RETAINING WALLS

ENEC14014

By Dr. Mehdi Mirzababaei

CQUniversity

Retaining walls

What is earth retaining wall?

Retaining structures such as retaining walls are used in foundation engineering to

support slopes of earth masses. For designing such structures we need thorough
knowledge of the lateral forces that act between the retaining structures and the
soil masses being retained.

Application

Types

Mass gravity: A massive concrete wall relying on its mass to resist the
lateral forces from the retained soil mass

Flexible walls (Sheet pile): A long, slender wall relying on passive

resistance and anchors or props for its stability.

Mechanically stabilized earth walls: a gravity-type retaining wall in

which the soil is reinforced by thin reinforcing elements (steel, fabric,
fibres, etc.).

Gravity & cantilever retaining walls

Reinforced & Flexible retaining walls

Reinforced retaining walls

Flexible retaining walls

Lateral earth pressure

Active earth pressure coefficient (Ka)
The ratio between the lateral and vertical
principal effective stresses at the limiting stress
state when an earth-retaining structure moves
away (by a small amount) from the backfill
(retained soil).

Passive earth pressure coefficient (Kp)

The ratio between the lateral and vertical principal

effective stresses at the limiting stress state when an
earth-retaining structure moves towards (by a small
amount) the backfill (retained soil).

At-rest earth pressure coefficient(K0)

The ratio between the lateral and vertical
principal effective stresses at the limiting stress
state when the earth-retaining structure does not
move.

Note: the total lateral pressure equals to effective lateral stress plus pore-water pressure. Because pore-water pressure is hydrostatic and in any given depth it is
equal in all directions.

At rest lateral earth pressure (K0)

For loose sands and coarse grained soils & normally consolidated clays (Jaky, 1944)

For over consolidated soils during expansion but not recompression (Mayne and Kulhawy (1982)

For normally consolidated clays Massarsch (1979)

For dense sands and compacted grained soils (Sherif and Feng, 1984)

Eurocode 7

Rankines Theory of active earth pressure (Ka,frictionless and vertical wall)

Granular soils (C=0)

Cohesive soils (C0)

= 2 45

2 45
= 2
2
2

3=a=h :

Horizontal effective stress (minor effective principal stress)

1=0=v:

Vertical effective stress (major effective principal stress)

Rankines heory of passive earth pressure (Kp,frictionless and vertical wall)

Granular soils (C=0)

Cohesive soils (C0)

= 2 45 +

+ 2 45 +
= + 2
2
2

1=p=h :

Horizontal effective stress (major effective principal stress)

3=0=v:

Vertical effective stress (minor effective principal stress)

Example 1

Location of active resultant force

Total lateral force on the wall

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Example 2

Horizontal stress calculation

Moment equilibrium

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Example 2

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Tensile cracks in cohesive soils

In cohesive soils there may be a separation between the retaining wall and the soil due to tensile cracks formed in
seasonal wetting and drying especially in expansive clay soils.

2 45
2
2

= 2 = 0

= 2 45

For saturated clay soils =0 and therefore, Ka=1 and C=Cu=Su : =

: = 2 = 2 therefore, if z = =

For unsupported excavation the active lateral force

Therefore,

then = 0

2
2

2 is also zero.
4
=

in practice we use the following range for critical excavation depth:

3.6

3.8

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Retaining walls
General Rankines active/passive earth pressure coefficient for soil
(inclined soil, vertical and frictionless wall)

Pa

Active stress

Passive stress
Horizontal stresses

Horizontal forces

a: active
P: Passive

Retaining walls

14

Rankines active/passive earth pressure coefficient for soil (granular)

(inclined soil, inclined and frictionless wall), Chu (1991)

Sign conversions for , and are shown in the picture.

Pa moves the wall downward and Pp moves the wall upward

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Retaining walls
Coulumbs active earth pressure coefficient, frictional wall
: (or to the vertical)
:

: friction angle between wall and the backfill < <

2
Pa: active force
Sign conversions for , and are shown in the picture.
Usually active force moves the wall downward so >0
Note that the Pa shown in the picture is the active force acting on the soil wedge not on the wall)
= cos( + )

= sin( + )

If the backfill horizontal ( = 0) the angle of slip plane ( ) is as follows:

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Retaining walls
Coulumbs passive earth pressure coefficient, frictional wall
: (or to the vertical)
:
Pp: passive force

Sign conversions for , and are shown in the picture

: friction angle between wall and the backfill < <

2
Usually the passive force moves the wall upward so >0
Note that the Pp shown in the picture is the passive force acting on the soil wedge not on the wall)
= cos( + )
= sin( + )

If the backfill horizontal ( = 0) the angle of slip plane ( ) is as follows:

Notes

17

Calculation of active forces

Active force must be calculated for both surcharge (qs) and the weight of the soil on the base of the wall (shaded
area).

Passive force may be ignored if the height of the soil in front of the wall is not considerable.

Always use critical state frictional angle not peak frictional angle in calculation of coefficient of
lateral stress.
Rankine method is not suitable for passive forces of soil mass with backfills slope greater than zero, as it
decreases with increasing the backfill angle ()
The Coulomb equations are valid for both (+) and (-) backfill angle () as Kp increases with increasing and
decreases with values.

Stability checks of retaining walls

Base pressure applied by the wall must not exceed the ultimate bearing capacity of the supporting soil;

Sliding between the base of the wall and the underlying soil due to the lateral earth pressures;

Overturning of the wall due to horizontal earth pressure forces when the retained soil mass becomes unstable
(active failure);

The development of a deep slip surface which envelops the structure as a whole;

Adverse seepage effects around the wall, internal erosion or leakage through the wall; and

Structural failure of any element of the wall or combined soil/structure failure. .

Stability checks

18

Translation (sliding)

The sliding resistance of the base of the wall must be greater than the resultant
lateral force pushing against the wall.

Ignore passive force as resisting force

= tan +
1 2
1 2
=
; =

2 3
2 3

: The sliding resistance at the base

Pax : The lateral force pushing against the wall

b : the interfacial friction angle between the base of the wall and the soil

cs : effective internal friction angle at critical state

c : effective cohesion between base of the wall and the soil

R z : resultant vertical force applied to the base of the wall

Typical forces acting on gravity and cantilever

retaining walls

B: projected horizontal width of the base

: inclination of the base to the horizontal (counter clockwise angle is
positive)

Stability checks

19

Rotation (over turning)

Resisting moments including moments of weight of the soil above the heel, weight
of the retaining structure and vertical component of the active force must be
greater than the overturning moments that include horizontal component of the
active force.

Neglect passive force as resisting force

2 or

Therefore, for preventing overturning e must be B/6

Stability checks

20

Bearing capacity

Maximum pressure imposed on the soil at the base of the wall must not exceed
the allowable soil bearing capacity.

6
(1 + )

6
=
(1 )

= =
=