Deodorization - AOCS Lipid Library

1/14/2016
Deodorization - AOCS Lipid Library
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The Author
Wim De Greyt
R&D Manager, Desmet Ballestra, Zaventem, Belgium

Brief Biography
Deodorization
Edible Oil Processing
1. Introduction
In the early days of the edible oil processing industry, in the first half of the 19th century, there was
little or no need for refining. Food fats (e.g. lard, olive oil, milk fat, etc.) were mostly consumed
unrefined and their typical flavour was even an attractive characteristic [1]. It was the growth of the
http://lipidlibrary.aocs.org/OilsFats/content.cfm?ItemNumber=40326
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margarine industry in Europe at the end of the 19th century that resulted in the development of the
edible oil deodorization process (Table 1). At first, industrial deodorizers were mostly batch-type with
the Bataille and Lurgi deodorizers being the most widely used in Europe [1,2] (Fig. 1). These
deodorizers operated under vacuum (to facilitate stripping and protect the oil against oxidation) and
also used superheated steam as a stripping agent (to avoid hydrolysis).
Table 1. First developments of the edible oil
deodorization process (Europe and USA) [1]
Inventor
Country Year
Rocca
France
1900
France
Batch deodorizer under

vacuum and with
1914
superheating of the stripping
steam
Bataille
Development
Continuous deodorizer at
atmospheric pressure
Gensecke Germany
First Lurgi deodorizer,
and
1916 similar to the Bataille
Brucke
deodorizer but consisting of
two vessels and also with
internal baffle construction
for better oil/steam contact
De Bruyn
Eckstein
Wesson
Belgium
Continuous countercurrent
column deodorizer at
1900 atmospheric pressure.
Column filled with screenplates
USA
Large volume batch

deodorizer (5-15 metric
1891 tonnes) running at
atmospheric pressure but
without steam superheating
USA
First deodorizer in US
1900 running under vacuum (never
patented)
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Figure 1. Bataille High Vacuum Batch Deodorizer (source: [1]).
In the USA, it was Eckstein who developed the first industrial deodorizer. In 1891, he demonstrated
that the flavour of alkali-refined cottonseed oil could be greatly improved by blowing live steam through
the oil at high temperature (160-175C). The most successful American deodorizing process was that
of Wesson, which was introduced in 1900 by the Southern Cotton Oil Company. The process was not
patented and kept secret for a time but it was probably the first vacuum deodorizing process in the
US. The quality of Wessons deodorized oil was for many decades a standard for edible oils
throughout the world [1].
Over the years, deodorization gradually evolved from a simple process to remove off-flavors to a
crucial unit operation with a big impact on the refined oil quality. In current edible oil refining,
deodorization is also the process in which free (nonesterifed) fatty acids (in the case of physical
refining) and volatile contaminants are stripped and unwanted color pigments are degraded (heat
bleaching).
Although the principle of the process has not changed much since its first application, the deodorizing
technology itself has changed significantly. It has been steadily improved to meet the need for ever
more efficient processing (lower operating cost, higher refined oil yield and better valorization of side
streams). More recently, increasing attention to the (nutritional) quality of food oils and fats has had
an impact on the deodorizing process conditions.
2. Deodorization principle
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Deodorization is actually a stripping process in which a given amount of a stripping agent (usually
steam) is passed for a given period of time through hot oil at a low pressure. Hence, it is mainly a
physical process in which various volatile components are removed. However, since it is usually
carried out at high temperature (>200C), some chemical and thermal effects may take place as well.
Vacuum stripping of volatile components
Theoretical aspects of vacuum stripping have been described extensively by many authors [3-5].
Stripping of a given volatile component from the oil is determined by its intrinsic volatility (vapor
pressure curve) and the deodorizing conditions applied (temperature, pressure and amount of sparge
steam). For a batch and cross-flow deodorization process, the stripping effect is described by the
following mathematical equation:
[1]
- with S = total moles of steam or any other stripping agent per mole of oil (to express the amount of
steam as a percentage of the oil, the factor S has to be multiplied by a factor of 2.); P t = total
pressure of the gas phase = system pressure; P i 0 = Vapor pressure of a given fatty acid i; E =
vaporization efficiency; V a = initial amount of the volatile component in the oil (moles), V 0 = final
amount of the volatile component in the oil (moles).
Other, similar equations have been derived for counter- and co-current deodorization [4].
From equation (1), it can be concluded that the amount of sparge steam required for the stripping of a
given volatile component (e.g. free fatty acids) is :
Directly proportional to the absolute pressure in the deodorizer;
Inversely proportional to the vapour pressure of the volatile component;
Inversely proportional to the overall vaporization efficiency E
From the factor (ln V a/V 0), it can also be derived that :
It is impossible to eliminate all volatile components during deodorization;
Halving the concentration of a given volatile component requires the same amount of stripping
steam, irrespective of its absolute concentration
Edible oils contain various components, each with its specific volatility (Fig. 2). In physical refining, it
is mainly free fatty acids (FFA) that need to be stripped. Apart from FFA, other volatile components,
either valuable (tocopherols, sterols, etc.) or unwanted (off-flavors, pesticide residues, light polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbons, dioxins, etc.), are also removed during deodorization.
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Figure 2. Vapor pressure-temperature relationship for different components in edible

oils ( : curve for monoolein).
The vaporization efficiency E in equation (1) is a deodorizer design-specific factor. It should be seen
as a measure of how saturated with volatile components the stripping agent (steam) becomes during
its contact with the oil. In an ideal (theoretical) case, E = 1, but industrial deodorizers usually have a
vaporization efficiency of 0.3-0.7, depending on their design (steam injection geometry, depth of oil
layer, elimination of reflux, etc.).
Thermal effects
Another objective of deodorization is the thermal destruction of flavor precursors and heat-sensitive
color pigments. The latter effect is called heat bleaching and it is most pronounced during
deodorization/steam refining of palm oil, where the thermal breakdown of carotenes is targeted. Heat
degradation of carotene is very slow at 210C, but takes only a few minutes at T > 260C. This is one
reason why palm oil is typically deodorized at 260C.
However, there is a general trend to lower the heat load (residence time at high temperature) used
during deodorization. This evolution towards milder process conditions is caused by the increasing
awareness of the potentially harmful health effects of thermal degradation products (trans fatty acids,
polymeric triglycerides and glycidyl esters) that can be formed during deodorization. In addition, there
is the desire for maximum retention of the natural oil characteristics.
Effective deodorization: combination of stripping and thermal effect
Perfect deodorization is a complex process which includes the removal of volatile off-flavors already
present in the bleached oil as well as the off-flavors that are formed during thermal degradation of
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higher molecular weight flavor precursors. Removal of the first group is similar to FFA stripping and
can be achieved in a short time. Longer deodorization time is required to convert non-volatile flavor
precursors into volatile off-flavors that can be stripped from the oil.
In practice, this means that time is an important process parameter in obtaining a refined oil with a
bland and stable taste. If the deodorization time is too short, some flavor precursors will stay in the
deodorized oil, resulting in the development of off-flavors during storage or usage. This phenomenon,
which is known as flavor reversion, is well known but at the same time still poorly understood.
3. Deodorized oil quality

Deodorized oil quality is evaluated primarily by traditional quality parameters such as a low residual
FFA content, a high oxidative stability, a light color and a bland odor and taste. In addition, highquality food oils need to contain low trans fatty acid (TFA) levels, high amounts of natural antioxidants
(tocopherols), low levels of polymeric and oxidized triglycerides and no contaminants or degradation
products. Refining targets for these minor components are given in Table 2.
Table 2. Refining targets for various minor
components in edible oils
Minor
component
Refining target (concentration in

fully refined oil)
trans Fatty
acids
<1.5% for oils rich in linolenic acid

(soybean oil, rapeseed oil, canola, etc.)
<1.0% for other vegetable oils (corn oil,
sunflower oil, etc.)
Tocopherols
Polycyclic
aromatic
hydrocarbons
(PAH)
Dioxins and
PCB
min. 500 ppm (to guarantee good

oxidative stability)
New EU regulation 835/2011 in force
since September 1, 2012
<2 ppb BaP and <10 ppb PAH4 for
most food oils;
refined coconut oil;
cocoa butter
BaP = benzo(a)pyrene
PAH4 = sum of BaP,
benz(a)anthracene,
benzo(b)fluoranthene and chrysene
New EU regulation 1259/2011 in force
since January 1, 2012
For refined vegetable oils:
<0.75 ppt WHO-TEQ (dioxins) and
<1.25 WHO-TEQ (dioxins + dioxin-like
PCB)
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For marine oils :

< 1.75 ppt WHO-TEQ (dioxins) and
< 6 WHO-TEQ (dioxins + dioxin-like
PCB)
WHO-TEQ = World Health Organization
toxic equivalent
PCB = polychlorinated biphenyls
ppt = parts per trillion
3-MCPD + GE 1
No legal specifications yet; only trade

specifications which are especially
challenging for palm oil
<2 ppm for refined oils for use in
standard food applications;
<0.5 ppm for refined (palm) oil for use in
infant food.
3-Monochloropropane-1,2-diol and glycidyl esters
4. Deodorizing process conditions

The deodorization process is fully determined by four process parameters : (1) temperature, (2) time,
(3) pressure and (4) amount of stripping steam. The effects of process conditions on the standard
quality parameters and the nutritional quality of the refined oil are well understood and are described
in the literature (Table 3) [4,5].
Table 3. Effect of process variables on deodorized oil

quality
Quality
parameter
Taste
Temperature Time Pressure Steam

+
++
++
Color (heat
bleach)
++
FFA stripping
++
++
trans Fatty acid

formation
++
++
Tocopherol/sterol
stripping
++
++
++
++
++
Contaminant
removal1
Glycidyl ester
formation
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Pesticides, PAH, dioxins; - : little or no effect, + :

significant effect, ++ : large effect
Optimal process parameters depend on the type of oil (bleached and refined oil specifications) and
the refining process applied (chemical or physical), but the limitations of available deodorizing
equipment and the need to minimize operating costs are also determining factors. The typical range
of the different deodorizing process parameters is given in Table 4.
Table 4. Typical process conditions for
edible oil deodorization
Parameter
Range Comment
Temperature 160260C
Lower temperature
(<200C) for heatsensitive oils (e.g. cocoa
butter, fish oil) to avoid
too much degradation of
omega-3 fatty acids (fish
oil) and negative effects
on crystallisation
characteristics (cocoa
butter)
-Higher temperature
(260C) for FFA
stripping/heat bleaching
(e.g. physical refining of
palm oil)
Trend towards lower
deodorizing temperature
(230-240C)
Time
5 min
4 hr
FFA stripping (with

packed column): 5 min
(no deodorization)
Deodorization of
soybean/canola oil: 2090 min
Full deodorization of fish
oil: 2-4 hr
Pressure
1.5 5 Most common range : 2mbar

4 mbar
Low pressure required for
stripping of FFA and
volatile contaminants
(pesticides, light PAH,
etc.)
Trend towards lower
deodorizing pressure.
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This allows same

stripping efficiency at
lower temperature or with
less stripping agent
Higher cost to create
lower deodorizing
pressure
Stripping
steam
0.5
3%
Depending on type of oil

and refining mode
Steam is the most
commonly used stripping
agent (efficient lowest
cost)
Stripping with nitrogen is
not applied industrially
5. Deodorizing process and deodorizer technology

Deodorization is a multistep process comprising deaeration, multistage heating, deodorizationdeacidification, and multistage cooling of the oil (Fig. 3).
Figure 3. Schematic presentation of the different stages of the deodorizing process.
Oil deaeration
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Degummed, bleached oil is deaerated prior to heating to deodorizing temperature to avoid oxidation
and polymerization. It is accomplished in a separate external vessel connected to the vacuum system
of the bleacher (50 mbar) or, at even lower pressure, in an integrated compartment of the deodorizer
(Fig. 3). Some refiners add a bit of sparge steam to improve deaeration.
Heating and cooling
Heating of the oil is usually accomplished in two or more stages. To minimize the net energy cost,
bleached oil is first pre-heated in one or two stages in a heat exchange device with either hot
deodorized oil or steam.
The highest energy recovery (up to 85%) can be achieved in continuous deodorizers in which
bleached oil is pre-heated indirectly with hot deodorized oil. This heat recovery usually takes place in
a heat recovery compartment of the deodorizer, but it can also be realized in a separate, external heat
exchanger. Both options have their pros and cons. External heat exchangers result in a high heat
recovery and provide easier access for cleaning. On the other hand, heat exchange in the deodorizer
ensures less product intermixing and less risk of fouling and it also takes place under vacuum.
The thermosiphon system is a special method of heat recovery that is used in semicontinuous
deodorizers (Fig. 4). Steam produced in the oil cooling section flows in a closed loop to the oil preheating section. It will condense there and the water flows back to the cooling section. In this way, a
heat recovery of 45-75% can be achieved, depending on the design of the thermosiphon system
(single or double loop, with or without generation of low-pressure steam).
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Figure 4. Thermosiphon heat recovery options in a semicontinuous deodorizer.
Final cooling of the oil can be done under vacuum or under pressure. Which practice is the best has
always been a matter of discussion.
Deodorization-deacidification
Since the concentration of most volatile components in edible oils is quite low, a stripping agent must
be injected during deodorization. For economic reasons, steam is the most commonly used stripping
agent, but the use of nitrogen has also been studied extensively. Nitrogen is an inert gas and
theoretically, its use will result in lower losses (no hydrolysis) and also a higher quality of the
deodorizer distillate. However, in industrial practice, nitrogen is not used primarily because it is a
noncondensable gas. This makes the required vacuum system much more expensive than the use of
steam, which is condensable.
Most semi- and continuous deodorizers are so-called tray deodorizers which operate according to the
cross-flow principle. Deodorization-deacidification is accomplished in a number of compartments
(trays) where stripping steam is introduced into the oil through special sparge coils with very fine
holes or by steam lift pumps. The latter give good agitation with continuous refreshing of the oil in the
top layer (where deodorization effectively takes place), thereby ensuring a high overall deodorization
efficiency (Fig. 5). A minimal oil layer depth (more than 0.8 m) is required to allow good operation of
the steam lift pump.
Figure 5. Principle of a steam lift pump for the introduction of sparge steam.
The stripping efficiency of a deodorizer can be further improved by incorporating a packed column
stripper. Such a stripper is filled with a structured packing with a high surface area (250-350 m2/m3)
(Fig. 6). The countercurrent contact of oil and stripping steam over the structured packing results in
very efficient stripping in a short contact time.
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Figure 6. Principle of countercurrent and cross flow stripping.
Packed column strippers have been applied in edible oil deodorization for many decades. They are
often installed to increase the capacity of existing deodorizers. It is a very efficient device for the
stripping of FFA or volatile contaminants (pesticides, PCB, light PAH, etc.). The short residence time
makes it especially suitable for the stripping of heat-sensitive oils (e.g. algae oil, fish oil, cocoa butter,
etc.). At the same time, this short residence time will not give much heat bleaching nor complete
deodorization. For this purpose, an additional retention vessel has to be provided before or after the
packed column.
Vapour scrubbing systems
The vapors leaving the deodorizer consist of steam, volatile components (fatty acids, sterols,
tocopherols, contaminants, etc.), minor amounts of mechanically entrained neutral oil (mono-, di- and
triacylglycerols) and some noncondensables (e.g. air, etc.). Condensation of the volatile components
is achieved in a scrubber and results in a by-product called deodorizer distillate.
Condensation is achieved by creating a very good contact between the hot vapour phase and the cold
deodorizer distillate that is partially recirculating over the scrubber. In practice, this is done by a
series of sprayers built in the duct or on a packed bed of limited height in the scrubber vessel itself.
An additional demister is usually installed ahead of the vacuum unit to minimize carryover of fatty
matter to the barometric condenser water (Fig. 7).
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Figure 7. Double scrubber for selective condensation of FFA and tocopherols (courtesy
of Desmet Ballestra - Source: [6]).
A well-designed scrubber should combine maximum condensation and recovery of fatty matter from
the vapor phase with a minimum pressure drop (<1 mbar, preferably <0.5 mbar).
Most deodorizers have a single scrubber from which a single deodorizer distillate is collected. The
amount and composition and, hence, also the value of this side-stream are determined by a number
of factors, including the processed oil composition, the refining mode employed (chemical or physical)
and also the deodorizing conditions (Table 5). Deodorizer distillate from physical refining has a very
high FFA content (>85%) and is mostly used for technical applications (soap production,
oleochemistry). Recently, deodorizer distillate from palm oil refining (PFAD) is also used as feedstock
for biodiesel production. Deodorizer distillate from chemical refining may have a higher value because
of the higher concentration of valuable minor components (tocopherols, sterols, etc.). The value of
deodorizer distillate from chemical refining of soybean oil is especially high. Depending on the price of
natural tocopherols, it can vary between $15-25 US/tonne of deodorized oil [6].
Soya oil
Table 5. Typical composition of deodorizer
distillates from vegetable oil refining
Chemical refining
Physical
refining
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Soya Canola Sunflower Palm oil

oil
oil
oil
FFA (%)
25-40
85-90
Tocopherols
(%)
5-20
5-10
0.150.30
Sterols (%)
6-23
12-14
0.2-0.4
Squalene
(%)
0.13.0
0.5
0.5-1.0
Neutral oil
(%)1
10-50
Distillate
flow (%)2
0.3-1.0
1Neutral
6-9
oil = mono- + di- + triglycerides;

on bleached oil.
2expressed
In the case of physical refining, a deodorizer distillate fraction rich in tocopherols/sterols can only be
obtained with a double scrubber (Fig. 7). The vapor phase is first partially condensed at a higher
temperature. This gives a so-called hot distillate in which the least volatile components (e.g.
tocopherols/sterols) are concentrated. Complete condensation of the remaining more volatile
components (mainly FFA) is then achieved in the second, cold scrubber. Provided that the
condensation temperatures of the hot and cold scrubber are properly set, this procedure gives a very
good separation between FFA and tocopherols.
Vacuum systems
The vacuum in the deodorizer is usually created by a combination of steam ejectors (boosters), vapor
condensers and mechanical (liquid-ring) vacuum pumps. These quite robust systems typically reach
pressures in the deodorizer between 2.5 and 5 mbar but motive steam consumption is high (up to
85% of the total steam consumption). Motive steam consumption can be significantly reduced (by a
factor of 2.5-3) by cooling the barometric condenser water. However, the benefit of a lower motive
steam consumption must be weighed against the extra chilling capacity required (higher electricity
consumption). Another benefit from using a chilled water barometric vacuum system is a better
condensation of the volatile matter, which also gives a lower pressure in the deodorizer (e.g. 1.5
mbar).
These classical vacuum systems are increasingly being replaced by dry (ice) condensing systems.
With such systems, the stripping steam is condensed on surface condensers operating alternately at
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very low temperature (-30C). The efficient solidification of steam and other volatile matter will give a
very low pressure in the deodorizer (<1.5 mbar) and will also strongly reduce odor emission. As with
the chilled water barometric vacuum system, dry ice condensers require extra electrical energy.
Commercially available systems consist of two or more freeze condensers with horizontally or
vertically orientated straight tubes, a refrigeration plant for the generation of the cold refrigerant which
is evaporated in the tubes and a vessel for defrosting and cleaning of the tubes after a certain period of
freezing (Fig. 8).
Figure 8. Typical process flow diagram of an ice condensing system (courtesy of

Desmet Ballestra source [6]).
6. Industrial deodorizers
Edible oil deodorization is performed industrially in different ways (continuous, semicontinuous or
batchwise) with various configurations of deodorizers (horizontal or vertical vessels, tray-type or
packed columns). Selection of the most appropriate process technology is mainly determined by the
total plant capacity and the number of feedstock changes.
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Batch deodorizers
Overall, batch deodorization has become less attractive because of its higher operating cost (higher
steam consumption, low heat recovery) and longer processing time. However, for small-capacity
plants (<50 tons/day) or plants that process smaller batches of varying quality (e.g. fish oil refiners), a
batch deodorizer is still the best option. Apart from the lower capital cost, the main advantages of a
batch deodorizer are the higher flexibility (process parameters can easily be adjusted according to the
incoming oil quality) and the minimal intermixing between two consecutive batches.
Semicontinuous deodorizers
Semicontinuous deodorizers are basically batch systems designed for larger capacities. Their main
application is in plants with frequent feedstock changes of oils sensitive to intermixing (e.g. plants
producing margarine fats and shortenings). Heat recovery is effected by means of indirect
economizers (e.g. thermosiphon systems, Fig. 4) which recover more heat than can be achieved in a
batch deodorizer. The lower intermixing and the shorter time for feedstock changes are the main
advantages of semicontinuous deodorizers over continuous deodorizers.
Continuous deodorizers
Continuous deodorizers are the best option for high-capacity plants running on a single feedstock
(which is how most refining plants operate nowadays). The main advantages are the moderate
investment costs, potentially high heat recovery and easy maintenance. An overview of the various
configurations can be found in the literature [5,6].
Vertical tray-type deodorizers are the most commonly used type of continuous deodorizers. Their
design is based on a series of trays (compartments) stacked vertically in a cylindrical shell with each
tray designed for a specific task. All processes (heat recovery, final heating and cooling,
deodorization) are combined in one single vessel. This single vessel concept allows an easier and
less costly installation and maintenance and also gives a lower risk of unwanted air leakages.
Most edible oils are deodorized at high temperature (230-260C), but there is a growing demand from
oil processors to lower the heat load (residence time at higher temperature) during deodorization. This
is especially required to minimize thermal degradation reactions (e.g. formation of trans fatty acids in
soybean and canola oil, formation of glycidyl esters in palm oil). These negative thermal effects can
be minimized by using packed columns or dual-temperature deodorizers (Fig. 9). These deodorizers
operate at two different temperatures in order to reach the best compromise between required
residence time for actual deodorization (longer time at lower temperature) and heat bleaching and
stripping of volatile components (shorter time at higher temperature). The dual temperature concept
has been successfully introduced on an industrial scale. Both the low/high temperature and the
high/lower temperature concept can be applied.
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Figure 9. Dual temperature with packed column.
7. Future trends
In their historical sketch of edible oil deodorization, Lee and King stated in 1937 that the current
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trend (in edible oil deodorization) is toward continuous processes with automatic control [1].
Nowadays, new developments in deodorizing technology are driven by the continuous need for more
efficient processing (lower operating cost, higher refined oil yield and better valorization of side
streams) and the increased attention to the (nutritional) quality of food oils (Table 6).
Table 6. Trends and developments in
edible oil deodorization.
Trend
Development
Higher
capacities
1500 metric tons per day

deodorizers become standard
Higher
energy
efficiency
Improved heat recovery
Higher
stripping
efficiency
Improved tray design and

introduction of packed columns
Lower
neutral oil
losses
Improved scrubber design
Lower heat
load
Application of dual temperature

deodorization and use of a packed
column
Lower
pressure
Ice condensing vacuum systems:

closed loop with chilled water
Higher
distillate
value
Application of double scrubber
Fixed costs are primarily reduced by installing higher-capacity (continuous) deodorizers. Today,
deodorizers with a capacity of more than 1500 tonnes per day have become more or less standard,
especially for the deodorization of commodity oils (e.g. palm oil, soybean oil, etc.). Variable
processing costs are determined by the energy consumption for the heating of the oil, generation of
the vacuum and production of stripping steam.
Process conditions are optimized to guarantee a good nutritional quality, meaning minimum thermal
degradation and maximum stripping of contaminants. This can be achieved by applying dual
temperature deodorization and/or including a packed column stripper. A further reduction of the heat
load can be achieved by the implementation of more powerful vacuum systems (chilled barometric
vacuum system or dry ice condensing).
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References
1. Lee, A.P. and King, W.G. Edible oil deodorizing equipment and methods: A short historical
sketch. Oil & Soap, 14, 263-269 (1937).
2. Fritsch, J. Raffinage des huiles. In: Fabrication et Raffinage des Huiles Vgtales, pp.686
(Amde Legrans, Paris) (1931).
3. Norris, F.A. Deodorization. In: Bailey's Industrial Oil and Fat Products, 4th edition, Vol. 3, pp.
127-156 (T.H. Applewhite (ed.), John Wiley & Sons, (Hoboken, NJ) (1985).
4. Dijkstra, A.J. Vacuum stripping of oils and fats. In: The Lipid Handbook , 3rd Edition, pp. 235253 (F.D. Gunstone, J.L. Harwood and A.J. Dijkstra (eds.), Taylor & Francis Group LLC, Boca
Raton, FL) (2007).
5. De Greyt, W.F.J. and Kellens, M.J. Deodorization. In: Bailey's Industrial Oil and Fat Products,
6th edition, Vol. 5, pp. 341-338 (F. Shahidi (ed.), John Wiley & Sons, Hoboken, NJ) (2005).
6. De Greyt, W.F.J. Edible oil refining: Current and future technologies. In: Edible Oil Processing,
pp.127-151 (W. Hamm, R.J. Hamilton and G.H. Calliauw (eds.), John Wiley & Sons,
Chichester) (2013).
Updated January 27, 2014
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