Você está na página 1de 11

The Effect of Thermoelastic Stresses

on Injection Well Fracturing


T.K. Perkins, SPE, ARCO Oil and Gas Co.
J .A. Gonzalez, ARCO Oil and Gas Co.

Abstract
When a cool fluid such as water is injected into a hot reservoir, a growing region of cooled rock is established
around the injection well. The rock matrix within the
cooled region contracts, and a thermoelastic stress field
is induced around the well. For typical waterflooding of
a moderately deep reservoir, horizontal earth stresses may
be reduced by several hundred psi. If the injection pressure
is too high or if suspended solids in the water plug the
formation face at the perforations, the formation will be
fractured hydraulically. As the fracture grows, the flow
system evolves from an essentially circular geometry in
the plan view to one characterized more nearly as
elliptical.
This paper considers thermoelastic stresses that would
result from cooled regions of fixed thickness and of elliptical cross section. The stresses for an infinitely thick
reservoir have been deduced from information available
in public literature. A numerical method has been
developed to calculate thermoelastic stresses induced
within elliptically shaped regions of finite thickness.
Results of these two approaches were combined, and empirical equations were developed to give an approximate
but convenient, explicit method for estimating induced
stresses.
An example problem is given that shows how this theory
can be applied to calculate the fracture lengths, bottomhole
pressures (BHP's), and elliptical shapes of the flood front
as the injection process progresses.
Introduction
When fluids are injected into a well, such as during
waterflooding or other secondary or tertiary recovery
processes, the temperatures of the injected fluids are
typically cooler than the in-situ reservoir temperatures.
A region of cooled rock forms around each injection well,
and this region grows as additional fluid is injected. Formation rock within the cooled region contracts, and this
leads to a decrease in horizontal earth stress near the injection well. In Ref. 1, the magnitude of the reduction
in horizontal earth stress was given for the case of a radially symmetrical cooled region.
Another factor, which may occur simultaneously, is the
plugging of formation rock by injected solids. There is
extensive literature 2-8 indicating that waters normally
available for injection contain suspended solids.
Laboratory tests demonstrate that these waters, when injected into formation rocks, can plug the face of the rock
or severely limit injectivity. In field operations, injection
often simply continues at a BHP that is high enough to
Copyright 1985 Society of Petroleum Engineers

78

initiate and extend hydraulic fractures. 9 The injected fluid


then can leak off readily through the large fracture face
area. Because of the lowering of horizontal earth stresses
that results from cold fluid injection, hydraulic fracturing pressures can be much lower than would be expected
for an ordinary low-Ieakoffhydraulic fracturing treatment.
For this reason, the well operator may not be aware that
injected fluid is being distributed through an extensive
hydraulic fracture.
If injection conditions are such that a hydraulic fracture is created;then the flow system will evolve from an
essentially circular geometry in the plan view to one
characterized more nearly as elliptical. In this paper, thermoelastic stresses for cooled regions of fixed thickness
and of elliptical cross section are determined, and a theory
of hydraulic fracturing of injection wells is developed.
Conditions under which secondary fractures (perpendicular to the primary, main fracture) will open also are
discussed. Finally, an example problem is given to illustrate how this theory can be applied to calculate fracture lengths, BHP's, and elliptical shapes of the flood front
as the injection process progresses.

Thermoelastic Stresses in Regions of


Elliptical Cross Section
If fluid of constant viscosity is injected into a line crack
(representing a two-wing, vertical hydraulic fracture), the
flood front will progress outward, so its outer boundary
at any time can be described approximately as an ellipse
that is confocal with the line crack. If the injected fluid
is at a temperature different from the formation
temperature, a region of changed rock temperature with
fairly sharply defined boundaries will progress outward
from the injection well but lag behind the flood front. The
outer boundary of the region of changed temperature also
will be elliptical in its plan view and confocal with the
line crack (see Fig. 1).
Stresses within the region of altered temperature, as well
as stress in the surrounding rock, which remains at its
initial temperature, will be changed because of the expansion or contraction of the rock within the region of
altered temperature. The thermoelastic stresses within an
infinitely tall cylinder of elliptical cross section can be
determined from information available in the literature. 10
The interior thermoelastic stresses perpendicular and
parallel to the major axes of the ellipse are given by Eqs.
1 and 2, respectively.
(I-v) AalT

E{3AT

(bo/ao)
- - - - .................. (1)
1 +(bo/ao)

SOCIETY OF PETROLEUM ENGINEERS JOURNAL

TWO-WINGED FRACTURE

1.0

MINIMUM HORIZONTAL
EARTH STRESS

REGION OF

MINOR AXIS)
( MAJOR AXIS

0.8

!I~
~

0.6

"'" 0.4

'=- w

WATER FLOOD FRONT

1.0

O - - - - - - - - - = : : : : ; ; ;.....~----__j

Fig. 1-Plan view showing a two-winged vertical fracture


oriented perpendicular. to the plane of minimum
horizontal earth stress.

g'1>--<I

0.6

<I

'f~

'=- w

I
................. (2)

0.4

MINOR AXIS)
( MAJOR AXIS

0.2

0.1

The sign convention used in the current study is compressive stresses are positive, tensile stresses are negative.
Thermoelastic stresses for regions of elliptical cross section and finite thickness have been determined approximately by a numerical procedure (Appendix A). The
results for the finite- and infinite-height elliptical cylinders
are combined and portrayed graphically in Fig. 2. Empirical Eqs. 3 and 4 were developed from Fig. 2 to give
a convenient, explicit method to estimate the average interior stresses in elliptical cooled regions of any height.

(I-v) .::luiT

E{3.::lT

(bo/ao)

I +(bo/ao)

.I

I +(bo/ao)

10

100

1000

MINOR AXIS)
( THICKNESS

Fig. 2-lnterior thermoelastic stresses both perpendicular


and parallel to the major axis of an embedded inclusion of elliptical cross section.

Pore pressure changes also cause stress changes in the


rock. Lubinski II showed that when the porosity and
permeability can be assumed independent of str:ess level,
the change of stress induced by a pressure change can be
computed in a similar manner to the change of stress induced by a temperature change. To quantify the relationship between stress and pore pressure, we use the linear
coefficient of pore pressure expansion,12 J:
I-2v C gr
J = - - - - ........................... (5)

The meaning of J is analogous to the linear coefficient


of the thermal expansion. To use Eqs. 3 and 4 or Fig.
2 for pressure effects, note that
(I-v) .::luiT
............................. (3)

E{3.::lT

is replaced by
(I-v) .::luiP
(I-v) .::lu2T

E{3.::lT

I
= I +(bo/ao)

(bo/ao)

EJ.::lp

I +(bo/ao)

and
(I-v) .::lu2T

E{3.::lT

is replaced by
(I-v) .::lu2P
............................. (4)
FEBRUARY 1985

EJt..p
79

WELLBORE

WELLBORE

ERBURD
Fig. 3-Side view of a vertical two-winged fracture shortly after initiation, and later, after becoming
confined and extending laterally.

Theory of Injection Well Fracturing


There are several aspects of this problem that can be considered separately.
Initial Orientation of Fractures. Moderately deep formations are typically in a state of triaxial compression with
the largest principal stress oriented vertically. There are,
thus, maximum and minimum principal horizontal
stresses, (UH ) max and (UH )min, whose magnitudes are
less than the vertical principal stress. Vertical hydraulic
fractures tend to initiate and propagate perpendicular to
the minimum horizontal stress. When cold fluid is injected
into an unfractured well, the region of cooled rock might
be considered radially symmetrical with respect to the
wellbore. Superposition of the thermoelastic stress,
therefore, will decrease the maximum and minimum
horizontal stresses by an equal amount. Although the well
can be fractured hydraulically at a reduced pressure, there
will be no effect of a radially symmetrical cooled region
on the initial orientation of an induced fracture.

tJ..P2 = pressure increase 14 between the water/oil


flood front and the hot/cold front
(neglecting compressibility effects in this
region),

= lwP-w In

(a

+b l

ao+b o

/(27rkkrwh) , ...... (7)

tJ..p 3 = pressure increase 14 between the hot/cold


front and the fracture (neglecting
compressibility effects in this region),
= iwP-w In

a o +bO)

/(27rkkrwh) , ....... (8)

Lf

t:..p s = pressure increase across a skin damage at


the fracture face,
iwP-w

--Rs, ......................... (9)


Af

Size and Shape of the Waterflooded and Cooled


Regions. The waterflooded region is approximated as
elliptically shaped in its plan view and confocal with a
vertical fracture, as is illustrated in Fig. 1. Eqs. B-7 and
B-8 (Appendix B) give the approximate major and minor
semiaxes of the waterflooded region.
The volume of the cooled region surrounding an injection well can be determined from an energy balance, as
is shown in Appendix B. If the cooled region also is approximated as elliptical in cross section and confocal with
the fracture, the major and minor semiaxes are given by
Eqs. B-3 and B-4.

tJ..p f = difference between the wellbore pressure


and the average pressure at the face of
the fracture. Assuming uniform leakoff
over the fracture face and laminar flow,
equations in Ref. 15 yield

Pressure Equations. The BHP in the well bore is given


by Eq. 6.

tJ..Pf = 0.00074

.................... (6)

P R = reservoir fluid pressure far from the


injection well,
t:..p 1 = pressure rise 13 at the elliptical boundary of
the water/oil flood front,
80

(Appendix C discusses how Rs is


determined in the laboratory by core
injectivity tests),

[ i wP-w L f(E)3 ]
2 3

(I-v)

(h)

',4

......

(10)

and
tJ..p p = the pressure drop through perforations
connected to the fracture, 16
=

0.00018 [Pw (vp)2] . .............. (11)


SOCIETY OF PETROLEUM ENGINEERS JOURNAL

Criterion of Fracture Extension. Fig. 3 is a conceptual


sketch of the model of vertical fracture growth that has
been used in the present study. It is similar to the model
described in Ref. 17. Initially, the fracture is assumed to
grow as an enlarging penny-shaped crack until it becomes
confined above and below. After this time it should extend principally in the lateral direction. The leading edge
of the fracture is assumed to be rounded. For fracture
dimensions of field magnitude, fracture mechanics
studies 18 have shown that the fracture will extend when
Eq. 12 is satisfied.

PI=al+~ 2(1-1'
7rU~ )rj ,

CASE 1:

SHORT FRACTURE, COOLED REGION


NEARLY CIRCULAR, (ASSUME 02 > > 01
INITIALLY IN RESERVOIR)

CASE 2:

LONGER FRACTURE, COOLED REGION


FLATTER 02 > 01

.................. (12)

where PI, the average pressure in the circular area near


the extending ends of the fracture, equals
Piwj-1:::..Pp -1:::..Pj.

. ....................... (13)
.......

In Eq. 13 1:::..pj is the total pressure drop from the wellbore


to the extending end of the fracture. From equations in
Ref. 15

--"

1:::..pj=31:::..pj. . ............................ (14)

a I is the total opposing earth stress at the extending end


of the fracture. For the case of fracturing of an injection
well,
CASE 3:

Also, rj is the radius of the extending end of the fracture. This is equal to the smaller of the two values; Lj
or hl2 (see Fig. 3).
Eqs. 12 and 13 are two independent expressions for the
pressure at the extending end of the fracture. The computed fracture length must be adjusted until these equations are satisfied simultaneously. Then the resulting
fracture length will accommodate leakoff of the injected
fluid and satisfy the fracture extension criterion.
Opening of Secondary Fractures. Fig. 4 shows expected
fractures for three injection conditions. For Case 1, the
injection rate exceeds slightly the ability of the unfractured formation to accept the fluid. A short fracture extends from the wellbore; the surrounding region of cooled
rock, although slightly elliptical, is nearly circular in
shape. Because this cooled region is nearly circular, the
thermoelastic reduction of horizontal stresses is nearly
uniform in all directions. The direction of minimum stress
remains the same as that initially in the reservoir, and the
fracture is oriented perpendicular to the minimum earth
stress. In Case 2, the injection rate is much larger (or some
fracture-face damage has occurred); thus, the fracture extends a greater distance from the well. The cooled region
becomes more elongated in shape. As the cool region
elongates, the thermoelastic reduction in stress parallel
to the fracture exceeds the thermoelastic stress reduction
perpendicular to the fracture. This tends to reduce the difference between stresses within the cooled region that are
parallel and perpendicular to the fracture. There is an
elongated shape of the cooled region where all stresses
FEBRUARY 1985

MUCH LONGER FRACTURE, COOLED


REGION QUITE FLAT, 02 = 01

Fig. 4-Plan view showing that the shape of the cooled


region controls the ratio of principal stresses within
the cooled region.

within the cooled region are uniform. The shape required


for equalization of the stresses within the cooled region
depends to a large degree on the difference in principal
horizontal stresses initially present in the reservoir. For
a step change in temperature, the stresses within the elliptically shaped cooled region will be uniform when Eq.
16 is satisfied.

Consider the case where continued injection would


cause the fracture to extend further. A flatter shape of
cooled region would cause the stresses parallel to the fracture to become less than those across the fracture; that
is, fractures or joints perpendicular to the two-winged
fracture would open preferentially. This is illustrated conceptually in Case 3 of Fig. 4. For this case, the shape
of the jointed region would presumably adjust itself continually to maintain open fractures in both directions as
the size of the cooled region expanded. Secondary fractures, perpendicular to the main fracture system, have
been mentioned 19,20 previously in connection with fracturing of geothermal wells.
81

3000

~
ill

a:

,,

::J
(f)
(f)

ill

"

a:
a. 2500

,
-------

ill

.~

--'
0

-- ----

:c

READ THE INJECTION CONDITIONS,


THE RESERVOIR ROCK PROPERTIES AND
THE RESERVOIR FLUID PROPERTIES

'"

lI-

'"

....

---------------

------------

..................................

2000

CD

k =

50 md, PR = 2000 psi

k = 100 md,
k =

1200

50 md, PR

k = 100 md,

~ 1000

PR = 2000 psi
1000 psi
1000 psi

PR

ill

!:S
:c

l-

e}

ill

--'

500

ill

a:

::J
I-

,/

<
a:
LL

500

1000

1500

1800

INJECTION TIME (DAYS)

Fig. 6-BHP and two-winged fracture length as a function


of time for several reservoir pressures and
permeabilities (n a = 1,0 mg/L).
INDEPENDENTLY COMPUTE THE LHS
AND RHS OF EQUATION 12, TO
CHECK THE ASSUMED LENGTH OF
THE TWO-WINGED FRACTURE

MAJOR

i='
w

SEMIAXE~ ~

LHS ~ RHS? >-~No;O_ _ _ _ __

W
LL Z

1000

.--- --

02
CJ)0

YES
INDEPENDENTLY COMPUTE THE LHS
AND RHS OF EQUATION 16,TO
SEE IF JOINTS PERPENDICULAR TO
THE TWO-WINGED FRACTURE OPEN UP

Zw
00

000
zO
w--'

~ ~ 500
ow
I<

s:

MINOR SEMIAXES

GO TO EQUATIONS
I--_---'-N:..::O'-< LHS
FOR A JOINTED
FRACTURE SYSTEM

:c

<

I-

RHS?

i='
w

LL

if 1000

z
z>

5 YRS? >-"N"O_ _ _- - - - - . J

2000 psi

100 md, P
R

2000 psi

50 OR 100 md,
PR = 1000 psi

--- k

CJ)O

50 md, PR

~
~
~

O~
00 a:

~
~

Z...J

wo

~ 0
oU

500

w
I

I-

;'

;'
;'

Fig. 5-Flow chart of the computer program.


500

1000

1500

1800

INJECTION TIME (DAYS)

Fig. 7 -The effect of reservoir pressure and permeability on


the shape of the waterflooded and cool regions
(n a = 1,0 mg/L),

82

SOCIETY OF PETROLEUM ENGINEERS JOURNAL

TABLE 1-CONDITIONS ASSUMED FOR THE EXAMPLE PROBLEM


Injection Conditions
0, ft [m]
h, ft [m]
3
i w ' BID [m /d]
t, years

5,000 [1,524]
100 [30.5]
3,000 [477]
5
150 [65.6]
70 [21.1]

TR,OF[C]
T w , of [0C]
Reservoir Rock Properties

1.5x10- 7 [2.2x10- 8 ]
3.3x10- 6 [4.8x10- 7 ]
2 x 10 6 [13.8]
0.29
0.25
0.20
0.024 [5.0x 10 -3]
1 x 10 -5 [5.6 x 10 -6]
0.15
35 [2347]
3,500 [24.1]
1.35
0.25

c g,. psi -1 [kPa -1]

psi- 1 [kPa- 1 ]
E, psi [GPa]
krw

C r,

So,
Sw;

U, ft-Ibf/sq in. [J/cm 2 ]

f3, in.l(in.-OF) [mm/(mm' .K)]


V

Pg,C g,. Btu/(cu ft-OF) [kJ/(m

'K)]

psi [MPa]
(<TH)max/(<TH) min
(<TH)min,
<I>

Reservoir Fluid Properties


1 x10- 5 [1.5x10- 6 ]
0.5 [2.1]
3.6x10- 6 [5.2x10- 7 ]
1.0 [4.2]
1.47 [1.47x10- 3 ]
0.43 [4.3x10- 4 ]
0.995 [9.95x10- 4 ]
55 [881]
62.4 [1000]

Co, psi - 1 [kPa - 1 ]


Co' Btw/(lbm-OF) [kJ/(kg'K)]
Cw' psi - 1 [kPa - 1 ]
C w ' Btu/(lbm-OF) [kJ/(kg'K)]
1-'0 at 150F, cp [Pa s]
I-'w at 150F, cp [Pas]
I-'w at 70F, cp [Pas]
Po' Ibm/cu ft [kg/m 3]
P w' Ibm/cu ft [kg/m 3]

Example Problems. A computer model has been


developed that incorporates the equations given in this
paper and thereby simulates hydraulic fracturing as cold
water is injected into a single well in an infinite reservoir. The iterative calculation procedure is portrayed in
Fig. 5.
To illustrate the use and significance of the equations,
consider the example set of conditions shown in Table
1. The relatively large difference between the assumed
maximum and minimum principal horizontal stresses
causes the fractures to propagate as two-wing fractures.
Fig. 6 shows that fracture extension pressures are variable,
but all are well below 3,500 psi [24 MPa], which would
be the expected fracture extension pressure in the absence
of the thermoelastic cooling effect of the water. The fracture extension pressures are a function of the reservoir
pressure, permeability, and size of the region cooled by
injection water. A low reservoir pressure enables the fluid
to leak off through a relatively short fracture. A higher
reservoir pressure requires a longer fracture to accommodate fluid at the injected rate. Fig. 7 shows relative
dimensions of the cooled region and the waterflooded
zone. For the low reservoir pressure case where fractures
are short, both the waterflooded region and the concentric cooled zone are nearly circular. For the higher reservoir pressure example where fractures were long, both
the waterflooded zone and confocal cooled region were
noticeably elliptical in shape. The additional effect of
suspended solids content on fracture length is illustrated
FEBRUARY 1985

1.0 mg II
10.0 mg II
50.0 mg II

- - - n<T

1000

RANGE OF MAJOR AND MINOR SEMIAXES


OF WATERFLOODED ZONE
>OO<:XXX>CI

Ii:

\"""fYV"""

l:::I

500

I-

(!)

FRACTURE LENGTH

....I

--

- --

0'

500

1000

1500

1800

INJECTION TIME (DAYS)

Fig. 8-The effect of suspended solids content on fracture


length and the dimensions of the waterflooded
region (k= 100 md, PR = 1,000 psi).

in Fig. 8 for the low reservoir pressure example. Fracture length is influenced markedly, but for this example
the waterflooded zone remained nearly circular.
An understanding of thermoelastic fracturing enables
a designer to predict injection well performance more accurately. It could be useful in determining the number of
injection wells required for a waterflood, in sizing injection pumps, and in estimating the effect that water quali83

ty has on the injectivity of the wells. It also enables the


designer to estimate the effect that controllable variables
(such as injection rate, injection temperature, and water
quality) have on the shape of the waterflooded region.

Conclusions
1. A numerical method has been developed to calculate
the change in horizontal earth stress resulting from a step
change in temperature (or pressure) across a region of
elliptical cross section and finite thickness.
2. The horizontal stress changes have been calculated
for a variety of elliptical shapes and thicknesses. The computed stresses have been checked against solutions
available in the literature for the limiting cases of elliptical cylinders of infinite height and circular cylinders of
finite height.
3. The horizontal stress changes have been correlated
and empirically fitted with equations so that approximate
solutions can be calculated readily.
4. Examples using typical elastic and thermal properties of rocks show that the injection of cool water can
reduce earth stresses around injection wells substantially, causing them to fracture at pressures considerably
lower than would be expected in the absence of the thermoelastic effect.
5. The fracture initially should be a two-winged fracture, which propagates perpendicular to the direction of
the minimum principal horizontal stress. Depending on
the shape of the cool region and the difference between
the minimum and maximum in-situ horizontal earth
stresses, fractures perpendicular to the main two-winged
fracture eventually could open, thus creating a jointed
fracture system.
6. Short fractures, which result from low injection rate,
high permeability, or low reservoir pressure, do not
significantly change the shape of the waterflood front from
the circular shape that would be expected for an unfractured well. Longer fractures, which result from high injection rates, low permeability, high reservoir pressure,
or poor water quality, cause the waterflooded region to
become noticeably elliptical in shape.

Nomenclature

ao

major semiaxis of the elliptical cool


region, ft [m]
major semiaxis of the elliptical
waterflooded region, ft [m]
cross-sectional area of the surface upon
which solids from the injection water
are deposited, sq ft [m 2 ]
minor semiaxis of the elliptical cool
region, ft [m]
minor semiaxis of the elliptical
waterflooded region, ft [m]
compressibility, psi -1 [kPa -1 ]
formation (PV) compressibility
specific heat, Btu/(lbm- OF) [kJ/(kg-K)]
depth to the center of the formation, ft

Young's modulus, psi [GPa]

a1 =
A

bo

b1 =
c

Cf

C =

[m]

84

F I , F2

= intermediate terms defined in Eqs. B-2

and B-6 that are used in computing the


semiaxes of the cooled and
waterflooded ellipses
F 3, F 4 = coefficients in the empirical equations
used to compute the resistance to flow
caused by skin damage
h = reservoir thickness, ft [m]
i w. = water injection rate, B/D [m 3 /d]
J = linear coefficient of pore pressure
expansion (see Eq. 5)
k = reservoir permeability, md
k rw = relative permeability to water at residual
oil saturation
L c = length of cores used in the fracture face
damage experiments, ft [m]
Lf = fracture length (measured from the
well bore to the extending edge of the
fracture), ft [m]
n a = suspended solids content of the injection
water, lbm/cu ft [mg/L]
n I =, an exponent in the empirical equations
used to compute the resistance to flow
caused by skin damage
p = pressure, psi [MPa]
P iwf = flowing bottornhole water injection
pressure, psi [MPa]
P R = undisturbed reservoir fluid pressure, psi
[MPa]
PI = pressure inside the fracture and adjacent
to the extending end of the fracture,
psi [MPa]
/).P = P - P R, the pressure difference used to
compute the stress change in the rock
which is caused by a pore pressure
change, psi [MPa]
/).P f = pressure drop from the wellbore to the
extending end of the fracture, psi/ft
[MPa/m]
/).j5f = difference between the wellbore pressure
and the average pressure at the face of
the fracture, psi [MPa]
/).P p = the pressure drop through the
perforations connected to the fracture,
psi [MPa]
/).P s = pressure drop across the skin damage on
the face of the fracture, psilft
[MPa/m]
/).P CE = total pressure drop (resulting from both
the matrix permeability and skin
damage) through the cores used in the
fracture face damage experiments,
psi/ft [MPa/m]
/).P 1 = difference between the pressure at the
elliptical boundary of the water/oil
flood front and P R, psi [MPa]
fJ.P2 = difference in pressure between the
cold/hot front and the water/oil flood
front, psi [MPa]
SOCIETY OF PETROLEUM ENGINEERS JOURNAL

!:J.P3

rf

= difference between the average pressure

ri =

Rs

S or
S wi

=
=
=

t
T =
Tw

TR
!:J.T

U =
vp =
Vc
V wI

adjacent to (but just outside) the


fracture and the pressure at the
cold/hot front, psi [MPa]
radius of the extending edge of the
fracture (equals the smaller of the two
values; Lf or h/2), ft [m]
radii of the right circular cylinders that
make up the grid used in computing
stresses within an elliptical inclusion of
arbitrary height (see Fig. A-la), ft [m]
resistance to flow caused by skin
damage, ft- I [cm/darcy]
residual oil saturation
initial water saturation
time, years
temperature, OF [0C]
bottomhole temperature of the injection
water, OF [0C]
initial reservoir temperature, of [0C]
T - T R, the temperature difference used
to compute the stress change in the
rock caused by a temperature change,
OF [0C]
rock surface energy, ft-Ibf/sq in. [J/cm2]
velocity of the injected water as it passes
through the perforations, ft/sec [m/s]
volume of the formation that is cooled
by the injection water, cu ft [m 3]

~1

= the value of ~ that describes the outer


boundary of the waterflooded region

(UH ) max

= density, lbm/cu ft [kg/m3]


= radial stress, psi [MPa]
= maximum in-situ, total horizontal

(UH ) min

p
Ur

Uo =
U1

U2

!:J.UIP

!:J.UIT

!:J.u2P

!:J.U2T

cJ>

= total volume of the waterflooded region


(volume of the region flooded by the
injection water plus volume of the
region flooded by the connate water
that is pushed ahead of the injectionwaterflooded region), cu ft [m 3]

Wi = cumulative volume of water injected,

Xo

a =

(3

o=

J-t

~ =

~0

bbl [m 3]
the value of (n" Wi)/Ac when the
fracture face or perforations are
bridged completely by solids from the
injection water, lbm/sq ft [mg/cm2]
an angle used in the numerical model for
computing the average stress change
inside an elliptical inclusion of finite
height (see Fig. A-Ia), degree [rad]
linear coefficient of thermal expansion,
in.l(in.-OF) [mm/(mm'K]
length of the sides of the square
gridblocks used in the numerical
model for computing the average
stress change inside an elliptical
inclusion of finite height (see Fig.
A-Ib), ft [m]
viscosity, cp [Pa' s]
Poisson's ratio
an elliptic coordinate
the value of ~ that describes the outer
boundary of the cooled region

FEBRUARY 1985

earth
stress (net stress born by the rock
matrix plus pore pressure), psi [MPa]
minimum in-situ, total horizontal earth
stress, psi [MPa]
tangential stress, psi [MPa]
total earth stress at the extending end of
the fracture that is perpendicular to the
fracture, psi [MPa]
total earth stress that is parallel to the
fracture, psi [MPa]
change (final-initial) in average interior
stress perpendicular to the major axis
of the ellipse resulting from a pressure
difference (p - P R) between the
elliptical cylinder and the
surroundings, psi [MPa]
change (final-initial) in average interior
stress perpendicular to the major axis
of the ellipse resulting from a
temperature difference (T - T R)
between the elliptical cylinder and the
surroundings, psi [MPa]
change (final-initial) in average interior
stress parallel to the major axis of the
ellipse resulting from a pressure
difference (p - P R) between the
elliptical cylinder and the
surroundings, psi [MPa]
change (final-initial) in average interior
stress parallel to the major axis of the
ellipse resulting from a temperature
difference (T - T R) between the
elliptical cylinder and the
surroundings, psi [MPa]
porosity

Subscripts
C = core
f = fracture
gr = mineral grains
H = horizontal
o = oil
p = perforations
R = undisturbed reservoir value
S = skin damage
w = water
References
1. Perkins, T.K. and Gonzalez, J.A.: "Changes in Earth Stresses
Around a Wellbore Caused by Radially Symmetrical Pressure and
Temperature Gradients," Soc. Pet. Eng. J. (April 1984) 129-40.
2. Doscher, T.M. and Weber, L.: "The Use of the Membrane Filter
in Determining Quality of Water for Subsurface Injection, " Drill.
and Prod. Prac., API, Dallas (1957) 169-79.
85

AN ELEMENTAL CYLINDRICAL
INCLUSION

12. Cleary, J.M.: "Hydraulic Fracture Theory, Part I-Mechanics of


Materials," Illinois State Geological Survey, Urbana (1958) Circular 251.
13. Kucuk, F. and Brigham, W.E.: "Transient Flow in Elliptical
Systems," Soc. Pet. Eng. J. (Dec. 1979) 401-10; Trans., AIME,
267.
14. Muskat, M.: The Flow of Homogeneous Fluids Through Porous
Media, first edition, J.W. Edwards Inc., Ann Arbor, MI (1946) 185.
15. Perkins, T.K., and Kern, L.R.: "Widths of Hydraulic Fractures,"
J. Pet. Tech. (Sept. 1961) 937-49.
16. Kraemer, J.W.: "Fluid Flow Rate Through Perforations," Pet. Eng.
(Jan. 1959) B44-46.
17. Perkins, T.K.: "Discussion of the Design of Vertical Hydraulic Fractures," J. Pet. Tech. (Jan. 1973) 93-95; Trans., AIME, 255.
18. Perkins, T.K. and Krech, W.W.: "The Energy Balance Concept
of Hydraulic Fracturing," Soc. Pet. Eng. J. (March 1968) 1-12;
Trans., AIME, 243.
19. Bazant, Z.P.: "Stability and Post-Critical Growth of a System of
Cooling or Shrinkage Cracks," Inti. J. Fracture (1979) 15, 443-56.
20. Barr, D.T.: "Thermal Cracking in Nonporous Geothermal Reservoirs," MS Thesis, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA (1980).
21. Myklestad, N.O.: "Two Problems of Thermal Stress in the Infinite
Solid," J. Applied Mech. (1942) 9. 136-43.
22. Marx, J.W. and Langenheim, R.H.: "Reservoir Heating by Hot
Fluid Injection," Trans., AIME (1959) 216, 312-15.

--------------~--~~-------J-------.x

(a)

,.
y

r
t

I-V

,....

iv

/
V
,"-.,

'"

,.i"- t-

I--

(b)

Fig. A-1-Method of calculating stresses within an elliptical inclusion of finite height: (a) resolution of stresses
resulting from a cylindrical inclusion into a stress normal to the x-axis at an arbitrary point on the x axis;
(b) an elliptical inclusion (be/a e =0.6) approximated
by the superposition of right circular cylindrical inclusions.

3. Johnston, K.H. and Castagno, J.L.: "Evaluation by Filter Methods


of the Quality of Waters Injected in Waterfloods," RI 6426, USBM
(1964).
4. Farley, J.T. and Redline, D.G.: "Evaluation of Flood Water Quality
in the West Montalvo Field," J. Pet. Tech. (July 1968) 683-87.
5. Barkman, J.H. and Davidson, D.H.: "Measuring Water Quality
and Predicting Well Impainnent," J. Pet. Tech. (July 1972) 865-73;
Trans., AIME, 253.
6. McCune, C.C.: "On-Site Testing to Define Injection-Water Quality
Requirements," J. Pet. Tech. (Jan. 1977) 17-24.
7. Mitchell, R.W.: "The Forties Field Sea-Water Injection System,"
J. Pet. Tech. (June 1978) 877-84.
8. Davidson, D.H.: "Invasion and Impairment of Formations by Particles," paper SPE 8022 presented at the 1979 SPE Annual Technical
Conference and Exhibition, Las Vegas, Sept. 24-26.
9. Jordan, C.A., Edmondson, T.A., and Jeffries-Harris, M.J.: "The
Bay Marchand Pressure Maintenance Project-Unique Challenges
of an Offshore Sea-Water Injection System," J. Pet. Tech. (April
1969) 389-96.
10. Mindlin, R.D. and Cooper, H.L.: "Thermoelastic Stress Around
a Cylindrical Inclusion of Elliptical Cross Section," J. Applied Mech.
(Sept. 1950) 265-68.
11. Lubinski, A.: "Theory of Elasticity for Porous Bodies Displaying
a Strong Pore Structure," Proc., Second U.S. Natl. Congo Appl.
Mech. (1954) 247.
86

APPENDIX A
Thermoelastic Stresses for
Inclusions of Finite Thickness
In a previous paper, I the Myklestad 21 solution for thermal stresses in an embedded, semi-infinite cylinder with
a circular cross section was adapted to give tangential
stresses for an embedded circular cylinder of finite height.
A similar superposition procedure has been used to obtain radial thermoelastic stresses in a circular cylinder of
finite height. The thermal stresses within a cylindrical inclusion with an elliptical cross section and finite height
can be computed approximately with the aid of these solutions. Fig. A-Ib shows an inclusion of elliptical cross section. The inclusion is approximated by an array of square
gridblocks, which are replaced by right circular cylindrical
inclusions whose volumes are equal to the gridblock
volumes.
7CTi2=02,

.............................

(A-I)

where r i is the radius of each elemental right circular


cylindrical inclusion and 0 is the length of gridblock side.
The stress at any location within the original elliptical inclusion is determined by superposing the effect of the
elemental right circular cylindrical inclusions [see Fig.
A-Ial.
Uy = ~Uri

sin 2 a+uOi cos 2 a . .......... (A-2)

This numerical method has been checked for infinitely


tall elliptical inclusions by comparing the numerical solution with the analytical Eqs. 1 and 2. The numerical approach has been checked further by applying the method
to circular disk-shaped inclusions of finite thickness and
comparing with the values previously reported in Ref. 1.
The numerical method then was used to approximate the
average internal stresses for inclusions of finite height and
elliptical cross section. The results are portrayed
graphically on Fig. 2. The results were fitted empirically
and are given explicitly by Eqs. 3 and 4.
SOCIETY OF PETROLEUM ENGINEERS JOURNAL

APPENDIX B
Equations Applicable to a Flow System
with Elliptical Coordinates

i=

Although a more sophisticated understanding of saturation and temperature distributions can be obtained by
numerical analysis, it is conceptually revealing to study
a simplified case where properties are considered to be
constant within selected regions. Fig. B-1 shows such a
simplified view of saturations and temperatures. For this
type of approximation, the volume of the cooled region
is determined by an energy balance. For the case of no
conduction heat transfer from the underburden and overburden to the pay zone, 22

a:
=>
I-

en

....J

(5

r__________________________
Sor
_

O~-----L

t-----WATER FLOODED REGION--t


UN FLOODED
OIL REGION

REGION FLOODED WITH


I
-INJECTED WATER-I

~Iw

........................... (B-1)

=>
~

~~

~ w~

::;;

Conductive heat transfer from the overburden and


underburden can be accounted for approximately by using the method of Marx and Langenheim. 22 In their approach, the volume of the cooled region is reduced by
a factor that accounts for conduction, but the average
temperature of the cooled region is assumed to be unaffected.
Let LI be the half crack length as shown in Fig. 1. The
cooled region is approximated as an elliptical inclusion
confocal with the line crack and having a volume V c'

J:ffi

1-1-

a:

I-

Ow

wI-

0
Oz
Oz
....J

,I

O
U.U

I
COLD
REGION -1-'- - - - - HOT REGION - - - - - -

r(HOT I COLD)

r(WATER lOlL)
RADIUS

Fig. B-l-Simplified view of saturation and temperature


distributions during waterflooding.

In a similar manner, the waterflooded region is approximated as an elliptical region confocal with the line crack
and having volume V wt.
and

V c =7rL/h sinh ~o cosh ~o


7rL 2h [

_1_

Let FI =exp

1 . ]

exp (2~o)-

exp
(2~o).

(2~o)

and

Then

Therefore,

a I =Lj.Jii; + 1I.Jii; )/2 .................. (B-7)


........ (B-2)

ao=Lj.Jii;

+ 1I.Jii;)12, ................ (B-3)

and

b o =Lj.Jii; -1I.Jii; )/2. . ............... (B-4)


The volume of the waterflooded region is given by Eq.
B-5.

V wt =

Wi
cf> (l-Sor -Swi)

FEBRUARY 1985

................... (B-5)

and
b l =Lj..!F; -1I.Jii;)/2,

................ (B-8)

APPENDIX C
Formation Face Damage Resulting From
Injection of Suspended Solids
Contained in Injection Fluids
Typically in laboratory tests, core plugs are saturated with
brines having the same composition as test waters that
subsequently are injected into the cores. Stable base-line
permeabilities can be established by flowing one or two
thousand PV of synthetic brine through each core before
87

For a fixed particle-size distribution, growth of additional internal resistance or external filter cake is directly proportional to the product of volume injected and
concentration of total solids being filtered and inversely
proportional to the core area. Thus, the resistance term,
Rs, as determined from the laboratory measurements, can
be correlated vs. (no' WJAc).
Fig. C-I shows a typical plot for injection of a water
sample into a suite of cores of varying permeability that
was taken from a single formation. The additional flow
resistance caused by filtration of suspended solids appears
to consist of two parts.
1. There is a rather small but detectable initial
resistance, which increases progressively as additional
water is injected. The additional flow resistance can be
represented approximately by the mathematical expression

>;

'"

"0

E 102

:;>,' :

.,
a::

:;>'

= 75 md .",'
/

./
68/

230

10

1L-~~~~L-~~~~

no' Wi
Rs=F3 ( ~

__~~~UU_ _~~~UW

)nl

.................... (C-2)

10

(noWi) (mgx~)

,A C

cm 2

Fig. C-1-Additional core flow resistance caused by injection


of a water sample into a suite of cores of varying
permeability which were taken from a single formation.

starting the flow of test brine. Test water then is injected


until the apparent core permeability has declined to a very
low value. The total pressure drop across the core can
be considered to consist of a pressure drop through the
initial core plus an additional resistance caused by filtration of solids from the injected test water.

!1PCE=

iwiJ.wLc

kAc

if

iwiJ.w

+--Rs' ............. (C-l)


Ac

The resistance tetm, R s, will be a function of volume injected per unit area of core; but since flow is laminar,
Rs should be independent of flow rate or water viscosity.
The [volume/area] needed to completely bridge the core
face and the subsequent increase in external filter cake
resistance can be determined adequately. Because of the
form of Eq. Col, the flow resistance term, Rs, should
be viewed as fracture skin damage and should be added
to all other flow resistance terms needed to account for
flow through the formation rock beyond the fracture face.

88

The coefficient and exponent are functions of core


permeability and depend on the water source.
2. The rate of change of Rs with (no' WJAc) eventually increases rather abruptly. We interpret this as the
point in time that complete bridging of the core face occurs. Subsequently (according to usual filtration theories),
the additional resistance should be directly proportional
to (no' WJAc). Thus,
.

Fracture face damage increases dramatically at the


critical value of (no' WJAc), and nearly all additional
water is diverted elsewhere in the fracture to leak off.

SI Metric Conversion Factors


E-Ol
ft x 3.048*
E+OO
psi x 6.894 757
*Conversion factor is exact.

kPa

SPEJ

Original manuscript (SPE 11332) received in the Society of Petroleum Engineers office Aug. 19, 1982. Paper accepted for publication June 2, 1983. Revised manuscript
received Feb. 22, 1984.

SOCIETY OF PETROLEUM ENGINEERS JOURNAL

Você também pode gostar