiently it requires a precise synchronization. Otherwise
transmissions may collide and result in corrupt data being transferred.
68
C.2
OFDM
69
Appendix D
Modulation schemes
This chapter is based on Schiller (2000), except where noted otherwise.
D.1
BPSK
BPSK is the simples form of Phase Shift Keying (PSK). The use of two
separated (180 ). The BPSK modulation is the most robust form because
it takes the highest level of noise. A drawback is of course that it is only
able to modulate a 1 bit/symbol. In the figure D.1 the two phases of the
modulation is representated.
D.2
QPSK
QPSK encode two bit per symbols. The main advantage of using QPSK
is that it double the data rate with the same bandwidth compared with
BPSK. In another and very important way of using QPSK is to use the
same data rate as BPSK, however only use the half the bandwidth while
the Bit Error Ratio (BER) is exactly the same in both case. This make the
QPSK an interesting modulation to wireless communication as BER is an
very important factor. D.2 on the next page
70
D.3
QAM
Figure D.3: The two QAM schemes. 1) shows 16 QAM while 2) shows 64
QAM.
71
Appendix E
Attenuation measurement
report
E.1
Purpose
E.2
Device
AAU-no.
Note.
Laptop
4G LTE USB dongle
Attenuators
3 dB
6 dB
10 dB
20 dB
1800 MHz IFA antenna
Downloads
N/A
N/A
Externally borrowed.
Externally borrowed.
01299-03
01048-00
00328-10
01340-00
N/A
N/A
&
&
&
&
Unknown
01339-18
01328-06
01340-01
Externally borrowed.
See table E.2 on the next page
72
Name
Size
4.4 GB
1.9 GB
Filename
Server
URL
debian-6.0.3-i386-DVD-2.iso
00001.MTS
dotsrc.org
dotsrc.org
Link
Link
E.3
E.3.1
Test setup
Connectivity setup
Figure E.1: Measurement test setup for determining the impact of different
attenuation while downloading, in the 1800 MHz band.
E.3.2
Location
E.4
In table E.3 on the next page, a summary of the test procedure is shown.
Two control measurements were performed before and after, in order to
determine the initial connection quality. These control measurements are
used for a comparison of the affects the attenuators.
The goal is to examine the effects in LTE, when channel quality is impaired.
To reduce the channel quality, the connection will be attenuated inorder to
attempt to mimic real-life degradation of channel quality.
After the initial control measurement a 10 dB attenuator1 was connected
1
73
Room 4-309
Niels Jernes Vej 12-14
9220 Aalborg st
Action
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
E.5
Results 08-12-2011
In the following figures, the results from the first measurement run, are seen.
All measurements are plotted with a smooth-factor2 =1001. Figure E.3 on
the facing page contains Throughput, measured MCS index, instantaneous
2
74
RSRQ and assigned resource blocks. Figure E.4 on the next page contains
SINR, instantaneous RSSI, and reported CQI.
75
Figure E.4
E.5.1
Summary
This first measurement run shows clearly how the physical throughput
decreases between each measurement, meanwhile upholding a high amount
of resource blocks. From the plots, it is evident that introducing attenuation
into the system has the expected result of decreasing channel quality. With
the rising attenuation the measured SINR falls as well, indicating that
76
the signal becomes more noisy. It is also seen that with the increasing
attenuation CQI reports a lesser efficient modulation.
E.6
Results 11-12-2011
In this section are the results from the second measurement run. All
measurements are plotted with a smooth-factor = 1001. Figure E.5 on
the following page show Throughput, measured MCS index, instantaneous
RSRQ, and assigned resource blocks, while figure E.6 on page 79 shows
SINR, instantaneous RSSI, and reported CQI index.
77
78
Figure E.6
E.6.1
Summary
In contrast to the results from december 8th, is can be seen in figure E.5
on the facing page, that a better throughput is actually achieved by
introducing 10 dB. However, as time progresses the throughput stabilises
at approximately the same level, as those seen in figure E.3 on page 75.
This can probably be explained due to settling time.
79
E.7
Conclusion
All in all, the results were more or less expected. The reason as to why 0 dB,
10 dB and 20 dB measurements are so similar is that the connection was so
high up on the BLER curve, thus resulting in no significant difference. In
order to see some distinction it is neccessary to force the quality further
down the BLER curve.
It can be seen that LTE attempts to uphold a high throughput, by trying
to find a proper modulation and coding scheme, as seen in the MCS index.
The CQI reports, show that with a low attenuation a good modulation
is chosen by the eNB inorder to uphold a 10 % BLER. As the attenuation
rises, the eNB, lowers the modulation inorder to counteract errors in the
datastream.
80
Appendix F
Purpose
F.2
Device
AAU-no.
Note.
Laptop
4G LTE USB dongle
SMIQ 06B
Coupler
1800 MHz IFA antenna
Downloads
N/A
N/A
Externally borrowed.
Externally borrowed.
N/A
N/A
N/A
Externally borrowed.
Externally borrowed.
See table F.2 on the following page
81
Name
Size
4.4 GB
4.4 GB
4.4 GB
4.4 GB
4.4 GB
1.24 GB
1.14 GB
Filename
Server
debian-6.0.3-amd64debian.org
DVD-1.iso
debian-6.0.3-amd64debian.org
DVD-2.iso
debian-6.0.3-amd64debian.org
DVD-3.iso
debian-6.0.3-amd64debian.org
DVD-4.iso
debian-6.0.3-amd64debian.org
DVD-5.iso
PES2012DEMO.zip
gamershell.com
gamershell.com
CABAL_Online_
Saint_s_Requiem_Full_
Client.zip
F.3
F.3.1
Test setup
Connectivity setup
Figure F.1: Test setup for measurement the impact of different attenuator
size while downloading in the 1800 MHz band
F.3.2
Location
URL
Link
Link
Link
Link
Link
Link
Link
Room 4-309
Niels Jernes Vej 12-14
9220 Aalborg st
F.4
In table F.3 on the following page below, a summary of the test procedure
is shown. There were three different measurement performed on the 1301-2012, 14-01-2012 and 15-01-2012. The first day (13-01-2012) a variety
of different measurement was performed. First a initiating test on the
bandwidth ranging from 1863.2 MHz to 1873.2 MHz to see in with frequency
the intermodulated signal had the biggest impact. Two frequencies was
selected, 1869.7 MHz and 1870.2 MHz. These frequencies where measured
with different attenuation. On the 14-01-2012 the network was affected by
an intermodulated signal beginning from the center frequency 1868.2 MHz
and moved up to 1875.2 MHz. All this was don with different modulation
on the intermodulated signal from the SMIQ 06B (BPSK, QPSK, 16QAM
and 64QAM). The level of attenuation from intermodulated signal was 40dB. The last measurement on 15-01-2012 the whole bandwidth was used
to perform almost the same measurement as 14-01-2012. The interval of
MHz/minute was reduced to the half of time. This enables the analysis of
the whole bandwidth. Two set of measurement was performed.
83
Step
Action
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
F.5
In the following figures below, results of the different measurements are seen.
All measurements are plotted with a smooth-factor1 =1001. Figure F.3 on
the next page and F.4 on page 86 displays; Troughput, RSRP, RB, SINR,
MCS index,RSSI and CQI in 1869.7 MHz band with a interference signal
that had different attenuation ranging from -80dB, -70dB, -60dB, -50dB
and -40dB with one minute in between(the couplers -20dB is included). In
figure F.5 on page 87 and F.6 on page 88 the same procedure as by the first
two. The only difference is that the frequency is 0.5MHz above 1870.2 MHz.
1
84
85
Figure F.4: SINR in dB, MCS index, RSSI in dB and CQI with different
level of attenuation
86
87
Figure F.6: SINR in dB, MCS index, RSSI in dB and CQI with different
level of attenuation
F.5.1
Conclusion
The attenuation level regulated by the SMIQ 06B influence the performance
of the throughput dramatically. In almost every KPI the increased of the
attenuation from the intermodulated signal makes an impact. However, only
88
F.6
In this measurement setup the goal was to see if the modulation of the
intermodulated signal had any impact on the performance on the network.
All measurements are plotted with a smooth-factor2 =1001. The network
frequency had a 10 MHz bandwidth ranging from 1863.7 MHz to 1873.7 MHz
and with a center frequency of 1868.2 MHz. In this measurement the start
frequency of the measured bandwidth was from the center frequency 1868.2
and with every one minute increased the frequency of the interference signal
see F.7. In figure F.8 on the following page the throughput, RSRP and RB
is displayed. The next figure F.9 on page 91 displays SINR, MCS, RSSI and
CQI.
Figure F.7: Every 1 minute the frequency was increased by 1 MHz. The
extra time was to insure that the interference signal was out of range.
2
89
90
Figure F.9: SINR in dB, MCS index, RSSI in dB and CQI with different
frequencies
F.6.1
Conclusion
In this measurement we see that the throughput between the QAM(16 and
64) and BPSK and QPSK differs from each other. 16QAM and 64QAM
has a higher throughput and RSRP level of -13 to -14. But in the other
91
KPIs the difference between them is not visible. In the CQI index BPSK
and QPSK follows each other all the way and both the QAM(16 and 64)
differ over time. From the RSSI measurement the modulation had no impact
on the total received power. Its clear that the start signal power level is
around -60dB and by increasing the frequency on the intermodulated signal
(and thereby crossing Telias 10 MHz bandwidth) the -60dB40dB gives
an increase of the total power by 20db above the -60dB start total power
received.
F.7
The measurement that was perform in this section was over the whole
10 MHz band ranging from 1863.2 MHz to 1873.2 MHz. All measurements
are plotted with a smooth-factor3 =1001. Start frequency was 1860.7 since
the center frequency of the interference signal from the SMIQ 06B was
2.5 MHz. Every 30 sec. the frequency was increased by 1 MHz until the
interference signal was out of the 10 MHz bandwidth to 1876.7 MHz. An
illustration on how this was don see figure F.10. In figure F.11 on the next
page and F.12 on page 94 an -40dB interference signal is used to block the
frequency area. On the two last figures F.13 on page 95 and F.14 on page 96
the level of attenuation on the intermodulated signal was increased to -60dB.
Figure F.10: Every 30 sec. the frequency was increased by 1 MHz. The
bandwidth was 10 MHz and the extra time was to insure that the interference
signal was out of range.
3
92
93
94
95
F.7.1
Conclusion
10 MHz bandwidth first the throughput decreased and at the end of the
10 MHz the throughput increased again. To verify this the RSSI start at
-60dB and moved slowly up to -42dB. This indicated that the total received
power has increased by +20dB (-60dB40dB). On the second recorded
measurement with -60dB intermodulated signal the SINR only dips under
0dB in contras from the first measurement were the SINR get close to 20dB. The RSSI moves from -62dB and up to -59dB. This comes that the
-6460 gives a 4dB increase of the total power. Overall the modulation
from the intermodulated signal had no impact on the performance on the
LTE network. RB from the last measurement had some strange problems
to connecting to the eNB. This had only been seen this time and therefore
must be something from the server.
97
98