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Diameter Signaling
Sonus Special Edition

by Lawrence C. Miller

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Diameter Signaling For Dummies, Sonus Special Edition


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Table of Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
About This Book......................................................................... 1
Foolish Assumptions.................................................................. 2
Icons Used in This Book............................................................. 2
Beyond the Book......................................................................... 3
Where to Go from Here.............................................................. 3

Chapter 1: The Evolution of Signaling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5


Signaling System 7 (SS7)............................................................ 5
SS7 SIGTRAN Links...................................................................... 8
LTE/EPC/Diameter Network.................................................... 10

Chapter 2: Defining the Role of the STP


in SS7 Networks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Gateway Screening and Advanced Routing........................... 14
Point Code Emulation............................................................... 14
Security...................................................................................... 14
Interworking.............................................................................. 15
Gateway Accounting................................................................. 15
Global Title Translation........................................................... 16
SS7 and Diameter...................................................................... 16

Chapter 3: Exploring Diameter Routing Use Cases. . . . 17


Interconnect for Roaming........................................................ 17
Topology hiding.............................................................. 18
Routing of messages in the DEA................................... 19
Diameterlevel screening in a DEA environment........ 20
Centralized Routing.................................................................. 20
Deployment of Multiple HSSs.................................................. 21
PCRF Binding............................................................................. 22
Roaming to NonLTE Networks............................................... 22

Chapter 4: Defining the Role of the DSC in LTE


and VoLTE Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Interconnect and Security....................................................... 25
Traffic Management.................................................................. 27
Diameter Agent Interoperability............................................. 27

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Diameter Signaling For Dummies, Sonus Special Edition 


Session Binding and Subscribers............................................ 28
MultiProtocol Interworking.................................................... 28
Virtualization and Multiple Instances for
Routing Efficiency................................................................. 29

Chapter 5: Number Portability and Subscriber


Databases. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Number Portability (NP).......................................................... 31
Subscriber Location Function (SLF)....................................... 32
E.164 Number Mapping (ENUM)............................................. 32

Chapter 6: Recognizing the Role of NFV in


Signaling Networks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Defining NFV.............................................................................. 35
STPs and NFV............................................................................ 36
Exploring Diameter NFV Use Cases........................................ 37
Virtual Diameter Edge Agents....................................... 37
Virtual Core Diameter Signaling Controllers............... 39

Chapter 7: Ten Things to Consider in a Diameter


and SS7 Signaling Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

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Introduction

iameter is the signaling protocol used in LTE networks


around the world. However, telecommunications networks still use Signaling System 7 (SS7) networks extensively,
and SS7 has become the most reliable, secure, and feature
rich signaling methodology in telecommunications history.
SS7 networks will exist for many more decades as signaling
networks slowly evolve from SS7 to Diameter and Session
Initiation Protocol (SIP).
The evolution from SS7 to Diameter and SIP is being driven
by advances in technology and service providers desires to
host voice and data services on a common, allIP infrastructure and transport network. Service providers also need to
balance this move to new network infrastructure with the
need to monetize their networks, and the subscribers insatiable demand for applications and their associated bandwidth requirements. Since the initial inception of SS7 there
have been significant advances in telecommunication network
technology, including the introduction of Internet Protocol
(IP) into service providers networks, thus driving the convergence between voice and data. This convergence has
opened telecommunications networks allowing them to take
advantage of protocol advances including Signaling Transport
(SIGTRAN), Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP),
Diameter, and SIP.

About This Book


This book covers how Diameter Signaling networks are
evolving from SS7 networks (Chapter1), explores the many
functions of signaling transfer points (STPs) in SS7 networks
(Chapter2), describes Diameter use cases (Chapter3), looks
at the role of Diameter Signaling Controllers (DSCs) in LTE

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Diameter Signaling For Dummies, Sonus Special Edition 


and VoLTE networks (Chapter4), reviews number portability
and subscriber database requirements (Chapter5), introduces Network Functions Virtualization (NFV, Chapter6), and
identifies some important requirements to consider in an SS7/
Diameter solution (Chapter7).

Foolish Assumptions
Its been said that most assumptions have outlived their
uselessness, but well assume a few things nonetheless! We
assume that you work in the telecommunications industry
and have at least a basic understanding of telecommunications terms and concepts. As such, we assume you are a
somewhat technical reader. If these assumptions describe
you, then this book is for you!

Icons Used in This Book


Throughout this book, we occasionally use special icons to
call attention to important information. Heres what to expect:
This icon points out information that you should commit
to your nonvolatile memory or your noggin along with
anniversaries and birthdays!
You wont find a map of the human genome here, but if you
seek to attain the seventh level of NERDvana, perk up! This
icon explains the jargon beneath the jargon!
Thank you for reading, hope you enjoy the book, please take
care of your writers! Seriously, this icon points out helpful
suggestions and useful nuggets of information.
This icon points out the stuff your mother warned you about.
Okay, probably not. But you should take heed nonetheless
you might just save yourself some time and frustration!

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Introduction

Beyond the Book


Theres only so much we can cover in 48 short pages, so if
you find yourself at the end of this book, thinking gosh, this
was an amazing book, where can I learn more? just go to
www.sonus.net.

Where to Go from Here


If you dont know where youre going, any chapter will get you
there but Chapter1 might be a good place to start!

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Diameter Signaling For Dummies, Sonus Special Edition 

These materials are 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Any dissemination, distribution, or unauthorized use is strictly prohibited.

Chapter1

The Evolution of Signaling


In This Chapter
Recognizing different SS7 implementations
Addressing bandwidth and facility constraints with SIGTRAN
Getting acquainted with Diameter

n this chapter, you learn how telecommunications signaling


networks are evolving from mature Signaling System 7 (SS7)
network architectures to Long Term Evolution (LTE)/Evolved
Packet Core (EPC)/Diameter networks that support todays
highspeed, high-bandwidth requirements.

Signaling System 7 (SS7)


SS7 is an international telecommunications standard
defined by the International Telecommunication Union
Telecommunication Standardization Sector (ITUT) in 1980.
SS7 is used to set up, manage, and tear down telephone calls
over public switched telephone networks (PSTN) throughout
the world. It sounds simple enough, but theres actually quite
a bit that goes into setting up, managing, and tearing down
calls. For example, when you call someone, SS7 has to figure
out where the person youre calling actually is perhaps its
a friend roaming in a different country. Then, SS7 has to figure
out if that persons phone is busy. Next, it has to securely
attach your phone to the local network and the foreign network, then determine whether your carrier and the foreign
carrier have an agreement that allows the two networks to
communicate. These examples are just a few of the many
things that SS7 must do so your friend can hear you now!

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SS7 performs the following functions and services (among
others):
Call forwarding
Caller ID (name and number)
Local number portability
Mobile telephone subscriber authentication
Number translation
Personal communication service (PCS)
Prepaid billing
Roaming
Short Message Service (SMS)
Threeway calling
Tollfree (800 and 888) and toll (900) calls
Nodes in an SS7 network are referred to as signaling points
and consist of the following:
Service Switching Points (SSPs): SSPs set up or tear
down a call and communicate with SCPs to determine
how to route a call, or to set up and manage a call feature. SSPs are generally found within a voice switch.
Signal Transfer Points (STPs): Routers or switches that
relay SS7 messages to SSPs, SCPs, and other STPs on the
SS7 network.
Service Control Points (SCPs): SCPs connect with STPs
and SSPs (less common) and are used to control the
service. There are many different types of SCPs. For
example, a database that converts tollfree 800 numbers
into normal phone numbers is a type of SCP. Another
example is a number portability (NP) database used to
determine whether a phone number has been transferred
to another service provider.
The initial deployment of SS7 in North America more than
30 years ago included STPs in the network topology, deployed
in a distributed coreedge topology or a centralized core routing topology:

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Chapter1: The Evolution of Signaling

SS7 CoreEdge Network Architecture: Early deployments used a distributed architecture that included
network (core) and local (edge) STP pairs. These early
deployments continue to be used today. The core STP
pairs provided access to companywide database services, aggregated connectivity to local STPs, and served
as access points to other service providers. The edge
STPs provided SS7 services and connectivity to all end
offices and tandems within a geographical region. All
requests for services that required database intervention
were routed from the edge STPs to the core STPs and
then to the appropriate database.
SS7 Core Network Architecture: Later deployments
are totally centralized and comprised of large core STPs
providing all SS7 connectivity and database services. The
evolution to this network configuration was influenced by
government mandates to implement NP in both the wireline and wireless telecommunications market segments.
The NP service required extremely large and fast databases that could be accessed from every end office in the
network. To accomplish these requirements, a solution
was developed that integrated the database within STP
functionality. The operating companies determined that
a large core STP with an included database was the most
costeffective use of this expensive technology.
The evolution of SS7 deployments outside North America
was quite different due, in part, to the size of the networks,
the starting point of the network, and the design of network
elements.
Typically, the size of the individual international telecommunications networks was much smaller than those in North
America. The international switching equipment vendors
incorporated some STP functionality into each of the network
elements. The network size, coupled with the differences in
switching equipment, facilitated the implementation of an
associated or mesh network.
During the initial international implementation of SS7, network elements were interconnected directly with each other
to create a fully meshed network. As the network continued
to grow with more traffic and more interconnected elements,

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Diameter Signaling For Dummies, Sonus Special Edition 


network operators found that the management and administration of this meshed network became untenable and fraught
with human related errors affecting network routing, address
assignment, and security when interconnected to foreign networks. This is where STPs got introduced into international
networks to solve the complexity in operating a fully meshed
network.

SS7 SIGTRAN Links


The explosive growth in the number of users and the amount
of traffic stretched the SS7 network architectures to the
breaking point during the 1990s. The solution was simple:
implement highspeed signaling links. However, because the
SS7 protocol defines the entire message delivery mechanism
from the physical layer to the application layers, modifications to the protocol had to be made at both the physical and
transport layers.
During this time period, IP networks had grown extensively
in use, and improvements in quality enabled them to provide
higher reliability. Additionally, IP networks held a transport
cost advantage over timedivision multiplexing (TDM)-based
SS7 networks. This led to new standards being developed in
order to enable the SS7 signaling protocol to run on IPbased
networks.
The SIGTRAN working group of the Internet Engineering Task
Force (IETF) was formed in 1999 to define the architecture for
transporting realtime signaling information over an Internet
Protocol (IP) network. The groups effort yielded three key
results:
New network architecture: The segmenting of legacy
switch functionality creates a more distributed s witching
architecture and enables a total separation of s ignaling
from the media and the media control plane. The
switching functionality split is defined in IETF Request
For Comments (RFC) 2719.
New transport protocol: Stream Control Transmission
Protocol (SCTP) was defined to carry SS7related protocol levels over an IP backbone network. SCTP meets

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Chapter1: The Evolution of Signaling

the rigid constraints of a realtime protocol such as SS7


including guaranteed delivery, sequence delivery, and
multihoming for reliability. SCTP provides the following
functions and capabilities:
Reliable data transfer
Multiple streams to help avoid headofline blocking
issues
Ordered and unordered data delivery on a per
stream basis
Bundling and fragmentation of user data
Congestion and flow control
Support for continuous monitoring of reachability
Graceful termination of association
Support for multihoming
Protection against blind denialofservice and blind
masquerade attacks
Numerous adaptation layers: Adaptation layers encapsulate upper levels of the SS7 protocol and transport them
over IP utilizing the services of SCTP. Because each adaptation layer is based on the SS7 level being transported
or replaced, there are common capabilities across all
adaptation layers. Each adaptation layer must provide
the following:
A seamless operation of SS7 level peers over an
IP network
A primitive interface boundary that the corresponding SS7 level had with its underlying SS7 level
Management of SCTP transport associations and
traffic between SGs and IP Signaling Endpoints
(ISEPs) or two ISEPs
Asynchronous reporting of status changes to management functions
The SS7 network, including its transport capabilities and
protocol technologies, are mature, well established, and well
understood by telecommunications service providers worldwide. SS7 remains the preeminent signaling standard for many

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Diameter Signaling For Dummies, Sonus Special Edition 


operators providing networkbased, revenuegenerating services. With the large installed base, any change from legacy
SS7 network architectures to nextgeneration networks, such
as LTE/EPC/Diameter and IP Multimedia Subsystem (IMS), will
be evolutionary rather than revolutionary. As a result, hybrid
networks combining parts of both SS7 and LTE/EPC/Diameter
will be the standard for the near term.

LTE/EPC/Diameter Network
The mobile subscribers ever increasing demand for large
volumes of bandwidth is driving the deployment of LTE/EPC/
Diameter networks globally. Subscriber devices, such as
smartphones and tablets with the alwayson applications they
support, are having a huge impact on a mobile operators ability to keep up with bandwidth demands and the associated
signaling requirements.
The Remote Authentication DialIn User Service (RADIUS)
protocol is Diameters direct predecessor. RADIUS provides
centralized authentication, authorization, and accounting
(known as AAA or Triple A services) management for
users who connect and use a network service. Its commonly
used to manage access to networks, virtual private networks
(VPNs), and email.
Diameter was created to replace the RADIUS protocol, and
has better reliability, scalability, security, and flexibility than
RADIUS (you might even say Diameter is twice as good as
RADIUS!). Diameter is the required protocol in 3G and LTE
mobile networks. SCTP (discussed earlier in this chapter) is
the transport protocol for Diameter, due to the reliability and
survivability required in EPC.
The architecture of the LTE/EPC/Diameter network (see
Figure11) defines a large quantity of network elements, each
with its own functionality. Each network element can have
multiple interfaces to other elements based on the procedures and information exchanged.

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Chapter1: The Evolution of Signaling

11

Figure 1-1:Diameter mesh network.

Additionally, the peer concepts of the Diameter protocol and


the connectionoriented methodologies of SCTP, significantly
increase the complexity and quantity of routing rules within
the network. As the network continues to evolve and grow,
additional routing rules have to be provisioned in every network element. The routing complexity inherent within this
meshtype network presents a twofold problem. First, the
maintenance and administration of the routing rules on individual nodes directly affects the consistency and scalability
of the network. Second, placing the routing responsibility on
the individual network elements can degrade the network
elements ability to perform its primary function.
A network deployment including Diameter Routing Agents at
both the core and edge of the network provides a more efficient and scalable architecture (see Figure12). By placing the
Diameter router in the core of the network, routing is centralized to reduce the quantity and complexity of internetwork

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Diameter Signaling For Dummies, Sonus Special Edition 


and intranetwork routing. Also, because the routing responsibility is removed from individual network elements, expensive
resources are freed to perform their primary function thus
reducing network-wide capital expenditures.

Figure 1-2:Diameter router network.

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Chapter2

Defining the Role of the


STP in SS7 Networks
In This Chapter
Understanding gateway screening and advanced routing features
Simplifying switch migration with Point Code Emulation (PCE)
Securing SS7 networks with Gateway Screening
Supporting SS7 Interworking
Keeping track of SS7 messages with Gateway Accounting (GWA)
Performing Global Title Translation (GTT)
Supporting SS7 and Diameter on a single platform

ignaling Transfer Points (STPs) are packet switches that


provide SS7 message routing between network elements
of different types. STPs are used to create a hubandspoke
architecture in the SS7 signaling network. With this architecture, a central place for network monitoring and management,
valueadded processing, and alternate routing and screening
is created.
STPs are also used to interconnect different service provider
networks and provide security and screening capabilities to
enable secure interconnect between providers. Monitoring,
screening, and security are particularly important when services cross multiple providers networks.
In this chapter, you learn about the role of STPs in SS7
networks.

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Diameter Signaling For Dummies, Sonus Special Edition 

Gateway Screening and


Advanced Routing
Gateway Screening and Advanced Routing allows operators
greater control over the network routing of messages and is
used in situations where a core network of STPs has a dual
role of routing and monitoring/billing for the network.
Gateway Screening and Advanced Routing provides a very
flexible and powerful mechanism for inspection and examination of SS7 messages transiting the network. This mechanism
is utilized to provide a rich set of features, giving operators
full control over which messages are allowed to transit their
networks, how these messages should be routed, and the
accounting rules associated with them.

Point Code Emulation


Point Code Emulation (PCE) is a feature that can be used to
significantly simplify and mitigate risk in switch migration
activities. PCE allows service providers to grow their signaling
networks transparently. This task is accomplished by giving
the carrier a method to translate between public and internal
point codes. Internal point codes are those defined by the carrier and are only visible within the carriers network. Internal
point codes are associated with a public point code thats visible by the SS7 network.
PCE is similar to network address translation (NAT) on an IP
network. Similarly to NAT, PCE allows STPs to use a single
point code to appear to the network as one or more shared
point codes (PCs). PCE is a cost-effective solution for expanding networks where new point codes (PCs) are rare and
expensive, and by minimizing the number of direct SS7 links
to an STP pair.

Security
STPs placed on the boundaries between two networks are configured with a feature referred to as Gateway Screening (see
Figure21). These STPs provide firewall security functions and
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Chapter2: Defining the Role of the STP in SS7 Networks

15

admission control over messages that are allowed into and


out of the network.

Figure 2-1:STPs at the boundaries between two networks with


Gateway Screening.

Interworking
There are many different SS7 protocol standards written
by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) and
American National Standards Institute (ANSI), as well as local
country variants. For this reason, the SS7 STP must support
numerous SS7 variants and provide protocol conversion
between these variants. The STP must convert between these
variants and becomes a critical element when interconnecting
SS7 networks between countries.
SS7 STPs also need to interwork between different layers
within the SS7 stack; for example, Integrated Services Digital
Network User Part (ISUP) and Transaction Capabilities
Application Part (TCAP).

Gateway Accounting
Using Gateway Accounting (GWA), network administrators
can define rule sets based on SS7 message parameters to collect statistical information which may be used for auditing
purposes.
In order to provide auditing, the STP performing GWA needs
to be able to generate statistics in a flexible manner that is
configurable by the operator. Its very common for these
statistics to come in the form of ASCII text files.
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Diameter Signaling For Dummies, Sonus Special Edition 

Global Title Translation


Global Title Translation (GTT) frees the originating signaling points from the burden of having to know every potential
destination to which they might have to route a message. A
switch can originate an SS7 Signaling Connection Control Part
(SCCP) query and address it to an STP, along with a request to
perform GTT.
The GTT application searches for matching Global Title components or fields of the Called Party and/or the Calling Party
address. The most common GTT configuration is to translate
based on the Called Party Address.
The receiving STP makes a determination of the intended
address (Destination Point Code) based on the digits and
other Called Party Address parameters of the SCCP message.
The digit type varies depending on the service thats trying
to be reached, dialed digits, International Mobile Subscriber
Identity (IMSI), and so on.

SS7 and Diameter


Diameter can replace many of the functions previously performed by SS7/SIGTRAN protocols in Long Term Evolution
(LTE) and IP Multimedia Subsystems (IMS) networks. For
this reason, mobile service providers are deploying Diameter
Signaling Controllers (DSC) to provide functions very similar
to those of STPs in traditional SS7 networks.
Yet for most service providers, the deployment of Diameter is
being done as part of a cap and grow rather than a rip and
replace strategy. This is due to the extended, decadeslong
migration of traffic and subscribers away from SS7based services. In fact, subscriber and usage growth in SS7based 2G
and 3G networks is still expected well into 2020.
Vendor solutions that can concurrently support both STP
(SS7) and DSC (Diameter) functions on a single platform and
interwork between the two protocols are ideal to accommodate the changing dynamics of signaling during this multi
decade transition.

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Chapter3

Exploring Diameter
Routing Use Cases
In This Chapter
Interconnecting networks to support roaming
Eliminating complexity with centralized routing
Supporting multiple Home Subscriber Servers (HSS)
Allocating bandwidth with Policy Charging Rules Function (PCRF)
Facilitating roaming between LTE and nonLTE networks

oday, mobile network operators are faced with the


challenges of building 4G Long Term Evolution/Evolved
Packet Core (LTE/EPC) networks to meet the demands of
subscriber devices such as smartphones and tablets, and
the always on applications they support. As IP Multimedia
Subsystem (IMS) and LTE infrastructures are deployed,
new elements such as policy servers, gateways, session
controllers, and charging systems are interconnected.
These new elements interwork via the Diameter protocol to
exchange critical network and services information.
In this chapter, you learn about several common Diameter
routing use cases and how to solve them with Diameter
Signaling Controllers (DSCs).

Interconnect for Roaming


Rather than connecting sensitive end nodes directly to network elements from other administrative realms, a Diameter
Edge Agent (DEA) can be used on the boundaries between

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Diameter Signaling For Dummies, Sonus Special Edition 


two interconnected roaming partners, thereby simplifying network architecture and improving robustness (see Figure31).

Figure 3-1:A DEA simplifies network architecture and improves


robustness.

Specifically, a DEA provides the following capabilities:


Creates a single point of connection into a mobile service
providers network
Hides the topology of the local network so that unnecessary outages dont occur if the internal topology changes
Simplifies monitoring, facilitates interworking, and provides message normalization
Protects the local Diameter network from denialofservice
(DoS) attacks
Enables a powerful set of routing and screening functions
in order to protect the network on any message or any
AttributeValue Pair (AVP)
Topology hiding, message routing in the DEA, and Diameter
level screening are further explained in the following sections.

Topology hiding
There are two key aspects of topology hiding:
Limiting the information that an originator must have
about a destination network in order to send a message,
which is accomplished by basic DEA functionality (much
like Global Title Translation and Network Interfaces in an
SS7 network)
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Chapter3: Exploring Diameter Routing Use Cases

19

Modifying messages so the receiver cant discern the


structure of the originators network
The DSC allows modification of message parameters that contain topology information.
A DEA can be used to modify messages via routing tables
or a User Agent application programming interface (API)
to facilitate interoperability, possibly including changes to
OriginHost or other fundamental Diameter parameters.
A DEA can modify messages to obfuscate information, potentially removing information about the identity of local servers and relays. The following are some examples of internal
identities that should be prevented from being leaked in
Diameter message exchanges:
OriginHost AVP holds the identity of the originating
client or server.
RouteRecord AVPs hold the identities of the message
originator and any intermediate relays.
SessionId AVP holds the Diameter identity of the client
that originated the session.

Routing of messages in the DEA


DSCs contain powerful routing tables that can be used to
make DEA message routing more efficient. For example,
assume a network operator has a direct connection to
another network operators DEA, along with c
onnectivity
to two different IP exchange (IPX) providers. Based on this
configuration, the operator will direct traffic based on the
destination of the message. A message destined for the
directly connected operators network will be routed directly
to that operators DEA because the realm is known. However,
for other destinations the operator makes routing decisions
for one IPX or the other. These routing decisions need to be
easy to configure and maintain in the DSCs routing tables.

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Diameter Signaling For Dummies, Sonus Special Edition 

Diameterlevel screening
in a DEA environment
Most network operators deploy a firewall at their network
perimeter, thereby preventing the outside IP network from
accessing the DSC. This process enables the DSC to focus
on examining Diameter traffic in order to implement routing
and screening at the Diameter level, rather than dealing with
lowerlevel DoS attacks and other security issues. In this configuration, the DEA will allow messages from known adjacent
networks. However, even if traffic from an untrusted network
is sent through a trusted source, such as the IPX provider,
the DSC could reject this traffic. No direct connections from
untrusted networks are allowed, and must instead be made
through the DEA. This forces all external Diameter signaling traffic through the DEA function, and limits the types of
attacks that have to be handled.

Centralized Routing
The architecture of the LTE/EPC network defines a large quantity of network elements, each with its own functionality. Each
network element can have multiple interfaces to other elements, based on the procedures and information exchanged.
Additionally, Diameter is a peertopeer protocol and the
connectionoriented methodologies of the Stream Control
Transmission Protocol (SCTP) significantly increase the complexity, monitoring, and control of this signaling network.
As the network continues to evolve and grow, additional
Diameter peers have to be provisioned in every network element. This is often referred to as the Nsquared problem. The
Diameter peer configuration complexity inherent within this
meshtype network presents a twofold problem:
First, the large task of maintenance and administration of
peer configurations on individual nodes directly affects
the consistency and scalability of the network.
Second, placing the routing responsibility on the individual network elements can degrade the network elements
ability to perform its primary functions.

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Chapter3: Exploring Diameter Routing Use Cases

21

The Nsquared problem, or Metcalfes Law, states that the value


of a telecommunications network is proportional to thesquare
of the number of connected users (or nodes) of the system. As
more network nodes get added to the network, thecomplexity
keeps rising exponentially.
To solve this problem, a DSC can be deployed to provide a
more efficient and scalable network architecture. By placing
the DSC in the core of the network, routing is centralized,
reducing the quantity and complexity of internetwork and
intranetwork routing. Also, since the routing responsibility
is removed from individual network elements, their expensive
resources are freed up to perform their primary function, thus
reducing networkwide capital expenditures.

Deployment of Multiple HSSs


Home Subscriber Servers (HSSs) are deployed in LTE/EPC
and IMS networks. In IMS networks, HSSs are responsible
for subscriberspecific authorizations, service profiles, and
preferences. In LTE/EPC networks, the HSS is responsible
for Mobile Authentication and other Home Location Register
(HLR) functionalities. Either an increase in numbers of
subscribers or the need for network diversification can drive
network operators to deploy multiple HSSs. In networks that
contain multiple HSSs, the subscriber identity is used to route
to the appropriate HSS containing a particular subscribers
information. Each node requesting the subscriber information
would have to be provisioned with routing information,
including subscriber identity and the HSSs address
containing the subscribers profile. Unfortunately, this leads
to complex and redundant routing tables.
By deploying a DSC with Subscription Locator Functionality
(SLF), a more efficient routing methodology can be used.
The DSC with SLF would be provisioned with subscriber
identity and mapping to the appropriate HSS. This provides a
centralized routing mechanism that is much more efficient to
configure and maintain.

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Diameter Signaling For Dummies, Sonus Special Edition 

PCRF Binding
The Policy Charging Rules Function (PCRF) is becoming
increasingly more critical in managing network operators
resources while balancing the subscribers network data utilization experience. As network operators push to increase
their Annual Revenue per User (ARPU), by offering tiered data
plans and the introduction of Voice over LTE (VoLTE), the
role of the PCRF becomes one of the most critical within the
network.
The PCRF is used for the authorization of a subscribers
bandwidth allocation based on multiple factors, including the
subscribers past usage, the level of service a subscriber has
purchased and the amount of resources currently available in
the network.
When a subscriber establishes an IP/data session (IPCAN)
within the network, a PCRF is assigned to authorize the session and maintain a Quality of Service (QoS) for the session.
IPCAN/PCRF binding ensures the initial PCRF assigned for
the session is responsible for maintaining the rules and
QoS during the life of the session. When multiple PCRFs are
deployed in the network based on either network scalability
requirements or PCRF vendor product architectures, this type
of network topology requires an IPCAN/PCRF binding capability, within the network.
By deploying a DSC including IPCAN/PCRF binding capabilities, multiple PCRFs can be provisioned in the network without having to replicate the binding information in every PCRF.
The flexibility provided by the DSC enables efficient network
design to meet the needs of both operators and subscribers.

Roaming to NonLTE Networks


When mobile network operators start their deployment of LTE/
EPC, it is important to provide subscribers with the widest
breadth of coverage possible. In order to provide the coverage required by the subscribers, the home network (LTE/EPC)
provider might have roaming agreements with nonLTE networks such as 2G or 3G operators. The home network provider
would have provided its customers with multimode handsets

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Chapter3: Exploring Diameter Routing Use Cases

23

to facilitate this roaming. Since the 2G/3G networks are SS7


signalingbased, and the LTE/EPC networks are Diameter
signalingbased, an interworking function is required to translate from the Diameter signaling protocol in the LTE network
to the SS7/MAP signaling protocol used in the 2G/3G networks.
Without this translation/interworking function, it is impossible
for a subscriber to roam from an LTE/EPC/Diameter network
to a 2G/3G/SS7/MAP network (see Figure32).

Figure 3-2:Roaming to nonLTE network.

The deployment of a DSC with Interworking Function (IWF),


solves the problem of subscribers roaming from an LTE/EPC
Diameter signaling protocol network to a nonLTE network,
by providing the translation and mapping capability required
for communication between Diameterbased networks and
SS7based networks (see Figure33).

Figure 3-3:Roaming to nonLTE network with DSC.

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Chapter4

Defining the Role of


the DSC in LTE and
VoLTE Networks
In This Chapter
Addressing interconnected network and security challenges
Managing congestion and flow control
Ensuring interoperability between agents
Binding multiple sessions
Supporting multiprotocol interworking between networks
Using virtualization for routing efficiency

iameter Signaling Controllers (DSCs) are key elements


in Long Term Evolution/Evolved Packet Core (LTE/EPC)
networks, and are used for routing and securing Diameter
messages. Diameter Signaling Controllers provide routing,
traffic management, load balancing, and session binding.
In this chapter, you learn about the role of DSCs in LTE and
VoLTE networks.

Interconnect and Security


Internetwork connections whether bilateral or through an
IP Exchange/GPRS Roaming Exchange (IPX/GRX) provider
pose a unique set of problems to mobile service providers.
These internetwork connections are used when subscribers

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Diameter Signaling For Dummies, Sonus Special Edition 


are roaming beyond their service providers coverage area.
The combination of a complex LTE/EPC network, numerous
interconnected networks, and the vendors wide diversity
of equipment and software releases present significant challenges for setting up routing rules and security policies on
who can access which networks.
To simplify the roaming interface between peer networks, a
Diameter Edge Agent (DEA) provides an entry point to provide efficient connection methodologies and network security. The DEA hides the topology of the network behind it
and advertises itself to roaming partners as a Diameter relay,
serving all Diameter applications in the network.
The DEA is essentially a signaling firewall that protects the
internal network from malformed messages, unauthorized
senders, and exposure of internal information to external
networks. Figure41 depicts this architecture.

Figure 4-1:GSMA PRD IR.88 Diameter roaming implementation architecture.

The DEA must address the following types of security:


Transport security: Transport security guarantees the
integrity of transmitted and received Diameter messages
by implementing secure protocols (Transport Layer
Security or Datagram Transport Layer Security).
Application security (topology hiding): Topology hiding
prevents disclosure of certain network configuration
information, by changing or removing internal information about a Public Mobile Network (PMN), which isnt
required outside the PMN.

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Chapter4: Role of the DSC in LTE and VoLTE Networks

27

Application security (admission control): Admission


control ensures message validity. The DEA is expected
to filter Diameter messages to accept only supported
Application IDs, Command Codes, and AttributeValue
Pairs (AVPs).

Traffic Management
Congestion can be divided into incoming and outgoing congestion. Incoming congestion is reflected by growth of the
incoming queue and outgoing congestion by growth of the
outgoing queue.
Flow control can be thought of as a ratelimiter while processing the incoming or outgoing queues. Incoming flow control
limits how quickly messages may be accepted from the peer,
and outgoing flow control limits how quickly messages may
be sent to a peer. If messages are received, processed, or sent
faster than the allowed rate, the corresponding queue grows
and congestion eventually results.
Congestion Management is accomplished by determining
the maximum age for a given type of message along with
the amount of space left on the queue. Congestion is related
to the arrival rate of messages on the queue and the Flow
Control rate of taking messages off the queue.

Diameter Agent Interoperability


Diameter agent interoperability, also known as protocol
mediation, refers to scenarios where routing is required
between two Diameter nodes using different versions of the
protocol, or different implementations of the same version
of the protocol. In these scenarios, the DSCs job is to modify
messages as they pass through the DSC to ensure disparate
Diameter nodes can talk to each other.
The DSC provides advanced capabilities that allow operators to overcome Diameter protocol incompatibility issues,
encountered during network commissioning and turnup,
in realtime. Capabilities built into the advanced routing
infrastructure allow operators to modify the AVP content of
Diameter messages that traverse the system.
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Diameter Signaling For Dummies, Sonus Special Edition 


The DSC advanced routing mechanisms provide operators
the ability to identify specific Diameter messages that require
modification. Messages may be selected by any combination
of the following:
Header contents
Originating or receiving Diameter node
AVP contents
After a message is selected, it can then be directed to internal
functions that allow realtime modification, such as
Add or delete AVPs
Modify contents of AVPs
Count subsets of AVPs
Dump the contents of a subset of messages to log files
Send the message in Extensible Markup Language (XML)
format for further processing by a script or external
system

Session Binding and Subscribers


Diameter Session Binding is used in networks with multiple
Policy and Charging Rules Function (PCRF) instances performing the same function, and where the network operator wants
messages with the same Diameter SessionID AVP to go to the
same PCRF. This is useful when applicationlevel requests need
to be routed to the correct PCRF thats hosting the subscriber
session, or when a single subscriber has multiple sessions in
a multiPCRF network and each session from that subscriber
needs to be terminated on the same PCRF. When deploying
VoLTE, its essential to have Diameter Session Binding capability to connect IMS layer with PCRF.

MultiProtocol Interworking
As service providers deploy LTE/EPC networks and begin to
offer the enhanced capabilities of LTE/EPC to their subscribers, they must address a new problem that arises when their

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Chapter4: Role of the DSC in LTE and VoLTE Networks

29

subscribers roam to nonLTE/EPCbased networks, such as


2G/3G networks. The network architectures and underlying
protocols of LTE/EPC and nonLTE/EPC networks differ in the
following ways:
2G/3G uses SS7/Transaction Capabilities Application Part
(TCAP)/Mobile Application Part (MAP) to manage mobility
LTE/EPC uses Diameter to manage mobility
Multiprotocol interworking is the capability to convert
between these different Diameter and SS7 protocols.
The DSC solves the issue of subscriber roaming to disparate networks by fully supporting the ThirdGeneration
Partnership Project (3GPP) specification for interworking
between Diameter and MAP (see Figure42), thus allowing
LTE/EPC subscribers to roam seamlessly between LTE/EPC
and 2G/3G networks.

Figure 4-2:A DSC provides multiprotocol interworking between LTE/EPC


and 2G/3G networks.

Virtualization and Multiple


Instances for Routing Efficiency
Another aspect of routing to consider is the ability to consolidate routing rules for both intranetwork and internetwork
traffic. Having a single massive routing configuration inherently leads to complexity and increases the chances of errors

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Diameter Signaling For Dummies, Sonus Special Edition 


when making routing/traffic rules changes. Therefore, the ability to deploy multiple virtual DEAs, configured within a single
network entity, enables routing segmentation (routing segmented on a perinterconnected network basis) and provides
an efficient routing mechanism. Each of these virtual DEAs
has its own separate routing and screening rules that include
the ability to shape traffic on a perpeer basis. This shaping
includes traffic flow control, throttling, and congestion on
a perpeer basis. This flexible routing concept provides
increased control as well as ease of implementation.
Using virtual DEA instances, the DSC is uniquely enabled to
provide for the needs of hub providers and wholesale interconnect operators. Individual clients of these providers can
be managed with individual routing table and configuration
databases.
In a hub provider environment, one instance will typically be
dedicated to each carrier customer to act as a Diameter Edge
for that customer. One central instance for the hub provider
will join these instances together. In its routing and configuration tables, the central instance will then be able to very
efficiently
Set rules defining which carriers may roam and with whom.
Create statistics and peg counters on thousands of different combinations of messages (for example, counting
messages between two carriers).
Throttle messages coming from or going to specific
carriers.
Copy messages to external systems for downstream
billing creation.

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Chapter5

Number Portability and


Subscriber Databases
In This Chapter
Supporting Number Portability (NP)
Understanding Subscriber Location Function (SLF)
Mapping numbers internationally with E.164 (ENUM)

n this chapter, you learn about some of the additional


functions of signaling networks.

Number Portability (NP)


Number Portability (NP) was introduced by regulators
countrybycountry in the late 1990s, to lower the barriers
for subscribers to change service providers and increase
competition for subscribers between service providers. With
NP, individual subscribers and businesses can move to a new
service provider without changing their existing telephone
number. Depending on local regulations, telephone numbers
can be ported between different fixed line providers, between
mobile network providers, or between fixed and mobile
providers.
NP affects the routing mechanisms for terminating voice
and data calls. The fundamental nature of the dialed number
changes from a physical routing address to a virtual address.
Transparency to subscribers is achieved by incorporating
a translation function to map a dialed potentially ported
number into a network routing address (either a number
prefix or another number) which can be routed.

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Diameter Signaling For Dummies, Sonus Special Edition 


Two approaches to NP include an Intelligent Network (IN)based NP solution and a Mobile Number PortabilitySignaling
Relay Function (MNPSRF)-based solution. Both solutions may
be implemented as a standalone solution or integrated with
STP functionality.

Subscriber Location
Function (SLF)
When a mobile operator grows very large, it may consider
dividing up its subscriber database to be hosted on different
Home Subscriber Servers (HSS) complexes. This allows the
operator to scale up its HSS infrastructure and have increased
resiliency and redundancy.
If an operator divides up its subscriber database, it needs
a supporting Subscriber Location Function (SLF) to assist
other Diameter elements in figuring out which HSS complex to
contact in order to find a particular subscriber profile.
In its simplest configuration, the SLF will be a set of operator
defined rules in which there is a logical breakdown of how
the subscribers are distributed between HSS complexes, for
example, by ranges of subscriber identifiers or odd/even
phone numbers. In more complex cases, the SLF could have a
database of its own and would perform lookups of subscriber
identifiers and retrieve the proper HSS addresses.

E.164 Number Mapping


(ENUM)
The ability to dial a telephone number is critical to allow
subscribers on classic SS7 telephone networks and Internet
telephony (Voice over IP, or VoIP) networks to call each
other. The Electronic Number Mapping System (ENUM) was
developed by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF)
to allow a single, universal personal identifier for different
communication services. ENUM uses E.164 telephone numbers and enables VoIP calls to be connected to traditional
SS7 telephone networks.

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Chapter5: Number Portability and Subscriber Databases

33

E.164 defines a numbering plan for international telephone


numbers. The format consists of a 1 to 3digit Country Code
and a 12 to 14digit Subscriber Number for a maximum of
15 digits.
ENUM database is a critical service that brings together
SS7 telephone networks and VoIP services, such as Session
Initiation Protocol (SIP) and Voice over Long Term Evolution
(VoLTE).

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Diameter Signaling For Dummies, Sonus Special Edition 

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Chapter6

Recognizing the Role of NFV


in Signaling Networks
In This Chapter
Learning about Network Function Virtualization
Understanding how NFV fits with SS7 STPs
Solving Diameter routing challenges with NFV

he telecommunications industry has traditionally been


characterized by a very methodical and sometimes slow
approach to major network and technology changes. However,
this model runs contrary to the new realities of our modern
business world in which agility, change, and innovation drive
competitive advantage.
In this chapter, you learn how Network Function Virtualization
(NFV) is enabling a paradigm shift in the telecommunications
industry and how this will affect SS7 and Diameter networks in
the future.

Defining NFV
NFV focuses on new methods for the deployment and delivery
of telecommunication services over a softwarebased network
infrastructure. This is very similar to the way the information
technology (IT) industry uses virtualization in the data center
and in the cloud. The benefits and objectives of NFV are
Increased network design flexibility
Rapid service innovation

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Diameter Signaling For Dummies, Sonus Special Edition 


Reduced capital expenditures and operational costs
Reduced power consumption
Standardized and open interfaces
The main concepts in the NFV methodology are to
Decouple network functions from proprietary hardware
and allow them to be instantiated on industry standard,
commercial offtheshelf hardware
Shift control of network functions from hardware to
software by using a hypervisor layer that abstracts the
underlying hardware from the software functions
Provide flexibility across locations data centers and
other network nodes to maximize efficiencies and
performance
Create a more applicationsaware network to facilitate
faster timetomarket for new services

STPs and NFV


For many service providers, evolution to an IPonly network is
an ongoing process. However, in parallel with this evolution
most service providers still have a need to support traditional
SS7/SIGTRAN protocols for the foreseeable future. In turn, this
means STPs are still needed in fixed and mobile networks.
For service providers, this continued need for STPs is pressed
up against the reality of fewer STP options in the market.
Many STP vendors have announced EndofSale of their STP
offerings, and those products are now reaching EndofService
life. Other vendors have been acquired by nonservice
providerfocused companies. In aggregate, this leaves service
providers with fewer choices, leading to higher risks and
concerns about vendor commitments to STP product longevity. Service providers need to enter into relationships with
vendors who can help evolve their STP architectures to a
futureproof design.
For many vendors, STPs have already evolved from SS7/
TimeDivision Multiplexing (TDM) proprietary hardware to
an SS7/IP proprietary hardware solution. So what is the next
step? The answer is moving to a virtualized solution.
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Chapter6: Recognizing the Role of NFV in Signaling Networks

37

NFV is the separation of what was previously tightly coupled


and often proprietary hardware and software, in order to
enable software to operate on industrystandard commercial
offtheshelf (COTS) servers. For service providers who need
to expand deployment of IPbased STPs or are considering
replacement of traditional TDMbased STPs, virtualization is
the way to go.

Exploring Diameter
NFV Use Cases
The use cases discussed in the following sections provide
some examples of NFV in Diameter routing. Additional NFV/
Diameter use cases will continue to be defined as more vendors and service providers move forward with NFV in the LTE
environment.

Virtual Diameter Edge Agents


As more and more network operators sign bilateral roaming
agreements, the management of these interconnected networks is becoming problematic in terms of security, topology
hiding, traffic handling, and the costs associated with using
purposebuilt Diameter Signaling Controllers (DSCs).
Figure61 depicts a network operator who has multiple bilateral roaming agreements with other network operators. The
home network operator is using NFV to implement virtual
Diameter Edge Agents (DEA).
Similar to the challenges described in the service provider
use case, the IP Exchange/GRPS Roaming Exchange (IPX/GRX)
market is growing, driven by the increases in roaming agreements between network operators. This growth can have an
adverse effect on IPX/GRX providers ability to effectively
manage the interconnections in terms of operations, security,
and capital expenditures for DSCs. Additionally, not all DSCs
have the segmentation ability to address multiple tenants.
Figure62 depicts an IPX/GRX network operator who has multiple network operator clients and is using NFV to implement
virtual DEAs.

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Diameter Signaling For Dummies, Sonus Special Edition 

Figure 6-1:Service provider with bilateral roaming agreements.

Figure 6-2:IPX/GRX provider with multiple interconnected networks.

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Chapter6: Recognizing the Role of NFV in Signaling Networks

39

Each instantiation of the virtual DEA (vDEA) in the service


provider and IPX/GRX providers network can provide
Routing on an interconnected network basis.
Security mechanisms tailored to interconnected networks.
Screening of incoming messages by interconnected
networks.
Traffic shaping based on individual service level agreements (SLAs).
CapEX savings over individual purpose-built platforms.
OpEX savings with simpler implementation required for
scaling.
Reduction in risk; configuration changes for an interconnected network do not affect configurations for any other
interconnected networks.

Virtual Core Diameter


Signaling Controllers
The industrycoined phrase Diameter Signaling Storm
describes an exponential increase in Diameter traffic as
LTE subscriber subscription rates increase. Addressing the
increase in Diameter traffic using conventional DSCs based on
purposebuilt hardware platforms requires that the DSC be
engineered for the worstcase traffic scenario. This concept
of overengineering reduces the need for inservice upgrades,
but adds significantly to the capital investment costs.
Using NFV to instantiate virtual DSCs (vDSCs) based on real
time traffic requirements is a far more efficient solution. This
is shown in Figure63. Because most network signaling traffic,
including Diameter, isnt constant, a given vDSC can be instantiated or deinstantiated in realtime, based on variability in
traffic. This concept saves operations costs in commissioning
new processing capabilities and capital costs in purposebuilt
computing power.

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Diameter Signaling For Dummies, Sonus Special Edition 

Figure 6-3:Core DSC (trafficbased instantiation).

A vDSC can also be used when network operators would


rather design, implement, and manage their networks on a
regional basis. A vDSC is a far more effective solution than a
purposebuilt DSC that could be cost prohibitive and logistically challenging.
Look for the following capabilities and features in a virtual
Diameter solution:
Routing segmentation: The solution should allow for
virtualization based on segmentation of routing rules on
a perinterconnected network basis. This segmentation
would provide the ability to administer routing rules,
traffic shaping, DiametertoDiameter interworking, and
DiametertoSS7 interworking on a roaming partner or
interconnected network basis. This capability allows
increased control, reduces administrative risks, and provides the flexibility required in network design.
Standardsbased: In order for telecommunications vendors to be in the forefront of new and evolving concepts
such as NFV, its important that they be actively involved
in the standardization process. Their involvement
ensures that they are committed to the concept and
knowledgeable about upcoming changes in standards.
This commitment will be reflected in the vendors implementation of standards within their products.

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Chapter7

Ten Things to Consider


in a Diameter and SS7
Signaling Solution
In This Chapter
Evaluating Diameter and SS7 solutions

ou know em, you love em, and so without further


ado...the Diameter Signaling For Dummies Part of Tens:

Experience in telecommunications, SS7, and Diameter:


In order to provide solutions that span the evolutionary stages of telecommunications signaling (SS7 to
Diameter), the solutions vendor has to have experience
in the concepts of both SS7 and Diameter signaling. The
experience in the legacy SS7 protocol and its associated network provides the Signal Transfer Point (STP)/
Diameter Signaling Controller (DSC) vendor with the
unique knowledge of issues and concerns that occurred
within legacy networks. This knowledge allows the
vendor to provide solutions that mitigate these issues
in new networks and protocols such as Long Term
Evolution (LTE)/Evolved Packet Core (EPC)/Diameter.
BSS/OSS integration: Native integration with business
support systems (BSS) and operations support systems
(OSS) is critical to ensure that evolving network architectures can be properly managed. This is critical for
managing the complex hybrid infrastructure of legacy
SS7 components and newer Diameter components that
are likely to exist in most networks for the near term.

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Diameter Signaling For Dummies, Sonus Special Edition 


This can be achieved directly within the signaling solution or via an Element Management System (EMS) that
supports both SS7 and Diameter signaling.
Combined Signal Transfer Points (STPs) and Diameter
Signaling Controllers (DSCs): Having a combined STP
and DSC allows the operator to seamlessly evolve their
network as subscribers migrate, and it provides investment protection and asset longevity.
Consistent routing engine: An important architectural
issue to be considered in the selection of a Diameter
Signaling Controller (DSC) with Diameter Edge Agent
(DEA) capabilities is whether the internal software
design is based on universal protocol switching and routing concepts.
Diameter function requirements: Check whether the
solution supports all of your network requirements such
as Interworking Function (IWF), Policy Charging Rules
Function (PCRF), and Subscription Locator Function (SLF).
Routing segmentation: The DEA should include the
ability to segment the routing rules on a per interconnected network basis. This segmentation would provide
the ability to administer routing rules, shape traffic,
implement Diameter to Diameter protocol mediation,
and provide Diameter to SS7 interworking on a roaming
partner or interconnected network basis. This capability
allows increased control, reduces administrative risks,
and provides the flexibility required in network design.
Robustness at scale: Future proof your network architecture with a scalable design and components that will
support demand variability and longterm growth. Scale
without robustness isnt carriergrade. STP and DSC
solutions are critical to keep end user services up and
running, and any service impacting failure will negatively
impact the service providers financial bottomline.
Security at scale: Diameter signaling is the lynchpin for
successful 4G/LTE interconnection and roaming. Mobile
operators must have the utmost confidence in their
deployment decisions for DEA functionality in order
to absolutely know their Diameter message exchange
is secure at both the transport and application level.
Diameter message use is increasing exponentially, but
many Diameter architectures cant scale to perform
securely at high message rates.

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Chapter7: Considerations for a Diameter and SS7 Signaling Solution

43

Specializing on network signaling and routing: There


will always be differences in the implementation and
interpretation of specifications when any network or
protocol is deployed. These differences can cause
catastrophic problems within networks and across the
boundaries between different networks. A vendor specializing in protocols and routing can provide mediation
capabilities that solve the protocol inconsistencies and
thus eliminate their network impact.
Virtualization capabilities: The STP and DSC should
include the ability to be deployed virtually in a Network
Function Virtualization (NFV) environment. The virtual
solution should be based on software that is common to
appliancebased solutions, thus providing the flexibility
to be deployed virtually yet fit seamlessly within the network operators existing infrastructure. This provides a
way to reduce implementation costs during the migration
from SS7 to Diameter.

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Diameter Signaling For Dummies, Sonus Special Edition 

These materials are 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Any dissemination, distribution, or unauthorized use is strictly prohibited.

These materials are 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Any dissemination, distribution, or unauthorized use is strictly prohibited.

WILEY END USER LICENSE AGREEMENT


Go to www.wiley.com/go/eula to access Wileys ebook EULA.

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