Radioactivity and Nuclear Physics

Unit 1
Unit one: light, nuclear and radioactivity physics and atomic physics consist of three areas of study:
- Wave-like properties of light
- Nuclear and radioactivity physics
- Energy from the nucleus
Input Sources
Chapter 1: Radiation from the Nucleus pg. 3 22
Chapter 15: Nuclear Energy pg 342 359
Radioactivity and Nuclear Physics Booklet
Smoke Detectors Assessment Task
Revision Handouts

Glossary
Chapter 1: Radiation from the Nucleus
Chapter 15: Nuclear Energy
Radioactivity and Nuclear Physics Booklet
Smoke Detectors Assessment Task
Revision Handouts
Glossary
Test Includes:
Alpha, beta and gamma decay, ionising ability, penetrating ability, half-life, dose equivalent, absorbed dose,
chain reaction, critical mass, fuel rods, control rods, moderator, fusion, fission, e=mc2

Chapter 1: Radiation from the Nucleus

Key Ideas
- Use the equations to model the random radioactive decay processes of substances with
a particular half-life.
- Describe the origin and properties of alpha, beta and gamma decay.
- Explain nuclear transformations and decay chains
- Describe the short and long term effects of alpha, beta and gamma radiation on
humans and the environment
- Describe natural and artificial isotopes including the production of artificial isotopes by
the absorption of neutrons
- Analyse written material to identify bias and error related to nuclear energy and
radioactivity.
- Describe the risk of nuclear reactions and radioactivity
- Describe the effects of ionising radiation on organisms and the environment
Pg.3 Natural Nuclear Radiation
Nuclear Radiation is a common occurrence from organisms throughout the
galaxy. These organisms are exposed to small amounts of radiation
constantly. The minimal amount which is caused by background radiation
is not permanent or consequential.

Pg 5. Terrestrial Radiation
During the earths formation a large number of radioactive nuclei were created. These emit radiation from
the earths crust and the atmosphere. It is a low-level of radiation which we receive and due to our bodies
being composed from atoms that originally came from the earth we too emit radiation.

Pg.5 Cosmic Radiation

Cosmic radiation is derived from space. Luckily enough though the
atmosphere absorbs some of the radiation so it is minimised. Due to this
effect, people living in higher altitudes are more likely to exhibit higher
doses. As well as those travelling in planes. The amount of cosmic
radiation also intensifies as you travel towards the poles, as cosmic
radiation is also slightly affected by the earths magnetic field.

Pg.5 Nuclear Radiation

* The layout of an atom can be found on page 5
Strangely enough, the same element can have different numbers of neutrons. These are called
Isotopes. To avoid confusion, the number of neutrons (the mass number) is written with the symbol of the
element as well as the number of protons (atomic number)
Radioisotopes are isotopes that are not stable. They release nuclear radiation in order to become more
stable.

Pg 6. Types of Nuclear Radiation

Nuclear Radiation is released in order for the nuclei to become more stable. Once the emission has
occurred, a permanent change has taken place and an alpha, beta or gamma particle is released.
Pg. 5 7 Decay

Decay

Alpha
An alpha particle is
released.

Beta
A neutron changed
into a proton and
electron. The proton
remains in the
nucleus and the
electron is emitted.

Gamma
If a nucleus remains
unstable after alpha or
beta decay, than a
gamma ray will be
emitted. This occurs
for exited nuclei,
which have an unideal
arrangement of
protons and electrons.

An alpha particle is
slow-moving and
heavy; it consists of a
nucleus equivalent to
that of helium with 2
neutrons and 2
protons. The alpha
particle is positively
charged and due to
this will be deflected
in magnetic fields.

A beta particle is fastmoving. They are also

very light and like
alpha particles are
deflected in magnetic
fields.

A gamma ray is a
packet of
electromagnetic
energy, which has no
mass and no charge. It
travels at the speed of
light and because is
not deflected by
magnetic fields.

Equation
Particle

During decay, the particle or ray is emitted and the remainder is

known as the daughter nucleus, which is more stable.

Pg 9. Penetration Power
Alpha particle alpha particles are
absorbed by cms of air, dead skin or a
sheet of paper.
Beta particle beta particles are
absorbed by 100cm of air of cms of
aluminium
Gamma ray Gamma rays are
absorbed by cms of lead.

Pg 9 Ionising Power
Alpha particles due to their slow movement, have a longer time to interact with atoms. They are also
positively charged so are attracted to the electrons they come in contact with.
Beta particles bounce between electrons due to their repulsion to the electrons that the atoms contain. They
loose some energy, but retain more than alpha particles.
Gamma rays have no mass and no charge and are not deflected in magnetic fields (unlike alpha and beta
particles), In order to ionise an atom they must come into direct contact with a nucleus or electron. This is
fairly unlikely.

Pg.10 Half-life
Half-life is the time taken for half a group of unstable nuclei to decay. This varies according to the isotope
and can range from microseconds to millions of years. This is often sketched using a decay curve which is a
graogh of number of nuclei remaining in a substance versus the time elapsed. The half-life can be
determined by looking at the time that corresponds to half the number of nuclei remaining.
Eg.

Pg. 12 Carbon Dating

By using the half-life of carbon-14 we can date fossil ect. Once an organism dies the amount of carbon-14 is
reduced over time, so by comparing the amount of carbon-14 found to other measures of isotopes we can
find the time since the organisms death.

Pg. 13 Radioactive Series

In the quest to become more stable, the isotope decays. When the isotope decays, the resulting nucleus
may also be radioactive, and decay itself. This is called Decay chain or decay series. Note: not all
radioisotopes decay.

Pg. 15 Ionising Radiation

This is the collective name for alpha,
beta, gamma rays and x-rays.
They have high energies and thus similar effects of matter. Other forms of electromagnetic radiation such as
non-ionising radiation eg. radiowaves have lower energy and so interact differently with matter. Ionising
radiation knocks electrons from their orbit around a nucleus and create positive ions. If the electron is part of
a bond between two atoms the may spilt to create free radicals.

Pg. 16 Ionising
Radiation on living things
Ionising radiation can
cause ions inside the body which may react with
molecules to cause
DNA damage, or the mechanisms for controlling cell
division or the production of molecules necessary for the life of the cell. The cell may be able to repair but if
not it will die. Cancer can also be result and genetic mutations may be created.

Pg.16 How much is too much?

Absorbed Dose a measure of the amount of radiation received. This measures the amount of energy
absorbed by each kilogram of tissue being irradiated. The unit is given by grays (Gy) which equal joules/
kilograms
Equation
Dose Equivalent takes into account the different types of damage caused by the different forms of ionising
radiation. It is measured in sieverts (sv) which is the absorbed dose x the quality factor
Equation
Pg. 18 Background radiation
Humans are used to being exposed to natural (background radiation) and withstand it by repairing or
replacing damaged cells. Things such as medical procedures, nuclear testing and increased altitudes (for an
individual) also increase everyday levels of radiation exposure.

Pg. 20 Acute Effects

This occurs in hours, days and months: vomiting, nausea,
infection and haemorrhage, death
Pg.20 Delayed effects
Lukaima and cancer

*For more information see page 20

Summary
- Nuclear Radiation is emitted from the nucleus of a radioisotope which is striving to become more stable.
They emit ionising radiation, which has the abilities to knock electrons from atoms to create ions and free
radicals.
- There are three types of radiation: alpha, beta and gamma radiation. All three types are ionising radiation,
alpha has the greatest ionising power and gamma the least, and alpha has the least penetration power and
gamma the greatest.
- Alpha particles are released during alpha decay, they are slow-moving and have the nucleus equivalent to
helium. The mass number of the daughter nucleus is four less than that of the parent and the atomic
number is two less.
- Beta particles are released during beta decay, they have high speed electrons which are released after
beta decay, the mass number of the daughter nucleus is the same except the atomic number is one more.
- Gamma radiation is electromagnetic radiation which is emitted when an exited nucleus becomes more
stable. Gamma rays are emitted during alpha and ebta decay.
- In all nuclear transformations atomic and mass numbers are conserved.
- Half-life is the time taken for half of a group of unstable nuclei to decay. It is different for each isotope and
the shorter the half-life the greater the activity (the more number of decays per second of the isotope). The
activity decreases over time as less and less of the isotope remains. Activity is measured in Becquerel (Bq)
- Isotopes may pass a sequence of decays in order to become more stable. Such a sequence is called decay
chain or series.
- The effect of radiation exposure can range from nausea to death. The amount of radiation energy received
by each kilogram of living tissue is measured in gray (Gy), but this value does not take into account the type
of radiation that has been absorbed. Each type of radiation has a different effect because of its ionising
power.

- Dose equivalent measures the radiation energy absorbed by each kilogram of biological tissue and its
effect by taking into account the form of radiation energy absorbed. Dose equivalent is measure in sievert
(Sc). The Australian average annual radiation dose is 2 mSv, most of which is from background radiation.

Radioactivity and Nuclear Physics Revision

What is basic difference between gamma and x-rays which both are high energy photons? A gamma ray
comes from a natural nuclear decay and is natural nuclear radiation, x-rays are produced by radiation
producing machines.
What would be the disadvantage of making medical isotopes further away? It would be harder to diagnose
diseases as they would be more difficult to track there location and movement because a smaller quantity
would have been induced. They would be less effective in zapping cancer cells.
The safest radioactive source is: beta as it has the same quality factor as gamma, which is 1 in comparison
to alpha source of 10 20. They are less penetrating so they would cause less widespread damage than the
gamma source.
Some somatic effects include: cancer, nausea, burns, diarrhoea, bleeding and vomiting.

Written Notes (Half-life, radiation dose, radiation sickness and critical mass)
Half-life

Half life: the time taken for half the group of unstable nuclei to decay.
Activity measurement
KBq

Radiation Dose
Effects = somatic (of the body) cancer, nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea, burns, bleeding ect.
Genetic (heredity) mutations, still borns, birth defects
Absorbed dose a measure of the amount of radiation received

Dose equivalent = a measure of the effect of radiation that has been absorbed by the living tissue.
Radiation Sickness
High radiation dose of a short period of time causes death, lower radiation of a longer period of time has the
same effect more gradually.
In Australia we experience 2mSv, which is extremely low and safe.
Nuclear Energy chapter 15 p.341
Obtaining energy from the nucleus is different from radioactive decay.
2 process are: fission which is common to nuclear power stations such as uranium and fusion which uses
hydrogen like the sun.
Fission is the splitting of an atom (like a heavy atom) such as uranium and fusion is the combining of atoms
(small atoms) such as hydrogen.
Fission pg.345
To cause fission a neutron
is fired into the target eg.
Energy from fission 200,000,000eV compared to coal which is 10eV, this comes from kinetic energy.
Fissionable material is used to create an uncontrollable chain reaction.
Creates fission fragments which are smaller than the original nucleus.
Often 3 neutrons, sometimes 2 are released though they are used to split more uranium atoms, this causes a
chain reaction.

Uranium produces different combinations of elements (up to 30)

Nuclear Fusion
Two smaller nuclei join together to create a larger more stable nucleus.
Critical mass
Critical mass is the minimum mass of uranium or other fissionable materials that will sustain a fission
reaction. They depend of the shape of the fissionable material and the percentage of fissionable material.

Chapter 15: Nuclear Energy

Remember

- use the equations to model radioactive decay process, where the changes are made to the number of
nucleons
- recall the long and short-term effects of alpha, beta and gamma radiation of humans and the
environment
- explain how neutron absorption can affect the stability of a nucleus.

Key Ideas
- explain nuclear fusion and the conditions required fro fusion reactions to be initiated
- describe and explain nuclear fission reactions initiated by fast and slow neutrons, the products of a
fission reaction and the energy released during the reaction.
- model fission chain reaction and describe the conditions required to sustain a chain reaction.
- explain how energy from the nucleus can be used to generate power.
- evaluate the risks and benefits of using nucleur energy
Pg. 344 Nuclear Energy
The release of nuclear energy can be calculated in the equation e=mc squared, where m is the difference
between the total and nuclear mass before and after the event and c is the speed of light. This occurs
with two process nuclear fission and nuclear fusion

Pg. 245 Nuclear Fission

Fission occurs when the neutron of one atom hits the nucleus of another, causing the larger nucleus to
split into to smaller more stable nuclei. This releases fission fragments which are the products of the
nucleus which undergoes fission. These are smaller than the original nucleus and can be various
isotopes.

Equation

Pg. 346 Achieving a chain reaction

A chain reaction needs three factors to occur:
1. Enrichment where the percentage of uranium-235 in a sample of uranium is
increased.
2. Moderator a moderator is required to slow down the neutrons emitted.
3. Control rods Control rods absorb the neutrons and take them out of the reaction,
to control the reaction.

Pg. 347 More information on enriched uranium, control rods and moderators
Pg. 348 Generation Electricity
The fission heats water, which creates steam to spin the turbine. The kinetic energy is then converted using
a generator into electricity to be distributed.

Pg. 350 Fast Breeder Reactors

Fast breeder reactors consist of 20% plutonium and 80% natural uranium, they use plutonium-239 as their
energy source. Plutonium-239 is created when uranium-238 captures a
neutron and then releases a beta particle, and the daughter nucleus
releases a beta particle. It uses the term breeder as more plutonium
is produced than actually required. The other major difference is that
plutonium-239 absorbs fast moving neutrons hence the term fast

Pg. 355 Critical Mass

Pg. 357 Nuclear Fusion

Summary
- In order for a nucleus to become more stable, it emits energy called nuclear energy. The amount of energy
released is related to the size of the difference between the mass of a nucleus and the mass of the individual
nucleons.
- Fusion reaction generally occur between nuclei small than iron. Fusion occurs in our sun, where it converts
hydrogen nuclei into helium nuclei and releases large amounts of energy.
- Fission reactions occur when a nucleus is split into smaller, more stable fission fragments. If every neutron
released in fission is free to initiate more fission reactions, an uncontrolled chain reaction occurs. Controlled
chain reactions occur when some of the free neutrons are absorbed by non-fissionable substances.
- Nuclear reactors use the energy generated by controlled chain reactions to heat water. The steam produce
turns the turbines that produce electricity.
- The fuel in some nuclear reactors is more likely to undergo fission when it absorbs slow-moving neutrons.
Moderators are used in some types of nuclear reactors to slow down neutrons.
- The amount of uranium-235 in natural uranium is not enough to sustain a chain reaction. In order for it to
be used in some types of nuclear reactors and nuclear weapons the percentage needs to be increased.
- The fuel in fast breeder reactors undergoes fission when is absorbs fast moving neutrons. Its fuel does not
need to be enriched, because it uses plutonium-239 derived from uranium-238 as the fuel source. The
reaction is
- Nuclear weapons are designed so that subcritical masses of fissionable materials compress into critical
masses after detonation. The critical mass is required for the uncontrolled chain reaction in a nuclear
weapon.

Physics Revision Sheet

E=mc2
This can calculate the release of energy. E stands for energy (in joules), m is the difference in total mass before and after the event and c is the speed of light. This
calculates the energy of fission and fusion before and after they occur.
Eg.

Fission
Fission occurs when a neutron hits the nucleus of another mass and so becoming unstable, the nucleus splits into two smaller more stable nuclei called fission
fragments. This process generally releases more neutrons and creates fission fragments. If every neutron released in fission is able to initiate more fission reactions
than a chain reaction occurs. A controlled chain reaction occurs if free neutrons can be absorbed by non-fissionable material.

Fusion
Fusion is the joining of two smaller particles to create one larger more stable particle. Fusion will occur naturally if more extensive high temperatures occur and
pressures, such as those in the sun. Fusion does not create as much nuclear waste as fission, as so is much more safe.

Moderator
A moderator is a material such as water, which is used to slow down neutrons in a nuclear reactor. These neutrons need to be slowed so that they can initiate more
fission among other nuclei. If they are travelling at a faster speed than they are less likely to initiate a reaction. The moderator needs to be not chemically reactive,
reasonably inexpensive and liquid or solid at room temperature.

Control rods
The function of the control rods is to absorb neutrons so that an uncontrolled chain reaction will not occur. Cadmium and boron are often used in control rods, as they
are deficient in neutrons so easily absorb them. This is encased in steel rods.

Fuel rods
Fuel rods contain the fissionable material. This is encased inside thin tubes. The fissionable material occurs in the form of pellets. This is where the fission occurs. The
fuel rods need to be maintained regularly as the fuel will be used up and needs to be replaced.

Critical Mass
Critical mass is the smallest spherical mass that will sustain an uncontrolled nuclear reaction. As a large amount of fissionable material in a large case will sustain a
reaction but a small amount of fissionable material in a small case will not sustain a reaction. The spherical mass is necessary as in a sphere free neutrons are less
likely to escape and more likely to continue the chain reaction.

Chain reaction
To cause a chain reaction, the fissionable mass needs to be enriched, the protons need to be slowed down by a moderator and there needs to be some to control the
reaction, by absorbing neutrons such as the control rod. In a fission bomb a control rod is not necessary though. In a bomb, the fissionable material (usually uranium235) is about 97% so that there are very few nuclei that can absorb the free neutrons without going into fission themselves, therefore the energy is intensified.

Absorbed Dose
Absorbed dose measures the amount of energy absorbed by one kilogram of tissue being irradiated. This equation is absorbed dose = energy absorbed/ mass. This is
measured in gray. This is ineffective though as the ionising radiation varies depending on the type of radiation.

Dose equivalent
Dose equivalent takes into account the different style of damage cause by the various types of ionising radiation. This is measured in sieverts and the equation is dose
equivalent = absorbed dose x quality factor.

Half-life
Half-life measures the time taken for half the group of unstable nuclei to decay This varies according to the different type of isotope and can range in amounts of time.
This can be sketched on a decay curve, which is the amount of nuclei remaining versus the time. This can measure the activity of isotope, as the shorter the half-life
the greater the activity, which means the more amount of decays per second. Activity decreases over time as less and less of the isotope remains. Activity is measured
in Becquerel. (Bq)

Penetrating Ability
*Picture needed

Ionising ability
Alpha and beta decay are deflected in magnetic fields, so have a higher ionising power. Alpha particles due to their positive charge are attracted to the electrons of
atoms, and as they are slow-moving have a longer time to react and so loose their energy quickly. Beta particle are faster moving so retain more energy although due to
their negative charge bounce between atoms, deflected. Gamma rays have no mass and no charge so are not deflected in magnetic fields, the only way they can ionise
if they have direct contact with a nucleus or electron which is rare.

Decay
Alpha decay an alpha particle consisting of two protons and two neutrons is released from the nucleus of an atom. The consequential nucleus is called the daughter
nucleus, and is more stable.
Beta particle a neutron spontaneously converts into an electron and proton, the electron is emitted.
Gamma decay if the daughter nucleus remains unstable, than an extra release of a packet of electromagnetic energy will occur, called Gamma decay. This occurs
within exited nucleus, which have an unideal arrangement of protons and neutrons inside the nucleus.

Parts of a Nuclear Reactor

The reaction In all power plants, electricity is generated by forcing steam through a turbine which turns a
generator. The main difference is how the water is heated and the steam is created. (Fission & chain
reaction) Uranium atoms are split to release energy (heat) and a fast moving neutron (called a fast
neutron). The neutron splits another uranium atom if it slowed down (a slow-moving neutron), this will
sustain a chain reaction of atoms splitting atoms. This is called fission.
Controlling the reaction (control rods) control rods absorb and stop the neutron from splitting surrounding
atoms. If the control rods are out the reaction is free to occur. If the control rods are in, this slows down the
reaction by absorbing neutrons. (This can be thought of as the gas pedal of the reactor)
Primary and secondary coolant Primary coolant carries heat from the reactor core to the heat
exchanger. It cools the reactor core and heats the heat exchanger. Secondary coolant carries heat from the
heat exchanger to the turbine and then to the cooling tower. It cools the heat exchanger, which is turns into
steam to power the turbine and then collects in the cooling tower which it heats up. Later it cools back
down. Emergency coolant cools the reactor during an emergency or prior to reactor maintenance.

Questions from the textbook and practice questions