Week 3 DQ

DQ1. What is multivariate analysis? How does the nature of measurement scales relate to
multivariate techniques?
Multivariate statistical analysis refers to multiple advanced techniques for examining
relationships among multiple variables at the same time (Kemp, 2000). Researchers use
multivariate procedures in studies that involve more than one dependent variable also known as
the outcome or phenomenon of interest, more than one independent variable or both. This type
of analysis is desirable because researchers often hypothesize that a given outcome of interest is
effected or influenced by more than one thing (Kemp, 2000).
There are many statistical techniques for conducting multivariate analysis, and the most
appropriate technique for a given study varies with the type of study and the key research
questions. Four of the most common multivariate techniques are multiple regression analysis,
factor analysis, path analysis and multiple analysis of variance, or MANOVA (Shabbir, 1998).
Multivariate statistical analysis is especially important in social science research because
researchers in these fields are often unable to use randomized laboratory experiments that their
counterparts in medicine and natural sciences often use. Instead, many social scientists must rely
on quasi-experimental designs in which the experimental and control groups may have initial
differences that could affect or bias the outcome of the study (Shabbir, 1998). Multivariate
techniques try to statistically account for these differences and adjust outcome measures to
control for the portion that can be attributed to the differences.
Statistical software programs such as SAS, Stata, and SPSS can perform multivariate statistical
analyses. These programs are frequently used by university researchers and other research
professionals (Shabbier, 1998). Spreadsheet programs can perform some multivariate analyses,
but are intended for more general use and may have limited abilities than a specialized statistical
software package.
Kemp, A. W. (2000). Dictionary of statistics and methodology: A nontechnical guide for the
social sciences, 2nd ed. Journal of Applied Statistics, 27(8), 1068. Retrieved from
http://search.proquest.com/docview/213791055?accountid=458
Shabbir, J. (1998). Understanding statistics: An introduction for the social sciences. Journal of
Applied Statistics, 25(5), 716. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/213793095?
accountid=458

DQ3. Which multivariate techniques are appropriate for specific types of research problems?
Four of the most common multivariate techniques are multiple regression analysis,
factor analysis, path analysis and multiple analysis of variance, or MANOVA (Shabbir,
1998).

Multiple Regression analysis, often referred to simply as regression analysis, examines the
effects of multiple independent variables (predictors) on the value of a dependent variable, or
outcome. Regression calculates a coefficient for each independent variable, as well as its
statistical significance, to estimate the effect of each predictor on the dependent variable, with
other predictors held constant (Shabbir, 1998). Researchers in economics and other social
sciences often use regression analysis to study social and economic phenomena. An example of a
regression study is to examine the effect of education, experience, gender, and ethnicity on
income.
Factor analysis is a data reduction technique in which a researcher reduces a large number of
variables to a smaller, more manageable, number of factors. Factor analysis uncovers patterns
among variables and then clusters highly interrelated variables into factors. Factor analysis has
many applications, but a common use is in survey research, where researchers use the technique
to see if lengthy series of questions can be grouped into shorter sets.
Kemp (2000) describes path analysis as a graphical form of multivariate statistical analysis in
which graphs known as path diagrams depict the correlations among variables, as well as the
directions of those correlations and the "paths" along which these relationships travel. Statistical
software programs calculate path coefficients, the values of which estimate the strength of
relationships among the variables in a researcher's hypothesized model.
Multiple Analysis of Variance, or MANOVA, is an advanced form of the more basic analysis of
variance, or ANOVA. MANOVA extends the technique to studies with two or more related
dependent variables while controlling for the correlations among them (Kemp, 2000). An
example of a study for which MANOVA would be an appropriate technique is a study of health
among three groups of teens: those who exercise regularly, those who exercise on occasion, and
those who never exercise. A MANOVA for this study would allow multiple health-related
outcome measures such as weight, heart rate, and respiratory rates.
Kemp, A. W. (2000). Dictionary of statistics and methodology: A nontechnical guide for the
social sciences, 2nd ed. Journal of Applied Statistics, 27(8), 1068. Retrieved from
http://search.proquest.com/docview/213791055?accountid=458
Shabbir, J. (1998). Understanding statistics: An introduction for the social sciences. Journal of
Applied Statistics, 25(5), 716. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/213793095?
accountid=458

Response 1 to DQ #4:

According to Cohen, (1998) there are two main reasons why a study may not show a significant
difference between groups being studied (e.g. in a randomized trial of a new drug, or a casecontrol study testing the effect of an exposure on a disease).
1. There really was no significant difference (hence a true negative result)
2. There was a difference but the study failed to detect it (false negative result). This
may arise because the study was poorly designed (e.g. used imprecise
measurements) or because the study was too small (in statistical jargon, it "lacked
power").
Testing for statistical significance helps you learn how likely it is that these changes occurred
randomly and do not represent differences due to the program (Smith, 2004). To learn whether
the difference is statistically significant, a researcher will have to compare the probability
number from the test (the p-value) to the critical probability value to determined ahead of time
(the alpha level). If the p-value is less than the alpha value, may conclude that the difference
observed is statistically significant.
P-Value: the probability that the results were due to chance and not based on the program. Pvalues range from 0 to 1. The lower the p-value, the more likely it is that a difference occurred as
a result of the program (Smith, 2004)
Alpha () level: the error rate that a researcher is willing to accept. Alpha is often set at .05 or .
01. The alpha level is also known as the Type I error rate. An alpha of .05 means that the
researcher is willing to accept that there is a 5% chance that the results are due to chance rather
than to the program (Smith, 2004).
When a difference is statistically significant, it does not necessarily mean that it is big, important,
or helpful in decision-making. It simply means a researcher can be confident that there is a
difference (Patton, 1990). There are different ways to calculate effect size depending on the
evaluation design used. Generally, effect size is calculated by taking the difference between the
two groups (e.g., the mean of treatment group minus the mean of the control group) and dividing
it by the standard deviation of one of the groups.
Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). New Jersey:
Lawrence Erlbaum.
Smith, M. (2004). Is it the sample size of the sample as a fraction of the population that matters?
Journal of Statistics Education. 12:2. Retrieved July 8, 2016 from
http://www.amstat.org/publications/jse/v12n2/smith.html

Patton, M. Q. (1990). Qualitative research and evaluation methods. London: Sage Publications.
Response # 2 to DQ #

Measurement error the degree to which the observed values in the sample are not representative
of the true values in the population. Several sources are possible, including data entry errors and
the use of inappropriate gradations in a measurement scale (Hair, William, Barry & Rolph,
2010). All variables in a multivariate analysis have some degree of measurement error, which
adds residual error to the observed variables. There is a need for assessment of both the validity
and the reliability of measures: (1) validity is the degree to which a measure accurately
represents what it is supposed to and (2) reliability is the degree to which the observed variable
measures the true value and is error free. The need for multivariate analysis comes from the
simple fact of life that just about everything is in some way interrelated with other things
(Hyvnen, Leino, & Salmenkivi, 2007). Inflation, for instance, is related to taxes, interest rates,
the money supply, oil prices, the business cycle, foreign wars, and a good deal more. multivariate
analysis is appropriate whenever you have two or more variables observed a number of times. In
fact, it is most commonly the case that you have several variables observed a great many times,
also known as a data set. It is traditional to envision a data set as being comprised of rows and
columns. The rows pertain to each observation, such as each person or each completed
questionnaire in a large survey. The columns, on the other hand, pertain to each variable, such as
a response to a question or an observed characteristic for each person (Hyvnen, Leino, &
Salmenkivi, 2007). Data sets can be immense; a single study may have a sample size of 1,000 or
more respondents, each of whom answers 100 questions. Hence the data set would be 1,000 by
100, or 100,000 cells of data. The need for parsimony is very evident. Multivariate techniques
aid the researcher in obtaining parsimony by reducing the number of computations necessary to
complete statistical tests.
Hair, J.H., William, C.B., Barry, J. B., & Rolph, E. A, (2010). Instructors Manual for
Multivariate Data Analysis: A Global Perspecitve: Seventh Edition: Pearson.
Hyvnen, S., Leino, A., & Salmenkivi, M. (2007). Multivariate Analysis of Finnish Dialect Data
An Overview of Lexical Variation. Literary & Linguistic Computing, 22(3), 271-290.
doi:10.1093/llc/fqm009
DQ 5: What are some essential guidelines for multivariate data analysis and interpretations?
In multivariate data analysis the Data sets are easy to collect; what we really need in complex
problem solving is information. A researcher may view a data base as a domain that requires
probes and tools to extract relevant information (Cohen, 1988). As in the measurement process
itself, appropriate instruments of reasoning must be applied to the data interpretation task.
Effective tools serve in two capacities: to summarize the data and to assist in interpretation. The
objectives of interpretive aids are to reveal the data at several levels of detail.
Exploring the fuzzy data picture sometimes requires a wide-angle lens to view its totality. At
other times it requires a close-up lens to focus on fine detail (Cohen, 1988). The graphically

based tools that we use provide this flexibility. Most chemical systems are complex because they
involve many variables and there are many interactions among the variables (Hoyle, 1999).
Therefore, chemo-metric techniques rely upon multivariate statistical and mathematical tools to
uncover interactions and reduce the dimensionality of the data.
Multivariate analysis is a branch of statistics involving the consideration of objects on each of
which are observed the values of a number of variables. Multivariate techniques are used across
the whole range of fields of statistical application: in medicine, physical and biological sciences,
economics and social science, and of course in many industrial and commercial applications
(Hoyle,1999).
Principal component analysis used for exploring data to reduce the dimension. Generally, PCA
seeks to represent n correlated random variables by a reduced set of uncorrelated variables,
which are obtained by transformation of the original set onto an appropriate subspace (Hoyle,
1999). The uncorrelated variables are chosen to be good linear combination of the original
variables, in terms of explaining maximal variance, orthogonal directions in the data. Two
closely related techniques, principal component analysis and factor analysis, are used to reduce
the dimensionality of multivariate data (Mavridis, & Salanti, 2013). In these techniques
correlations and interactions among the variables are summarized in terms of a small number of
underlying factors. The methods rapidly identify key variables or groups of variables that control
the system under study. The resulting dimension reduction also permits graphical representation
of the data so that significant relationships among observations or samples can be identified
(Mavridis, & Salanti, 2013).
The term multivariate analysis really stands for a family of techniques, and it is important that a
researcher realizes this fact from the onset. The common characteristic is that multiple variables
are used for the dependent and/or independent variables in the analysis. Each technique has its
own special powers and unique instances of applicability (Hoyle (1999). In general terms the
special powers represented by this family of analyses are (1) description Some of the
techniques have rather amazing abilities to describe phenomena. They can find patterns of
relationships where the human eye and even univariate or bivariate statistics fail to do so. (2)
explanation other techniques have special capabilities to explain or to help explain
relationships. For instance, they can isolate the impact of one variable on another; show relative
differences between the magnitude of impact for two or more variables; or even reveal how one
set of variables impinges on another set. (3) prediction every decision maker desires the ability
to predict, and multivariate techniques afford that promise (Krzanowski,1988). Certain
multivariate analyses are explicitly designed to yield predictive modes with specific levels of
accuracy and finally (4) control multivariate techniques, the techniques themselves will not
institute control, but their application can help a decision maker develop causeandeffect
relationships and models which will ultimately enhance their ability to control events to some
degree (Krzanowski,1988).

Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). New Jersey:
Lawrence Erlbaum.

Hoyle R., (1999) Statistical Strategies for small Sample Research, Thousand Oaks, CA, Sage.
Krzanowski W., (1988) Principles of Multivariate Analysis: A User's Perspective, Clarendon
Press.
Mavridis, D., & Salanti, G. (2013). A practical introduction to multivariate meta-analysis.
Statistical Methods In Medical Research, 22(2), 133-158. doi:10.1177/0962280211432219

Response # 3 to DQ # 5
Multivariate data analysis (MVA) is the investigation of many variables, simultaneously, in order
to understand the relationships that may exist between them. MVA can be as simple as analyzing
two variables right up to millions (Hair, William, Barry & Rolph, 2010). Multivariate analysis
adds a much-needed toolkit when compared to the usual way people look at data. This highly
graphical approach seeks to explore what is hidden in the numbers. A multivariate model is
capable of showing the influence that both types of variability (wanted and unwanted) can have
on a system so that it can be better understood or improvements can be made. MVA can be
broadly classified into three main areas: (1) exploratory Data Analysis (EDA): Sometimes called
data mining this area is useful for gaining deeper insights into large, complex data sets, (2)
regression analysis (Hair, William, Barry & Rolph, 2010): Develops models to predict new and
future events. Is useful for predictive analytics applications, and (3) classification for identifying
new or existing classes. This area is useful in research, development, and market analysis. Each
method, used alone, can lead to better insights. However, when used together, these methods can
further enhance the understanding of a system.
The advantages of the MVA approach are provided in the following: MVA identifies variables
that contribute most to the overall variability in the data. MVA helps to isolate those variables
that are related, that co-vary with each other. A researcher should take these variables into
account in further developments (Hair, William, Barry & Rolph, 2010). The highly graphical
manner of presenting results allows for better interpretation and helps to take some of the fear
factor out of data analysis.
Hair, J.H., William, C.B., Barry, J. B., & Rolph, E. A, (2010). Instructors Manual for
Multivariate Data Analysis: A Global Perspective: Seventh Edition: Pearson.

Response # 4 to DQ #

Multivariate analytical techniques represent a variety of mathematical models used to measure

and quantify outcomes, taking into account important factors that can influence this relationship.
There are several multivariate analytical techniques that one can use to examine the relationship
among variables (Cumming, 2012). The most popular is multiple regression analysis which helps
one understand how the typical value of the dependent variable changes when any one of the
independent variables is varied, while the other independent variables are held fixed. Other
techniques include factor analysis, path analysis and multiple analyses of variance (MANOVA).
There are three drawbacks that are related to the complexity and size related to multivariate
designs (Cumming, 2012): (1) statistical assumptions, many more participants are usually needed
to adequately test a multivariate design, compared to smaller univariate studies, (3)
interpretations of results from a multivariate analysis may be difficult due to having several
layers to examine.
Cumming, G. (2012) Understanding the new statics: Effect sizes, confidence intervals, and metaanalysis. New York: Routledge.