(Revealing Antiquity 5) Walter Burkert-The Orientalizing Revolution - Near Eastern Influence On Greek Culture in The Early Archaic Age (Revealing Antiquity) - Harvard University Press (1998)

THE
ORIENTALIZING
REVOLUTION
Near Eastern Influence on
Greek Culture in
the Early Archaic Age
Walter Burkert
TRANSLATED
Margaret
and
E.
Walter
BY
Pinder
Burkert
H A R V A R D U N I V E R S I T Y PRESS
C a m b r i d g e , Massachusetts
London, England
Copyright 1992 by the President and

Fellows of Harvard College
All rights reserved
Printed in the United States of America
First Harvard University Press paperback edition, 1995

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication
Data
Burkert, Walter, 1931The orientalizing revolution: Near Eastern influence on Greek

culture in the early archaic age / Walter Burkert; translated by
Margaret E. Pinder and Walter Burkert.
p. cm. (Revealing antiquity; 5)
Translation of: Die orientahsierende Epoche in der griechischen
Religion und Literatur.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
I S B N 0-674-64363-1 (cloth)
I S B N 0-674-643 6 4 - X (pbk.)
1. GreeceCivilizationto 146 B . C . 2. GreeceCivilizationMiddle Eastern influences. I. Title. II. Series.
DF78.B85 1992
92-8923
938dc20
CIP
CONTENTS
Preface
ix
Introduction
i . " W h o Are Public Workers": The M i g r a n t Craftsmen

Historical Background
g
Oriental Products in Greece
14
Writing and Literature in the Eighth Century
23
The Problem of Loan-Words
33
2. " A Seer o r a H e a l e r " : M a g i c a n d M e d i c i n e
41
"Craftsmen oj the Sacred": Mobility and [-'amity Structure
41
Hepatoscopy
46
Foundation Deposits
33
Purification
35
Spirits of the Dead and Black Magic
63
Substitute Sacrifice
73
Asclepius and Asgelatas
73
Ecstatic Divination
79
Lamashtu, Lamia, and Gorgo
82
3. " O r A l s o a G o d l y S i n g e r " : A k k a d i a n and E a r l y
G r e e k L i t e r a t u r e 88
From Atrahasis to the "Deception of Zeus"
Complaint in Heaven: Ishtar and Aphrodite
The Overpopulated Earth
100
Seven against Thebes
106
88
96
C O N T E N T S
Common
Style and Stance in Oriental and Greek

Fables
120
Magic and Cosmogony
124
Conclusion
128
Abbreviations
131
Bibliography
133
Notes
133
Index o f Greek Words

General Index
VI
221
219
Epic
ILLUSTRATIONS
Map
T h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n a n d the N e a r East i n t h e early

archaic p e r i o d
Figure
1.
B r o n z e t y m p a n o n f r o m t h e Idaean cave, C r e t e ;
Heraklion M u s e u m ; d r a w i n g by H i l d i Keel-Leu
Figure
2,
N o r t h Syrian bronze plaque f r o m horse har-
ness, i n s c r i b e d ; c o u r t e s y o f the D e u t s c h e s A r c h o logisches I n s t i t u t , A u f n a h m e D A I A t h e n , N e g . N r .

88/1022
Figure
3.
Liver models
from
Mesopotamia
and
from
Piacenza, I t a l y : B r i t i s h M u s e u m , L o n d o n , a n d M u seo A r c h e o l o g i c o , Florence; f r o m C . O . T h u l i n ,

etmskische
Figure
4.
Disziplin,
Die
v o l . I ( G t e b o r g , 1905), plate I I
B a b y l o n i a n bronze f i g u r i n e f o u n d i n the Hera
s a n c t u a r y at S a m o s ; Samos M u s e u m ; c o u r t e s y o f t h e
Deutsches Archologisches Institut, A u f n a h m e D A I
A t h e n , N e g . N r . 78/600
Figure 5.
Hildi
L a m a s h t u plate f r o m C a r c h e m i s h ; d r a w i n g b y
Keel-Leu
vu
I L L U S T R A T I O N S
Figure
6.
Seal i m p r e s s i o n f r o m N u z i and b r o n z e shield
strap f r o m O l y m p i a ; d r a w i n g s f r o m Journal
Eastern
Studies
21
(1961), 115;
of
86
Near
c o u r t e s y o f the U n i -
v e r s i t y o f C h i c a g o Press. Seal f r o m B a g h d a d :
draw-
i n g b y C o r n e l i u s B u r k e r t ; courtesy o f the Vorderasiatisches M u s e u m , B e r l i n

Figure
7.
Cypriote
silver
bowl
from
the B e r n a r d i n i
103
t o m b , Praeneste; c o u r t e s y o f the M u s e o d i V i l l a G i u lia, R o m e

Figure
8.
O r t h o s t a t e r e l i e f f r o m the palace at G u z a n a -
T e l l H a l a f ; f r o m H . T . B o s s e r t , Altsyrien
(Tbingen:
E r n s t W a s m u t h V e r l a g , 1951), f i g . 472; c o u r t e s y o f
Verlag E r n s t W a s m u t h , T b i n g e n
viii
112
PREFACE
T h e o r i g i n a l v e r s i o n o f this b o o k was p u b l i s h e d i n 1984 i n Sitzungsberichte
der Heidelberger
grateful to Glen Bowersock
Akademie
der Wissenschaften.
I am
f o r p r o m o t i n g an E n g l i s h transla-
t i o n . W i t h a v i e w t o a l a r g e r p u b l i c a n d i n o r d e r t o reflect the
c u r r e n t state o f s c h o l a r s h i p , I have revised t h e b o o k t h r o u g h o u t
and i n s o m e places e x p a n d e d the a r g u m e n t .
M y thesis a b o u t t h e indebtedness o f G r e e k c i v i l i z a t i o n t o eastern s t i m u l i m a y appear less p r o v o c a t i v e t o d a y t h a n i t d i d e i g h t
years ago. T h i s change m a y be p a r t l y an effect o f the o r i g i n a l
p u b l i c a t i o n , b u t m a i n l y i t reflects the fact t h a t classics has been
l o s i n g m o r e a n d m o r e its status o f a s o l i t a r y m o d e l i n o u r m o d ern w o r l d . Yet i t s t i l l seems w o r t h w h i l e t o h e l p b r i d g e the gaps
b e t w e e n related fields o f s c h o l a r s h i p a n d t o m a k e available m a terials o f t e n n e g l e c t e d b y o n e o r another. Such an exercise m a y
c o n v e y t h e e x c i t e m e n t o f u n e x p e c t e d discoveries even w h e n i t
necessitates a fair a m o u n t o f a n n o t a t i o n .
I o w e special t h a n k s t o Peter F r e i , Paul H o s k i s s o n , F r i t z Stolz,
R o l f Stucky, a n d M a r k u s Wafler f o r t h e i r help o n matters o r i ental, a n d t o Peter B l o m e for detailed a r c h a e o l o g i c a l
IX
advice.
THE
ORIENTALIZING
REVOLUTION
INTRODUCTION
" G o d ' s is t h e O r i e n t , G o d ' s is the O c c i d e n t " says the K o r a n .
Classical scholars have found i t d i f f i c u l t t o m a i n t a i n such a b a l anced perspective a n d have t e n d e d instead t o t r a n s f o r m " o r i e n t a l " a n d " o c c i d e n t a l " i n t o a p o l a r i t y , i m p l y i n g antithesis a n d
c o n f l i c t . T h e G r e e k s h a d b e c o m e aware o f t h e i r o w n i d e n t i t y as
separate f r o m t h a t o f t h e " O r i e n t " w h e n t h e y succeeded i n r e p e l l i n g the attacks o f t h e Persian e m p i r e . B u t n o t u n t i l m u c h
later, d u r i n g the crusades, d i d the c o n c e p t and the t e r m
a c t u a l l y enter the languages o f the W e s t .
Orient
T h i s fact h a r d l y e x -
plains w h y even t o d a y i t s h o u l d be d i f f i c u l t t o u n d e r t a k e u n prejudiced discussion
o f c o n n e c t i o n s b e t w e e n classical Greece
a n d t h e East. B u t w h o e v e r tries w i l l e n c o u n t e r e n t r e n c h e d p o s i t i o n s , uneasiness, a p o l o g y i f n o t r e s e n t m e n t . W h a t is f o r e i g n

and u n k n o w n is h e l d at a distance b y an a t t i t u d e o f w a r y defensiveness.
T o a large e x t e n t this is the result o f an i n t e l l e c t u a l d e v e l o p m e n t w h i c h b e g a n m o r e t h a n t w o centuries ago a n d t o o k r o o t
especially i n G e r m a n y .
I n c r e a s i n g s p e c i a l i z a t i o n o f scholarship
converged w i t h ideological p r o t e c t i o n i s m , and b o t h constructed

an i m a g e o f a p u r e , classical Greece i n s p l e n d i d i s o l a t i o n . U n t i l
w e l l i n t o t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y , as l o n g as p h i l o l o g y was closely
c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e o l o g y , the H e b r e w B i b l e n a t u r a l l y s t o o d n e x t
t o the G r e e k classics, a n d the existence o f cross-connections d i d
n o t present
any
p r o b l e m s . Jephtha's d a u g h t e r a n d I p h i g e n i a
w e r e i n t e r c h a n g e a b l e m o d e l s even i n t h e r e a l m o f opera; Iapetos
T H E
O R I E N T A L I Z I N G
R E V O L U T I O N
was traced t o J a p h e t h , t h e K a b e i r o i t o a S e m i t i c d e s i g n a t i o n f o r
" g r e a t g o d s , " a n d t h e " E a s t " was f o u n d i n t h e n a m e o f K a d m o s
the P h o e n i c i a n , the " W e s t " i n t h e n a m e o f E u r o p a .
ance w i t h t h e Odyssey
In accord-
and H e r o d o t u s , "Phoenicians" were read-
i l y accepted as the l i n k b e t w e e n East a n d West.

T h e n three n e w t r e n d s erected t h e i r o w n b o u n d a r i e s a n d c o l l e c t i v e l y f r a c t u r e d t h e O r i e n t - G r e e c e axis. P h i l o l o g y b r o k e free
o f t h e o l o g y F r i e d r i c h A u g u s t W o l f m a t r i c u l a t e d as
philologiae
studiosus
at G o t t i n g e n i n 1 7 7 7 a n d at t h e same t i m e ,
4
with
J o h a n n J o a c h i m W i n c k e l m a n n , a n e w c o n c e p t o f classicism, o n e
w i t h r a t h e r p a g a n tendencies, asserted i t s e l f a n d c a m e t o a t t r a c t
h i g h regard. Second, b e g i n n i n g w i t h the w o r k o f Johann G o t t fried Herder, the i d e o l o g y o f r o m a n t i c n a t i o n a l i s m developed,
w h i c h h e l d l i t e r a t u r e a n d s p i r i t u a l c u l t u r e t o be i n t i m a t e l y c o n n e c t e d w i t h an i n d i v i d u a l p e o p l e , t r i b e , o r race. O r i g i n s a n d
o r g a n i c d e v e l o p m e n t r a t h e r t h a n r e c i p r o c a l c u l t u r a l influences
b e c a m e t h e k e y t o u n d e r s t a n d i n g . I n his r e a c t i o n t o F r i e d r i c h
Creuzer's
m o r e universal m o d e l , C a r l O t f r i e d M u l l e r
gained
c o n s i d e r a b l e i n f l u e n c e w i t h his idea o f " G r e e k t r i b a l c u l t u r e . "
Precisely at t h e t i m e w h e n J e w s w e r e b e i n g g r a n t e d f u l l legal
e q u a l i t y i n E u r o p e , n a t i o n a l - r o m a n t i c consciousness t u r n e d t h e
trend
chance.
against
" o r i e n t a l i s m " and
Third,
European"the
linguistics
t h u s gave a n t i - S e m i t i s m a
scholars'
discovery
derivation o f most European
of
"Indo-
languages t o -
g e t h e r w i t h Persian a n d S a n s k r i t f r o m a c o m m o n a r c h e t y p e a t
t h a t t i m e r e i n f o r c e d t h e alliance o f G r e e k ,
R o m a n , and Ger-
m a n i c and thus banished the Semitic t o another w o r l d .
It re-
m a i n e d t o d e f e n d t h e i n d e p e n d e n c e o f the G r e e k s against t h e
I n d i a n relatives w i t h i n t h e I n d o - E u r o p e a n f a m i l y
i n order to
establish t h e c o n c e p t o f classical-national G r e e k i d e n t i t y as a
s e l f - c o n t a i n e d a n d self-sufficient m o d e l o f c i v i l i z a t i o n w h i c h , at
least i n G e r m a n y , was t o d o m i n a t e t h e later n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y .
U l r i c h v o n W i l a m o w i t z - M o e l l e n d o r f f ' s s c o r n f u l assessment i n
1 8 8 4 " t h e peoples a n d states o f the Semites a n d t h e E g y p t i a n s
w h i c h h a d been d e c a y i n g f o r c e n t u r i e s a n d w h i c h , i n spite o f the
a n t i q u i t y o f their culture, were unable to c o n t r i b u t e a n y t h i n g to
the H e l l e n e s o t h e r t h a n a f e w m a n u a l s k i l l s , c o s t u m e s , a n d i m -
I N T R O D U C T I O N
p l e m e n t s o f b a d taste, a n t i q u a t e d o r n a m e n t s , r e p u l s i v e fetishes
f o r even m o r e r e p u l s i v e fake d i v i n i t i e s " i s n o t representative
o f his w o r k ; b u t even later he m a i n t a i n e d t h a t t h e s p i r i t o f late
a n t i q u i t y s t e m m e d " f r o m t h e O r i e n t a n d is t h e d e a d l y e n e m y o f
true H e l l e n i s m . "
B e h i n d t h e i r a s c i b i l i t y a c e r t a i n i n s e c u r i t y seems t o l u r k . I n
fact t h e i m a g e o f p u r e , s e l f - c o n t a i n e d H e l l e n i s m w h i c h makes
its m i r a c u l o u s appearance w i t h H o m e r h a d been o v e r t a k e n i n
the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y b y three g r o u p s o f n e w discoveries: the
reemergence
o f the ancient
Near
East a n d
Egypt
through
t h e d e c i p h e r m e n t o f c u n e i f o r m a n d h i e r o g l y p h i c w r i t i n g , the
u n e a r t h i n g o f M y c e n a e a n c i v i l i z a t i o n , a n d t h e r e c o g n i t i o n o f an
o r i e n t a l i z i n g phase i n the d e v e l o p m e n t o f archaic G r e e k art.
Classical p h i l o l o g y g r e e t e d these discoveries w i t h hesitancy.
T h e M y c e n a e a n p e r i o d was g r a d u a l l y accepted as G r e e k p r e h i s tory,
1 0
firmed
a n d the f i n a l d e c i p h e r m e n t o f L i n e a r B as G r e e k
con-
this as fact. T h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f A s s y r i o l o g y w i t h t h e
i n i t i a l d i f f i c u l t i e s o f r e a d i n g c u n e i f o r m G i l g a m e s h m a d e his
entrance i n the guise o f I z d u b a r c o u l d be v i e w e d f r o m a d i s 1 1
tance a n d w i t h s o m e c o n d e s c e n s i o n b y an established b r a n c h o f
s c h o l a r s h i p . W h e n a f e w u n m e t h o d i c a l studies t r i e d t o p r o m o t e
the fundamental i m p o r t a n c e o f B a b y l o n i a n literature i n relation
t o w o r l d h i s t o r y , i t was left t o the t h e o l o g i a n s t o refute t h e " p a n Babylonianists."
Babylon."
1 3
O n l y outsiders w r o t e about " H o m e r
1 2
and
H i s t o r i a n s , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , h a d less d i f f i c u l t y
o p e n i n g themselves
to the n e w dimensions o f w o r l d history.
E d u a r d M e y e r b e g a n t o p u b l i s h his m o n u m e n t a l History
of An-
tiquity i n 1884, a f u n d a m e n t a l a n d i n fact u n i q u e a c h i e v e m e n t .
14
T h e p u r s u i t o f this u n i v e r s a l a i m was c o n t i n u e d b y the c o l l e c t i v e

u n d e r t a k i n g o f The Cambridge
Ancient
History.
B y c o n t r a s t , t h e a n t i - o r i e n t a l reflex was t o p r e v a i l i n the f i e l d

w h i c h lay m u c h closer t o H e l l e n i s t s , i n the assessment o f t h e
P h o e n i c i a n s , w h o h a d o f o l d been r e g a r d e d as the active i n t e r mediaries
between
scholar o f genius
the O r i e n t and Hellas. Julius

flawed
b y his idiosyncrasies
Beloch,
and overt anti-
S e m i t i s m , p r o m u l g a t e d t h e t h e o r y t h a t t h e significance o f the
P h o e n i c i a n s i n e a r l y Greece was close t o z e r o , t h a t the " P h o e -
T H E
R E V O L U T I O N
n i c i a n " H e r a k l e s o f T h a s o s was n o less o f a fantasy t h a n the

mythical Phoenician K a d m o s .
1 5
I n s t e a d , a n c i e n t A s i a M i n o r was
f o u n d t o be o f special i m p o r t a n c e , w h e r e s o o n I n d o - E u r o p e a n s
w e r e t o appear, w i t h the d e c i p h e r m e n t o f t h e H i t t i t e language.
A b a r r i e r was erected against the S e m i t i c .
Yet t h e m a r k e d i m p a c t o f " t h e o r i e n t a l " o n G r e e k art b e t w e e n
the g e o m e t r i c a n d t h e archaic p e r i o d s a n i m p a c t m a d e e v i d e n t
b y i m p o r t e d o b j e c t s as w e l l as b y n e w t e c h n i q u e s a n d characteristic m o t i f s o f a r t i s t i c i m a g e r y c o u l d n o t be d i s r e g a r d e d , at
least after F r e d r i k Poulsen's b o o k was p u b l i s h e d i n 1 9 1 2 .
16
Even
e x p e r t a r c h a e o l o g i s t s , h o w e v e r , s o m e t i m e s appear t o feel u n c o m f o r t a b l e a b o u t t h i s fact a n d i n d e e d advise against u s i n g t h e

expression " t h e orientalizing p e r i o d . "
1 7
T h e foreign elements re-
m a i n subject t o a p o l i c y o f c o n t a i n m e n t : T h e r e is h a r d l y a s t a n d a r d t e x t b o o k that has o r i e n t a l a n d G r e e k objects d e p i c t e d side

b y side; m a n y o f t h e o r i e n t a l finds i n t h e great G r e e k sanctuaries
have l o n g r e m a i n e d a n d s o m e s t i l l r e m a i n u n p u b l i s h e d . T h e
fact t h a t O l y m p i a is t h e m o s t s i g n i f i c a n t l o c a t i o n f o r f i n d s o f
eastern b r o n z e s , r i c h e r i n t h i s respect t h a n all t h e M i d d l e E a s t e r n
sites, is s e l d o m m e n t i o n e d .
I n G e r m a n y i n t h e p e r i o d b e t w e e n the t w o w o r l d w a r s a n e w
hermeneutic approach p r o m o t e d concentration o n the i n d i v i d u a l , " i n t e r n a l " f o r m a n d style i n the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f c u l t u r a l
achievements, t o the d e t r i m e n t o f o u t w a r d influence. A r c h a e o l o g y t h u s achieved a deeper u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e archaic style
a n d i n fact d i s c o v e r e d afresh the g e o m e t r i c style; h i s t o r i a n s such
as H e l m u t B e r v e w i s h e d t o r e n o u n c e " u n i v e r s a l " h i s t o r y i n favor o f Hellenism.
1 8
T h e j o i n t w o r k o f Franz B o l l a n d C a r l B e -
z o l d i n t h e arcane field o f a s t r o l o g y r e m a i n e d a h a p p y b u t i s o lated p h e n o m e n o n . A n o t h e r specialty w h i c h failed t o a t t r a c t

general n o t i c e was t h e d i s c o v e r y b y O t t o N e u g e b a u e r t h a t t h e
" P y t h a g o r e a n t h e o r e m " h a d been k n o w n a n d used i n B a b y l o n i a n m a t h e m a t i c s a t h o u s a n d years b e f o r e P y t h a g o r a s .
1 9
Among
G e r m a n p h i l o l o g i s t s o n l y Franz D o r n s e i f f t o o k a close l o o k at
eastern c u l t u r e f r o m Israel t o A n a t o l i a , b u t i n d o i n g this he h a d
the air o f an o u t s i d e r .
D o r n s e i f f was o n e o f the first t o g i v e c r e d i t t o the n e w d i m e n -
s i o n o f the i m p a c t o f t h e N e a r East o n classical Greece, w h i c h

was d i s c o v e r e d w i t h t h e d e c i p h e r m e n t o f H i t t i t e m y t h o l o g i c a l
texts.
2 0
H o w e v e r , t h e first a n n o u n c e m e n t s a n d studies o f " I l l u -
yankas a n d T y p h o n " m e t w i t h o n l y a s l i g h t response. T h e b r e a k t h r o u g h came w i t h the t e x t o f Kingship
in Heaven,
published i n
1946, t h e m y t h w h i c h has the c a s t r a t i o n o f the g o d o f heaven b y

K u m a r b i , so s i m i l a r t o H e s i o d ' s tale a b o u t U r a n o s a n d K r o n o s ;
since t h e n the K u m a r b i - K r o n o s p a r a l l e l has been
established
a n d , l a r g e l y as a result o f t h e efforts o f A l b i n Lesky, Kumarbi

b e c o m e a s t a n d a r d reference t e x t f o r classical p h i l o l o g i s t s .
i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r o f acceptance, b r o u g h t o u t b y
Indo-Europeanists,
was
that
with
the
has
2 1
An
sympathetic
Hittites
an
"Indo-
E u r o p e a n " p e o p l e h a d e m e r g e d t o represent t h e " O r i e n t . " B u t

i n t h e w a k e o f H i t t i t e epic a n d m y t h o l o g y s i m i l a r t e x t s o f Sem i t i c U g a r i t c a m e t o t h e a t t e n t i o n o f classical s c h o l a r s ,
22
a n d the
Greek fragments o f P h i l o n o f B y b l o s dealing w i t h Phoenician

m y t h o l o g y a t t r a c t e d fresh i n t e r e s t .
23
In addition to m y t h o l o g i c a l
m o t i f s the n a r r a t i v e t e c h n i q u e s a n d t h e l i t e r a r y s t y l e o f epic b e came t h e subject o f c o m p a r a t i v e study, t o o . Since t h e n , H o m e r i c epic can n o l o n g e r be h e l d t o have existed i n a v a c u u m ; i t
stands o u t against a b a c k g r o u n d o f c o m p a r a b l e eastern l i t e r a r y
forms.
H o w e v e r , a n e w l i n e o f defense q u i c k l y d e v e l o p e d . I t is g e n e r a l l y a n d freely accepted that i n the B r o n z e A g e there w e r e
close contacts b e t w e e n A n a t o l i a , the S e m i t i c East, E g y p t , and
the M y c e n a e a n w o r l d , t h a t s o m e " A e g e a n koine''
t o characterize t h e t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r y B . C .
2 4
can be f o u n d
O n e can refer t o
M y c e n a e a n i m p o r t s i n U g a r i t ; A l a s i a - C y p r u s is m e n t i o n e d as a
nexus
o f East-West
c o n n e c t i o n s ; H e s i o d a n d H o m e r are also
v i e w e d f r o m t h i s p e r s p e c t i v e . W h a t is m u c h less i n focus is the

" o r i e n t a l i z i n g p e r i o d " o f the c e n t u r y b e t w e e n
approximately
750 a n d 650 B . C . t h a t is, the H o m e r i c e p o c h , w h e n , as w e l l as

eastern s k i l l s a n d i m a g e s , the S e m i t i c art o f w r i t i n g was t r a n s m i t t e d t o Greece a n d m a d e t h e r e c o r d i n g o f G r e e k l i t e r a t u r e
possible f o r t h e first t i m e . G e r m a n scholars i n p a r t i c u l a r h a d a
strange t e n d e n c y t o lean t o w a r d an earlier d a t i n g o f the G r e e k
script,
2 5
t h e r e b y s h i e l d i n g H o m e r i c Greece f r o m the influence o f
T H E
R E V O L U T I O N
the East w h i c h was so n o t a b l e i n m a t e r i a l c u l t u r e a r o u n d 700. I t

s h o u l d be clear a n y h o w t h a t b o t h p o s s i b i l i t i e s , B r o n z e A g e a n d
later a d o p t i o n s , are n o t m u t u a l l y e x c l u s i v e ; the i m p o s s i b i l i t y o f
always m a k i n g c l e a r - c u t d i s t i n c t i o n s c a n n o t be used t o refute t h e
h y p o t h e s i s o f b o r r o w i n g i n b o t h areas t o an e q u a l degree.
I n the m e a n t i m e , archaeological
research
has r e n d e r e d the
" d a r k ages" i n c r e a s i n g l y l e g i b l e a n d has cast t h e e i g h t h c e n t u r y

i n p a r t i c u l a r i n e ve r - sh ar p e r
relief. W h a t p r o v e d decisive
were
the discoveries o f G r e e k s e t t l e m e n t s i n S y r i a a n d o n Ischia i n

c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e excavations at L e f k a n d i a n d E r e t r i a o n E u boea. T h e A s s y r i a n e x p a n s i o n t o t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n t o g e t h e r
w i t h t h e spread o f t r a d e i n m e t a l ores i n t h e w h o l e area p r o v i d e s
a persuasive h i s t o r i c a l f r a m e w o r k f o r t h e m o v e m e n t o f eastern
craftsmen
to
the
Phoenician-Greek
West,
as
alphabet.
26
well
as
for
the
spread
of
the
W e n o w seem w i t h i n reach o f a
balanced p i c t u r e o f t h a t decisive e p o c h i n w h i c h , u n d e r t h e i n fluence
o f t h e S e m i t i c East, G r e e k c u l t u r e b e g a n its u n i q u e
e r i n g , s o o n t o assume c u l t u r a l h e g e m o n y
nean.
flow-
i n the M e d i t e r r a -
2 7
T h i s v o l u m e pursues t h e h y p o t h e s i s t h a t , i n t h e o r i e n t a l i z i n g
p e r i o d , t h e G r e e k s d i d n o t m e r e l y receive a f e w m a n u a l skills
a n d fetishes a l o n g w i t h n e w crafts a n d i m a g e s f r o m t h e L u w i a n A r a m a i c - P h o e n i c i a n sphere, b u t w e r e i n f l u e n c e d i n t h e i r r e l i g i o n a n d l i t e r a t u r e b y t h e eastern m o d e l s t o a s i g n i f i c a n t d e gree.
2 8
It will
be a r g u e d
that m i g r a t i n g "craftsmen
o f the
sacred," i t i n e r a n t seers a n d priests o f p u r i f i c a t i o n , t r a n s m i t t e d

n o t o n l y t h e i r d i v i n a t o r y a n d p u r i f i c a t o r y s k i l l s b u t also elem e n t s o f m y t h o l o g i c a l " w i s d o m . " I n d e e d H o m e r , i n an o f t e n q u o t e d passage o f t h e Odyssey,
enumerates various kinds o f m i -
g r a n t c r a f t s m e n " w h o are p u b l i c w o r k e r s " : f i r s t , "a seer o r a

healer," o n l y t h e n t h e carpenter, a n d , i n a d d i t i o n , the " g o d l y
singer."
2 9
W h i l e the second c h a p t e r tries t o f o l l o w t h e tracks o f
"seers" a n d " h e a l e r s , "
t h e t h i r d chapter t u r n s t o t h e r e a l m o f
these singers, p r e s e n t i n g c o r r e s p o n d e n c e s
b e t w e e n eastern a n d
G r e e k l i t e r a t u r e w h i c h m a k e i t p r o b a b l e t o assume c o n n e c t i o n s ,
even d i r e c t l i t e r a r y i n f l u e n c e o f h i g h eastern c i v i l i z a t i o n s o n t h e
final
phase o f H o m e r i c epic, t h a t is, the b e g i n n i n g o f Greek l i t -
eracy, w h e n w r i t i n g t o o k over f r o m o r a l t r a d i t i o n .
T h e results w h i c h can be reached w i t h any degree o f c e r t a i n t y
r e m a i n l i m i t e d . T h e b r i d g e t h a t once p r o v i d e d the d i r e c t c o n tact, t h e l i t e r a r y c u l t u r e o f a n c i e n t S y r i a , has i r r e v o c a b l y d i s a p peared. O n t h e o t h e r h a n d w e have t h e u n i q u e o p p o r t u n i t y t o
c o m p a r e c o n t e m p o r a n e o u s texts f r o m b o t h t h e G r e e k a n d the
o r i e n t a l sides. T h i s task b o t h enables a n d d e m a n d s p r e c i s i o n . B y
c o n t r a s t , i n the case o f the m o r e sensational c o n n e c t i o n s b e t w e e n K u m a r b i o r I l l u y a n k a s a n d H e s i o d a t i m e gap o f five o r
six centuries has t o be b r i d g e d , i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e g e o g r a p h i c
distance b e t w e e n East a n d West. T h e H e s i o d i c p r o b l e m s , w h i c h
have been t h e subject o f m u c h s c h o l a r l y a t t e n t i o n i n recent d e cades, w i l l n o t be discussed i n detail h e r e .
3 0
They complement
the perspectives u n d e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n , especially i n v i e w o f the

clear l i n k b e t w e e n H e s i o d a n d E u b o e a .
T h e studies p r e s e n t e d i n this b o o k m a y s t i l l r u n u p against a
final
a n d perhaps i n s u p e r a b l e l i n e o f defense, the t e n d e n c y o f
m o d e r n c u l t u r a l t h e o r i e s t o a p p r o a c h c u l t u r e as a s y s t e m e v o l v i n g t h r o u g h its o w n processes o f i n t e r n a l e c o n o m i c a n d social

d y n a m i c s , w h i c h reduces a l l o u t w a r d influences t o n e g l i g i b l e
parameters.
T h e r e is n o d e n y i n g the i n t e l l e c t u a l a c u m e n and
a c h i e v e m e n t o f s u c h t h e o r i e s . B u t t h e y m a y s t i l l represent j u s t
o n e side o f t h e c o i n . I t is e q u a l l y v a l i d t o see c u l t u r e as a c o m plex o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n w i t h c o n t i n u i n g opportunities for learni n g afresh, w i t h c o n v e n t i o n a l yet p e n e t r a b l e f r o n t i e r s , i n a w o r l d
o p e n t o change a n d e x p a n s i o n . T h e i m p a c t o f w r i t t e n as o p posed t o o r a l c u l t u r e is perhaps the m o s t d r a m a t i c e x a m p l e o f
t r a n s f o r m a t i o n w r o u g h t f r o m the outside, t h r o u g h b o r r o w i n g .
I t m a y s t i l l be t r u e t h a t t h e m e r e fact o f b o r r o w i n g s h o u l d o n l y
p r o v i d e a s t a r t i n g p o i n t f o r closer i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , that t h e f o r m
o f selection a n d a d a p t a t i o n , o f r e w o r k i n g a n d r e f i t t i n g t o a n e w
s y s t e m is r e v e a l i n g a n d i n t e r e s t i n g i n each case. B u t the " c r e a t i v e
t r a n s f o r m a t i o n " b y the G r e e k s , ' h o w e v e r i m p o r t a n t , s h o u l d
3
n o t o b s c u r e the sheer fact o f b o r r o w i n g ; t h i s w o u l d a m o u n t t o

yet a n o t h e r s t r a t e g y o f i m m u n i z a t i o n d e s i g n e d t o c l o u d w h a t is
foreign and disquieting.
T H E
R E V O L U T I O N
T h e m o d e s t a i m o f this b o o k is t o serve as a messenger across

boundaries,
3 2
t o d i r e c t the a t t e n t i o n o f classicists t o areas t o
w h i c h t h e y have p a i d t o o l i t t l e r e g a r d , a n d t o m a k e these fields

o f s t u d y m o r e accessible even t o nonspecialists. I t m a y also e n c o u r a g e o r i e n t a l i s t s , h a r d l y less p r o n e t o i s o l a t i o n , t o keep o r
r e n e w t h e i r contacts w i t h n e i g h b o r i n g f i e l d s .
33
M y e m p h a s i s is
deliberately o n p r o v i d i n g evidence for correspondences and for

the l i k e l i h o o d o f b o r r o w i n g s . I f i n c e r t a i n cases the m a t e r i a l s
themselves d o n o t p r o v i d e i n c o n t r o v e r t i b l e e v i d e n c e o f c u l t u r a l
transfer, the e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f s i m i l a r i t i e s w i l l s t i l l be o f value, as
i t serves t o free b o t h the G r e e k a n d the o r i e n t a l
phenomena
f r o m t h e i r i s o l a t i o n a n d t o create an arena o f p o s s i b l e c o m p a r i sons.

T h i s is n o t t o p r e c l u d e m o r e s u b t l e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f G r e e k
a c h i e v e m e n t s as a consequence. Yet i n the p e r i o d at a b o u t the
m i d d l e o f the e i g h t h c e n t u r y , w h e n d i r e c t c o n t a c t had been est a b l i s h e d b e t w e e n t h e A s s y r i a n s a n d the G r e e k s , G r e e k c u l t u r e
m u s t have been m u c h less self-conscious a n d t h e r e f o r e
much
m o r e m a l l e a b l e a n d o p e n t o f o r e i g n influence t h a n i t b e c a m e i n
subsequent g e n e r a t i o n s . I t is the f o r m a t i v e e p o c h o f G r e e k c i v i l i z a t i o n that e x p e r i e n c e d the o r i e n t a l i z i n g r e v o l u t i o n .
C H A P T E R
" W H O ARE PUBLIC
O N E
WORKERS"
The Migrant Craftsmen
Historical
Background
A f t e r t h e u p h e a v a l a n d d e v a s t a t i o n w h i c h p r e v a i l e d f r o m Greece
t h r o u g h A n a t o l i a t o S y r i a a n d Palestine a b o u t
1200
B . C . and
w h i c h is g e n e r a l l y a t t r i b u t e d , o n the basis o f E g y p t i a n texts, t o

" p e o p l e s o f t h e s e a " a m o n g w h o m the Philistines are t h e m o s t
t a n g i b l e t h e k i n g d o m s , palaces, a r t i s t i c s k i l l s , and w r i t i n g syst e m s w h i c h h a d m a d e the g l o r y o f t h e B r o n z e A g e h a d l a r g e l y
disappeared.
I n t h e eastern M e d i t e r r a n e a n , o u t s i d e E g y p t , u r -
ban c i v i l i z a t i o n a n d l i t e r a c y s u r v i v e d o n l y i n t h e area o f C i l i c i a Syria-Palestine. A s t r o n g t r a d i t i o n o f H i t t i t e c i v i l i z a t i o n c o n t i n u e d t o d o m i n a t e C i l i c i a and e x t e n d e d as far as n o r t h e r n S y r i a .

H i t t i t e style is m o s t d i s t i n c t i v e i n m o n u m e n t a l s c u l p t u r e and
o t h e r art o b j e c t s i m p o r t a n t sites are T e l l H a l a f - G u z a n a ,
Car-
chemish, M a l a t y a - M i l i d , Samâl-Zincirli, Karatepe and
par-
t i c u l a r l y i n t h e H i t t i t e h i e r o g l y p h i c s c r i p t , w h i c h persisted at
K a r a t e p e u n t i l n e a r l y the e n d o f t h e e i g h t h c e n t u r y ; i t was used
f o r a l a n g u a g e o f t h e H i t t i t e f a m i l y w h i c h is n o w called H i e r o g l y p h i c L u w i a n . C o n q u e r i n g A r a m a i c tribes, speaking
Se-
m i t i c l a n g u a g e a n d u s i n g alphabetic w r i t i n g , w o n s u p r e m a c y i n
s o m e places, f o u n d i n g p r i n c e d o m s such as G u z a n a a n d S a m ' a l .
S o u t h e r n S y r i a , i n c l u d i n g the cities o f B y b l o s , S i d o n , a n d T y r e ,
h a d l o n g been affected b y E g y p t i a n style a n d influences.
The
" W H O
western
A R E
P U B L I C
W O R K E R S "
Semites based i n t h i s area, called Phoinikes
by
the
G r e e k s , w e r e c o n t i n u i n g t o e x p a n d t h e i r sea t r a d e . E a r l y c o n n e c t i o n s reached n o t o n l y t o C y p r u s b u t also t o C r e t e .
Increas-
i n g l y i m p o r t a n t i n these a c t i v i t i e s was t h e search for c o p p e r and

iron ores.
T h e m o s t p o r t e n t o u s a c h i e v e m e n t i n Syria-Palestine was the

d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e a l p h a b e t i c s c r i p t , w h i c h , t h r o u g h its i n g e n i o u s s i m p l i f i c a t i o n , m a d e r e a d i n g a n d w r i t i n g m o r e w i d e l y accessible f o r t h e
first
t i m e . I t was used e q u a l l y b y
Phoenicians, and Aramaeans.
Hebrews,
T h e i n v e n t i o n goes back t o t h e
B r o n z e A g e , b u t i t g a i n e d its u n i q u e p o s i t i o n o n l y w i t h t h e c o l lapse o f t h e B r o n z e A g e , w h i c h m a d e m o s t o f t h e o t h e r w r i t i n g
systems disappear.
T h e e x p a n s i o n o f A s s y r i a i n t o this h e t e r o g e n e o u s assemblage
o f cities, k i n g d o m s , a n d t r i b a l centers f r o m the n i n t h c e n t u r y
o n w a r d s b r o u g h t d y n a m i c change o f w o r l d - h i s t o r i c a l p r o p o r t i o n s . F o r t h e A s s y r i a n s , t o o , t h e search f o r r a w m a t e r i a l s , p a r t i c u l a r l y m e t a l s , seems t o have been a d r i v i n g force. I n a n y event
Assur b u i l t u p the strongest a r m y o f the t i m e , e m p l o y e d i t i n
i n c r e a s i n g l y f a r - r e a c h i n g raids w i t h ruthless d e m a n d s f o r s u b m i s s i o n a n d t r i b u t e , a n d t h u s f o u n d e d the first w o r l d p o w e r .
A s h u r n a s i r p a l ( 8 8 4 - 8 5 8 ) a n d Shalmaneser I I I ( 8 5 8 - 8 2 4 ) l e d t h e
first successful advances t o S y r i a ; i n 877 an A s s y r i a n a r m y s t o o d
o n t h e shores o f t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n f o r the first t i m e . I n 841 T y r e
a n d S i d o n w e r e f o r c e d t o pay t r i b u t e , a n d i n 834 so was Tarsos
i n C i l i c i a . T h e H i t t i t e city-states w e r e f o r c e d t o f o l l o w s u i t o r
w e r e d e s t r o y e d . T h e G r e e k s m u s t have been aware o f this easte r n p o w e r , at least o n C y p r u s , because i t was a r o u n d t h i s t i m e
about 8 5 0 t h a t Phoenicians f r o m Tyre were settling o n
Cy-
prus; K i t i o n became a Phoenician city. Phoenician colonization

6
was also r e a c h i n g b e y o n d t o t h e far West: 814 is the t r a d i t i o n a l

date f o r t h e f o u n d i n g o f C a r t h a g e .
A f t e r Shalmaneser, A s s y r i a n
forces
d i d n o t appear o n the
Mediterranean for a w h i l e . D u r i n g this period Greek

first
traders
reached S y r i a . G r e e k m e r c h a n t s are present i n A l M i n a o n
t h e O r o n t e s e s t u a r y f r o m the e n d o f t h e n i n t h c e n t u r y ;
t h e r e t h e c o n n e c t i o n s reach t o N o r t h Syria,
11
to Urartu,
from
and
T H E
R E V O L U T I O N
a l o n g the s h o r t e s t caravan r o u t e t o M e s o p o t a m i a . I n a p p r o x i m a t e l y t h e same p e r i o d the G r e e k s are i n evidence at T a r s o s a n d

8
s o m e w h a t later at T e l l S u k a s . T h e r e are also G r e e k f i n d s f r o m

9
Rash-al-Basid (Poseidonia), Tell Tainat, Tyre, and H a m a . C o n n e c t i o n s g o t o n e a r b y C y p r u s , b u t above a l l t o E u b o e a , w h e r e

excavations
at L e f k a n d i have b r o u g h t t o l i g h t relics o f a r e l a -
t i v e l y affluent c o m m u n i t y i n t h e t e n t h a n d n i n t h centuries w h i c h
was o p e n t o t r a d e w i t h t h e E a s t .
1 0
I n the eighth century Eretria
a l o n g w i t h C h a l k i s reached its peak; b u t A t h e n s was n o t n e g l i g i b l e either. F r o m C h a l k i s the G r e e k s reached the West even b e f o r e t h e m i d d l e o f t h e e i g h t h c e n t u r y , as can be seen f r o m the
s e t t l e m e n t o f traders a n d c r a f t s m e n d i s c o v e r e d at P i t h e k o u s s a i I s c h i a . " H e r e , t o o , t h e t r a d e i n ores was c r u c i a l , above all w i t h
the Etruscans; t h e P h o e n i c i a n r o u t e v i a C y p r u s t o C a r t h a g e a n d
t h e n t o Sardinia h a d t o c o m p e t e w i t h t h a t o f the Greeks f r o m
E u b o e a via Ithaca t o P i t h e k o u s s a i . I t is i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h these
r o u t e s t h a t t h e first e x a m p l e s o f G r e e k s c r i p t appear, i n E u b o e a ,
Naxos,
Pithekoussai,
and A t h e n s .
"metal
ingots"attested
both
1 2
Place-names l i k e
i n Cilicia and
on
Chalkis, " b r o n z e - h o m e , " and Tarshish, " f o u n d r y , "

e c o n o m i c interests, as does t h a t verse o f the Odyssey
Soloi,
Cyprus
1 3
m a r k the
w h i c h has
t h e T a p h i a n M e n t e s t r a v e l l i n g overseas t o trade f o r b r o n z e w i t h
a cargo o f i r o n .
1 4
T h e r e n e w e d a n d s t r o n g e s t advance o f t h e A s s y r i a n s
began
under Tiglath-pileser I I I (745-727), w h o crushed the p o w e r o f

U r a r t u , m a d e vassals o f T y r e a n d B y b l o s , and p e r m a n e n t l y a n c h o r e d the A s s y r i a n forces i n the West. I t was i n his t i m e
s h o r t l y after 7 3 8 t h a t a r e p o r t first m e n t i o n s I o n i a n s t h a t is,
G r e e k s ; an officer is r e p o r t i n g a c o u n t e r a t t a c k o n S y r i a :
"The
I o n i a n s came. T h e y a t t a c k e d . . . t h e cities . . . [ N . N . p u r s u e d
t h e m ? ] i n his ships . . . i n the m i d d l e o f the s e a . "
15
I t has l o n g been a m a t t e r o f c o m m e n t a n d discussion t h a t t h e

easterners c a m e t o call t h e G r e e k s I o n i a n s J a w a n i n H e b r e w ,
16
Junan
i n A r a b i c a n d T u r k i s h . T h e A s s y r i a n f o r m is Iawan(u)
w i t h an i n t e r n a l c h a n g e o f c o n s o n a n t s ,
Iaman(u);
q u o t e d above the d e s i g n a t i o n is " ( c o u n t r y ) la-u-na-a-a"that

Iaunaia.
or,
i n the t e x t
is,
I t has been established t h a t this is n o t the n a m e o f C y -
12
" W H O
A R E
P U B L I C
W O R K E R S "
p r u s , w h i c h the A s s y r i a n s i n fact called ladnana.
Greeks o n
11
C y p r u s never called themselves I o n i a n s . N e v e r t h e l e s s a reference a r o u n d the m i d d l e o f t h e e i g h t h c e n t u r y can h a r d l y be t o

I o n i a n s f r o m Asia M i n o r either, t o M i l e t o s o r Ephesos. T h o s e
I o n i a n s c o m i n g b y sea w h o e n c o u n t e r e d t h e A s s y r i a n s
must
rather have been G r e e k s f r o m E u b o e a , A t h e n s , o r b o t h , as t h e

a r c h a e o l o g i c a l e v i d e n c e a n d t h e spread o f w r i t i n g
suggestnot
e x c l u d i n g islands such as S a m o s o r N a x o s . T h i s c o n c l u s i o n is
c o n f i r m e d b y t h e Iliad:
I n the o n e passage i n w h i c h Iacmes are
referred t o , t h e y are f i g h t i n g a l o n g s i d e the O p u n t i a n L o k r i a n s ,

a n d the A t h e n i a n s
are
given
prominence
immediately
after
t h e m . C l e a r l y , n e i g h b o r i n g tribes are referred t o ; i t is a p p r o p r i a t e t h a t Iaones
f r o m E u b o e a s h o u l d be placed b e t w e e n
O p u n t i a n s and the A t h e n i a n s .
the
1 8
A s s y r i a reached t h e h e i g h t o f its p o w e r u n d e r S a r g o n I I ( 7 2 2 705). N o t o n l y the s m a l l H i t t i t e states o f C a r c h e m i s h a n d Z i n c i r l i , b u t also C i l i c i a became p r o v i n c e s o f A s s y r i a .
I n 708 the
k i n g s o f C y p r u s , i n c l u d i n g those o f G r e e k cities such as Salamis

a n d Paphos, p a i d h o m a g e t o S a r g o n . I n K i t i o n S a r g o n left a
stele a t t e s t i n g his deeds. B u t w h e t h e r the u s u r p e r I a m a n i o f
A s h d o d , w h o was d r i v e n o u t b y S a r g o n i n 711,
was " t h e I o -
n i a n , " as his n a m e w o u l d suggest, has been d i s p u t e d ;
1 9
and the
c o m m o n v i e w that M i t a , k i n g o f the " M u s h k i , " w h o p a i d h o m age t o S a r g o n i n 709, was k i n g M i d a s o f P h r y g i a , celebrated b y

the G r e e k s , a n d hence t h a t the A s s y r i a n s w e r e i n contact w i t h a
great P h r y g i a n k i n g d o m i n the e i g h t h c e n t u r y , seems n o l o n g e r
tenable.
20
Sennacherib ( 7 0 5 - 6 8 1 ) p u t d o w n an u p r i s i n g i n Tarsos i n 696.

According
to Greek
accounts
transmitted by
Berossos
G r e e k s f o u g h t the A s s y r i a n s at sea a n d w e r e d e f e a t e d .
21
the
Even A l
M i n a was d e s t r o y e d a r o u n d 700, b u t was a l m o s t i m m e d i a t e l y

r e b u i l t anew. O n t h e w h o l e the n u m e r o u s v i o l e n t i n c i d e n t s and
catastrophes
d i d n o t d e s t r o y East-West c o n n e c t i o n s , b u t rather
i n t e n s i f i e d t h e m , perhaps because n o w streams o f refugees w e r e

m i n g l i n g w i t h t h e traders. I n a n y event o r i e n t a l i m p o r t s and
d o m e s t i c i m i t a t i o n s o f t h e m appear m o r e and m o r e i n Greece
a r o u n d 700, and a l i t t l e later i n E t r u r i a . B y t h e n c u n e i f o r m w r i t -
T H E
R E V O L U T I O N
i n g is f o u n d i n Tarsos a l o n g s i d e ceramics f r o m R h o d e s , S a m o s ,
a n d C o r i n t h . O n C y p r u s t h e p e r i o d o f A s s y r i a n d o m i n a t i o n is
also a m a r k e d l y " H o m e r i c " e p o c h .
E s s a r h a d d o n ( 6 8 1 - 6 6 9 ) also t r e a t e d t h e k i n g s o f C y p r u s as his
underlings.
2 2
H i s successor A s h u r b a n i p a l ( 6 6 9 - 6 2 9 ) , t h e m o s t
splendid k i n g o f N i n e v e h , endured forever i n the m e m o r y o f

t h e G r e e k s as " S a r d a n a p a l l o s . "
23
Essarhaddon and Ashurbanipal
f o u g h t the C i m m e r i a n s i n A s i a M i n o r , as d i d t h e G r e e k s . B u t
the centers o f g r a v i t y w e r e s h i f t i n g b y t h e n . S i d o n , w e l l k n o w n
t o t h e G r e e k s as a center o f P h o e n i c i a n t r a d e , was t o t a l l y d e stroyed b y the Assyrians i n 6 7 7 .
2 4
B y 663, h o w e v e r , K i n g P s a m -
m e t i c h u s h a d been able t o e n t r e n c h his forces i n E g y p t a n d t o

shake o f f t h e A s s y r i a n y o k e at last. W i t h the e n r o l l m e n t o f G r e e k
mercenaries
i n t o his service E g y p t
became m o r e i m p o r t a n t
f r o m t h e G r e e k s ' p o i n t o f v i e w t h a n t h e r u i n e d cities o f S y r i a .
A t n e a r l y t h e same t i m e K i n g G y g e s , i n his s t r u g g l e against t h e
C i m m e r i a n s , h a d f o u n d e d t h e k i n g d o m o f t h e L y d i a n s w i t h its
center i n Sardis a n d established d i r e c t c o n t a c t w i t h A s s y r i a b y
665.
2 5
T h u s t h e " R o y a l R o a d " was o p e n e d u p w h i c h l e d f r o m
Sardis t o the E a s t .
26
I t was this above all w h i c h b r o u g h t I o n i a n s
i n t o d i r e c t c o n t a c t w i t h t h e eastern t r a d e , a n d t h u s ensured t h e
r a p i d rise o f t h e I o n i a n s o f A s i a M i n o r . M e a n w h i l e , o n E u b o e a ,
C h a l k i s a n d E r e t r i a l o s t t h e i r forces i n the L e l a n t i n e war, h a v i n g
been o u t s t r i p p e d i n t h e w e s t e r n t r a d e b y t h e rise o f C o r i n t h ,
w h i c h c o l o n i z e d K e r k y r a i n t h e e i g h t h c e n t u r y . I n this n e t w o r k
o f changing interrelations Greek culture gained supremacy
and
eclipsed t h e o r i e n t a l i z i n g i n f l u e n c e .
Oriental
Products
in
Greece
I t is n o t G r e e k t e x t s , b u t r a t h e r a r c h a e o l o g i c a l finds w h i c h offer
a solid f o u n d a t i o n for tracing Eastern
c u l t u r a l influences
in
Greece i n t h e e i g h t h a n d early seventh centuries a n d f o r e v a l u a t i n g t h e i r significance. O b j e c t s o f o r i e n t a l p r o v e n i e n c e appear

at G r e e k sites i n i n c r e a s i n g n u m b e r s , especially i n t h e r a p i d l y
e v o l v i n g G r e e k sanctuaries, a n d at t h e same t i m e G r e e k r e p r e s e n t a t i o n a l s t y l e is u n d e r g o i n g basic m o d i f i c a t i o n s b y t a k i n g u p ,
14
" W H O
A R E
P U B L I C
W O R K E R S "
i m i t a t i n g , a n d t r a n s f o r m i n g t h e m o t i f s o f eastern art. T h i s is n o t
the place f o r a d e t a i l e d s t u d y o f sites a n d objects, c o n t e x t s a n d
proveniences.
A f t e r F r e d r i k P o u l s e n a n d T . J. D u n b a b i n , J o h n
B o a r d m a n has p r o v i d e d a c o m p r e h e n s i v e t r e a t m e n t ; a w e a l t h o f
m a t e r i a l has also been p r e s e n t e d b y H a n s - V o l k m a r H e r r m a n n
and b y W o l f g a n g H e l c k , a n d a r i c h s u r v e y has r e c e n t l y been
added b y G u n t e r K o p c k e .
T h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f l o c a l styles and
hence t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f the o r i g i n o f i n d i v i d u a l pieces is still

i n progress. M a n y sites i n t h e N e a r East r e m a i n u n e x p l o r e d o r
p a r t i a l l y e x p l o r e d , a n d archaeologists are c u r r e n t l y o p e r a t i n g i n
the m o s t u n f a v o r a b l e c i r c u m s t a n c e s a m i d s t incessant
w a r f a r e , a n d p l u n d e r i n g . Nevertheless
turmoil,
the o u t l i n e s o f c u l t u r a l
a n d e c o n o m i c d e v e l o p m e n t seem t o be f i r m l y established, w h i l e
the c e n t r a l c o n n e c t i n g r o l e o f S y r i a b e t w e e n t h e Late H i t t i t e ,
Urartian, Assyrian,
a n d E g y p t i a n c u l t u r a l influences has
be-
c o m e i n c r e a s i n g l y clear.
A s f o r Greece, t r a d e w i t h t h e East never c o m p l e t e l y s t o p p e d .
T h e r e are i n d i v i d u a l i m p o r t e d pieces f r o m the t e n t h a n d n i n t h
c e n t u r i e s ; t h e i r n u m b e r s increase s i g n i f i c a n t l y i n the e i g h t h c e n t u r y , a n d even m o r e so i n the first h a l f o f the seventh. T h e e x o t i c
o r i g i n is clear i n t h e case o f i v o r y c a r v i n g a l t h o u g h this s k i l l
was s u b s e q u e n t l y a d o p t e d b y t h e G r e e k s a n d even m o r e so i n
2
the case o f o s t r i c h eggs o r the t r i d a c n a shells f r o m the R e d
Sea,
w h i c h appear i n t h e seventh c e n t u r y . J e w e l r y is m o r e f r e q u e n t l y
3
f o u n d , g o l d i n m a n y f o r m s , faience beads, a n d also beads o f

g l a s s H e r a ' s ear o r n a m e n t s as described b y H o m e r ,
"three-
eyed a n d m u l b e r r y l i k e , " are i d e n t i f i a b l e as such a set. T h e use

4
a n d spread o f g e m s a n d seals offer even m o r e s i g n i f i c a n t e v i dence o f the c o n n e c t i o n s w i t h t h e E a s t .
S y r i a n - C i l i c i a n seals have been f o u n d at
N e a r l y one h u n d r e d
Pithekoussai-Ischia;
a m u l e t - t y p e o r n a m e n t s o f S y r i a n a n d E g y p t i a n style o c c u r i n
the t o m b s o f L e f k a n d i , a n d t h e p r i n c e w h o was i n t e r r e d i n the
H e r o o n at E r e t r i a was c a r r y i n g a P h o e n i c i a n scarab i n a g o l d
s e t t i n g . C y l i n d e r seals, t h e t y p i c a l M e s o p o t a m i a n f o r m o f seal,
7
have been
Delos.
u n e a r t h e d at O l y m p i a as w e l l as o n Samos
and
T h e evidence i n m e t a l w o r k is m o r e i m p r e s s i v e .
'5
Phoenician
T H E
R E V O L U T I O N
b r o n z e a n d silver b o w l s w e r e w i d e l y t r a d e d as special c o s t l y o b j e c t s . A s w e l l as o n C y p r u s , t h e y have been f o u n d i n A t h e n s ,

O l y m p i a , a n d D e l p h i , i n s o u t h e r n Italy, Praeneste, a n d E t r u r i a .
T h e y have l o n g been i d e n t i f i e d w i t h the krateres
mentioned by H o m e r ;
from
Sidon
t h e i r t e c h n i q u e a n d style also appear t o
present the closest a n a l o g y t o the s h i e l d o f A c h i l l e s as d e s c r i b e d

i n t h e Iliad.
A t least t h r e e o f these b o w l s , f o u n d i n O l y m p i a ,
s o u t h e r n Italy, a n d Praeneste, c a r r y
Aramaic-Phoenician i n -
s c r i p t i o n s ; o n e , f r o m F a l e r i i , has an i n s c r i p t i o n i n c u n e i f o r m .
1 0
A t O l y m p i a i n a b o u t 670 B . C . b r o n z e r e l i e f vessels f r o m the Late

H i t t i t e c i t y T a b a l w e r e r e w o r k e d t o f o r m t h e d r a p e r y o f large
statues f a b r i c a t e d f r o m b r o n z e f o i l .
1 1
O t h e r m e t a l objects a r r i v e d
i n Greece f r o m t h e same r e g i o n , o r f r o m N o r t h S y r i a , o r even

f r o m U r a r t u v i a N o r t h S y r i a : e m b o s s e d stands a n d above all a
n e w f o r m o f large t r i p o d c a u l d r o n s , d e c o r a t e d w i t h sirens o r
snakes. G r e e k c r a f t s m e n w e r e q u i c k t o a d o p t t h e t e c h n i q u e a n d
t o create t h e i r o w n m a s t e r p i e c e s .
12
A u n i q u e set o f o r i e n t a l i z i n g
w o r k s o f art is t h e b r o n z e t y m p a n o n and t h e b r o n z e
shields
f r o m t h e Idaean cave o n C r e t e ; t h e t y m p a n o n i n p a r t i c u l a r ( F i g u r e 1) has a p l a i n l y A s s y r i a n l o o k . A g r e e m e n t o n the d a t i n g o f

these objects has yet t o be achieved,
b u t i t is h a r d l y t o be
d o u b t e d t h a t t h e y served t h e c u l t o f Z e u s i n the sacred cave o f

Ida.
1 3
F i n a l l y , t h e r e are pieces o f h o r s e harness s k i l l f u l l y w o r k e d
i n m e t a l , p r e s t i g e objects for t h e a r i s t o c r a c y l i k e m a n y o t h e r
items.
1 4
Outstanding among
these are
the beautiful
bronze
plates i d e n t i f i e d b y t h e i r i n s c r i p t i o n s as g i v e n t o K i n g Hazael o f
Damascus b u t subsequently dedicated to A p o l l o o f Eretria and
t o H e r a o f S a m o s , at w h o s e sanctuaries t h e y w e r e f o u n d ( F i g u r e
2). K i n g H a z a e l is k n o w n t o have been active t o w a r d s the e n d o f
t h e n i n t h c e n t u r y , a n d t h e d e d i c a t i o n at E r e t r i a can be d a t e d arc h a e o l o g i c a l l y t o t h e m i d d l e o f the e i g h t h a rare case o f p r e c i s i o n as t o t h e p r o v e n i e n c e a n d c h r o n o l o g y o f t h e o r i e n t a l i m pact.
C y p r u s a n d also C r e t e are i n a special p o s i t i o n ; t h e y have been
" o r i e n t a l i z i n g " all t h e t i m e . R h o d e s b e c o m e s i m p o r t a n t i n the
e i g h t h c e n t u r y as w e l l . I n c o n t r a s t t o B e l o c h ' s theses there is
16
" W H O
A R E
P U B L I C
W O R K E R S "
Figure 1. Bronze tympanon from the Idacan cave, Crete, eighth

century B.C.:
"Master of Animals" holding up a lion, two demons: Zeus
and kouretes?
n o w clear evidence t h a t P h o e n i c i a n s w e r e m a n u f a c t u r i n g p e r fumes o n R h o d e s even before 7 0 0 .
1 5
O n Samos, t o o , t h e i n f l u x
o f o r i e n t a l g o o d s seems t o b e g i n before 7 0 0 .
1 6
A l l the great sa-
c r e d sites w h i c h c a m e t o flourish b y t h e e i g h t h c e n t u r y , D e l o s ,
D e l p h i , a n d above all O l y m p i a , have p r o d u c e d substantial finds
o f o r i e n t a l o b j e c t s ; a n d n e x t t o E r e t r i a A t h e n s deserves special
notice.
1 7
E t r u r i a s t a r t e d its o w n o r i e n t a l i z i n g p e r i o d t h r o u g h i n -
dependent
contac t s
with
Phoenician
17
trade w h i c h spread
to
THE
Figure
ORIENTALIZING
REVOLUTION
North Syrian bronze plaqu efrom horse harness, ninth century

found in the Hera sanctuary at Samos . Aramaic inscription:
"What (god) Hadad has given to Lord Hazael from Umqi il1 the year
whel1 the Lord crossed the ri vel'. "
2.
B . c.,
. 18 .
" W H O
neighboring
Italy,
A R E
P U B L I C
including
W O R K E R S "
Latium;
1 8
it finds
marvellous
e x p r e s s i o n i n t h e rich t o m b s o f Praeneste excavated l o n g a g o .

Domestic
craftsmanship
and
p r o d u c t i o n developed
these i m p o r t s , i n i v o r y c a r v i n g as w e l l as i n m e t a l w o r k .
1 9
from
2 0
Ori-
ental p i c t o r i a l m o t i f s also appear i n o t h e r f o r m s o f m a n u f a c t u r e ,

above a l l i n t h e m o s t e n d u r i n g a n d t h e r e f o r e t h e best preserved
k i n d o f p r o d u c t s , c e r a m i c s . ' A g a i n a f e w references m u s t suf2
fice: T h e t h e m e o f t h e M i s t r e s s o f the A n i m a l s a n d t h e M a s t e r
o f t h e A n i m a l s , w h i c h goes back t o B r o n z e A g e t r a d i t i o n s , is
g i v e n a n e w lease o n l i f e ;
i n a d d i t i o n there are characteristic
2 2
representations o f a n i m a l h u n t i n g and, i n particular, the l i o n

fight.
2 3
F e w G r e e k s w o u l d ever have a c t u a l l y seen a l i v e l i o n : I t
was f r o m p i c t u r e s t h a t t h e l i o n b e c a m e such a f a m i l i a r c o n c e p t
t o all (even i f l i o n s a n d panthers w e r e o c c a s i o n a l l y confused i n
the i m a g e s ) .
A n o l d e r , H i t t i t e style o f r e p r e s e n t i n g l i o n s is
superseded i n t h e s e v e n t h c e n t u r y b y an A s s y r i a n m o d e l . T h e
m o r e exotic gallery o f composite beastsgriffins, sphinxes, and
s i r e n s l i k e w i s e has B r o n z e A g e ancestors, b u t was r e v i v e d and
adapted t o t h e n e w f a s h i o n .
to Hittite representations,
25
2 4
T h e c h i m a e r a can c l e a r l y be l i n k e d
w h i l e t h e T r i t o n a m a n w i t h fish's
tailseems to come straight f r o m M e s o p o t a m i a .
2 6
Finally the
m o t i f o f the Tree o f L i f e s h o u l d be m e n t i o n e d , a n d i n general

the a n i m a l friezes, t h e l o t u s a n d t h e p a l m e t t e f r i e z e s .
prothesis
27
B u t the
scenes a n d t h e representations o f the s y m p o s i u m w i t h
revellers r e c l i n i n g o n couches also have an o r i e n t a l p e d i g r e e , as

the c u s t o m i t s e l f a p p a r e n t l y e v o l v e d i n the E a s t .
28
R e l i g i o u s i c o n o g r a p h y p r o p e r s h o w s c o r r e s p o n d i n g changes:
T h e M y c e n a e a n h e r i t a g e gives w a y before t h e eastern e x a m p l e s .
T h u s i n d i v i d u a l b r o n z e statuettes o f t h e w a r r i o r g o d b r a n d i s h i n g h i s w e a p o n i n his r i g h t h a n d , o r i g i n a t i n g i n t h e S y r o - H i t t i t e
r e g i o n , h a d appeared i n Greece already i n t h e Late
Mycenaean
p e r i o d ; m o r e are f o u n d n o w , a n d t h e y are c o p i e d i n t h e e i g h t h
century.
2 9
W h e t h e r g o d s o r h u m a n w a r r i o r s are b e i n g r e p r e -
sented i n t h e G r e e k c o n t e x t is a m a t t e r o f d i s p u t e ; b u t there is
n o d o u b t t h a t those later " t y p i c a l l y G r e e k " i m a g e s o f Z e u s and
P o s e i d o n , b r a n d i s h i n g r e s p e c t i v e l y t h u n d e r b o l t o r t r i d e n t , are
u l t i m a t e l y d e r i v e d f r o m these statuettes. T h e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f
19
T H E
R E V O L U T I O N
the t h u n d e r b o l t i n t h e h a n d o f the w e a t h e r g o d , i n p a r t i c u l a r ,
r e m a i n s clearly d e p e n d e n t o n the eastern m o d e l .
3 0
Q u i t e differ-
ent is the i m a g e o f a n a k e d goddess, s t a n d i n g , o f t e n t o u c h i n g

her breasts, w h i c h h a d been c o m m o n i n S y r i a f o r a l o n g t i m e ; i t
is presented t o the G r e e k s b o t h i n the f o r m o f m e t a l reliefs,
es-
p e c i a l l y o f g o l d j e w e l r y , a n d o f s i m p l e clay tablets m a d e f r o m
m o l d s . She is u s u a l l y called A s t a r t e - A p h r o d i t e , t h o u g h o n s l i g h t
evidence.
51
O t h e r types o f d i v i n e images were occasionally i m -
ported, t o o .
3 2
I n Greece the goddess was q u i c k l y p r o v i d e d w i t h
c l o t h i n g , b u t the i m a g e o f t h e s t a n d i n g goddess c o n t i n u e d t o
p r o l i f e r a t e ; a n d the statues o f g o d d e s s e s n o w o f t e n m a d e o f
l o c a l w o o d t o f i n d t h e i r place i n the n e w l y erected
temples
w e r e c l o t h e d i n r o b e s t h a t s t i l l i m i t a t e d the l u x u r y o f the East,

j u s t as H e r a ' s ear o r n a m e n t s i n the Iliad d i d . A s i g n a l e x a m p l e is
A r t e m i s o f E p h e s o s , w i t h the r e c t a n g u l a r d i v i s i o n s o f her r o b e ,
the f i l l e t at the b a c k o f her headdress, and the w o o l l e n r i b b o n s
i n her h a n d s .
E v e n closer t o c u l t i c activities seem t o be those
3 3
c u r i o u s m a s k s w h i c h w e find dedicated i n G r e e k sanctuaries, o n

S a m o s a n d , above a l l , at O r t h e i a ' s p r e c i n c t i n Sparta. T h e g r o tesque f o r m o f s o m e o f t h e m e v i d e n t l y i m i t a t e s o r i e n t a l H u m baba m a s k s .
3 4
B u t even t h e f o r m o f the o m p h a l o s b o w l w h i c h
b e c a m e u n i v e r s a l l y e m p l o y e d f o r l i b a t i o n i n G r e e k w o r s h i p is o f
o r i e n t a l t y p e . M o s t o f a l l , frankincense,
generally
introduced
d u r i n g this t i m e i n t o the w o r s h i p o f the g o d s , r e m a i n e d an o r i ental i m p o r t , as its n a m e s , libanos a n d myrrha,

dicate.
continued to i n -
35
O n e area o f m o r e p r o f o u n d eastern influence o n the practice

o f G r e e k r e l i g i o n at the t i m e can o n l y be t o u c h e d u p o n : the
c o n s t r u c t i o n o f l a r g e altars f o r b u r n t offerings a n d above all the
b u i l d i n g o f t e m p l e s t o serve as houses f o r d i v i n i t i e s , represented
b y c u l t statues. T h e r e seems t o be n o G r e e k t e m p l e p r o p e r a n t e d a t i n g the e i g h t h c e n t u r y , the p e r i o d o f the i m p e t u s o f eastern
craftsmanship.
m o s t peculiar i n t e r m i n g l i n g o f indigenous,
P h o e n i c i a n , a n d G r e e k c u l t is attested at K o m m o s , o n the s o u t h
coast o f C r e t e .
3 6
T h i s was e v i d e n t l y a place w h e r e passing ships
used t o anchor, t o take o n p r o v i s i o n s a n d t o d o h o m a g e t o l o c a l

d i v i n i t i e s . U s e o f t h e c u l t site is d o c u m e n t e d f r o m the t e n t h
20
" W H O
A R E
P U B L I C
W O R K E R S "
century o n , w i t h various structures still identifiable, remains o f

ritual
meals a n d v o t i v e
figurines;
b u t i n t h e later n i n t h c e n t u r y
there is a d i s t i n c t i v e l y P h o e n i c i a n s h r i n e , w i t h three p i l l a r s
represent
t h e sacred
center,
between
w h i c h offerings
were
c r a m m e d . I t is i n t e g r a t e d later w i t h m o r e G r e e k - l o o k i n g s t r u c tures. K o m m o s
t h u s is o n e o f t h e m o s t r e m a r k a b l e m e e t i n g
points o f Phoenician and Greek religious practice.

T h e P h o e n i c i a n m e r c h a n t s h a d always been r e g a r d e d as the carriers o f o r i e n t a l c u l t u r e , t h e s u p p l i e r s o f o r i e n t a l i m p o r t s t o the
G r e e k s , i n accordance w i t h t h e i m a g e presented b y t h e
Homer
m e n t i o n s Phoinikes,
men o f Sidon,
Odyssey:
as p r o d u c e r s
of
c o s t l y m e t a l vessels, t r a d i n g b y sea a n d o c c a s i o n a l l y i n d u l g i n g
i n piracy. B e l o c h t r i e d t o force t h e P h o e n i c i a n s o u t o f t h e A e gean p i c t u r e , asserting a lack o f clear a r c h a e o l o g i c a l p r o o f o f
t h e i r presence, especially t h e lack o f P h o e n i c i a n ceramics.
now, however,
Phoenicians
By
are c l e a r l y attested even t h r o u g h
t h e i r ceramics o n K o s a n d R h o d e s , and traces o f t h e i r presence

have been f o u n d at E p h e s o s , t o o .
3 7
B u t w i t h the excavations at
A l M i n a , the s p o n t a n e o u s advance o f t h e Greeks t o t h e East has

been w i d e l y r e c o g n i z e d . T h e e x p a n s i o n o f t h e Greeks and the
P h o e n i c i a n s i n t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n appears f r o m early o n t o d e v e l o p i n m u t u a l c o m p e t i t i o n . B o t h seem t o start b y e s t a b l i s h i n g
f o r e i g n t r a d i n g f a c i l i t i e s , f o l l o w i n g earlier A s s y r i a n p r a c t i c e , b u t
s u b s e q u e n t l y b e g i n t o f o u n d i n d e p e n d e n t cities, colonies as w e
call t h e m ; f o r t h e P h o e n i c i a n s these w e r e p r i m a r i l y K i t i o n o n
C y p r u s a n d C a r t h a g e i n A f r i c a , w h i l e G r e e k cities came i n t o
b e i n g i n s o u t h e r n I t a l y and S i c i l y ; these d e v e l o p m e n t s l e d t o
new forms o f competing power politics.
H o w e v e r , t h e t r a d i n g c o n n e c t i o n s set i n m o t i o n , first b y the
P h o e n i c i a n s a n d t h e n b y t h e E u b o e a n s , w e r e n o t the o n l y c h a n nels f o r m u t u a l c o n t a c t . M o r e i n t i m a t e c u l t u r a l contacts and exchanges t o o k place o n t h e level o f s k i l l e d c r a f t s m a n s h i p . I t has
l o n g been s u g g e s t e d t h a t , f r o m t h e e n d o f t h e n i n t h c e n t u r y ,
eastern c r a f t s m e n m i g r a t e d t o G r e e k cities a n d passed o n t h e i r
s k i l l s t o the G r e e k s . I n t h e h a r d t i m e s o f the A s s y r i a n conquests,
m i g r a t i o n s o f refugees m a y r e a d i l y be assumed. J o h n B o a r d m a n
21
T H E
R E V O L U T I O N
has d e m o n s t r a t e d t h i s m o v e m e n t i n d e t a i l , especially i n the case

o f C r e t e . H e p o i n t s t o t h r e e g r o u p s o f evidence:
A family o f
g o l d s m i t h s a n d g e m cutters i n K n o s s o s b e g a n t o reuse a M i n o a n
T h o l o s t o m b a n d consecrated i t b y a f o u n d a t i o n d e p o s i t i n o r i e n t a l style, a r o u n d 800 B . C . ; a special w o r k s h o p o f b r o n z e s m i t h s
p r o d u c e d the t y m p a n o n w i t h p l a i n l y A s s y r i a n i c o n o g r a p h y a n d
the b r o n z e
shields
for
t h e Idaean
cave; f i n a l l y ,
Syrian-style
t o m b s c o m p a r a b l e t o those near C a r c h e m i s h are f o u n d at A f r a t i ,

i n c e n t r a l C r e t e , i n t h e f i r s t h a l f o f t h e seventh c e n t u r y . T h e s e
t o m b s as w e l l as t h e h a l f - f i n i s h e d g o o d s i n the T o m b o f t h e
G o l d s m i t h s at K n o s s o s are c o n v i n c i n g i n d i c a t o r s t h a t i m m i g r a t i o n h a d t a k e n place; a n d t h e t w o phases o f i m m i g r a t i o n , before
800 a n d again a r o u n d 700, c o r r e s p o n d closely t o the A s s y r i a n
campaigns.
38
T h e actual p r o o f t h a t , c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e appearance o f easte r n p r o d u c t s , t h e r e was n o t j u s t trade t h r o u g h v a r i o u s i n t e r m e diate c o n t r a c t o r s b u t also l e a r n i n g a n d t e a c h i n g t h r o u g h d i r e c t

c o n t a c t , lies i n t h e a d o p t i o n o f n e w t e c h n i c a l s k i l l s w h i c h d o n o t
arise f r o m s i m p l y b u y i n g f i n i s h e d p r o d u c t s . T h i s applies t o t h e
art o f g o l d s m i t h s a n d g e m c u t t e r s
39
as w e l l as t o i v o r y c a r v i n g
a n d , i n p a r t i c u l a r , t o t h e v a r i o u s f o r m s o f b r o n z e w o r k i n g , be i t
h a m m e r i n g (sphyrelaton)
o r casting w i t h t h e " l o s t c o r e " m e t h o d ;
the r e p l a c e m e n t o f t h e asphalt core o f eastern t e c h n i q u e w i t h

o n e o f resin a n d b r a n s h o w s j u s t h o w c r a f t s m e n a d a p t e d creatively to n e w requirements.
4 0
E v e n the s i m p l e yet
p r o d u c t i v e t e c h n i q u e o f m a k i n g clay figures
extremely
in molds
came
f r o m M e s o p o t a m i a a n d S y r i a ; i t appears at G o r t y n and C o r i n t h
s h o r t l y after 7 0 0 .
41
I t w o u l d o f course be possible t o assume t h a t
s o m e G r e e k s e n t e r e d i n t o a p p r e n t i c e s h i p s u n d e r n a t i v e craftsm e n i n t h e East, w h e t h e r at A l M i n a i n S y r i a o r at Tarsos; this

w o u l d , i n p r i n c i p l e , lead t o t h e same results. N e i t h e r case i n volves distant contacts, b u t rather intensive c o l l a b o r a t i o n w i t h
d e t a i l e d c o m m u n i c a t i o n at least f o r t h e p e r i o d o f an a p p r e n t i c e s h i p . T h e C r e t a n f i n d s t i p t h e scale m o r e t o w a r d s t h e l i k e l i h o o d
o f i m m i g r a n t c r a f t s m e n i n the G r e e k s p h e r e w h i c h does n o t
r u l e o u t t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f i n d i v i d u a l j o u r n e y s i n the o p p o s i t e
direction.
22
" W H O
A R E
P U B L I C
W O R K E R S "
T h e p r e s u m p t i o n o f t h e existence o f m i g r a n t o r i e n t a l craftsm e n o c c a s i o n a l l y meets w i t h c r i t i c i s m b o t h f r o m classical archaeologists a n d f r o m o r i e n t a l i s t s . Whereas t h e f o r m e r , b y reas o n o f m e t h o d , t e n d t o be r e l u c t a n t t o c o n s i d e r o p p o r t u n i t i e s

for personal, almost anecdotal coincidence,
42
t o t h e l a t t e r the
i m a g e o f free e n t e r p r i s e p r o j e c t e d i n t o the " d a r k ages" appears

i n c o m p a t i b l e w i t h t h e r o y a l p o w e r a n d b u r e a u c r a c y t h a t characterized eastern c i v i l i z a t i o n s . H e r e i n d e e d is a clear d i s t i n c t i o n
4 3
b e t w e e n w e s t e r n a n d eastern t r a d i t i o n s . T h a t c r a f t s m e n are n o table f o r m o b i l i t y , t h a n k s t o t h e i r s k i l l s , i n c o n t r a s t t o resident

peasants o r l a n d o w n i n g n o b i l i t y , is clearly stated i n t h a t verse o f
H o m e r o n t h e " p u b l i c w o r k e r s , " demioergoi
(Od.
17.383-385).
S o l o n , a c c o r d i n g t o P l u t a r c h , realized this and e n c o u r a g e d the

i m m i g r a t i o n o f c r a f t s m e n t o A t h e n s : " t o change residence
the sake oftechne"
is t h e t e r m used here f o r such m i g r a t i o n .
the same t i m e t h e t y r a n t s o f C o r i n t h h a d s o u g h t after
for
4 4
At
such
c r a f t s m e n ; later T h e m i s t o k l e s a t t r a c t e d technitai w i t h t h e offer o f

i m m u n i t y f r o m taxes " s o t h a t as m a n y p e o p l e as possible s h o u l d
take u p r e s i d e n c e . "
T o j u d g e b y t h e i r names-such as A m a s i s ,
45
L y d o s , a n d B r y g o s p o t t e r s and vase painters o f t h e s i x t h c e n t u r y seem t o have i m m i g r a t e d f r o m E g y p t , L y d i a , o r P h r y g i a .
4 6
F o r A r i s t o t l e i t is p r a c t i c a l l y the r u l e t h a t c r a f t s m e n are i m m i g r a n t n o n c i t i z e n s ; he also speaks o f slaves as c r a f t s m e n ,
47
but it
is c e r t a i n t h a t w h e r e h i g h l y q u a l i f i e d craft skills are c o n c e r n e d

t h e r e can be n o q u e s t i o n o f slavery. I n H e l l e n i s t i c t i m e s " m i g r a n t
c r a f t s m e n " is a c o m m o n t e r m .
4 8
A t least b y this t i m e t h e y w e r e
t a k e n f o r g r a n t e d i n t h e S e m i t i c East, t o o . Jesus Sirach w r i t e s o f

c r a f t s m e n : " a n d even w h e n t h e y l i v e i n a f o r e i g n place, t h e y d o
n o t need t o s t a r v e . "
4 9
A t e n t m a k e r f r o m Tarsos became one o f
the h i s t o r i c a l l y m o s t i n f l u e n t i a l o f these travellers: the apostle

Paul.
T o r e t u r n t o t h e archaic e p o c h : A s s y r i a n c r a f t s m e n are p r e s u m e d t o have been present i n U r a r t u ;
5 0
and i n t h e same w a y
m e t a l w o r k spread t o t h e Scythians a n d thence far o n i n t o A s i a .

A n c i e n t t r a d i t i o n traces t h e e n c r o a c h m e n t o f G r e e k
craftsman-
s h i p i n t o E t r u r i a t o D e m a r a t o s o f C o r i n t h , t h e p u r p o r t e d father
o f K i n g T a r q u i n i u s Priscus; he was f o l l o w e d , i t is said, b y a host
23
T H E
o f craftsmen.
51
R E V O L U T I O N
E v e n w i t h o u t the s u p p o r t o f this a n e c d o t a l t r a -
d i t i o n i t is c e r t a i n t h a t G r e e k p o t t e r s a n d vase p a i n t e r s establ i s h e d themselves i n v a r i o u s
non-Greek
areas i n Italy. I n the
East, o n the o t h e r h a n d , g o o d c r a f t s m e n h a d l o n g been m u c h

s o u g h t after a n d h i g h l y v a l u e d . I t was precisely f o r t h i s reason
t h a t t h e r u l e r s a t t e m p t e d t o k e e p c o n t r o l o v e r t h e m as far as was
possible b y bureaucratic means. S o l o m o n had a w h o l e t r o o p o f
c r a f t s m e n , w h o w e r e e m p l o y e d i n the service o f K i n g H i r a m o f
T y r e , sent t o h i m f o r t e m p l e c o n s t r u c t i o n .
Ahiqar
5 2
I n a s i m i l a r v e i n the
n o v e l r e c o u n t s t h a t the k i n g o f E g y p t o r d e r e d an a r c h i -
tect f r o m the r u l e r o f N i n e v e h .
W h e n K i n g S a r g o n b u i l t his
5 3
palace i n K h o r s a b a d after the m o d e l o f a " H i t t i t e H i l a n i , " as he

states i n his i n s c r i p t i o n s ,
5 4
he p r o b a b l y d i d n o t hesitate t o r e q -
uisition the appropriate craftsmen
f r o m N o r t h Syria.
Docu-
ments f r o m M a r i s h o w that craftsmen were organized b y kings

as m o b i l e teams a n d k e p t r e a d y f o r d e p l o y m e n t as r e q u i r e d .
5 5
In
M e s o p o t a m i a n m y t h , the h e r o o f t h e f l o o d d i d n o t fail t o reserve

a place f o r c r a f t s m e n i n the a r k .
5 6
A H i t t i t e treaty expressly stip-
ulates t h a t f u g i t i v e c r a f t s m e n are t o be e x t r a d i t e d .
clearly demonstrates
5 7
Yet even t h i s
the l i m i t s o f the c e n t r a l o r g a n i z a t i o n : a
c r a f t s m a n w h o deserted w o u l d have calculated his chance o f b e c o m i n g i n d e p e n d e n t l y e m p l o y e d i n any n e w place. Letters f r o m

M a r i speak o f an a r c h i t e c t o r a s m i t h s i m p l y " g o i n g a w a y " a p p a r e n t l y o f his o w n free w i l l a n d w i t h the state t a k i n g n o steps
against h i m .
5 8
T h i s is n o t a b l e p r o o f t h a t , de facto, q u a l i f i e d spe-
cialists c o u l d n o t be d e n i e d a c e r t a i n m o b i l i t y a l r e a d y i n the
B r o n z e A g e O r i e n t . N o t t o o d i f f e r e n t are the adventures o f the
p h y s i c i a n D e m o k e d e s i n the t i m e o f D a r i u s , as related b y H e r o d o t u s : he r e t u r n e d t o his h o m e l a n d against the w i l l o f the G r e a t
K i n g , a n d the k i n g was n o t able t o get h i m b a c k .
5 9
B y that t i m e
o t h e r G r e e k specialists, c r a f t s m e n o f a l l k i n d s as w e l l as m e r c e n aries, h a d l o n g f o u n d t h e i r w a y t o the o r i e n t a l c o u r t s , t o N e b u chadnezzar i n B a b y l o n
6 0
as w e l l as t o D a r i u s i n P e r s e p o l i s .
61
T o s u m u p : F o r c r a f t s m e n i n t h e East, at least t h e chance f o r

free m o v e m e n t h a d e x i s t e d f o r s o m e t i m e , since the influence o f
the despots was l i m i t e d i n e x t e n t . I n the West this m o b i l i t y was
f u l l y d e v e l o p e d b y the o r i e n t a l i z i n g p e r i o d . I t can be p r e s u m e d
24
" W H O
A R E
P U B L I C
W O R K E R S "
that p r e c i s e l y t h i s factor c o u l d act as a s t r o n g i n c e n t i v e f o r e m i g r a t i o n t o t h e freer West. We f i n d t h e eastern c r a f t s m e n o r g a n i z e d i n the f o r m o f f a m i l y g u i l d s , as Sons o f t h e C r a f t s m e n

(mare ummani) i n B a b y l o n i a , as Sons o f t h e F o u n d r y m e n (bn nsk)
in Syria.
S u c h o r g a n i z a t i o n s guarantee f o r m s o f m u t u a l s u p -
6 2
p o r t w h i c h m u s t have o p e r a t e d v e r y m u c h t o t h e benefit o f
e m i g r e s . E v e n i f free e n t e r p r i s e i n c r a f t s m a n s h i p was an i n v e n t i o n o f t h e e a r l y o r i e n t a l i z i n g p e r i o d , the " o r i e n t a l s " w e r e certainly involved too.
A n o t h e r m o b i l e e l e m e n t t h a t s h o u l d n o t be o v e r l o o k e d is the
t r o o p s o f m e r c e n a r i e s w h o c o u l d m a k e a p r o f i t a b l e life a m i d s t
the rise and fall o f e m p i r e s . We k n o w o f the I o n i a n a n d t h e C a r ian m e r c e n a r i e s o f P s a m m e t i c h u s ;
63
A n t i m e n i d a s the b r o t h e r o f
Alcaeus served as a m e r c e n a r y f o r B a b y l o n , as d i d Sappho's

brother, Charaxos,
for E g y p t .
6 4
W h e t h e r Krethi
a n d Plethi
in
D a v i d ' s b o d y g u a r d means C r e t a n s s e r v i n g t o g e t h e r w i t h P h i l i s tines is less c e r t a i n .
6 5
I t is m o r e l i k e l y t h a t t h e Karim
attested i n
the n i n t h c e n t u r y at J e r u s a l e m w e r e i n fact C a r i a n s f r o m
Asia
M i n o r ; at a n y rate C a r i a n soldiers s u b s e q u e n t l y played an i m portant role i n seventh- and sixth-century E g y p t .
6 6
Nor would
there have been a s h o r t a g e o f Greeks t r y i n g t h e i r l u c k i n the East

at t h a t t i m e , even i f t h e case o f the I a m a n i o f A s h d o d r e m a i n s
uncertain.
6 7
T h e h o p l i t e w e a p o n r y w h i c h c a m e i n t o use at the
e n d o f the e i g h t h c e n t u r y i n Greece is closely l i n k e d t o A s s y r i a n

a n d U r a r t i a n a r m s . T o i l l u s t r a t e a G o r g o n s h i e l d s u c h as is d e s c r i b e d i n t h e Iliad, o n e can use an e x a m p l e f r o m O l y m p i a side
b y side w i t h o n e f r o m C a r c h e m i s h o n the E u p h r a t e s .
Writing
and Literature
in the Eighth
68
Century
F o r t h e general h i s t o r y o f c u l t u r e , b y far the m o s t i m p o r t a n t

a c h i e v e m e n t o f t h e o r i e n t a l i z i n g p e r i o d is the a d o p t i o n o f the
P h o e n i c i a n s c r i p t b y t h e G r e e k s a n d its s k i l l f u l a d a p t a t i o n t o
G r e e k p h o n e t i c s . ' I t can a l m o s t s t a n d as a m o d e l f o r c u l t u r a l t r a n s m i s s i o n at t h e t i m e : A s t h e b o r r o w i n g f r o m t h e S e m i t i c is b e y o n d a l l d o u b t , the creative d e v e l o p m e n t b y G r e e k i n v e n t o r s is
n o less clear; a n d a date s i g n i f i c a n t l y after t h e collapse o f M y c e -
25
T H E
R E V O L U T I O N
naean c u l t u r e , b u t n o later t h a n t h e m i d d l e o f t h e e i g h t h c e n t u r y ,
is n o w w e l l established.
F o r us, t h e G r e e k s c r i p t is t h e first perfect w r i t i n g
system,
b e i n g t h e earliest a l p h a b e t i c s c r i p t t o use signs f o r b o t h v o w e l s

a n d c o n s o n a n t s c o n s i s t e n t l y , w h e r e a s S e m i t i c w r i t i n g was, and
is, basically c o n c e r n e d w i t h c o n s o n a n t s . Its p e r f e c t i o n is c o n f i r m e d b y its success i n t h e West. Nevertheless t h e a p p a r e n t i n v e n t i o n , the n o t a t i o n o f v o w e l s , arose i n fact f r o m
misunder-
s t a n d i n g i n a d i f f e r e n t p h o n o l o g i c a l s y s t e m : A s the alphabetic
sequence o f the S e m i t i c s y s t e m was l e a r n e d a n d t h e a c r o p h o n i c
p r i n c i p l e u n d e r s t o o d b y G r e e k s , t h e y f o u n d a w o r d such as alpha t o b e g i n w i t h an a s o u n d a n d n o t w i t h a g u t t u r a l g l o t t a l
s t o p d e n o t e d b y S e m i t i c aleph.
Just t h e d e l i b e r a t e c r e a t i o n o f
an a d d i t i o n a l l e t t e r f o r the f i f t h v o w e l , Y , w h i c h is n o t present
i n the S e m i t i c m o d e l and t h u s was placed at the e n d o f the series,
is evidence o f a c o n s c i o u s c r e a t i o n b y s o m e G r e e k " i n v e n t o r . "
T h e l e t t e r Y appears i n all G r e e k alphabets a n d all alphabets d e rived
f r o m t h e m , i n c l u d i n g P h r y g i a n and Latin.
3
F o r the t i m e a n d place o f t h e a d o p t i o n o f the Phoinikeia,

H e r o d o t u s says t h e letters w e r e
originally called,
there
as
are
m a n y clues b y n o w , b u t n o f e w e r o p e n q u e s t i o n s ; n e w f i n d s
c o u l d s t i l l alter t h e p i c t u r e . T h e earliest G r e e k letters r e c o g n i z e d
t o date o r i g i n a t e i n N a x o s , Ischia, A t h e n s , a n d E u b o e a a n d a p pear a r o u n d o r a l i t t l e before 7 5 0 .
t r a d i n g c o n n e c t i o n s o f the lawones
T h i s date fits p e r f e c t l y the
f r o m S y r i a v i a E u b o e a t o the
West. O n Ischia G r e e k g r a f f i t i are f o u n d i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h

P h o e n i c i a n - A r a m a i c g r a f f i t i so t h a t i n o n e case even t h e l i n g u i s tic i d e n t i f i c a t i o n is d i s p u t e d ; a n d
been d i s c o v e r e d
finally
a Greek
g r a f f i t o has
o n a n e i g h t h - c e n t u r y sh e rd f r o m A l M i n a .
C o m p l i c a t i o n arises w i t h t h e a d d i t i o n a l letters i n s e r t e d i n G r e e k
alphabets after Y ; i t is precisely C h a l k i s / E u b o e a a n d A t h e n s t h a t
differ i n this r e s p e c t t h e l e t t e r X conveys t h e s o u n d kh i n A t t i c ,
b u t x at C h a l k i s a n d hence i n the w e s t e r n colonies a n d f i n a l l y i n
L a t i n ; i t seems n a t u r a l t h a t b o t h t h e C h a l c i d i a n a n d t h e A t t i c
alphabets s h o u l d have been p r e c e d e d b y o n e o f those " r e d " ones
w h i c h have n o n e o f t h e a d d i t i o n a l l e t t e r s , w h i c h is t h e case o n
C r e t e , M e l o s , a n d T h e r a ; b u t there are n o e i g h t h - c e n t u r y d o c -
26
" W H O
A R E
P U B L I C
W O R K E R S "
u m e n t s o f w r i t i n g f r o m these places so far, a n d t h e inference can

be called i n t o q u e s t i o n . T h e r e is m u c h t o substantiate the idea
7
t h a t C y p r u s h a d a r o l e t o p l a y as an i n t e r m e d i a r y s t a t i o n i n t h e
transmission
Greek
of writing:
letters as
The
Phoinikeia
" s c r i b b l i n g s " (grammatd)
distinctive designation
seems
to presuppose
o f the
that other
w e r e k n o w n f r o m w h i c h the P h o e n i -
cian w e r e d i f f e r e n t . T h i s was the case o n l y o n C y p r u s , w h e r e a

linear s c r i p t o f M y c e n a e a n t y p e had been adapted t o the G r e e k
a n d persisted
t o H e l l e n i s t i c t i m e s ; the first
document
now
k n o w n f o r its use i n w r i t i n g G r e e k dates f r o m t h e e l e v e n t h cent u r y . I t is r e m a r k a b l e t h a t the linear scripts h a d t a k e n the d i r e c 8
t i o n f r o m left t o r i g h t , t h e d i r e c t i o n t h a t was t o p r e v a i l i n Greek

a n d subsequent w r i t i n g , i n c o n t r a s t t o S e m i t i c use; h o w e v e r , the
change o f d i r e c t i o n f r o m l i n e t o l i n e , called bustrophedon,
as o f t e n
p r a c t i c e d i n early G r e e k w r i t i n g , is also f o u n d i n s o m e P h o e n i cian d o c u m e n t s a n d is c o m m o n i n Late H i t t i t e h i e r o g l y p h s .
Of
course the G r e e k s c r i p t c o u l d also have been d e v e l o p e d i n Syria,

a l t h o u g h there is j u s t o n e g r a f i t t o f r o m A l M i n a so far.
We
m i g h t s t i l l l o o k t o C r e t e , n o t so m u c h because o f the P h o e n i c i a n
i n s c r i p t i o n o n a b o w l that ended up i n a t o m b i n Knossos
a r o u n d 900, b u t r a t h e r because o f t h e p a r t i c u l a r l y close c o n n e c t i o n s w i t h o r i e n t a l c r a f t s m a n s h i p and c r a f t s m e n f r o m
around
800; i t was also o n C r e t e t h a t l a w s w e r e r e c o r d e d i n w r i t i n g

earlier t h a n e l s e w h e r e i n G r e e c e . " Nevertheless there is n o e v i 1
dence f r o m C r e t e so far t o r i v a l the e a r l y g r a f f i t i f r o m the sphere

o f t h e Iaones.
I n a n y case, the a r g u m e n t e m p l o y e d w i t h great
success at o n e t i m e , t h a t t h e great differences w h i c h appear f r o m

the start a m o n g l o c a l G r e e k alphabets p r e s u p p o s e a " l o n g d e v e l o p m e n t " s t r e t c h i n g over m a n y decades, i f n o t centuries,
been f i r m l y r e f u t e d b y L i l i a n J e f f e r y .
11
T h e so-called
has
develop-
m e n t , o r r a t h e r the process o f t r a n s m i s s i o n , i n c l u d i n g s o m e errors i n c o p y i n g , idiosyncrasies o f "hands," and some intentional

a d d i t i o n s d i d h a p p e n e x t r e m e l y fast, w i t h i n a f e w decades, i f n o t
years, r e a c h i n g even t h e P h r y g i a n s
i n one d i r e c t i o n and the
Etruscans i n t h e o t h e r n e a r l y s i m u l t a n e o u s l y .
S o m e S e m i t i s t s s t i l l t e n d t o plead t h a t the G r e e k alphabet is
s i g n i f i c a n t l y o l d e r , o n the basis o f c e r t a i n details o f the l e t t e r
27
T H E
formations.
12
R E V O L U T I O N
T h e finds o f P h o e n i c i a n - A r a m a i c i n s c r i p t i o n s i n
Syria, h o w e v e r a n d one should p r o b a b l y l o o k t o N o r t h Syria

r a t h e r t h a n t o P a l e s t i n e a r e s t i l l t o o scanty t o p e r m i t a d e f i n i t e
sequence o f l e t t e r f o r m s t o be established; e v e r y n e w f i n d m a y
change t h e p i c t u r e .
the argumentum
1 3
F r o m the G r e e k side, o n t h e o t h e r h a n d ,
ex silentio has b e c o m e ever m o r e o v e r w h e l m i n g :
I n t h e i n c r e a s i n g q u a n t i t y o f G r e e k g e o m e t r i c ceramics w h i c h
can be classified a n d d a t e d w i t h a reasonable degree o f p r e c i s i o n ,
n o t a s i n g l e s c r i b b l i n g has so far been discovered t h a t l o o k s l i k e
a G r e e k l e t t e r b e f o r e , say, 770, w h i l e i n the decades f r o m 750 t o
a b o u t 700 there are n o w dozens a n d dozens o f d o c u m e n t s .
c u l t u r a l e x p l o s i o n has h a p p e n e d here; there is n o t h i n g t o suggest

t h a t t h e G r e e k a l p h a b e t h a d been i n h i d i n g f o r centuries
before
t h a t date. T h u s t h e existence o f G r e e k s c r i p t i n the t e n t h and

even i n t h e n i n t h c e n t u r y appears, f r o m the state o f t h i n g s , t o be
v i r t u a l l y i m p o s s i b l e . T h e place o f a d o p t i o n c u r r e n t l y r e m a i n s
o p e n . T h e G r e e k reference t o " P h o e n i c i a n s " c a n n o t be t a k e n t o
m e a n t h a t P h o e n i c i a n s i n t h e n a r r o w e r s e n s e t h a t is, t h e i n h a b itants o f B y b l o s , S i d o n , a n d T y r e m u s t have been t h e source.
P h o e n i c i a n s o r A r a m a e a n s f r o m N o r t h S y r i a r e m a i n an e q u i v a lent o p t i o n .
F o r the m a n n e r i n w h i c h t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n o f w r i t i n g o c c u r r e d
there is an i n v a l u a b l e clue, even i f i t is o f t e n o v e r l o o k e d : t h e
G r e e k names o f t h e letters (alpha,
beta, gamma,
a n d so o n ) w i t h
t h e i r u n a l t e r a b l e o r d e r . T h e s e are S e m i t i c w o r d s b u l l , house,
a n d so o n w h i c h have n o sense at all i n G r e e k . T h e y
were
preserved f o r o n e p a r t i c u l a r reason: A l l t e a c h i n g o f r e a d i n g and

w r i t i n g b e g a n w i t h l e a r n i n g t h i s sequence b y heart. T h i s
ex-
plains also w h y m u c h earlier t h e s t a n d a r d i z e d sequence appears

i n t w o c o m p l e t e l y d i f f e r e n t S e m i t i c a l p h a b e t i c scripts, i n t h e
U g a r i t i c c u n e i f o r m a l p h a b e t attested i n the t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r y
a n d i n t h e " P h o e n i c i a n " a l p h a b e t , e v i d e n c e o f w h i c h has n o w
been u n c o v e r e d
f r o m as early as t h e t w e l f t h c e n t u r y .
across l a n g u a g e b a r r i e r s ,
1 4
t h e same m n e m o n i c sequence
Even
was
learned b y r o t e i n t h e same way. W i t h the alphabetic s c r i p t , f o r

t h e first t i m e a s y s t e m o f w r i t i n g h a d c o m e i n t o b e i n g w h i c h
was so s i m p l e t h a t i t c o u l d be used b y all p e o p l e o f n o r m a l i n -
28
" W H O
A R E
P U B L I C
W O R K E R S "
telligence even o u t s i d e t h e circles o f learned p r o f e s s i o n a l scribes;

t h e y need t o be t a u g h t f o r o n l y a s h o r t t i m e a n d t o get s o m e
practice i n h a n d w r i t i n g . We m a y
teaching
of writing
form
s o m e p i c t u r e o f the
i n the S y r o - P a l e s t i n i a n
region.
1 5
When
m u c h later w e read i n Josephus t h a t " o f all those w h o dealt w i t h

the G r e e k s , t h e P h o e n i c i a n s used w r i t i n g t h e m o s t , f o r p r i v a t e
business as w e l l as f o r t h e i r p u b l i c a f f a i r s , "
16
he was r e f e r r i n g t o
a s c h o o l t r a d i t i o n g o i n g back a t h o u s a n d years. T h e inference is

that t h e " i n v e n t o r " w h o first used these letters f o r t h e n o t a t i o n
o f t h e G r e e k l a n g u a g e h a d p a r t i c i p a t e d i n at least one s c h o o l
lesson, w h e t h e r o f t h e A r a m a i c o r the P h o e n i c i a n t y p e , w h e t h e r
i n S y r i a o r o n C y p r u s , perhaps even s o m e w h e r e else w i t h s o m e
e m i g r a n t w h o h a d received an e l e m e n t a r y e d u c a t i o n . T h i s gives
cause t o reflect o n t h e sheer c o i n c i d e n c e t h a t rules the evidence
available t o us: T h e S e m i t i c l e t t e r names alpha,
beta, and so o n
o c c u r i n G r e e k l i t e r a t u r e i n the f i f t h c e n t u r y at t h e e a r l i e s t ,
17
but
t h e y m u s t have been i n c u r r e n t use ever since t h e e i g h t h c e n t u r y ,

as t h e y h a d been a d o p t e d a l o n g w i t h t h e o r i g i n a l alphabet; t h a t
those meaningless
w o r d p a t t e r n s s h o u l d have been i n t r o d u c e d
i n t o G r e e k at any later t i m e is q u i t e i m p o s s i b l e . T h e L a t i n a l p h a b e t can serve as a c o u n t e r p r o o f : W r i t e r s o f L a t i n d i d n o t

a d o p t t h e a n c i e n t P h o e n i c i a n m n e m o n i c sequence; rather, t h e y
let t h e v o w e l s s o u n d f o r themselves and a d d e d an e - v o w e l t o the
c o n s o n a n t s , as t h e G r e e k s h a d already d o n e w i t h t h e i r a d d i t i o n a l
letters Y O o n the one h a n d a n d $ X f ,
pronounced
"phee,"
" k h e e , " "psee," o n the o t h e r ; b u t even so the L a t i n s and the R o m a n s started s c h o o l b y l e a r n i n g t h e i r a be ceas w e s t i l l d o t o day. I t is r e m a r k a b l e t h a t i n t h i s respect t h e Greek practice has
r e m a i n e d closer t o P h o e n i c i a n - A r a m a i c s c h o o l t r a d i t i o n t h a n
the L a t i n d i d t o t h e G r e e k .
T h u s i t is clear t h a t the a d o p t i o n o f the P h o e n i c i a n s c r i p t b y
the G r e e k s was m o r e t h a n t h e c o p y i n g o f letter f o r m s ; i t i n c l u d e d t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n o f the t e c h n i q u e o f t e a c h i n g a n d l e a r n i n g h o w t o read a n d w r i t e . T h i s presupposes a c e r t a i n i n t i m a c y
o f c o n t a c t s , as is also i n d i c a t e d b y those objects w h i c h a l m o s t
never s h o w u p i n t h e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l d o c u m e n t a t i o n a n d yet are
m u c h m o r e s i g n i f i c a n t f o r the t r a d i t i o n o f w r i t i n g than i n d i v i d -
29
T H E
R E V O L U T I O N
u a l g r a f f i t i : w r i t i n g tablets a n d leather scrolls t o g e t h e r w i t h the

a p p r o p r i a t e w r i t i n g t o o l s . T h e s e i n d e e d m u s t have a c c o m p a n i e d
the use o f the G r e e k s c r i p t f r o m t h e start. T h e w r i t i n g t a b l e t ,
deltos i n G r e e k , has even k e p t its S e m i t i c n a m e , daltudaleth
Hebrewtogether
with
the name
w h i c h i t is c o v e r e d , malthe.
Daltu
o f t h e special
wax
in
with
o r i g i n a l l y means d o o r b u t is
used f o r a w r i t i n g t a b l e t already i n t h i r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y U g a r i t , as
i t is i n H e b r e w later o n .
1 8
W o o d e n w r i t i n g tablets w e r e i n use i n
M e s o p o t a m i a as w e l l as i n S y r i a a n d Palestine; t h e f i n d o f o n e
e x e m p l a r i n t h e f o u r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y w r e c k at U l u B u r u n near
K a , T u r k e y , is c o n s i d e r e d sensational, even i f n o trace o f the
w r i t i n g f o r w h i c h i t was used has been preserved; s o m e w r i t i n g
tablets o f i v o r y f r o m
k n o w n for a long t i m e .
Sargon's palace i n N i m r u d
1 9
have been
I n G r e e k the " f o l d i n g t a b l e t " o n w h i c h
t o w r i t e m a k e s its appearance w i t h t h e B e l l e r o p h o n t e s s t o r y i n
H o m e r , i n the c o n t e x t o f the "fatal l e t t e r " m o t i f .
2 0
I t is t r u e t h a t
t h e o l d e s t d i r e c t t e s t i m o n i e s f o r t h e w o r d deltos o c c u r i n A e s c h y lus, b u t the reference t o " b r o n z e deltoi"
as a t e r m f o r a n c i e n t
sacral l a w s s h o u l d p o i n t back t o t h e seventh o r s i x t h c e n t u r y .
2 1
W h a t is r e m a r k a b l e is t h a t t h e w o r d deltos c o n s i s t e n t l y carries
the v o w e l e i n n o r m a l G r e e k , as o p p o s e d t o a i n S e m i t i c
daltu;
s l i g h t d i s t o r t i o n s o f v o w e l c o l o r i n g are n o t s u r p r i s i n g w i t h b o r r o w e d w o r d s , b u t t h e e is e q u a l l y characteristic o f t h e
Greek
l e t t e r n a m e delta, w h i c h r e p r o d u c e s the same S e m i t i c w o r d . I n

contrast, i n the C y p r i o t syllabic script, w h i c h remains unaware
o f t h e s t a n d a r d G r e e k a l p h a b e t , t h e e x p e c t e d f o r m f o r the w r i t i n g t a b l e t is attested, daltos,
closer t o the S e m i t i c , j u s t as the
P h o e n i c i a n s w e r e so close o n C y p r u s .
2 2
T h a t the n o r m a l Greek
t e r m f o r t h e w r i t i n g t a b l e t a n d the l e t t e r n a m e s h o w e x a c t l y t h e
same m e t a m o r p h o s i s indicates t h a t b o t h b e l o n g t o g e t h e r f r o m
the s t a r t i n o t h e r w o r d s , t h a t the deltos i n Greece is as o l d as
the Greek alphabet.
B o o k s w e r e i n general use i n t h e P h o e n i c i a n - A r a m a i c r e g i o n
i n the f o r m o f leather scrolls; i n the special case o f t h e Israelite
Torah,
this f o r m
has
remained mandatory.
Aramaic
"scroll
scribes" m a d e t h e i r w a y t o M e s o p o t a m i a a n d became v i r t u a l l y
indispensable
to the Assyrian
a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , even w h e n t h e
30
" W H O
A R E
P U B L I C
W O R K E R S "
" t a b l e t scribes" o f the m u c h less p r a c t i c a l yet o l d a n d venerable

c u n e i f o r m script insisted o n their privileges and still enjoyed
higher rank. T h u s the a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f the Assyrian
was based o n t w o l a n g u a g e s , o r rather, t w o s c r i p t s .
empire
Aramaic
23
as an a d m i n i s t r a t i v e l a n g u a g e c a m e d e f i n i t e l y t o the fore w i t h
the A c h a e m e n i d s o f Persia; b y t h e n i t is called " i m p e r i a l A r a m a i c " (Reichsaramaisch)
b y m o d e r n specialists. B u t even D a r i u s
d e f e r r e d t o t h e o l d e r t r a d i t i o n a n d d e e m e d i t necessary t o have
Persian c u n e i f o r m created. F o r p r a c t i c a l purposes the Persians
c o n t i n u e d t o use t h e scrolls; there was a l i b r a r y o f leather scrolls
i n Persepolis, b u r n t d o w n b y A l e x a n d e r .
24
I n Greece the leather
s c r o l l , w r a p p e d a r o u n d a w o o d e n s t i c k , is already referred t o i n
the seventh c e n t u r y b y A r c h i l o c h u s , as he i n t r o d u c e s his o w n
p o e m w i t h t h e c u r i o u s t e r m skytale,
s t i c k a d m i t t e d l y this t e r m
was o b s c u r e even f o r G r e e k readers i n later a n t i q u i t y .
We have
2 5
the w o r d o f H e r o d o t u s t h a t t h e I o n i a n s s t i l l called
b o o k s diphtherai,
papyrus
s k i n s , as this w o r d h a d b e c o m e established t o
designate b o o k s i n the b e g i n n i n g s o f literacy. F o r c o n f i r m a t i o n

even m o r e a n c i e n t e v i d e n c e has c o m e u p : I n s i x t h - c e n t u r y b u s i ness letters f r o m t h e M i l e s i a n c o l o n y O l b i a , diphtherion
as t h e
" m a s t e r b o o k " is seen t o c o n t r a s t w i t h single lead sheets used as

letters, molibdion.
26
T h u s i t is h a r d l y a c o i n c i d e n c e t h a t , i n the
f i f t h c e n t u r y , oracle b o o k s are referred t o as diphtherai,
27
as these
p r o b a b l y c o n t i n u e one o f the earliest uses o f w r i t i n g . A s c o n tacts w i t h E g y p t
became m o r e f r e q u e n t , p a p y r u s ,
being
so
m u c h cheaper a n d l i g h t e r , b e c a m e the d o m i n a n t w r i t i n g m a t e r i a l . I t was called byhlos f r o m t h e P h o e n i c i a n t r a d i n g post G u b l a /

B y b l o s , o r chartes, a f o r e i g n w o r d o f u n k n o w n o r i g i n . I t seems
t h a t p a p y r u s b e c a m e available at t h e earliest i n the era o f P s a m m e t i c h u s , a b o u t 660, o r m o r e p r o b a b l y o n l y w h e n the Greeks
settled at N a u k r a t i s a r o u n d 600. T h e b r e a k t h r o u g h t o l i t e r a c y
precedes t h i s date even i n I o n i a ; this is reflected i n the l o c a l d i a lect w h i c h a d h e r e d t o t h e t e r m f o r leather s c r o l l ,
diphthera.
A k k a d i a n c u n e i f o r m side b y side w i t h A r a m a i c , P h o e n i c i a n ,
a n d G r e e k a l p h a b e t i c s c r i p t produces a c o n t i n u u m o f w r i t t e n
c u l t u r e i n t h e e i g h t h c e n t u r y w h i c h stretches f r o m the E u p h r a t e s
t o Italy. C u n e i f o r m tablets are f o u n d n o t o n l y as far as Syria b u t
3i
T H E
R E V O L U T I O N
also o n C y p r u s a n d i n Tarsos, w h e r e t h e G r e e k s w e r e d e f i n i t e l y
present. A l i t t l e f a r t h e r east, at G u z a n a - T e l l H a l a f , a businessm a n w o u l d c o n d u c t his c o r r e s p o n d e n c e p a r t l y i n c u n e i f o r m ,
p a r t l y i n A r a m a i c , w h e r e a s an A r a m a i c - s p e a k i n g c o m m u n i t y
such as H u z i r i n a - S u l t a n t e p e near H a r r a n k e p t a l i b r a r y o f c u n e i f o r m l i t e r a t u r e . T h e p r a c t i c e o f w r i t t e n c o n t r a c t s can be f o l l o w e d f r o m c u n e i f o r m t h r o u g h A r a m a i c and H e b r e w d o w n to
the G r e e k s o f t h e classical a n d H e l l e n i s t i c p e r i o d s .
2 8
C a r l Wendel
has d r a w n a t t e n t i o n t o c o n n e c t i o n s t h a t g o b e y o n d business
d o c u m e n t s ; I t is t h e p r a c t i c e o f t h e subscriptio
i n particular that
connects t h e l a y o u t o f later G r e e k b o o k s w i t h c u n e i f o r m p r a c tice, the i n d i c a t i o n o f t h e n a m e o f t h e w r i t e r / a u t h o r a n d the t i t l e

o f t h e b o o k r i g h t at the e n d , after t h e last l i n e o f t h e t e x t ; this is
a detailed and exclusive
correspondence
which
proves
that
G r e e k l i t e r a r y p r a c t i c e is u l t i m a t e l y d e p e n d e n t u p o n M e s o p o t a m i a . I t is necessary t o p o s t u l a t e t h a t A r a m a i c l e a t h e r scrolls
f o r m e d the c o n n e c t i n g l i n k .
2 9
H e r e , h o w e v e r , w e are c o n f r o n t e d w i t h the c a t a s t r o p h i c state

o f preservation: T h e w h o l e o f A r a m a i c and Phoenician literature
has been l o s t t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e perishable m a t e r i a l s o n w h i c h i t
was w r i t t e n , w o o d o r leather, w i t h the e x c e p t i o n o f t h a t offs h o o t i n Israel w h i c h was t o d e v e l o p i n t o t h e B i b l e a n d t h u s
r e m a i n e d p r e s e r v e d as a sacred t e x t . T h e r e are,
nevertheless,
t w o pieces o f e v i d e n c e t o s h o w t h a t c u n e i f o r m l i t e r a r y texts i n deed e x e r t e d i n f l u e n c e o n A r a m a i c s c r o l l - l i t e r a t u r e . T h e sole e x t a n t scraps o f an e a r l y A r a m a i c l i t e r a r y t e x t f o u n d so far are the

Ahiqar
f r a g m e n t s f i o m E l e p h a n t i n e . T h e Ahiqar
novellong
k n o w n i n its later, A r a m a i c - S y r i a n f o r m a n d i n v a r i o u s versions

i n o t h e r l a n g u a g e s i s set i n S y r i a i n the t i m e o f K i n g
Sennach-
e r i b a n d m a k e s use o f names t h a t m a y be h i s t o r i c a l . T h e piece

i t s e l f w a s , i n all p r o b a b i l i t y , w r i t t e n after t h e c a t a s t r o p h e o f N i n eveh, b u t t h e A s s y r i a n p e r i o d is felt t o l o o m l a r g e i n t h e p i c t u r e .
T h e t r a n s m i s s i o n o f t h i s t e x t is r e m a r k a b l e p r o o f f o r a c o n t i n u ous
tradition from
Egypt.
maic,
3 1
3 0
Mesopotamia
via Syria
t o Palestine
and
A n o t h e r tale a b o u t A s h u r b a n i p a l is e x t a n t i n A r a -
a n d G i l g a m e s h appears as a m y t h i c a l g i a n t a m o n g the
r e m a i n s o f A r a m a i c leather scrolls f r o m Q u m r a n , i n a f r a g m e n t
32
" W H O
A R E
P U B L I C
W O R K E R S "
o f t h e A r a m a i c B o o k o f H e n o c h : T h e m a i n character o f the
m o s t b r i l l i a n t w o r k o f c u n e i f o r m l i t e r a t u r e has left his echo i n
A r a m a i c w r i t i n g s o f the t h i r d c e n t u r y B . C . B y s o m e r o u t e o r
other, t h e n a m e G i l g a m o s even p e n e t r a t e d i n t o G r e e k
ture.
litera-
3 2
N o t all c o n n e c t i o n s b e t w e e n A r a m a i c , P h o e n i c i a n , o r H e b r e w b o o k scrolls a n d G r e e k l i t e r a t u r e w e r e necessarily

t h r o u g h diphtherai
made
o f t h e e i g h t h c e n t u r y B . C . F o r a m u c h later
c o n t a c t t h e S e p t u a g i n t is a m e m o r a b l e piece o f evidence,
even t h e G r e e k v e r s i o n o f t h e Ahiqar
and
n o v e l w h i c h appears i n t h e
L i f e o f A e s o p was p r o b a b l y p r o d u c e d i n H e l l e n i s t i c t i m e s .
3 3
The
m e r c h a n t s a n d c r a f t s m e n at Ischia w e r e h a r d l y m u c h c o n c e r n e d
w i t h b o o k s i n t h e l i t e r a r y s e n s e a n d yet the i n s c r i p t i o n o n the
N e s t o r c u p e v i d e n t l y was m a d e b y s o m e o n e w h o k n e w w h a t a
b o o k o f G r e e k verse l o o k e d l i k e . I n any event, the fashionable
c l a i m t h a t t h e G r e e k s a d o p t e d o n l y t h e alphabet f r o m so-called
P h o e n i c i a n s a n d created all the f u r t h e r achievements
w r i t t e n culture o n their o w n
3 4
o f their
s h o u l d be a p p r o a c h e d w i t h c a u -
t i o n . W r i t i n g tablets a n d leather scrolls at the v e r y least came

w i t h t h e s c r i p t a n d m o l d e d t h e t e c h n i q u e s a n d the c o n c e p t o f
the b o o k . T h e r e was n o tabula rasa. So m u c h o f S e m i t i c w r i t t e n
c u l t u r e has been c o m p l e t e l y l o s t t h a t general p r o b a b i l i t y w o u l d
suggest r a t h e r t h a t t h e r e w e r e far m o r e n u m e r o u s , richer, and
denser c o n n e c t i o n s t h a n can be d e m o n s t r a t e d b y t h e m e a g e r r e m a i n s available. I n fact e v e r y n e w f i n d this c e n t u r y , w h e t h e r
f r o m E l e p h a n t i n e o r Q u m r a n , f r o m K a r a t e p e o r D e i r A U a , has
c
b r o u g h t to light n e w and often unexpected connections.

The Problem
35
oj"Loan-Words
T h e clearest a n d m o s t e n d u r i n g e v i d e n c e o f c u l t u r a l influences
is e m b o d i e d i n l a n g u a g e .
What Christianity, Roman civiliza-
t i o n , a n d G r e e k i n t e l l e c t u a l a n d a r t i s t i c c u l t u r e have m e a n t f o r
the West s t i l l speaks t o us f r o m o u r present l a n g u a g e . T h e d i f ferent p i c t u r e p r e s e n t e d b y t h e G r e e k l a n g u a g e t h e i m p r e s s i o n
of
indigenous
purity
untroubled by
external
influencesis
used, w i t h s o m e a p p a r e n t j u s t i f i c a t i o n , as an a r g u m e n t against
33
T H E
R E V O L U T I O N
the existence o f p r o f o u n d eastern influences: C l o s e c u l t u r a l c o n tacts w i t h the S e m i t i c East, i t is a r g u e d , w o u l d be b e t r a y e d i n an

a b u n d a n c e o f f o r e i g n a n d b o r r o w e d S e m i t i c w o r d s . T h e lack o f
1
S e m i t i c b o r r o w i n g s i n G r e e k is offered as p r o o f o f t h e lack o f
any s u c h c o n t a c t .
B u t t h e s i t u a t i o n is n o t so clear-cut. T h e r e are at least
some
recognized Semitic loan-words i n pre-Hellenistic Greek, i n c l u d i n g such i m p o r t a n t ones as mnea/mna,
m i n a , the basic u n i t o f
w e i g h t a n d hence o f c u r r e n c y ; kanon,
m e a s u r i n g r o d , hence
r u l e r a n d s t a n d a r d i n general; deltas, w r i t i n g t a b l e t , w i t h its w a x ,

malthe.
T h e y p r o v i d e the clearest e v i d e n c e one c o u l d w a n t f o r
the traffic o f t r a d e , c r a f t s m e n , a n d w r i t i n g i n t h e o r i e n t a l i z i n g
period.
G r e e k l i n g u i s t i c s has been t h e d o m a i n o f I n d o - E u r o p e a n i s t s
f o r n e a r l y t w o c e n t u r i e s ; yet its success threatens t o d i s t o r t r e a l i t y . I n all t h e s t a n d a r d l e x i c o n s , t o g i v e the e t y m o l o g y o f a
G r e e k w o r d means per definitionem
t o g i v e an I n d o - E u r o p e a n e t -
y m o l o g y . E v e n t h e r e m o t e s t referencessay, t o A r m e n i a n o r
L i t h u a n i a n a r e f a i t h f u l l y r e c o r d e d ; possible b o r r o w i n g s f r o m
the S e m i t i c , h o w e v e r , are j u d g e d u n i n t e r e s t i n g a n d e i t h e r d i s c a r d e d o r m e n t i o n e d o n l y i n passing, w i t h o u t adequate d o c u m e n t a t i o n . I t is w e l l k n o w n that a l a r g e p a r t o f the G r e e k v o c a b u l a r y lacks a n y adequate I n d o - E u r o p e a n e t y m o l o g y ; b u t i t has
become a fashion to prefer connections w i t h a putative Aegean
s u b s t r a t u m o r w i t h A n a t o l i a n parallels, w h i c h i n v o l v e s d e a l i n g
w i t h l a r g e l y u n k n o w n spheres, i n s t e a d o f p u r s u i n g c o n n e c t i o n s
t o t h e w e l l - k n o w n S e m i t i c l a n g u a g e s . B e l o c h even w a n t e d t o
2
separate t h e R h o d i a n Z e u s A t a b y r i o s f r o m M o u n t A t a b y r i o n =
T a b o r , the m o u n t a i n i n Palestine, i n favor o f v a g u e A n a t o l i a n
r e s o n a n c e s . A n t i - S e m i t i s m was m a n i f e s t i n this case; elsewhere
3
i t was o f t e n o p e r a t i n g o n an unseen l e v e l . E v e n f i r s t - r a n k I n d o E u r o p e a n i s t s have m a d e a s t o n i s h i n g m i s j u d g m e n t s : T h e n u m b e r o f S e m i t i c l o a n - w o r d s i n t h e G r e e k l a n g u a g e is " q u i t e i n s i g n i f i c a n t l y s m a l l " ( D e b r u n n e r ) ; " i n d e e d t h e y d o n ' t even
reach
d o u b l e f i g u r e s " ( M e i l l e t ) . T h e y seem t o have f o r g o t t e n even the

4
fifteen S e m i t i c l e t t e r n a m e s . E m i l i e M a s s o n , i n h e r h i g h l y r e s t r i c t i v e c r i t i c a l w o r k (1967), has nevertheless established t h i r t y -
34
" W H O
A R U
P U B L I C
W O R K E R S "
seven d e f i n i t e a n d t w e l v e possible S e m i t i c w o r d s i n the Greek

language; u s i n g less r i g i d parameters O s w a l d S z e m e r e n y i
was
able t o add a n o t h e r d o z e n ; there is n o s h o r t a g e o f f u r t h e r a t t e m p t s . S o m e o f this m a t e r i a l requires careful c h e c k i n g ; b u t a d 5
d i t i o n a l f i n d i n g s also are b y n o means t o be e x c l u d e d .
This
m u c h is c e r t a i n : T h e r e is a m a r k e d presence o f S e m i t i c l o a n w o r d s in Greek.
It is t r u e t h a t d i l e t t a n t e s eager t o m a k e n e w discoveries have
been g u i l t y o f carelessness a n d rash s p e c u l a t i o n i n this f i e l d ,
w h i l e t h e n e g a t i v e statements o f critics e n j o y t h e advantage o f
s e e m i n g c a u t i o n a n d s t r i c t m e t h o d o l o g y : L i n g u i s t s can keep t o
w e l l - e s t a b l i s h e d l a w s o f p h o n e t i c e v o l u t i o n w i t h i n a closed syst e m , whereas b o r r o w i n g s are m o s t l y i n f e r r e d f r o m s i m i l a r i t i e s
o f s o u n d s t h a t m a y be f o r t u i t o u s . B u t i t is precisely m e t h o d o l o g y w h i c h is the p r o b l e m . G r e e k language, at any rate the l i t erary Greek
adapted
t h a t w e k n o w , a b s o l u t e l y rejects the use o f u n -
foreign words;
t h e y are accepted
o n l y i n perfectly
a s s i m i l a t e d f o r m as t o p h o n e t i c s and i n f l e x i o n . T h u s there can

be n o m e t h o d t o discover b o r r o w e d w o r d s : T h e y i m i t a t e and g o
i n t o h i d i n g , a d a p t i n g themselves t o the r o o t s a n d suffixes o f n a tive Greek.
I n g e n e r a l , l o a n - w o r d s can be established
defini-
t i v e l y o n l y o n t h e basis o f d e t a i l e d d o c u m e n t a t i o n f r o m
sides. T h e w o r d hammock,
6
language,
both
derived f r o m some A m e r i c a n Indian
has b e c o m e Hngematte,
hanging mat, in German,
w h i c h l o o k s p e r f e c t l y i n d i g e n o u s u n t i l w i t h a second o r t h i r d
l o o k o n e m a y realize t h a t there is n o t , i n fact, a m a t w h i c h is
h a n g i n g . P o p u l a r e t y m o l o g y plays its r o l e i n m e t a m o r p h o s i s ;
n o rules o f p h o n e t i c e v o l u t i o n can be established. E v e n the c o r respondence
o f m e a n i n g is s e l d o m perfect; p a r t i a l m i s u n d e r -
s t a n d i n g s take place all t h e t i m e . T h u s the s i t u a t i o n as far as the

e i g h t h c e n t u r y B . C . is c o n c e r n e d appears t o be hopeless:
documentation
is sparse,
limited
almost
exclusively
Greek
t o the
h i g h l y specialized sphere o f G r e e k epic d i c t i o n . T h e n e i g h b o r i n g languages,
A r a m a i c a n d P h o e n i c i a n , are k n o w n m a i n l y
t h r o u g h casual i n s c r i p t i o n s ; the rest o f t h e d o c u m e n t a t i o n is

l o s t . F o r a c o n s c i e n t i o u s j u d g e , a c q u i t t a l b y lack o f evidence w i l l
be t h e r e s u l t again a n d a g a i n a n d yet the o u t c o m e o f m i n i m a l -
35
T H E
R E V O L U T I O N
i s m , a r r i v e d at i n this f a s h i o n , m u s t be a b s o l u t e l y false, as a
general
c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f p r o b a b i l i t i e s w i l l show.
The
under-
w o r l d o f l o a n - w o r d s is s t i l l t h e r e , c a m o u f l a g e d b u t i n f l u e n t i a l .
We can a t t e m p t t o penetrate b e y o n d r h y m i n g games w i t h e x t e r n a l assonances b y t a k i n g i n t o a c c o u n t necessary c o n n e c t i o n s
e i t h e r b e t w e e n n a m e s a n d concrete objects a n d s k i l l s , o r b e tween groups o f terms w h i c h belong together. I n a d d i t i o n , very
specific,
particularly m u l t i s y l l a b i c phonetic units and
specific
s t r u c t u r e s o f m e a n i n g are i n d i c a t i v e o f c u l t u r a l transfer, even i f

m o r e c o n t e x t c a n n o t be p r o d u c e d , because t h e p r o b a b i l i t y o f
coincidental h o m o n y m y becomes exceedingly small.
I f we l o o k over the list o f recognized Semitic l o a n - w o r d s i n
the G r e e k l a n g u a g e , a n o t h e r s t e r e o t y p e m a k e s its appearance:
T h e S e m i t i c o r i g i n o f c e r t a i n t e r m s o f trade a n d t r a d e d g o o d s is
gladly conceded,
f o l l o w i n g , i t is t o be suspected, t h a t o n c e -
prevalent n o t i o n o f " t y p i c a l l y J e w i s h " activities; w h a t remain

o b l i t e r a t e d are t h e areas o f c r a f t s m a n s h i p , w a r f a r e , a n d w r i t t e n
culture,
although,
given
historical circumstances,
these
are
l i k e l y t o have been n o less i m p o r t a n t .

T h e list o f t r a d e d g o o d s w i t h S e m i t i c n a m e s is i m p r e s s i v e i n deed.
Chrysos,
cotton),
g o l d , a n d chiton,
g a r m e n t (related t o t h e w o r d
are t h e t w o i m p o r t a n t b o r r o w i n g s w h i c h are already i n
evidence i n the Mycenaean Linear B documents and w h i c h theref o r e offer p r o o f o f business traffic i n the B r o n z e A g e .
k i n d s o f f a b r i c , s u c h as sindon,
othone,
bussos,
Other
s i m i l a r l y pene-
t r a t e d i n t o G r e e k as, n a t u r a l l y , d i d A r a b i a n specialties such as

libanos a n d murra, f r a n k i n c e n s e a n d m y r r h , a n d o t h e r spices such
as nardos,
kasia,
a n d nitron,
sesame.
kannabis,
kinnamomon,
a n d p l a n t s such as krokos
The
expression
lipa
m i n e r a l s such as
a n d sasamon,
aleiphesthai,
r i c h l y w i t h o i l , " m a y easily g o w i t h nitron.

f o r f i n e l y g r o u n d flour, samidu,
still current i n m o d e r n G r e e k .
" t o anoint
9
i n G r e e k a n d is
I n a d d i t i o n there are t h e names
o f c o n t a i n e r s a n d vessels such as kados, sipye,

quent wordlekane,
and
oneself
The Akkadian word
b e c a m e semidalis
1 0
naphtha
crocus
a n d q u i t e a fre-
corresponding to Aramaean
laqna;
here
p o p u l a r e t y m o l o g y has p r o d u c e d t h e m i r a g e o f a suffix i n c u r r e n t use i n G r e e k , -ane.
I f alabastron
36
b e l o n g s t o g e t h e r w i t h the
" W H O
A k k a d i a n algameshu
A R E
P U B L I C
a n d t h e H e b r a i c dlgabish,
partial correspondence;
w i t h smaragdos,
raqtu i n A k k a d i a n , pa-ra-ku
and marakatam
W O R K E R S "
there is o n l y v e r y
s m a r a g d , w h i c h is bar-
i n Mycenaean,
bar'qa
in Aramaic,
i n S a n s k r i t , i t seems pointless t o t r y t o f o l l o w the
p a t h o f the w o r d t h r o u g h t h e o r i e n t a l b a z a a r s .
12
More
clear
seems t o be kalche f o r a f o r m o f p u r p l e , w h i c h p o i n t s t o craftsm a n s h i p as w e l l as t o t r a d i n g ; b y c o n t r a s t kuanos,

1 3
a blue sub-
stance used f o r c o l o u r i n g , is traced t o H i t t i t e kuwanna.
How
c o m p l e x i n t e r r e l a t i o n s can be is s h o w n i n t h e case o f
kaunakas,
w o o l l e n r o b e : t h e w o r d is Persian a n d passed i n t o A k k a d i a n as
w e l l as i n t o G r e e k i n w h i c h the resonances o f nakos,
m a y w e l l have p l a y e d a p a r t .
F r o m t h e a c t i v i t i e s o f traders w e
w o r d gaulos,
makellon;
16
sheepskin,
1 5
find,
next to the c o m m o n
s h i p , also t h e irreplaceable sakkos, sack; the m a r k e t ,

a n d above all t h e u n i t o f w e i g h t a l r e a d y m e n t i o n e d ,
t h e m i n a A k k a d i a n mana, G r e e k mnea, mna;
17
h a r d l y less i m -
p o r t a n t is t h e t e r m f o r d o w n p a y m e n t
o r deposit,
n o w attested b y a c o m m e r c i a l l e t t e r ( S E G
38, 1036)
fifth
arrabon,
f r o m the
century. T h e m i n a became one o f the m o s t c o m m o n l y
used G r e e k n a m e s f o r w e i g h t a n d c u r r e n c y w i t h o u t l o s i n g t h e
s t a m p o f its M e s o p o t a m i a n o r i g i n s : I t is here a n d , f o r the archaic
p e r i o d , o n l y here t h a t the B a b y l o n i a n sexagesimal s y s t e m
was
a d o p t e d b y t h e G r e e k s , as s i x t y m i n a s m a k e u p one talent. T h i s
t e r m f o r the h i g h e r u n i t , t h e t a l e n t (talantori),
has an ancient
G r e e k a n d i n fact I n d o - E u r o p e a n n a m e ; at least i n d i r e c t l y i t is
attested i n M y c e n a e a n . Yet there is n o trace o f the m i n a and the
sexagesimal s y s t e m i n t h e w e l l - k n o w n M y c e n a e a n
system
of
w e i g h t s a n d measures. T h u s w e m a y be c o n f i d e n t t h a t i n this
case w e are d e a l i n g w i t h p o s t - M y c e n a e a n
trading route f r o m
Carchemish
b o r r o w i n g o n the
o n the Euphrates
to
North
S y r i a , r e a c h i n g t h e L u w i a n s a n d finally the Greeks.

P r e s u m a b l y t h e c o n n e c t i o n s reach f u r t h e r t h a n can s t r i c t l y be
p r o v e d . T h e m i n a was, above a l l , the u n i t o f w e i g h t used for
m e a s u r i n g silver. T h e r e are silver i n g o t s o r i g i n a t i n g f r o m Z i n c i r l i , m i n a s o f a p p a r e n t l y s t a n d a r d i z e d w e i g h t w h i c h bear the
incised name o f K i n g B a r r a k i b o f S a m ' a l - Z i n c i r l i (732-72o);
1R
these are n o t e w o r t h y antecedents o f m i n t e d m o n e y , w h i c h came
37
T H E
R E V O L U T I O N
i n t o use a b o u t o n e c e n t u r y later. T o scratch, t o incise, is harasu

i n A k k a d i a n , charaxai
in Greek.
1 9
T h i s then became the t e r m for
the m i n t i n g o f G r e e k c o i n s , a l t h o u g h i n t h a t case i t was n o t

actually the c o i n b u t rather the m o l d ,
n o w called
charaktet;
w h i c h was i n c i s e d d i r e c t l y . T h e t e r m scratcher seems t o p o i n t

back t o a practice w h i c h precedes t h e s t r i k i n g o f coins, a practice
w h i c h is s h o w n m o s t c l e a r l y i n t h e talents o f Z i n c i r l i . B o r r o w i n g o r coincidence? A k k a d i a n uses the same r o o t t o designate
e n t r e n c h m e n t s f o r t i f i e d w i t h palisades, harisu, w h i l e t h e palisade
w a l l o r even t h e i n d i v i d u a l palisades are called charax i n G r e e k .
T h a t t h e same r o o t is used t w i c e i n t w o n o t n a t u r a l l y n e i g h b o r i n g areas o f m e a n i n g i n t w o d i f f e r e n t languages is s t r i k i n g . A n o t h e r o b s e r v a t i o n w o r t h a d d i n g here is t h a t t h e d i s t r i b u t i v e use
o f t h e G r e e k p r e p o s i t i o n ana i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h n u m b e r s , ana
dyo,
" t w o each," seems s o m e w h a t r e m o v e d f r o m t h e o r i g i n a l
m e a n i n g o f this p r e p o s i t i o n , " u p w a r d s , " b u t c o r r e s p o n d s

a c t l y t o the A k k a d i a n p r e p o s i t i o n ana.
20
ex-
Is t h i s a k i n d o f S y r i a n
business slang, s i m i l a r t o t h e F r e n c h a used i n a s i m i l a r sense i n

G e r m a n accounting?
T o r e t u r n t o w h a t is d e f i n i t e a n d g e n e r a l l y r e c o g n i z e d : I n the
sphere o f t h e c r a f t s m a n the w o r d kanon appears as t h e clearest
e x a m p l e o f b o r r o w i n g . O f c o u r s e t h e general w o r d f o r reed o r
cane, canna, is c u r r e n t i n the w h o l e o f the M e d i t e r r a n e a n w o r l d ;
b u t t h e specialized use o f t h i s t e r m f o r m e a s u r i n g s t i c k , qan mindati i n A k k a d i a n , q'neh hammiddah
i n H e b r e w , is less n a t u r a l , b u t
so w e l l attested t h a t n o o n e w i l l h y p o t h e s i z e t h a t t h e G r e e k s h i t
u p o n this use o f " r e e d s " e n t i r e l y o n t h e i r o w n .
2 1
T h e appearance
o f the t e r m i n G r e e k , h o w e v e r , means t h a t a basic t o o l a n d c o n cept o f b u i l d i n g c o n s t r u c t i o n has been i m p o r t e d . I n a d d i t i o n

there are t h e t e r m s titanos, l i m e ,
all even t h e clay b r i c k , plinthos,
A k k a d i a n *Hbintu,
libittu.
24
andgypson,
2 2
plaster,
23
b u t above
w h i c h seems t o c o m e f r o m the
T h u s t h e basic t e r m o f M e s o p o t a -
m i a n a r c h i t e c t u r e has m a d e its w a y t o Greece. Just as the G e r mans a p p a r e n t l y first l e a r n t h o w t o b u i l d a s o l i d w a l l f r o m the

R o m a n s , Mauer
d e r i v e d f r o m L a t i n mums,
as o p p o s e d t o a loose
p a r t i t i o n , Wand, m a d e f r o m w a n d s , so the Greeks l e a r n t the art

o f b u i l d i n g w a l l s t o m e a s u r e f r o m b r i c k s , l i m e , a n d plaster f r o m
38
" W H O
A R E
P U B L I C
W O R K E R S "
the eastern c r a f t s m e n . E v e n the w o r d f o r axe, axine,

w i t h A k k a d i a n hassinnu;
25
coincides
a n d t h a t w o r d f o r b o o t h , barracks, o r
tent w h i c h was t o have a b r i l l i a n t career,
skana/skenehence
sceneis m o s t p r o b a b l y an A s s y r i a n - A r a m a i c maskanu
the m o s t c o m m o n r o o t sakanu,
from
2b
" t o set u p " ; w h e t h e r t h e w o r d
was i n t r o d u c e d i n the sphere o f t h e c r a f t s m a n o r t h e soldier r e m a i n s i n q u e s t i o n . A s t o c r a f t s m e n , the characteristic expression

"sons o f c r a f t s m e n " c o n s t i t u t e s a n o t h e r c o m m o n e l e m e n t .
also possible
craftsman,
t h a t t h e n o b l e - s o u n d i n g w o r d cheironax
literally " l o r d
o f hands,"
being translated f r o m H i t t i t e .
2 8
27
I t is
f o r the
is b o r r o w e d i n d i r e c t l y ,
T h e n a m e solos f o r the m e t a l i n -
got points in a similar direction, to "Late Hittites" o f C i l i c i a .
2 9
T h u s i n t h e sphere o f c r a f t s m a n s h i p a p i c t u r e arises even f r o m

l i n g u i s t i c data w h i c h ties i n w i t h the a r c h a e o l o g i c a l l y
demon-
strable i n f l u x o f o r i e n t a l skills a n d p r o d u c t s i n t h e e i g h t h c e n t u r y . F o r t h e i n f l u e n c e o f o r i e n t a l i c o n o g r a p h y o n e s h o u l d bear

i n m i n d t h a t n o t o n l y the l i o n l i s b e a r s a S e m i t i c n a m e , b u t
3 0
also t h e b u l l t a u r o s h a s a clear S e m i t i c c o r r e s p o n d e n c e .
the e x a m p l e plinthos-libittu
31
Still
shows h o w m u c h transformation,
even b o w d l e r i z a t i o n can o c c u r w i t h l o a n - w o r d s : I t is the o b j e c t

r a t h e r t h a n t h e p h o n e t i c c o r r e s p o n d e n c e w h i c h makes the b o r r o w i n g p l a u s i b l e . M u c h r e m a i n s i n the gray area o f the u n p r o v able, especially as t h e t e c h n i c a l v o c a b u l a r y o f early c r a f t s m e n is
o n l y p a t c h i l y k n o w n t o us even i n G r e e k .
T h e same is t r u e o f a n o t h e r area i n w h i c h there w e r e p r o l o n g e d a n d close contacts: the m i l i t a r y sphere o f mercenaries. I n
the p e r t i n e n t v o c a b u l a r y there are a n u m b e r o f suggestive resonances, b u t n o n e o f the s u p p o s e d b o r r o w e d w o r d s has m e t w i t h
general r e c o g n i t i o n . O n e c o u l d n a m e the w o r d f o r s c i m i t a r ,
harpe,
n e x t t o t h e A r a m a i c harba, s w o r d ;
l o o t e d w e a p o n a n d sylan
w i t h machessasthai,
for l o o t i n g ,
3 3
3 2
o r perhaps skylon
o r even macha,
for
battle,
" t o f i g h t , " c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e general
Se-
m i t i c w o r d f o r " t o h i t , " mahasu i n A k k a d i a n , t o g e t h e r w i t h A r a m a i c maha, b a t t l e : T h e h i g h l y i r r e g u l a r f o r m a t i o n o f t h e r o o t ,

i r r e g u l a r f r o m t h e p o i n t o f v i e w o f the G r e e k , c o u l d i n d i c a t e
external influences.
34
I n a d d i t i o n the G r e e k w a r c r y alala c o u l d be
c a t e g o r i z e d w i t h the c o r r e s p o n d i n g A k k a d i a n c r y o f
39
alalaand
T H E
f i n a l l y even w i t h H a l l e l u j a h .
3 5
R E V O L U T I O N
T h e s e are serious p o s s i b i l i t i e s , b u t
t h e y w i l l g e n e r a l l y m e e t w i t h d e r i s i o n ; f o r m a n y i t w o u l d be
unacceptable t o t h i n k o f H e l l e n i c w a r r i o r s d e p e n d i n g o n S e m i t i c
p r o t o t y p e s even i n t h e i r l a n g u a g e . S t i l l , f r o m a h i s t o r i c a l p o i n t
o f view, the m i l i t a r i z a t i o n o f the Assyrians preceded the Greek
polis,
a n d , as far as t h e t e c h n o l o g y o f w e a p o n r y is c o n c e r n e d , i n
p a r t i c u l a r t h e h o p l i t e s h i e l d , t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e East is o b vious.
3 6
T h e search f o r o r i e n t a l b o r r o w i n g s i n n a m e s f r o m
m y t h stands,
ground.
3 7
as is t o be e x p e c t e d ,
Greek
o n particularly uncertain
G r e a t c a u t i o n s h o u l d also be e x e r c i s e d w i t h t h e t e r -
m i n o l o g y o f r i t u a l practice. References t o possible b o r r o w i n g s

i n t h i s f i e l d w i l l be g i v e n i n t h e n e x t chapter as s u g g e s t i v e p o s s i b i l i t i e s , f o r the sake o f i l l u s t r a t i o n , as i t w e r e ; t h e y c a n n o t be
used as i n d e p e n d e n t a r g u m e n t s .
3 8
t i o n s h i p s , such as G r e e k pallake,
c o n c u b i n e , n e x t t o H e b r e w pi-
Idgds, A r a m a i c palqta.
39
T h e r e r e m a i n unclear
rela-
I n a n y case, the k i n d o f m i n i m a l i s m t h a t
rejects a l l c o n n e c t i o n s w i t h t h e S e m i t i c w h i c h are n o t c r y s t a l
clear r e m a i n s , o n t h e w h o l e , t h e m o s t u n l i k e l y o f possible h y potheses.
40
C H A P T E R
"A
T W O
SEER O R A
HEALER"
Magic and Medicine from East to West
"Craftsmen
of the Sacred":
Mobility
and Family
Structure
Seers a n d d o c t o r s are t h e first e n u m e r a t e d b y H o m e r as m i g r a n t

"craftsmen,"
i n d i v i d u a l s w h o m a c o m m u n i t y w o u l d be c o n -
cerned t o a t t r a c t . T h e y are specialists o f a p a r t i c u l a r k i n d , h a v i n g t h e i r a r t t e c h n e w h i c h n o o n e else can master. Seers and

d o c t o r s appear closely c o n n e c t e d , at least i n t h e p e r i o d p r e c e d i n g t h e " H i p p o c r a t i c " era. T h e change is d o c u m e n t e d i n the
fifth-century
treatise On the Sacred Disease a t t r i b u t e d t o H i p p o c -
rates, w h i c h scorns t h e c a t h a r t i c healer i n the n a m e o f n a t u r e ;

before t h a t caesura, seer a n d healer m i g h t even be i d e n t i c a l , as
the c o n c e p t o f a life characterized b y i n i t i a t i o n a n d d i v i n a t i o n ,
telestikos
kai mantikos
bios, i n d i c a t e s .
A modern-day
prejudice
against all charlatans s h o u l d n o t o b s c u r e the i m p o r t a n c e i n a n cient societies o f therapies based o n r i t u a l and r e l i g i o n . E v e n

t o d a y i t is h a r d l y d i s p u t e d t h a t , i n i n d i v i d u a l cases, a s t o u n d i n g
success can be achieved b y such means, a n d seers w i t h a v a r i e t y
o f technai e n j o y g o o d business.
" H e w h o m a k e s the sacred his craft [techne]"
is the m e m o r a b l e
d e s c r i p t i o n g i v e n i n t h e D e r v e n i p a p y r u s o f p e o p l e w h o specialize i n p r i v a t e i n i t i a t i o n s . I n a s i m i l a r v e i n S t r a b o refers t o " t h e

D i o n y s i a c a n d O r p h i c crafts," whereas for t h e H i p p o c r a t i c p o l e m i c i s t such a t e c h n i c i a n is r a t h e r " b a n a u s i c . "
4i
B u t even this
T H E
R E V O L U T I O N
a u t h o r a d m i t s t h a t m i g r a n t seers a n d healers pose as bearers o f

s o m e special k n o w l e d g e . I n fact successful c h a r i s m a t i c specialists b e c a m e , as t h e y can t o d a y , w i d e l y s o u g h t - a f t e r personalities;
t h e y c o u l d cross f r o n t i e r s even m o r e easily a n d m o r e o f t e n t h a n
o t h e r c r a f t s m e n w i t h s i m p l e r s k i l l s . B e i n g t h e m o b i l e bearers o f
c r o s s - c u l t u r a l k n o w l e d g e , t h e m i g r a n t c h a r i s m a t i c s deserve p a r t i c u l a r a t t e n t i o n as t o c u l t u r a l c o n t a c t s .
I n fact t h e y represent
the i n t e l l e c t u a l elite o f t h e t i m e w i t h a chance t o achieve i n t e r n a t i o n a l status.

T h e r e is e v i d e n c e o f t h e m o b i l i t y o f m a g i c - w i e l d i n g seers a l ready i n the ancient O r i e n t . T h e k i n g o f M o a b s u m m o n e d B i l e a m f r o m t h e E u p h r a t e s t o c o m e a n d t o curse Israel, b u t t h e
s p i r i t o f G o d w h i c h c a m e u p o n the seer m a d e h i m p r o n o u n c e
blessings i n s t e a d .
I n the A m a r n a correspondence b o t h p h y s i -
cians a n d seers are requested t o be sent, b y t h e k i n g o f U g a r i t as

w e l l as b y t h e k i n g o f t h e H i t t i t e s ; one k i n g o f
Alasia-Cyprus
has need o f an " e a g l e - d i v i n e r , " a b i r d a u g u r f r o m E g y p t .

Muwatallis o f Hattusa ordered a conjurer f r o m B a b y l o n .
King
I n the
m o r e m a r g i n a l r e g i o n s w h e r e t h e p o w e r o f t h e k i n g s was less,
the i n d e p e n d e n c e o f t h e seer was c o r r e s p o n d i n g l y enhanced. H e
c o u l d t r a v e l freely o n his o w n i n i t i a t i v e , as is seen i n b o t h Greece
a n d I s r a e l . A s was t h e case w i t h l o c a l c r a f t s m e n , free e n t e r p r i s e
7
d e v e l o p e d i n t h e G r e e k w o r l d i n p a r t i c u l a r . T h e special status a
seer c o u l d achieve i n a c i t y is i m p r e s s i v e l y s h o w n i n the case o f
Teisamenos,
w h o c l a i m e d descent f r o m t h e m y t h i c a l seer M e -
l a m p u s : H e c o u l d enforce his c o n d i t i o n s o n Sparta even against

ancestral c u s t o m a n d was f i n a l l y c o n s i d e r e d t h e " v i c t o r " i n the
b a t t l e o f Plataea (479 B . C . ) .
P l a t o , b y c o n t r a s t , speaks i n tones
o f c o n t e m p t o f those " b e g g a r - p r i e s t s
and seers" w h o t e n d e r e d
t h e i r sevices " a t t h e d o o r s o f t h e r i c h " ; a n d yet he reveals t h a t

t h e y c o u l d c o n v i n c e " w h o l e c i t i e s . " I n a b o u t 600 B . C . A t h e n s
9
s u m m o n e d Epimenides the C r e t a n d i v i n e r to purge the city o f

the C y l o n i a n s a c r i l e g e ;
10
s i m i l a r l y after 466 Sparta s u m m o n e d
n e c r o m a n c e r s f r o m P h i g a l i a because the i n a u s p i c i o u s d e a t h o f
Pausanias h a d p o l l u t e d t h e p r e c i n c t o f A t h e n a .
1 1
Already around
670 Thaletas o f G o r t y n h a d d e l i v e r e d Sparta f r o m a p l a g u e .
1 2
H i s teacher O n o m a k r i t o s the L o k r i a n , w e are t o l d , h a d w a n -
42
" A
S E E R
O R
H E A L E R "
dered as far as C r e t e , " s t a y i n g there o n a c c o u n t o f his m a n t i c

c r a f t " t h e t e r m f o r a t e m p o r a r y s o j o u r n , epidemia,
1 3
typically
used o f m i g r a n t p h y s i c i a n s , can e q u a l l y be a p p l i e d t o seers. A c c o r d i n g t o P l a t o , D i o t i m a came t o A t h e n s f r o m M a n t i n e a a n d ,

" f o r those w h o m a d e sacrifices as she d i r e c t e d , she achieved a
delay o f the a d v e n t o f t h e p l a g u e f o r t e n y e a r s . "
I n the p u r i f i -
14
c a t i o n p o e m o f E m p e d o c l e s t h e m i g r a n t life o f the seer is g i v e n

a basic e x i s t e n t i a l d i m e n s i o n : " B a n i s h e d
from
t h e gods
and
w a n d e r i n g a b o u t , " t h i s is E m p e d o c l e s ' o w n s i t u a t i o n , a n d j u s t
f o r t h i s reason he can pose as a g o d .
1 5
E v e r y o n e w h o chose t o take u p a career o f i n i t i a t i o n a n d d i v i n a t i o n d i d so o n his o w n a c c o u n t a n d at his o w n r i s k . T h e r e

was n o m o n a s t i c i s m , there w e r e n o r e l i g i o u s o r d e r s . A n d yet
these p e o p l e e n j o y e d a c e r t a i n status r e c o g n i z e d b y t r a d i t i o n ;
t h e y also c l a i m e d t o r e l y o n s o m e d e f i n i t e
filiation
o f doctrine
o r t e c h n i q u e : E a c h o f t h e m i g r a n t charismatics has his " f a t h e r , "

be i t his n a t u r a l father o r his teacher w h o , t h r o u g h t h e a p p r e n t i c e s h i p , has m a d e h i m his s o n , i n d e e d , w h o o f t e n f o r m a l l y
a d o p t e d h i m . G r e e k seers t e n d t o present themselves i n f a m i l y
groups. T h e m o s t famous were the M e l a m p o d i d a e , to w h o m
T e i s a m e n o s was r e l a t e d .
1 6
T h e I a m i d a e f r o m O l y m p i a and the
K l y t i a d a e c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e m w e r e n o less p r o u d o f t h e i r a n cestry, a n d t h e i r a c t i v i t i e s lasted f o r centuries. T h e

i n K a r i a , t o o , w e r e a " m a n t i c f a m i l y " (genos)."
Telmissians
Even more en-
d u r i n g was t h e success o f t h e p r i e s t - f a m i l i e s i n Eleusis, t h e E u m o l p i d a e a n d t h e K e r y k e s , w h o o f f i c i a t e d f o r a b o u t one m i l l e n n i u m u n t i l the mysteries were finally o u t l a w e d b y the C h r i s t i a n

emperor.
1 8
I t was possible f o r a m e m b e r o f t h e f a m i l y t o t u r n t o
t r a v e l l i n g a n d t o b e c o m e successful i n f o r e i g n parts as a specialist i n sacred m a t t e r s , as T i m o t h e o s d i d w i t h t h e first P t o l e m y i n

Alexandria.
1 9
B u t w e see f a m i l y lines d e v e l o p i n g even o u t s i d e
the established
clans.
speech Aiginetikos
seer"Praised
f e w details are s u p p l i e d b y t h e t r i a l
o f Isocrates:
20
Polemainetos
t h e successful
i n War," a telling n a m e ? h i m s e l f
childless,
chose T h r a s y l l o s t o be his successor a n d b e q u e a t h e d h i m his

" a r t , " his b o o k s , a n d his m o n e y . T h r a s y l l o s " m a d e use o f the
a r t , " b e c a m e v e r y h i g h l y r e g a r d e d , a n d amassed such a large
43
T H E
fortune
R E V O L U T I O N
t h a t the c h i l d r e n f r o m his v a r i o u s m a r r i a g e s c o n t i n u e d
t o l i t i g a t e over i t l o n g after his d e a t h . H e h a d m a r r i e d i n t o a

n o b l e f a m i l y o n S i p h n o s , a n d t h i s was a p p a r e n t l y t h e e n d o f t h e
seer t r a d i t i o n i n his l i n e . B u t s u c h an art c o u l d be r e v i v e d w h e n
necessary: T h e m o t h e r o f A e s c h i n e s t h e o r a t o r , c a r i c a t u r e d b y
his b i t t e r e n e m y D e m o s t h e n e s as a w i t c h l i k e priestess o f arcane
m y s t e r i e s , was, a c c o r d i n g t o an i n s c r i p t i o n , descended f r o m a
f a m i l y o f seers i n t h e t r a d i t i o n o f A m p h i a r a o s ; b o t h father a n d
b r o t h e r s w e r e p r a c t i c i n g seers, and e v i d e n t l y she h e r s e l f d i d
w h a t she c o u l d t o s u p p o r t t h e f a m i l y f i n a n c i a l l y t h r o u g h her
special " c r a f t . "
2 1
A decree o f K i n g P t o l e m y P h i l o p a t o r a r o u n d
210 B . C . s u m m o n e d a l l those w h o p r a c t i c e d t h e D i o n y s i a c m y s teries i n E g y p t t o r e g i s t e r i n A l e x a n d r i a a n d t o declare
"from
w h o m t h e y have received t h e sacred t h i n g s , u p t o three g e n e r a tions."
2 2
We see t h a t a p r a c t i t i o n e r o f t h e telestic craft n o t o n l y
h a d t o l e g i t i m a t e h i m s e l f b y g i v i n g t h e n a m e o f his i m m e d i a t e
teacher, b u t also h a d t o k n o w w h o his s p i r i t u a l g r a n d f a t h e r and
g r e a t - g r a n d f a t h e r w e r e . O n e m a y also c o m p a r e t h e fact t h a t t h e
c i t y M a g n e s i a o n t h e M a e a n d e r s u m m o n e d three maenads f r o m
T h e b e s , f r o m t h e f a m i l y o f I n o t h a t is, a c c o r d i n g t o m y t h , t h e
o r i g i n a l maenads w h o h a d t e n d e d D i o n y s u s t o o r g a n i z e t h e
new Dionysian mysteries.
2 3
T h e r e q u i r e m e n t t h a t secret k n o w l e d g e be passed o n o n l y t o
an actual s o n appears i n a l c h e m i c a l w r i t i n g s a n d i n t h e m a g i c a l
papyri.
2 4
H o w e v e r , t h i s m a n d a t e already a p p l i e d t o t h e o r g a n i -
z a t i o n s o f t h e e a r l y G r e e k p h y s i c i a n s . B e s t k n o w n is the " f a m i l y " o f the Asclepiads,
25
a l t h o u g h i t was h a r d l y u n i q u e . T h e fa-
m o u s H i p p o c r a t i c O a t h has o b l i g a t i o n s f o r t h e p u p i l w h i c h are
the e q u i v a l e n t o f a de facto a d o p t i o n .
2 6
N o less s i g n i f i c a n t l y , the
H i p p o c r a t i c nomos m a k e s t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n o f the k n o w l e d g e an
i n i t i a t i o n i n t o m y s t e r i e s : " H o l y t h i n g s are s h o w n t o h o l y m e n ;
s u c h t h i n g s are n o t p e r m i t t e d f o r t h e p r o f a n e u n t i l t h e y are i n i t i a t e d t h r o u g h t h e rites o f k n o w l e d g e . "
2 7
Precisely t h i s c o n n e c t i o n o f sacred s k i l l s w i t h f a m i l y t r a d i t i o n
a n d t h e m a n d a t e o f e s o t e r i c i s m can already be f o u n d i n c u n e i f o r m documents.
These c o n t a i n extensive i n f o r m a t i o n
about
m a n y k i n d s o f seers a n d p r a c t i t i o n e r s o f m a g i c . E v e n i n the o r -
44
" A
S E E R
OR
H E A L E R "
d i n a r y crafts the s o n takes o v e r the art f r o m the father so that

the t r u e c r a f t s m a n
(mar ummani);
is called t h e " s o n o f the master
craftsman"
the C o d e x H a m m u r a p i makes the l e a r n i n g o f a
craft a de facto a d o p t i o n .
2 8
O n the T y s k i e w i c z b o w l f o u n d i n
Italy, P h o e n i c i a n artists s i g n as "sons o f the f o u n d r y m e n . "

respondingly,
3 0
Cor-
a t r u e seer is a " s o n o f a seer"; i n his i n c a n t a t i o n
he presents h i m s e l f as " t h e k n o w i n g o n e ,
craftsman."
2 9
" T h e secrets o f asipu-zvt,
son o f the master
the k n o w i n g one shall
s h o w t h e m t o the k n o w i n g one; he w h o does n o t k n o w does

n o t see t h e m ; t o y o u r son w h o m y o u l o v e , m a k e h i m p r o n o u n c e
the n a m e o f g o d A s a l l u h i a n d g o d N i n u r t a , a n d s h o w h i m " : this
is the p r e s c r i p t i o n f o r the t r a d i t i o n o f esoteric w i s d o m i n i n c a n tation texts;
31
or, i n o t h e r w o r d s : " T h e w i s e one makes his son
. . . take the o a t h ; he m a k e s h i m l e a r n . "
3 2
T h u s the
practice o f t a k i n g an o a t h t o ensure t h a t k n o w l e d g e
peculiar
remains
w i t h i n the f a m i l y is c o m m o n t o the B a b y l o n i a n m a g i c i a n s a n d
t o the H i p p o c r a t i c s . D i o d o r u s r e p o r t s t h a t w i t h the Chaldaeans,
t o o , the secret art o f a s t r o l o g y is r e g u l a r l y a c q u i r e d b y the son
f r o m the f a t h e r .
33
A s i m i l a r craft is f o u n d i n the West i n w h i c h the
father-son
l i n e was p r e s e r v e d w i t h p a r t i c u l a r zeal even w h e n s p r e a d i n g t o

f o r e i g n areas, a n d this was p a r t o f its success: t h a t o f E t r u s c a n
haruspices.
I n R o m e this art was always left t o the specialists
34
f r o m n e i g h b o r i n g E t r u r i a . Tacitus states e x p r e s s l y that the n o b l e

E t r u s c a n families reserved t h i s k n o w l e d g e
f o r themselves and
passed i t o n o n l y w i t h i n the f a m i l y ; already C i c e r o takes t h i s for

granted.
3 5
I t c a n n o t s e r i o u s l y be d o u b t e d , even i n the absence o f
d i r e c t d o c u m e n t a t i o n , t h a t t h i s practice goes back t o the great

p e r i o d o f E t r u r i a t h a t is, back t o the archaic p e r i o d . A c c o r d i n g
t o the R o m a n h i s t o r i a n s , the haruspices
officiated even i n the age
o f the k i n g s ; t h e y t e l l h o w A t t u s N a v i u s t o o k an
w i t h the E t r u s c a n s .
36
apprenticeship
T h i s u l t i m a t e l y leads back t o the o r i e n t a l -
izing period o f Etruria.

I t is t r u e t h a t such f a m i l y - b a s e d practice can c o m e i n t o b e i n g
i n m a n y places a n d cultures w i t h o u t contacts o r dependence.
Similar
ties
within
the
"family"
are
reported
for
Egyptian
priests as w e l l as f o r I r a n i a n magi b u t m a y also easily be f o u n d
45
T H E
elsewhere.
37
R E V O L U T I O N
N e v e r t h e l e s s there is a l i n g u i s t i c p e c u l i a r i t y t h a t a p -
pears t o p o i n t t o a n a r r o w e r c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n S e m i t i c a n d
G r e e k usage: I n t h e r e a l m o f c r a f t s m e n a n d o f seers, o f healers
a n d p h y s i c i a n s , t h e r e appears i n A k k a d i a n , P h o e n i c i a n , a n d H e b r e w o n the one hand and i n Greek o n the other, the expression
" s o n s o f . . ." t o designate t h e c o l l e c t i v e g r o u p :
p i u s " b u t also " s o n s o f p a i n t e r s " i n P l a t o ;
3 9
3 8
"sons o f Ascle-
"sons o f p h i l o s o -
p h e r s " b e c a m e a c o m m o n , s l i g h t l y i r o n i c e x p r e s s i o n later o n .
T h a t the agreement between the Semitic and the Greek
idio-
m a t i c e x p r e s s i o n is n o t j u s t n a t u r a l b u t s i g n i f i c a n t can be m e a s u r e d b y t h e fact t h a t an e x p r e s s i o n
such as " t h e c h i l d r e n o f
I s r a e l " w i l l s t i l l be r e c o g n i z a b l e as a S e m i t i s m . I t is t r u e t h a t w e
also f i n d " s o n s o f t h e A c h a e a n s " i n H o m e r , hence also "sons o f
the L y d i a n s " a n d s i m i l a r t e r m s i n H e r o d o t u s a n d later t o d e s i g nate n a t i o n s . T h i s t o o is f u l l y e q u i v a l e n t t o eastern p r a c t i c e .
T h e Christian Gnostics b o r r o w e d a corresponding
afresh f r o m t h e S e m i t i c s i d e .
40
expression
We have m u c h less d i r e c t e v i -
41
dence f o r t h e earlier p e r i o d s ; b u t t h e general s i t u a t i o n s t r e n g t h ens t h e h y p o t h e s i s o f c u l t u r a l transfer even at t h a t t i m e .

Hepatoscopy
T h a t the E t r u s c a n disciplina
o f t a k i n g o m e n s f r o m l i v e r inspec-
t i o n (hepatoscopy,
s h o w s r e m a r k a b l y close c o r r e s p o n -
haruspicina)
dence t o t h e f o r m o f d i v i n a t i o n d e v e l o p e d i n M e s o p o t a m i a a n d
t h a t this can best be e x p l a i n e d as t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n o f a " s c h o o l "
f r o m B a b y l o n t o E t r u r i a has been established since t h e d e c i pherment o f cuneiform.
However,
this correspondence
has
b a r e l y been discussed w i t h i n t h e general f r a m e w o r k o f a c u l t u r a l

e x c h a n g e . T h e r e are i n d e e d specific p r o b l e m s o f c o m p a r i s o n
even here: T h e c u n e i f o r m m a t e r i a l is o v e r a b u n d a n t , b u t m u c h
o f i t s t i l l lacks d e f i n i t i v e p u b l i c a t i o n . T h e E t r u s c a n m a t e r i a l , o n
2
the o t h e r h a n d , is l o s t a n d can be r e c o n s t r u c t e d o n l y piecemeal

f r o m L a t i n and Greek texts. T h e correspondence between E t r u s can a n d A s s y r i a n h e p a t o s c o p y
became e v i d e n t as s o o n as t h e
E t r u s c a n b r o n z e l i v e r f o u n d at Piacenza was c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e
3
A s s y r i a n clay m o d e l o f a l i v e r i n t h e B r i t i s h M u s e u m ( F i g u r e 3 ) ;
46
S E E R
OR
H E A L E R "
Figure 3. TOP: Liver model in clay, with cuneiform inscription, from

Mesopotamia, eighteenth century B. C. B O T T O M : Liver model in bronze,
with Etruscan inscription, from Piacenza, third century B. C.
47
T H E
R E V O L U T I O N
f u r t h e r e x a m p l e s have s u b s e q u e n t l y c o m e t o l i g h t . T h e a g e - o l d
practice o f a n i m a l s l a u g h t e r b r i n g s w i t h i t m a n y
unforeseeable
a n d u n c a n n y details; t h e l i v e r i n p a r t i c u l a r , w i t h its c o m p l i c a t e d
a n d c h a n g i n g f o r m , seems t o i n v i t e a t t e m p t s at o r a c u l a r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . F o r t h i s reason t h e d i r e c t c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e o r i e n t a l a n d E t r u s c a n l o r e has been b r o u g h t i n t o d o u b t a g a i n .
And
yet t o b u i l d a s y s t e m s p e c i f i c a l l y o n t h e s l a u g h t e r o f sheep, t o
m a n u f a c t u r e d e m o n s t r a t i o n m o d e l s o f sheep l i v e r s f r o m
clay
a n d m e t a l a n d t o p r o v i d e t h e m w i t h i n s c r i p t i o n s f o r t h e sake o f
e x p l a n a t i o n , is s o m e t h i n g p e c u l i a r f o u n d precisely
along the
c o r r i d o r f r o m the Euphrates via Syria and C y p r u s to E t r u r i a . I t

can even be s h o w n t h a t b o t h t h e A s s y r i a n a n d t h e
models diverge f r o m nature i n a similar way;
Etruscan
t h a t is, t h e y are
derived n o t directly f r o m observation but f r o m c o m m o n traditional lore.

M o d e l s o f l i v e r s are t h e c o n c r e t e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l e v i d e n c e f o r
the d i f f u s i o n o f M e s o p o t a m i a n hepatoscopy.
Besides M e s o p o -
t a m i a such m o d e l s have been f o u n d since t h e B r o n z e A g e w i t h

the H i t t i t e s o f A s i a M i n o r ; i n A l a l a k h , T e l l el H a j j , a n d U g a r i t
i n S y r i a ; i n H a z o r a n d M e g i d d o i n Palestine; a n d also o n
Cy-
p r u s . A s s y r i a n h e p a t o s c o p y was p r a c t i c e d at Tarsos i n C i l i c i a i n
the t i m e o f t h e A s s y r i a n s .
B y contrast, the Etruscan
examples,
so far as is k n o w n , date f r o m t h e t h i r d a n d second centuries B . C .

T h u s , t h e p r e s u m p t i o n t h a t w e are d e a l i n g w i t h contacts i n H e l l e n i s t i c t i m e s c a n n o t be r u l e d o u t . N e v e r t h e l e s s ,
8
the balance o f
p r o b a b i l i t i e s speaks against i t : A t t h a t t i m e , the g o l d e n age o f

E t r u r i a lay far i n t h e past. B u t t h e i n t e r n a l t r a d i t i o n o f t h e E t r u s can disciplinae
goes b a c k t o t h e seventh c e n t u r y , as is seen f r o m
t h e i r s y s t e m o f saecula that
9
is, t o precisely t h a t p e r i o d w h o s e
g l o r y is reflected i n so m a n y o r i e n t a l i m p o r t s .
f a m i l y t r a d i t i o n o f t h e haruspices
1 0
The
esoteric
guaranteed the preservation o f
the k n o w l e d g e u n a l t e r e d . I f t h a t k n o w l e d g e ever a r r i v e d f r o m
elsewhere,
i t m u s t have d o n e so at an early p e r i o d w h i c h was
s t i l l r e c e p t i v e , before t h e discipline! became
fixed.
T h i s fact is c o n f i r m e d f r o m t h e G r e e k side. I t seems t h a t h e p a t o s c o p y h a d n o place i n the o l d e r strata o f H o m e r i c epic, b u t i t

m a k e s its appearance i n t h e
final
48
v e r s i o n w e have, d a t i n g t o
S E E R
OR
H E A L E R
a r o u n d 700 B . C . : C a l c h a s , A g a m e m n o n ' s seer, is t h e best o f t h e

" b i r d - d i v i n e r s , " a n d b y v i r t u e o f t h i s art he has " l e d " t h e a r m y . "
B u t a " s a c r i f i c e - d i v i n e r " (thyoskoos)
f o u r t h b o o k o f t h e Iliad
is m e n t i o n e d i n the t w e n t y -
a n d has his r o l e i n t h e Odyssey.
Of
12
course there are v a r i o u s w a y s t o practice d i v i n a t i o n at sacrifice,

b u t t h e o b s e r v a t i o n o f t h e l i v e r is b y far t h e m o s t p r e d o m i n a n t ;
the n a m e o f t h e E t r u s c a n s ,
from
thyoskoos
by
Greek
T u s c i , was s u b s e q u e n t l y
speculation.
1 3
Greek
derived
iconography
s h o w s t h e seer e x a m i n i n g the l i v e r f r o m a b o u t 530 B . C . ;
1 4
after
the Persian Wars G r e e k l i t e r a t u r e has h e p a t o s c o p y f u l l y d e v e l o p e d as the d o m i n a n t f o r m o f d i v i n a t i o n . F r o m P l a t o w e learn

that h e p a t o s c o p y e n j o y e d greater prestige t h a n b i r d a u g u r y .
1 5
I t is i n t e r e s t i n g e n o u g h t h a t there is a special t r a d i t i o n w h i c h
p o i n t s t o C i l i c i a a n d C y p r u s : T h e priest clan o f t h e T a m i r a d a e
at Paphos c l a i m e d t o have b r o u g h t this art w i t h t h e m f r o m C i l i c i a , a n d t o have passed i t o n t o t h e C i n y r a d a e t h e r e .
1 6
W i t h the
oracle priests o f C a r i a n Telmessos l i v e r a u g u r y e n j o y e d a special

status;
17
this t o o m a y p o i n t t o t h a t e p o c h w h e n C a r i a n m e r c e n -
aries w e n t t o t h e O r i e n t , j u s t as Greeks w o u l d d o s o o n after

them.
F o r a l l w e k n o w , l i v e r m o d e l s d i d n o t get as far as Greece
itself. B u t a n o t h e r c u r i o u s o b j e c t related t o t h e e x a m i n a t i o n o f
entrails is the " H u m b a b a face," a g r o t e s q u e h u m a n visage that
can be m a d e e n t i r e l y f r o m l e n g t h s o f i n t e s t i n e .
1 8
I t is f a m i l i a r
f r o m finds, m a d e i n M e s o p o t a m i a , b u t a characteristic e x a m p l e
has also been u n e a r t h e d at t h e a c r o p o l i s o f G o r t y n , i n a s a n c t u a r y w h e r e t h e presence o f o r i e n t a l c r a f t s m e n a n d seers i n the
e i g h t h c e n t u r y is e v i d e n t f r o m the a r c h i t e c t u r e as w e l l as f r o m
the relics o f f o u n d a t i o n s a c r i f i c e s .
19
T h e H u m b a b a face is also
i m i t a t e d i n s o m e o f the g r o t e s q u e masks f r o m t h e O r t h e i a sanct u a r y at Sparta, c o n f i r m i n g t h e spread o f p a r a p h e r n a l i a o f t h e

eastern art o f d i v i n a t i o n t o the West.
W h a t is m o r e , t h e r e is a r e m a r k a b l e c o r r e s p o n d e n c e b e t w e e n
the B a b y l o n i a n a n d t h e w e s t e r n t e r m i n o l o g y o f hepatoscopy.
T h e E t r u s c a n l a n g u a g e has been l o s t , so f o r us, G r e e k a n d L a t i n
m u s t take its place. T h e systems are n o t e x a c t l y i d e n t i c a l : T h e r e
is a s t r i c t o r d e r o f e x a m i n a t i o n o f t e n parts o f the l i v e r i n the
49
T H E
Assyrian s c h o o l
2 0
R E V O L U T I O N
w h i c h has n o p a r a l l e l i n t h e West. H o w e v e r , a
w h o l e s t r i n g o f Greek terms looks like a translation f r o m the

A k k a d i a n . H e r e as t h e r e , the l i v e r has a " g a t e , " a " h e a d , " a
" p a t h , " and a " r i v e r . "
2 1
I f o n e l o o k s at t h e n a m i n g o f t h e v a r i -
o u s l y shaped lobes o f t h e l i v e r as a k i n d o f R o h r s c h a c h test, the

m o s t divergent projections and interpretations m i g h t come to
the fore: T h e c o r r e s p o n d e n c e b e t w e e n East a n d West can h a r d l y
be a c c i d e n t a l . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e r e is a special b i n a r y l o g i c i n the
s y s t e m w h i c h can be s h o w n t o exist i n t h e A k k a d i a n as w e l l as
i n t h e G r e e k , a n d above all i n t h e E t r u s c a n - L a t i n b r a n c h o f t h e
a n d " h o s t i l e " sections
o f the
l i v e r a c c o r d i n g t o w h i c h t h e i m p o r t o f the o b s e r v a t i o n s
science: T h e r e are " a u s p i c i o u s "
alters:
w h a t is n o r m a l is g o o d i n t h e a u s p i c i o u s s e c t i o n a n d d a n g e r o u s
i n t h e h o s t i l e s e c t i o n ; m a l f o r m a t i o n i n the h o s t i l e section is
g o o d , and vice v e r s a .
22
Less t e l l i n g p r o o f s f o r i n t e r c o n n e c t i o n s
are general i m a g i n a t i v e associations, such as a m i s s i n g

indicating
catastrophe
o f leader,
king,
or
"head,"
country; or
two
" h e a d s " i n d i c a t i n g t w o r i v a l p o w e r s . E v e n t h i s p a r a l l e l connects

the factual M e s o p o t a m i a n r e p o r t s t o fantastic scenes e l a b o r a t e d
by Roman
poets.
2 3
W h a t w o u l d seem t o be t h e s t r o n g e s t a r g u m e n t f o r t h e A s s y r i a n - E t r u s c a n axis is, i n fact, t h e m o s t u n c e r t a i n : t h a t o f l i n g u i s t i c b o r r o w i n g . A l f r e d Boissier, w h o was t h e first t o w o r k

s y s t e m a t i c a l l y o n B a b y l o n i a n l i v e r - o m e n t e x t s , saw that liver i n
these texts was c o n s i s t e n t l y w r i t t e n w i t h the S u m e r i a n
g r a m HAR;
ideo-
and he at once c o n c l u d e d t h a t t h i s was t h e e t y m o l -
o g y f o r t h e L a t i n w o r d haruspex,
t h e first p a r t o f w h i c h h a d
always defied e x p l a n a t i o n , w h i l e t h e second p a r t m u s t
mean
"seer o f " ; "seer o f l i v e r " w o u l d p e r f e c t l y m a t c h its use i n reference t o those E t r u s c a n specialists o f f i c i a t i n g i n R o m e .
2 4
T h i s is
as s u g g e s t i v e as i t is s u r p r i s i n g ; b u t serious d o u b t s m u s t r e m a i n .
E v e n i f the transmission o f k n o w l e d g e f r o m M e s o p o t a m i a
to
E t r u r i a seems t o be b e y o n d d i s p u t e , there was n o t r a n s m i s s i o n

o f c u n e i f o r m s c r i p t a n y w h e r e i n t h e West. I n o r a l i n s t r u c t i o n ,
however,
s o m e t h i n g s u c h as HAR
been p r o n o u n c e d . T h e s i g n HAR
was m o s t u n l i k e l y t o have
is used as an i d e o g r a m
w h a t , i n A k k a d i a n , s h o u l d s o u n d amutu.
25
50
for
M o r e o v e r the E t r u s -
" A
S E E R
OR
H E A L E R "
cans, t h e actual specialists, h a d t h e i r o w n , c o m p l e t e l y different

w o r d f o r this t y p e o f seer, netsvis
26
H o w s h o u l d the R o m a n s
c o m e b y a S u m e r i a n n a m e f o r s o m e t h i n g w h i c h was p r a c t i c e d
b y t h e Etruscans? O n e is t h u s f o r c e d t o take Boissier's e t y m o l o g y as an e x a m p l e o f h o w a c o i n c i d e n c e o f l i n g u i s t i c h o m o n y m y can lead us astray. I t is perhaps n o less suggestive t h a t t h e
s i g n w h i c h t h e seer h a d t o i n t e r p r e t is called tertu i n A k k a d i a n ;
its p l u r a l , teretu,
s o u n d s r e m a r k a b l y l i k e the terata/teirata
w h i c h a seer such as Teiresias was t o d e a l .
27
with
B u t even here a
c u r i o u s c o i n c i d e n c e c a n n o t be r u l e d o u t .
Cicero
w r i t e s t h a t i t is u n t h i n k a b l e that E t r u s c a n ,
Greek,
E g y p t i a n , and Punic diviners should meet for consultation and

reach a c o m m o n consensus i n p r o b l e m s o f h e p a t o s c o p y ;
they
w o u l d never agree, because " t h e r e is n o t a single science f o r all

o f t h e m , " b u t o n l y d i v e r g i n g sectarian v i e w s .
2 8
Skeptics c o u l d
d r a w t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t t h e w h o l e t h i n g was nonsense; the h i s t o r i a n , h o w e v e r , f i n d s t h e clearest evidence o f c u l t u r a l d i f f u s i o n

precisely i n c o r r e s p o n d e n c e s o f details t h a t seem m o s t absurd
a n d u n n a t u r a l , a n d hence least l i k e l y t o be a r r i v e d at i n d e p e n d e n t l y . I t is o n l y t o be e x p e c t e d that i n d i v i d u a l a b e r r a t i o n s w i l l
creep i n , a n d o f c o u r s e i n d i v i d u a l f o r m s t e n d t o adapt t h e m selves t o t h e p r e v a i l i n g c u l t u r a l c o n t e x t . T h u s G r e e k d i v i n a t i o n
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y proceeds far m o r e f r o m a visual-associative basis, w i t h o u t t h e a l m o s t s c h o l a r l y ballast o f the E t r u s c a n
plina,
disci-
w h i c h , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , has preserved m o r e o f its east-
ern origins. T h e
s i m i l a r i t i e s are nevertheless i n d i c a t i v e o f a
c o m m o n source, o f s o m e h i s t o r i c a l c o n n e c t i o n w h i c h b i n d s all
the i n d i v i d u a l f o r m s t o g e t h e r . T h e spread o f h e p a t o s c o p y is one
o f t h e clearest e x a m p l e s o f c u l t u r a l c o n t a c t i n t h e o r i e n t a l i z i n g
p e r i o d . I t m u s t have been a case o f East-West u n d e r s t a n d i n g o n
a r e l a t i v e l y h i g h , t e c h n i c a l level. T h e m o b i l i t y o f m i g r a n t chari s m a t i c s is t h e n a t u r a l p r e r e q u i s i t e f o r this d i f f u s i o n , the i n t e r n a t i o n a l r o l e o f s o u g h t - a f t e r specialists, w h o w e r e , as far as t h e i r
art was c o n c e r n e d , nevertheless b o u n d t o t h e i r father-teachers.
We c a n n o t e x p e c t t o f i n d m a n y
archaeologically
identifiable
traces o f such p e o p l e , o t h e r t h a n s o m e e x c e p t i o n a l instances: a

m o d e l l i v e r o r a H u m b a b a face.
5i
T H E
Still the m i g r a n t
R E V O L U T I O N
d i v i n e r s have left
their m a r k
i n Greek
m y t h o l o g y . O n e n a m e w h i c h l i n k s t h e O r i e n t a n d Greece is t h a t
o f t h e seer M o p s o s . A c c o r d i n g t o t h e G r e e k v e r s i o n , w h i c h was
f i x e d above a l l i n t h e H e s i o d i c M e l a m p o d i a ,
2 9
he was a n e p h e w
o f Teiresias; he f i r s t f o u n d e d t h e o r a c l e o f C l a r o s a n d e v e n t u a l l y
e m i g r a t e d t o C i l i c i a , w h e r e the c i t y o f M o p s u e s t i a carried his
n a m e . S u r p r i s i n g l y , t h e n a m e M o p s o s appears i n a H i t t i t e r e p o r t , as Muksus;
30
i n a d d i t i o n , the f a m o u s b i l i n g u a l i n s c r i p t i o n
f r o m Karatepe i n Cilicia f r o m the eighth c e n t u r y introduces a

K i n g Azitawadda from
the "house o f M o p s o s " ;
3 1
g l y p h i c L u w i a n t e x t i n d i c a t e s t h e n a m e t o be Moxos,
p r e s e r v e d also i n L y d i a n t r a d i t i o n ,
s i o n has Mopsos
(mps).
3 2
the h i e r o a name
whereas the Phoenician ver-
H o w these t e s t i m o n i a s h o u l d be c o m -
b i n e d t o r e c o n s t r u c t t h e real h i s t o r y o f o n e K i n g M o p s o s a n d
his p r o g e n y i n A s i a M i n o r is a p r o b l e m w h i c h c a n n o t be d i s cussed here. I t suffices t o state t h a t a n a m e f r o m t h e H i t t i t e C i l i c i a n t r a d i t i o n is used i n G r e e k m y t h t o i d e n t i f y o n e o f t h e
great seers w h o w a s , i n t h e G r e e k v i e w , c o n n e c t e d w i t h C i l i c i a .
T h e C i l i c i a n o r i g i n s o f t h e seers o f Paphos s h o u l d n o t be f o r g o t t e n . N e x t t o M o p s o s t h e r e stands, w i t h a p u r e G r e e k n a m e ,
A m p h i l o c h o s , the son o f A m p h i a r a o s . M o p s o s and A m p h i l o chos t o g e t h e r are h o n o r e d as t h e f o u n d i n g heroes o f t h e f a m o u s
oracle o f M a l l o s i n C i l i c i a , a place w h e r e , once m o r e , o r i e n t a l
a n d G r e e k t r a d i t i o n s m e e t i n a special w a y .
3 3
I n a n y case, G r e e k
m y t h establishes a c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n Greece a n d C i l i c i a p r e cisely a r o u n d t h e f i g u r e o f t h e m i g r a n t seer. N o t t o o far a w a y is

Tarsos, w h e r e G r e e k c e r a m i c s as w e l l as c u n e i f o r m d o c u m e n t s
w i t h d i v i n a t o r y c o n t e n t s have been f o u n d . T h e " H e s i o d i c " t e x t
a b o u t M o p s o s m a y c o m e close i n t i m e t o t h e K a r a t e p e i n s c r i p t i o n , t h a t is, t o t h e A s s y r i a n p e r i o d . T h e spread o f t h e a r t o f the
seer f r o m the E u p h r a t e s t o Greece a n d t h e E t r u s c a n s as i n d i c a t e d
b y t h e o t h e r e v i d e n c e presents t h e p l a u s i b l e b a c k g r o u n d f o r the
d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e M o p s o s m y t h . I t is t r u e t h a t t h e G r e e k n a r r a t i v e has reversed t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s , as the G r e e k M o p s o s is
m a d e t o e m i g r a t e t o C i l i c i a , a l t h o u g h a c c o r d i n g t o the l o c a l
d o c u m e n t s his " h o u s e " h a d been established t h e r e a n d n o t i n
Greece. I t is i n t e r e s t i n g t h a t t h e m y t h has M o p s o s defeat C a l -
52
" A
S E E R
O R
H E A L E R "
chas " t h e best b i r d a u g u r " i n a contest o f seers; the f o r e i g n o r i g i n o f t h e art is, h o w e v e r , suppressed.
L e t us n o t f o r g e t t h a t a w h o l e range o f o t h e r f o r m s o f d i v i n a t i o n are c o m m o n t o the H i t t i t e a n d S e m i t i c O r i e n t a n d the
Greeks; n e x t t o t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f m a n y o t h e r p o r t e n t s ,
3 4
bird
augury played a notable role i n B a b y l o n . Different kinds o f lec a n o m a n c y also c o n s t i t u t e d a special a r t , w h e t h e r i n the p o u r i n g
o f o i l o n t o w a t e r o r t h e s p r i n k l i n g o f flour o n t o l i q u i d .
3 5
"To
p o u r v i n e g a r a n d flour i n t o the same glass" a n d t o w a t c h t h e i r

m o v e m e n t s is m e n t i o n e d once b y A e s c h y l u s ; F a r n e l l t o o k this
t o be a clear e x a m p l e o f M e s o p o t a m i a n i n f l u e n c e .
36
Such p r a c -
tices d i d n o t , h o w e v e r , b e c o m e as p r o m i n e n t as l i v e r a u g u r y .
T h e fact t h a t lekane is an A r a m a i c w o r d is p r o b a b l y j u s t a n o t h e r
coincidence.
Foundation
Deposits
T o m a k e o f f e r i n g s o n t h e occasion o f t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f b u i l d ings o n the v e r y s p o t is a w i d e s p r e a d practice, w e l l k n o w n t o

b o t h e t h n o l o g i s t s a n d f o l k l o r i s t s . H o w e v e r , there are c u l t u r a l l y
specific f o r m s w h i c h can d e v e l o p i n t o f i x e d t r a d i t i o n s . I n the
N e a r East, w h e r e t h e r e are p e r t i n e n t texts as w e l l as a r c h a e o l o g ical f i n d s , v a r i o u s f o r m s e m e r g e a c c o r d i n g t o place a n d p e r i o d .
T h e r e are g u a r d i a n f i g u r e s w h i c h are i n t e r r e d u n d e r the b u i l d i n g ; t h e r e are stone tablets w i t h i n s c r i p t i o n s b u r i e d l i k e w i s e .
T h e r e are also less specific sacrificial r i t u a l s i n v o l v i n g a n i m a l
sacrifice a n d l i b a t i o n s . I n a d d i t i o n there is t h e p r a c t i c e , p a r t i c u l a r l y w i d e s p r e a d a m o n g t h e A s s y r i a n s , o f i n t e r r i n g valuable o b jects,
different k i n d s o f precious
m e t a l and p r e c i o u s
stones,
u n d e r t e m p l e s o r palaces. O n e r e l e v a n t r i t u a l t e x t f o r the erec1
t i o n o f a n e w h o u s e has been preserved i n H i t t i t e ; i t specifies

h o w g o l d , silver, a n d b r o n z e a n d o t h e r objects are t o be d e p o s i t e d i n specific places t o t h e a c c o m p a n i m e n t o f p r a y e r s .
T h e r e are c o m p a r a b l e albeit n o t i d e n t i c a l f o u n d a t i o n offerings

i n t h e M i n o a n w o r l d : c o l o r e d pebbles f r o m the sea, s m a l l vessels, seals, e v e n , i n o n e case, a n i m a l bones, b u r i e d u n d e r the
floor
o r t h e t h r e s h o l d o f a sacred r o o m . A d e p o s i t o f eastern
3
S3
T H E
style,
c o n s i s t i n g o f b r o n z e objects
R E V O L U T I O N
d e l i b e r a t e l y i n t e r r e d , has
c o m e to l i g h t under the Late B r o n z e A g e T e m p l e I V i n K i t i o n

o n C y p r u s ; t h e e x c a v a t o r s w e r e i m m e d i a t e l y r e m i n d e d o f the
M e s o p o t a m i a n p r a c t i c e , a l t h o u g h the i n h a b i t a n t s o f K i t i o n at
t h a t t i m e m a y have been M y c e n a e a n
Greeks.
T h e n e x t f i n d , closer t o Greece p r o p e r , dates f r o m a r o u n d 800

on Crete: A family o f goldsmiths w h i c h had i m m i g r a t e d f r o m
S y r i a b u r i e d a d e p o s i t o f g o l d n u g g e t s , h a l f - w o r k e d pieces, a n d
o t h e r j e w e l r y i n a r e - u s e d t h o l o s t o m b at K n o s s o s , r e d e d i c a t i n g
it for their o w n use. T h u s w e f i n d religious practice directly
5
i m p o r t e d f r o m t h e East a l o n g w i t h the s k i l l e d craft o f f o r e i g n

specialists.
From
t h e s u b s e q u e n t p e r i o d , t w o r i c h deposits
excavated
u n d e r t w o f a m o u s t e m p l e s have a t t r a c t e d a great deal o f a t t e n t i o n . O n e was f o u n d at the w a l l and p a r t l y u n d e r the w a l l o f t h e

earliest t e m p l e o f A r t e m i s o n D e l o s a n d is d a t e d a r o u n d 700:
Small Mycenaean
a n d c o n t e m p o r a r y valuables,
already p a r t l y
f r a g m e n t e d , h a d been i n t e r r e d t o g e t h e r ; a p i t c o n t a i n i n g s o m e
a n i m a l bones a n d c h a r c o a l , traces o f sacrifice,
is closely
con-
n e c t e d . T h e o t h e r d e p o s i t , w h i c h b e l o n g s t o the t e m p l e o f A r 6
t e m i s at E p h e s o s , is p a r t i c u l a r l y r i c h , c o n s i s t i n g o f a b o u t a t h o u sand objects; i t has l o n g been f a m o u s a n d c o n t r o v e r s i a l , since its

date is t i e d i n w i t h t h e d a t i n g o f t h e oldest e l e c t r o n coins.
o p t i o n s used t o
fluctuate
The
b e t w e e n 6 5 0 - 6 3 0 a n d 600. Yet recent
excavations y i e l d e d t h e result t h a t i t b e l o n g s t o t h e t e m p l e b u i l t
b y C r o e s u s , a b o u t 560 B . C . S i m i l a r deposits o f valuables are
k n o w n f r o m o n e o f t h e t e m p l e s at Perachora, f r o m t h e t e m p l e
o f Poseidon
Priene.
at I s t h m i a , a n d f r o m
the t e m p l e o f A t h e n a i n
T h e f o u n d a t i o n o f f e r i n g s w h i c h w e r e d i s c o v e r e d at t h e t e m p l e
o n t h e a c r o p o l i s o f G o r t y n are s i m p l e r a n d o f a different t y p e :
t w o p i t s h a d been d u g n e x t t o t h e t e m p l e w a l l i n w h i c h there
w e r e the r e m a i n s o f a n i m a l bones, o f s o m e k i n d o f l i b a t i o n i n
the f o r m o f a vegetable paste a n d v a r i o u s s m a l l vessels; the
w h o l e h a d been c a r e f u l l y c o v e r e d w i t h stone slabs o n w h i c h a
fire h a d been l i t . H e r e w e have sacrificial r i t u a l i n a f o r m f a m i l 8
iar f r o m later G r e e k a n d L a t i n texts: F i r s t , sacrifice is m a d e " i n t o
54
" A
the p i t " (bothros);
S E E R
O R
H E A L E R "
t h e n t h i s is covered over a n d a p e r m a n e n t
m a r k e r , a b o u n d a r y s t o n e , o r a g o d is erected above i t . A p i t
9
w i t h f o u n d a t i o n o f f e r i n g s , c a r e f u l l y covered before t h e e r e c t i o n
o f the b u i l d i n g , has also been i d e n t i f i e d u n d e r one o f t h e t r e a s u r i e s p r e v i o u s l y called T e m p l e D i n the H e r a s a n c t u a r y o f
Samos; i t is d a t e d t o 5 1 0 - 5 0 0 B . C .
1 0
I n t h e earlier case, at G o r -
t y n , t h e a r c h a e o l o g i s t s w h o excavated the t e m p l e f o u n d the arc h i t e c t u r e d a t e d b y t h e m t o a r o u n d 8 0 0 s i m i l a r t o Late H i t tite t e c h n i q u e s , a n d t h e y i n d i c a t e d a s i m i l a r p r o v e n i e n c e f o r t h e

f o u n d a t i o n o f f e r i n g s . A n i m a l sacrifices and l i b a t i o n s are attested
as c o n s t r u c t i o n o f f e r i n g s i n M e s o p o t a m i a , t o o , t h o u g h i n a less
specific f o r m .
1 1
The i n t e r m e n t o f s m a l l valuables,
i n p a r t i c u l a r pieces o f
m e t a l , p r o v i d e s m o r e specific evidence o f the spread o f a M e s o p o t a m i a n p r a c t i c e , w i t h the decisive leap across the A e g e a n

l i n k e d t o the e m i g r a t i o n o f c r a f t s m e n t o C r e t e a r o u n d 800. A d m i t t e d l y this p r a c t i c e w o u l d n o t have b r o u g h t m u c h o f a s p i r i t u a l w o r l d w i t h i t : n o p a n t h e o n , n o m y t h s ; the practice i t s e l f is
n o t even e x p l a i n e d i n t h e eastern t e x t s .
1 2
W h a t seems t o suffice
is t h e c o n v i c t i o n , i n h e r e n t i n the act, t h a t v a l u a b l e offerings w i l l

ensure t h e p e r m a n e n t a n d u n d i s t u r b e d possession a n d safety o f
the b u i l d i n g . O n e t h i n g , h o w e v e r , is stated e x p l i c i t l y b y t h e
eastern t e x t s : H o w e v e r m u c h the b u i l d e r m a y w i s h t o c o m e t o
the f o r e , the f o u n d a t i o n succeeds " a c c o r d i n g t o the message o f
the art o f the c o n j u r e r " ; t h e c h a r i s m a t i c specialist c o u l d n o t be
left o u t .
1 3
O n e is l e d t o i m a g i n e t h a t , even at the b u i l d i n g i n
G o r t y n , w h e r e w o r k e r s f r o m N o r t h Syria w e r e p r o b a b l y i n v o l v e d , a n d n o less at t h e b e g i n n i n g s o f t e m p l e b u i l d i n g o n D e los o r i n E p h e s o s , t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e masons a n d carpenters there

h a d also been a c r a f t s m a n o f t h e o t h e r k i n d , a m i g r a n t seer, i n
attendance.
Purification
Although
the
correspondence
between
Mesopotamian
and
E t r u s c a n h e p a t o s c o p y has l o n g been a subject o f d i s c u s s i o n , the

n o less s i g n i f i c a n t s i m i l a r i t i e s b e t w e e n eastern m a g i c a n d the ca-
55
T H E
R E V O L U T I O N
t h a r t i c r i t u a l s o f t h e G r e e k s have r a r e l y been c o n s i d e r e d i n d e t a i l . T h e s i t u a t i o n is p a r a l l e l , t h o u g h , insofar as t h e p r a c t i c e o f

p u r i f i c a t i o n w h i c h is c o m m o n i n later p e r i o d s does n o t yet a p pear i n H o m e r - a fact n o t i c e d already b y t h e a n c i e n t c o m m e n tators o n H o m e r . B u t t h e c y c l i c epic Aithiopis
rification
narrated the p u -
o f A c h i l l e s after he h a d k i l l e d T h e r s i t e s .
This
is
g e n e r a l l y t a k e n t o represent a m o r e recent stage i n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f G r e e k c i v i l i z a t i o n : C o n c e r n a b o u t p u r i f i c a t i o n appears

t o be characteristic o f t h e archaic p e r i o d . I t is t a k e n f o r g r a n t e d
2
t h a t t h e influence o f t h e oracle o f D e l p h i was o p e r a t i v e i n this

g r o w i n g c o n c e r n . Possible contacts w i t h S c y t h i a n
shamanism
have also a t t r a c t e d a t t e n t i o n since the w o r k o f K a r l M e u l i .
The
r o l e o f B a b y l o n was s c r u t i n i z e d b y L e w i s R i c h a r d F a r n e l l a l o n e ,
w h o f o u n d such s i g n i f i c a n t differences b e t w e e n East a n d West
t h a t t h e c a t h a r t i c s y s t e m o f t h e G r e e k s c o u l d n o t have been b o r r o w e d f r o m B a b y l o n ; at least F a r n e l l insisted t h a t c e r t a i n b o r r o w i n g s c o u l d n o t antedate H o m e r .
T h i s has h a d a s o o t h i n g
effect o n H e l l e n i s t s a l t h o u g h o n e s h o u l d realize t h a t F a r n e l l
d a t e d H o m e r t o t h e t e n t h c e n t u r y a n d t h e r e b y left t h e e i g h t h
a n d seventh centuries o p e n t o all sorts o f " i n f l u e n c e s " ; i n d e e d i n
s o m e cases he was t h e first t o a c k n o w l e d g e t h e i r existence.
A s t o t h e sources available, t h e s i t u a t i o n is s i m i l a r t o t h a t o f
hepatoscopy:
O n t h e G r e e k side w e are d e p e n d e n t o n i s o l a t e d
allusions a n d b r i e f references a n d o f t e n have t o r e l y u p o n later

r e p o r t s . A k k a d i a n l i t e r a t u r e , i n c o n t r a s t , has a w h o l e c o r p u s o f
m a g i c - r i t u a l t e x t s w h i c h have been k n o w n f o r a l o n g t i m e , a l t h o u g h d e f i n i t i v e e d i t i o n s are s t i l l l a c k i n g i n q u i t e a f e w cases.
T h e s e are
often bilingual,
Sumerian-Akkadian
texts,
fact
w h i c h speaks f o r t h e i r age; t h e y w e r e c o l l e c t e d i n a s y s t e m a t i c
w a y i n t h e l i b r a r y o f A s h u r b a n i p a l . D e r i v a t i v e s reached as far as
Tarsos.
A m o n g t h e p r a c t i t i o n e r s o f t h e r i t u a l s t h e r e are t w o
m a i n t y p e s : the seer (baru),
w h o was r e s p o n s i b l e f o r d i v i n a t i o n ;
a n d t h e actual m a g i c i a n - p r i e s t (asipu),
w h o s e m a i n task was t h e
h e a l i n g o f t h e s i c k . T h e l a t t e r is t h e focus o f d i s c u s s i o n here.
7
T h e c a t h a r t i c p r a c t i c e o f t h e G r e e k s appears t o c o n c e n t r a t e o n
the p u r i f i c a t i o n o f m u r d e r e r s f r o m b l o o d g u i l t : b l o o d is p u r i f i e d
t h r o u g h b l o o d . T h e s t a n d a r d e x a m p l e is t h a t o f O r e s t e s ,
8
56
al-
" A
S E E R
O R
H E A L E R "
t h o u g h A e s c h y l u s does present I x i o n as t h e o r i g i n a l p a r a d i g m .
I n t h e case o f O r e s t e s , A e s c h y l u s gives us m o r e g r a p h i c i n d i c a t i o n s o f h o w t h e a c t u a l p r o c e d u r e was c a r r i e d o u t : I n o r d e r t o

" w a s h a w a y t h e s t a i n , " a p i g l e t m u s t be s l a u g h t e r e d i n such a
w a y t h a t its b l o o d p o u r s over t h e p o l l u t e d m a n ; t h e b l o o d is then
w a s h e d o f f w i t h r u n n i n g w a t e r ; i n t h i s w a y t h e p o l l u t i o n "has
been d r i v e n o u t b y p i g l e t - k i l l i n g p u r i f i c a t i o n s . "
1 0
We already
k n o w f r o m t h e Iliad t h a t t h e d i r t y w a t e r (lymata) m u s t t h e n be
disposed o f i n t u r n .
1 1
A n A p u l i a n b e l l krater i n t h e L o u v r e has
an i m p r e s s i v e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e p u r i f i c a t i o n o f Orestes i n s p i r e d d i r e c t l y b y t h e A e s c h y l e a n t e x t . A p o l l o h i m s e l f is h o l d i n g
the p i g l e t d i r e c t l y over t h e head o f Orestes, w h o is seated; its
b l o o d w i l l f l o w d i r e c t l y over his head. B u t t h e n i t can be m a d e
t o disappear: G u i l t " c a n be w a s h e d a w a y . "
1 2
T h e r e is n o e v i d e n c e i n B a b y l o n i a f o r this k i n d o f p u r i f i c a t i o n
o f b l o o d t h r o u g h b l o o d , as F a r n e l l was r i g h t t o s t a t e .
13
How-
ever, t h e v e r y r i t u a l w i t h t h e sacrificial p i g l e t b e i n g h e l d over t h e

head o f a p e r s o n , t o be s l a u g h t e r e d a n d t o d r e n c h t h e p a t i e n t
w i t h b l o o d , is r e p r e s e n t e d d r a m a t i c a l l y i n a n o t h e r vase p a i n t i n g ,
o n a krater f o u n d at C a n i c a t t i n i ; yet t h e o b j e c t i v e i n this case is
n o t t o p u r i f y a m u r d e r e r , b u t t o cure t h e d a u g h t e r s o f Proetus
o f their "madness."
1 4
T h i s madness h a d been caused b y s o m e
r i t u a l t r a n s g r e s s i o n b y t h e g i r l s w h i c h varies i n d i f f e r e n t versions
o f t h e m y t h ; t h e c u r e is d i r e c t e d against t h e m a n i f e s t sufferings
w h i c h have r e s u l t e d f r o m i t . C o m p a r e d w i t h this even t h e case
o f Orestes takes o n a d o u b l e m e a n i n g : Orestes t o o has b e c o m e
m a d ; he is m a n i f e s t l y s u f f e r i n g f r o m his illness. So is i t a t o n e m e n t o r j u s t h e a l i n g t h a t has t o be p r o c u r e d b y p u r i f i c a t i o n r i t ual? T o raise t h e q u e s t i o n is t o see t h e i r r e l e v a n c e o f this d i s t i n c tion.
That
social
and physio-psychic
ills
were
n o t clearly
d i f f e r e n t i a t e d i n archaic societies, t h a t a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f j u s t i c e
a n d h e a l i n g can be seen t o fuse, has o f t e n been b r o u g h t o u t a n d
discussed i n m o r e recent a n t h r o p o l o g y . A n offense is t h e source
o f illness, illness is t h e result o f an offense, be i t i n t h e p e r s o n a l ,
the s o c i a l , o r t h e r e l i g i o u s sphere. E v e n i n G r e e k t h e w o r d nosos,
illness, embraces b o t h , t h e p h y s i c a l a n d t h e social d i s t u r b a n c e s ,
ailments and sufferings.
15
T h e effect o f t h e t h e r a p y w h i c h t h e
57
T H E
R E V O L U T I O N
" k n o w i n g " specialist is able t o a p p l y is n o less b r o a d . I n o t h e r

w o r d s , t h e p u r i f i c a t i o n o f O r e s t e s c o u l d e q u a l l y w e l l be u n d e r s t o o d as the h e a l i n g o f an illness, even before E u r i p i d e s b r o u g h t
this i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o n s t a g e i n his t r a g e d y Orestes.
Orestes
was
b o t h m a d a n d g u i l t y a n d h a d t o be c u r e d at b o t h levels. T h e n ,
h o w e v e r , t h e b o u n d a r y b e t w e e n the B a b y l o n i a n a n d the G r e e k
b e c o m e s m u c h less d i s t i n c t .
A b i l i n g u a l ritual text f r o m the collection " E v i l D e m o n s
I l l n e s s " (Asakki
marsuti)
of
has t h e f o l l o w i n g p r e s c r i p t i o n f o r the
e x o r c i s t i t is presented as a c o m m a n d issued f r o m t h e s k y g o d
A n u t o his s o n M a r d u k :
[Take] a s u c k l i n g p i g [and . . .
at] the head o f the sick m a n
[ p u t i t (?) and] take o u t its heart and above the heart o f the
sick m a n [ p u t i t ] , [ s p r i n k l e ] its b l o o d on the sides o f the bed,
[and] d i v i d e the p i g over his l i m b s and spread i t o n the sick
m a n ; then cleanse that m a n w i t h pure water f r o m the Deep
[/lp5]
and wash h i m clean and b r i n g near h i m a censer [and]
a t o r c h , place t w i c e seven loaves c o o k e d i n the ashes against

the outer door, and give the p i g as his substitute, and give the
flesh and the b l o o d as his b l o o d : they [the d e m o n s ] shall take
i t ; the heart w h i c h t h o u hast placed u p o n his heart, as his heart
give i t : they shall take i t . [lacuna] [that the] p i g may be his
substitute . . . M a y the e v i l spirit, the e v i l d e m o n stand aside!
M a y the k i n d l y s p i r i t , the k i n d l y d e m o n be present!
16
T h i s r i t u a l is n o t i d e n t i c a l w i t h the o n e w e are t o envisage f o r

Orestes a n d t h e P r o e t i d s f r o m t h e G r e e k r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s ,
but
the s i m i l a r i t y is u n d e n i a b l e :
the
t h e c o n d i t i o n o f sickness,
k n o w l e d g e a b l e specialist, t h e sacrificial p i g l e t , slaughter, c o n t a c t

w i t h b l o o d , a n d t h e s u b s e q u e n t cleansing w i t h water. T h e t o r c h
a n d t h e incense b o w l b e l o n g t o t h e apparatus o f G r e e k p u r i f i c a t i o n priests, t o o .
1 7
W h a t is p e c u l i a r i n t h e M e s o p o t a m i a n t e x t is t h e e m p h a s i s o n
s u b s t i t u t i o n , t o w h i c h w e shall r e t u r n . I n this respect i t m o s t
closely resembles a r i t u a l described b y O v i d i n t h e c o n t e x t o f
the R o m a n festival C a r m e n t a l i a , a r i t u a l against m a g i c a l b i r d s ,
striges,
said t o feed o n babies at n i g h t t h a t is, de facto against
58
S E E R
O R
H E A L E R
children's disease. O n c e m o r e t h e sacrifice o f a s u c k l i n g p i g o c curs, p e r f o r m e d b y t h e goddess C a r m e n t a h e r s e l f as a m y t h i c a l

m o d e l , w i t h t h e e x p l i c i t f o r m u l a o f s u b s t i t u t i o n : " T a k e the heart
f o r the h e a r t , the i n t e s t i n e s f o r the intestines, w e g i v e this life
for a better o n e . "
1 8
Is t h i s a case o f a spontaneous parallel a r i s i n g
f r o m general " e l e m e n t a r y ideas" o f the h u m a n m i n d , o r is i t

s i m p l y t h e case t h a t i n t h e l o w e r r e a l m o f w i t c h e s a n d m a g i c the
c u l t u r a l b a r r i e r s are m o r e p e r m e a b l e t h a n at t h e level o f h i g h e r
literature?
I f o n e regards Orestes as a case o f sickness
(0505),
then sick-
ness appears p e r s o n i f i e d t o a r e m a r k a b l e degree: I t is described

as an attack b y d e m o n s . T h e E r i n y e s are i m a g i n e d as beasts o f
prey, " d o g s "
w h o w a n t t o suck his b l o o d , leech t h e l i f e - f o r c e
f r o m h i m . R e m a r k a b l y e n o u g h , already i n H o m e r sickness is
once d e s c r i b e d as an " a t t a c k b y a hateful d e m o n . "
1 9
The magi-
cians r i d i c u l e d b y t h e a u t h o r o f t h e H i p p o c r a t i c treatise On the

Sacred Disease
also speak o f attacks (ephodoi)
T h e c o n c e p t o f savage, rapacious,
o f d e m o n s o r gods.
carnivorous demons
who
cause sickness is c o m m o n i f n o t f u n d a m e n t a l i n M e s o p o t a m i a n
h e a l i n g m a g i c . B u t there is also the less p e r s o n a l i z e d concept o f
the curse o f m u r d e r , w h i c h has t o be e l i m i n a t e d b y a ritual i n
the " w a s h
house."
2 0
I n spite o f these s i m i l a r i t i e s , h o w e v e r , i t is clear t h a t the p e c u l i a r f u n c t i o n o f a t o n e m e n t f o r m u r d e r f o r w h i c h Orestes is a

m o d e l case, the s y s t e m o f p u r i f i c a t i o n c u r r e n t i n archaic Greece,
is n o t j u s t s o m e B a b y l o n i a n i m p o r t . F a r n e l l was r i g h t t o t h a t
e x t e n t . B u t t h i s does n o t r u l e o u t c u l t u r a l c o n n e c t i o n s ; o n the
c o n t r a r y . I n M e s o p o t a m i a b l o o d g u i l t had been r e g u l a t e d b y
state l a w f r o m e a r l y t i m e s , as t h e l a w codes attest; there was n o
p r o b l e m left. U n a f f e c t e d b y l a w , h o w e v e r , w e r e i n d i v i d u a l sufferings, those r e c u r r i n g sicknesses s u r m i s e d t o be caused b y
s o m e g u i l t w h i c h c o u l d n o t be d e f i n e d i n legal t e r m s , o r s o m e
d e m o n g o i n g astray. T h i s was t h e sphere o f t h e p r a c t i t i o n e r s ,
the p r i e s t - e x o r c i s t s . I n archaic Greece, i n fact, the c o r r e s p o n d i n g practice w o u l d n o t o n l y m e e t p r i v a t e needs o f m a n i f e s t sufferings, b u t also f i l l a v a c u u m c o v e r i n g " s o c i a l i l l n e s s " d i s r u p t i o n o f the c o m m u n i t y t h r o u g h m u r d e r , t h r o u g h the shedding
59
T H E
R E V O L U T I O N
o f b l o o d . W r i t t e n l a w s w e r e t o appear o n l y g r a d u a l l y w i t h t h e
d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e polis,
a n d w e r e d i f f i c u l t t o enforce. I n t h e
m e a n t i m e m a g i c " t h e r a p y " h a d a chance t o g a i n p u b l i c s i g n i f i cance t o a degree w h i c h was u n t h i n k a b l e i n t h e sphere o f eastern

g o v e r n m e n t a l bureaucracy.
T h e Greeks lacked s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d
i n s t i t u t i o n s o f m o n a r c h i c p o w e r a n d law, u n c e r t a i n t y b e i n g t h e
t o u c h s t o n e o f f r e e d o m . T h u s " s i c k n e s s " m i g h t i n v o l v e an e n t i r e
c i t y w h i c h needed h e a l i n g a t o n e m e n t : A f t e r t h e C y l o n i a n s a c r i lege, A t h e n s s u m m o n e d E p i m e n i d e s
stored order t h r o u g h r i t u a l .
2 1
f r o m C r e t e , a n d he r e -
T h e difference b e t w e e n t h e eastern
c i v i l i z a t i o n s a n d Greece c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e specific levels o f c u l t u r e a t t a i n e d i n d i f f e r e n t r e g i o n s . T h i s does n o t o b v i a t e i n f l u ence, transfer, o r a d o p t i o n ; b u t a n y i m p o r t w o u l d w i n a n e w

f u n c t i o n a n d t h u s d e v e l o p s o m e n e w f o r m s i n its n e w c o n t e x t .
T h e ritual p r a c t i c e i t s e l f as i t h a d f o r a l o n g t i m e been c o n d u c t e d
b y eastern e x o r c i s t s , t h e sacrifice o f a s u c k l i n g p i g , h a r d l y h a d
to change.
T o keep t h e m s e l v e s " c l e a n " is an e l e m e n t a r y need o f h u m a n
beings; n o w o n d e r c l e a n s i n g c e r e m o n i e s play t h e i r r o l e w o r l d w i d e i n p r o f a n e as w e l l as i n r e l i g i o u s varieties. S i m i l a r p r o c e dures a n d s i m i l a r f o r m u l a s are t o be e x p e c t e d : " B e g o n e , E v i l !
C o m e i n , W e l l b e i n g ! " is o n e o f t h e m o s t c o m m o n e x h o r t a t i o n s .
I t is s t i l l r e m a r k a b l e t h a t i t is attested b o t h i n M e s o p o t a m i a , as a
c o m m o n inscription o n magical figurines, and i n Greek apotropaic r i t u a l .
2 2
I n b o t h c u l t u r e s , t o o , m e r e c o n t a c t w i t h an u n c l e a n
p e r s o n o r u n c l e a n m a t t e r is t o be feared.
" H e has c o m e
into
c o n t a c t w i t h a w o m a n o f u n c l e a n hands . . . o r he has c o m e i n t o
contact w i t h
a m a n o f u n c l e a n hands
...
o r his h a n d
has
t o u c h e d o n e o f u n c l e a n b o d y " : these are s o m e o f t h e conjectures

m a d e b y t h e e x o r c i s t w h e n d e a l i n g w i t h a case o f sickness. O n e
s h o u l d n o t t a l k t o a m a n w h o is c a r r y i n g g u i l t , n o r eat a n d d r i n k
w i t h h i m , t h e A k k a d i a n p r e s c r i p t i o n w a r n s ; t h e same w a r n i n g
applies t o d e a l i n g w i t h a m u r d e r e r i n Greece: o n l y after O r e s t e s '
p u r i f i c a t i o n was " c o n t a c t w i t h o u t d a m a g e " p o s s i b l e .
B r a n c h e s also are o f special use i n p u r i f i c a t i o n s ,
23
alongside
p i g l e t b l o o d , t o r c h e s , a n d w a t e r f r o m t h e sea. I n t h e A k k a d i a n
p o e m J Will Praise
the Lord
of Wisdom t h e m a n c e l e b r a t i n g his
60
" A
S E E R
O R
H E A L E R "
healing portrays a d r e a m o f hope: " A n d i n [ m y dream] I [saw] a

r e m a r k a b l e y o u n g [ m a n . . . ] h o l d i n g i n his h a n d a t a m a r i s k
r o d o f p u r i f i c a t i o n . . . t h e w a t e r he was c a r r y i n g he t h r e w over
m e , p r o n o u n c e d t h e l i f e - g i v i n g i n c a n t a t i o n , and r u b b e d [ m y
body]," Compare
t h e l e g e n d o f the o r i g i n o f A p o l l o ' s c u l t at
D i d y m a : B r a n c h o s , t h e A p o l l o n i a n seer, freed t h e M i l e s i a n s o f
the p l a g u e : " h e s p r i n k l e d t h e p e o p l e w i t h l a u r e l branches . .
the p e o p l e s p o k e t h e responses"; C a l l i m a c h u s
has
Branchos
speak a f o r m u l a t w o o r t h r e e t i m e s w h i c h t h e p e o p l e d o n o t
understand.
2 4
Is t h e r e a f o r e i g n l a n g u a g e i n v o l v e d here? O n e
t e m p t i n g association: hranchia means g i l l s o f fish i n G r e e k ; B r a n c h i d a i is the n a m e o f t h e " f a m i l y " o f priests w h o r a n t h e sanct u a r y o f D i d y m a d o w n t o the Persian era. N o w , a characteristic
r e p r e s e n t a t i o n i n t h e c o n t e x t o f M e s o p o t a m i a n h e a l i n g m a g i c is
a m a n w i t h t h e head o f a fish, w o r n l i k e a m a s k over his head,
c a r r y i n g an i n s t r u m e n t o f p u r i f i c a t i o n i n his r i g h t h a n d a n d a
w a t e r b u c k e t i n his left; t h e figure can be i d e n t i f i e d as representi n g an apkallu,
a " w i s e m a n " f r o m o l d e n t i m e s . Figures o f this
k i n d d e f i n i t e l y reached n o r t h e r n S y r i a .
D i d s o m e healer b r i n g
2 5
this r e q u i s i t e as far as D i d y m a , t h u s causing the n i c k n a m e B r a n c h i d a i , " g i l l s f a m i l y , " t o be g i v e n t o his clan?

A n o t h e r , drastic p u r i f i c a t i o n p r o c e d u r e is t h a t o f " w i p i n g o f f "
(apomattein).
D e m o s t h e n e s uses t h e t e r m i n his i n v e c t i v e against
the m o t h e r o f A e s c h i n e s , t h e priestess o f p u r i f i c a t i o n s a n d i n i t i a t i o n s ; t h e c o m m e n t a r y says t h a t t h e p e r s o n t o be p u r i f i e d
was
plastered all over w i t h m u d a n d c h a f f w h i c h was t h e n scraped

off. A " p u r i f i e r o f t h e a r m y , t h e one w h o k n o w s the t h i n g s f o r
w i p i n g o f f " is m e n t i o n e d i n S o p h o c l e s .
26
generally
however,
with
f l o u r paste (Hsu),
is,
Wiping off
(kuppuru),
also a
well-
d o c u m e n t e d p r a c t i c e o f p u r i f i c a t i o n priests i n M e s o p o t a m i a .
2 7
T h e i m p o r t a n c e o f the practice is reflected i n the fact t h a t t h e

r o o t o f this w o r d c a m e t o m e a n p u r i f i c a t i o n i n general i n H e b r e w , even w i t h o u t t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g practice: Y o m K i p p u r is
the " D a y o f P u r i f i c a t i o n , " T h e practice i t s e l f l i n k s the A k k a d i a n
w i t h t h e G r e e k . A p u r i f y i n g substance w h i c h is o f t e n m e n t i o n e d
i n eastern texts is asphalt (kupru
i n A k k a d i a n ) ; asphaltos,
how-
ever, is also o n e o f t h e m a t e r i a l s used b y the w i t c h e s o f S o p h r o n ,
61
T H E
R E V O L U T I O N
or b y M e l a m p u s i n the comic's p a r o d y .
2 8
Even m o r e surprising
is t h e use o f o n i o n s f o r p u r i f i c a t i o n . A k k a d i a n t e x t s describe the

p r o c e d u r e i n d e t a i l t h e o n i o n is peeled layer b y layer,
until
n o t h i n g is left; i n G r e e k w e f i n d j u s t the passing m e n t i o n o f the

m a g i c a l o n i o n s ; o n e s o r t o f o n i o n is specifically n a m e d
Epimenides the famous p u r i f i e r .
after
2 9
A n y t h i n g left over f r o m t h e p u r i f i c a t i o n m u s t be c a r e f u l l y d i s posed of: " T h e y t h r e w t h e lymata
i n t o t h e sea,"
t h e Iliad
says
(1.314). T h e B a b y l o n i a n e x o r c i s t s m a y t h r o w a w a y the w a t e r
w i t h " a l l the e v i l " ;
3 0
t h e n o t h e r persons s h o u l d take care n o t t o
c o m e i n t o c o n t a c t w i t h i t . B e t t e r s t i l l t o use a p o t i n w h i c h
everything, including previously manufactured magic figurines,
can be securely e n c l o s e d .
called apharmake
the c i t i e s . "
C o r r e s p o n d i n g l y , i n Greece a p o t
31
w o u l d be m a d e available for " t h o s e w h o p u r i f y
I n M e s o p o t a m i a t h e r e m a i n s , i n c l u d i n g the cinders
3 2
f r o m t h e sacrificial f i r e , are " t h r o w n o n t o a b a r r e n place," " b u r ied i n a b a n d o n e d w a s t e l a n d s , " " d e p o s i t e d i n t h e steppe u n d e r a

thornbush."
3 3
T h e H i p p o c r a t i c t e x t On the Sacred Disease
reports
o n the m a g i c a l healers: " A n d t h e y h i d e the r e m a i n s o f the p u r i f i c a t i o n s p a r t l y i n the e a r t h , p a r t t h e y cast i n t o t h e sea, p a r t t h e y

c a r r y a w a y t o t h e m o u n t a i n s w h e r e n o o n e can t o u c h t h e m o r
step o n t h e m . "
3 4
I n M e s o p o t a m i a , p u t t i n g one's f o o t " i n s o m e
unclean w a t e r , " the residue o f s o m e p u r i f i c a t i o n c e r e m o n y ,
was
t h o u g h t t o be o n e o f t h e possible causes o f illness; i t was n o t

different i n the West even i n R o m a n i m p e r i a l t i m e s : " I n w h i c h
residue
from
purification
n i g h t ? " suffering
d i d y o u step
Encolpius
at the crossroads at
is asked i n P e t r o n i u s '
romance.
W i t h i n t h e f r a m e w o r k o f m u c h o l d e r R o m a n r i t u a l , the r i t u a l o f
devotio,
a s u b s t i t u t e i m a g e was b u r i e d , a n d i n consequence " n o
R o m a n o f f i c i a l was a l l o w e d t o get t o t h a t p l a c e . "
35
I t w o u l d be
s t i l l b e t t e r t o let b i r d s c a r r y o f f t h e e v i l plague; this was d o n e i n

Thessaly, b u t also i n t h e M o s a i c l a w .
3 6
A n o t h e r s t r i k i n g d e t a i l : E p i m e n i d e s , the m o s t f a m o u s priest
o f p u r i f i c a t i o n , received a m i r a c u l o u s f o o d f r o m t h e n y m p h s
w h i c h a l l o w e d h i m t o get b y w i t h o u t o r d i n a r y sustenance, a n o h u n g e r d r u g (alimon).
H e k e p t i t i n a cow's h o o f a s
3 7
i f ordi-
n a r y c o n t a i n e r s w e r e n o t able t o h o l d i t . T h e t e x t o f an A k k a -
62
" A
S E E R
OR
d i a n e x o r c i s m prescribes: " Y o u
fill
H E A L E R "
a cow's h o o f w i t h water,
t h r o w i n b i t t e r c o r n m e a l , s t r i k e i t w i t h a reed i n face o f the sun

g o d , y o u p o u r i t o u t : t h e dead w i l l be k e p t a w a y . "
3 8
T h e effect
is d i f f e r e n t , b u t t h e p r e s c r i p t i o n is clearly r e l a t e d . A c c o r d i n g t o
the Alexander
romance, the poison o f A n t i p a t e r w h i c h b r o u g h t
a b o u t t h e d e a t h o f A l e x a n d e r t h e G r e a t i n B a b y l o n was c a r r i e d
in a mule's h o o f .
3 9
Skeptics can s t i l l d o u b t t h e existence o f d i r e c t c u l t u r a l c o n t a c t

and insist o n the p o s s i b i l i t y o f s p o n t a n e o u s parallels r i s i n g again
a n d again w i t h i n g e n e r a l f o r m s o f " s u p e r s t i t i o n . " Yet i t is p r e cisely w i t h t h e n a m e E p i m e n i d e s t h a t the h i s t o r i c a l h o r i z o n o f
the o r i e n t a l i z i n g p e r i o d comes
i n t o play. I t is archaic
Crete
w h i c h , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e G r e e k t e x t s , is the h o m e o f " c a t h a r t i c "

k n o w l e d g e . E p i m e n i d e s i n p a r t i c u l a r is c o n n e c t e d w i t h the c u l t
caves o f C r e t e , w i t h a cave o f Z e u s t r a d i t i o n varies as t o w h i c h
o f t h e f a m o u s caves was c o n c e r n e d w h e r e he e x p e r i e n c e d his
i n i t i a t i o n i n a sleep t h a t lasted f o r decades. H e assumes the f u n c t i o n o f i n i t i a t o r i n t u r n at t h e cave o f Z e u s o n M o u n t I d a .
4 0
If
the h i s t o r i c a l E p i m e n i d e s ever d i d seek o u t this cave he w o u l d

have s t o o d face t o face w i t h t h e A s s y r i a n - s t y l e t y m p a n o n there
w h i c h was p r o b a b l y m a d e f o r t h e c u l t o f Z e u s b y eastern craftsmen.
4 1
E v e n b e f o r e E p i m e n i d e s , T h a l e t a s o f G o r t y n had been
active as a c h a r i s m a t i c m u s i c i a n ; he c u r e d a p l a g u e i n S p a r t a .
42
G o r t y n was n o less a center o f o r i e n t a l i z i n g c r a f t s m a n s h i p . We

are led back i n t o t h e r e a l m o f m y t h w i t h K a r m a n o r o f C r e t e ,
the p r i e s t w h o p u r i f i e d even A p o l l o after the g o d h a d slain the
Delphic dragon.
4 3
T h e n a m e does n o t appear t o be G r e e k . I n
a n y e v e n t , C r e t e is n o t o n l y t h e ancient center o f M i n o a n c u l t u r e
b u t a l s o a f t e r C y p r u s t h e area m o s t closely c o n n e c t e d w i t h
the S e m i t i c East i n t h e g e o m e t r i c a n d early o r i e n t a l i z i n g p e r i o d .
T h e r e are strange r i t u a l c o n n e c t i o n s o f A p o l l o h i m s e l f w i t h
Se-
m i t i c c u l t u r e , above all i n the celebrations o f the day o f the n e w

m o o n a n d o f the seventh day o f the m o n t h .
4 4
I n this l i g h t the
a s s u m p t i o n o f p u r e c o i n c i d e n c e becomes t h e m o s t u n l i k e l y o f
hypotheses.
T h e q u e s t i o n r e m a i n s w h e t h e r l i n g u i s t i c b o r r o w i n g s can p r o v i d e k e y p r o o f f o r c u l t u r a l ties w i t h t h e East. T h e r e is l i t t l e t o
63
T H E
R E V O L U T I O N
be g a i n e d f r o m n o n - G r e e k p r o p e r names such as K a r m a n o r o r
even B r a n c h o s
and Rhakios.
4 5
I t carries m o r e w e i g h t t h a t the
r o o t kathar, t o c l e a n / t o p u r i f y , has n o I n d o - E u r o p e a n e t y m o l o g y
b u t ties i n w i t h a S e m i t i c r o o t i n t h e sphere o f p u r i f i c a t i o n : qatar,
to f u m i g a t e .
O n e cleansing substance i n t h i s c o n t e x t is s u l -
4 6
p h u r : F u m i g a t i o n w i t h s u l p h u r is used i n H o m e r f o r b o t h p r a c tical a n d r i t u a l m e a n s . N o less suggestive is the s i m i l a r i t y o f t h e

s o u n d o f the A k k a d i a n w o r d f o r " d i r t y , p o l l u t e d " a n d " t o s t a i n ,
t o p o l l u t e , " lu"u
o r luwwu,
47
t o t h e w o r d f o r t h e d i r t t o be
cleansed i n G r e e k r i t u a l , lymata o r lythron.
Here we encounter a
w o r d root without Indo-European etymology provided w i t h

t w o a l t e r n a t i v e G r e e k suffixes. T h e G r e e k s w o u l d s o m e h o w
sociate t h i s w o r d w i t h e i t h e r lyein,
louein,
t o solve, o r r a t h e r
as-
with
t o w a s h , b u t t h e rules o f n o r m a l w o r d f o r m a t i o n d o n o t
p e r m i t t h e o n e , a n d t h e y a l l o w the o t h e r o n l y w i t h
difficulty.
T h e r e are s i m i l a r p r o b l e m s w i t h t h e L a t i n w o r d lustrum i n t h e
c o n t e x t o f p u r i f i c a t i o n s , w h i c h the R o m a n s w o u l d t e n d t o associate w i t h lux,
a n d kathairein,
l i g h t . I t is t r u e t h a t b o t h w o r d g r o u p s ,
appear i n H o m e r . Kathairein
common: They
lymata
a n d katharos are q u i t e
h a d risen above the status o f f o r e i g n w o r d s .
S u c h a c l a i m w o u l d a p p l y even m o r e t o a t h i r d h o m o n y m y i n
this sphere: ara m e a n s p r a y e r a n d curse; i t is C h r y s e s the areter
w h o can s u m m o n u p a p l a g u e w i t h his p r a y e r o r r a t h e r curse
the G r e e k s a n d b a n i s h t h e p l a g u e again. I n A k k a d i a n the w o r d
" t o c u r s e " is araru;
the order given t o B i l e a m b y the k i n g o f
M o a b is, i n H e b r e w , ara!, " c u r s e ! " A G r e e k w o u l d u n d o u b t e d l y

have u n d e r s t o o d t h i s w o r d i n t h i s s i t u a t i o n , i f n o t g r a m m a t i c a l l y
t h e n at least its m e a n i n g i n c o n t e x t . W h a t creates d i f f i c u l t i e s is
the fact t h a t t h e G r e e k w o r d o r i g i n a l l y h a d t h e f o r m arwa, as its
d e r i v a t i v e s i n t h e v a r i o u s dialects i n d i c a t e .
48
T h i s does n o t g o
t o g e t h e r w i t h araru, w h i c h has n o w i n its r o o t .

T o s u m u p , t h e r e are s u g g e s t i v e p o s s i b i l i t i e s , b u t n o i n c o n t r o v e r t i b l e p r o o f s o f l i n g u i s t i c b o r r o w i n g i n the sphere o f p u r i f i cation ceremonies.
I t w o u l d , h o w e v e r , be n o less b o l d t o d e n y
t h e i r existence a l t o g e t h e r . T h e c o n t i n u u m f r o m t h e M e s o p o t a m i a n c u l t u r e t o t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n is t h e r e .
64
" A
S E E R
Spirits
O R
of the Dead
H E A L E R "
and Black
Magic
T h e e v i l forces against w h i c h p u r i f i c a t i o n is s u p p o s e d t o assist

are c o n c e i v e d o f as m a l e v o l e n t , c a r n i v o r o u s d e m o n s .
N e x t to
the v a r i o u s fantastical names w h i c h are i n v o k e d i n this c o n n e c t i o n , the s p i r i t o f t h e dead, etemmu,

too.
plays an unpleasant r o l e ,
S p i r i t s o f t h e dead are r e g a r d e d w i t h fear even i n Greece,
as E r w i n R o h d e
i n p a r t i c u l a r has b r o u g h t t o a t t e n t i o n .
In
H o m e r this k i n d o f d r e a d is suppressed r a t h e r t h a n n o t yet

known.
T h e h y p o t h e s i s o f a n i m i s m as a u n i v e r s a l stage i n the e v o l u tion o f h u m a n civilization, w h i c h influenced Rohde, precluded
r a t h e r t h a n e n c o u r a g e d c u l t u r a l l y specific c o m p a r i s o n s .
Never-
theless, the e x t e n t t o w h i c h t h e H o m e r i c c o n c e p t o f Hades c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e M e s o p o t a m i a n is s t r i k i n g : a r e a l m o f m u d and

darkness t h a t leaves n o h o p e f o r m o r t a l s . I t is described i n a
f a m o u s scene o f Gilgamesh
w h e n t h e g h o s t o f E n k i d u meets his
f r i e n d , a scene w h i c h m a y have l i n k s w i t h H o m e r even o n a

l i t e r a r y l e v e l . R i t u a l appeasement o f the dead is achieved i n v e r y
4
s i m i l a r ways b y
Mesopotamians
and by
Greeks,
preferably
t h r o u g h v a r i o u s k i n d s o f l i b a t i o n : " w a t e r , beer, roasted c o r n ,

m i l k , h o n e y , c r e a m , o i l " i n M e s o p o t a m i a ; " m i l k , h o n e y , water,
5
wine, and o i l " i n Aeschylus.
E v e n m o r e p e c u l i a r is the i m p o r -
tance o f p u r e w a t e r as an o f f e r i n g t o the dead: " c o o l w a t e r , "

"pure water."
T h e i n s e r t i o n o f pipes i n t o a grave f o r precisely
this p u r p o s e is u n u s u a l i n G r e e c e ,
b u t there is d i r e c t l i t e r a r y
evidence o f the practice i n M e s o p o t a m i a .
T h o s e dead w h o s h o w themselves capable o f affecting t h e l i v i n g are called heroes
i n Greek.
fragment o f Aristophanes
shows i n a particularly lively and entertaining way j u s t h o w

these heroes have t h e p o w e r t o b r i n g d o w n all m a n n e r o f i l l nesses o n t h e l i v i n g i f t h e y are n o t a p p e a s e d .
10
The Akkadian
etemmu can e q u a l l y be the cause o f m a n y k i n d s o f sickness, so he

is m e t w i t h s i m i l a r fears.
A g a i n w e have extensive
A k k a d i a n i n c a n t a t i o n texts for d o c u m e n t a t i o n :
1 1
Sumero-
" W h e n the
s p i r i t o f a dead p e r s o n has t a k e n possession o f a m a n , " o r " t h e
65
T H E
hand o f a spirit o f the d e a d , "
1 2
R E V O L U T I O N
t h e n e x o r c i s m is due. T h e sick
p e r s o n believes h i m s e l f t o feel this g r i p , a n d he prays: " I f i t is

the s p i r i t o f a m e m b e r o f m y f a m i l y o r m y h o u s e h o l d o r the
s p i r i t o f one slain i n b a t t l e o r a w a n d e r i n g s p i r i t . . . "
1 3
I t is i n -
d i c a t i v e o f t h e p s y c h o - s o c i a l c o n s t r a i n t s i n v o l v e d i n sickness t h a t
the s p i r i t s o f closely related persons are especially t o be feared:
" T h e h a n d o f t h e s p i r i t s o f his father a n d his m o t h e r has seized
him.'
M 4
N o less d r e a d e d is t h e anger o f those w h o have n o t m e t
w i t h a n a t u r a l d e a t h , the biaiothanatoi,
as t h e G r e e k s w o u l d say:
T h e o n e " k i l l e d i n b a t t l e " a n d t h e u n b u r i e d " w h o lies i n t h e

w i l d e r n e s s w i t h o u t t h e c o v e r i n g o f the e a r t h , " " w h o s e b o d y was
t h r o w n o n t o t h e steppe . . . : his s p i r i t w a n d e r s restlessly over
the e a r t h . "
1 3
Even a "foreign spirit," "whose name
no
one
k n o w s , " can be t h e active cause b e h i n d the t o r m e n t s o f t h e

sick.
1 6
T h e G r e e k t e r m f o r this w r a t h o f the dead is menima.

pears i n a s i g n i f i c a n t c o n t e x t as early as i n H o m e r :
I t apHector,
d y i n g , threatens A c h i l l e s , w h o is t o refuse h i m a p r o p e r b u r i a l ,
s a y i n g t h a t he c o u l d b e c o m e a "cause o f w r a t h [menima]
o f the
g o d s " f o r h i m , o n t h a t day w h e n A c h i l l e s w i l l be k i l l e d h i m s e l f .
I n a less d r a m a t i c way, deceased E l p e n o r , m e e t i n g O d y s s e u s i n
the u n d e r w o r l d , d e m a n d s
b e c o m e a menima.
17
a decent b u r i a l so t h a t he w i l l n o t
T h e s e are the c r i t i c a l ,
dangerous
cases,
s o m e b o d y " k i l l e d i n b a t t l e " o r else u n b u r i e d a n d hence restlessly

w a n d e r i n g a b o u t . P l a t o states e x p r e s s l y t h a t " a n c i e n t
menimata"
m a n i f e s t t h e m s e l v e s i n " g r e a t s u f f e r i n g s " w h i c h affect " p a r t i c u lar f a m i l i e s , " a r i s i n g " o u t o f o l d , uncleansed
wrongdoings";
t h e y are t o be c u r e d w i t h c e r e m o n i e s o f p u r i f i c a t i o n a n d i n i t i a tion involving madness.
18
I n his Laws,
Plato wants to emphasize
the m o r a l factor, b u t he c a n n o t h e l p b u t m e n t i o n p u r i f i c a t i o n s .
A g a i n t h e o l d a n d r e n o w n e d specialist i n t h i s t y p e o f p u r i f i c a t i o n is E p i m e n i d e s , w h o p r o p h e s i e d " n o t over t h a t w h i c h was
t o c o m e , b u t o v e r t h a t w h i c h was p a s t . "
1 9
T h e r e was, o f course, n o lack o f p e o p l e w h o w e r e w i l l i n g t o

m a k e use o f t h e w r a t h o f t h e s p i r i t s o f t h e dead i n o r d e r t o d i r e c t
it against p e r s o n a l e n e m i e s , t h r o u g h b l a c k m a g i c . T h e m o s t d i rect practice, w e l l k n o w n t h r o u g h o u t a n t i q u i t y , is t o m a k e an
66
" A
S E E R
OR
H E A L E R "
i m a g e o f t h e p e r s o n t o be h a r m e d and t o b u r y i t i n a grave. I n
this w a y t h e v i c t i m w i l l fall p r e y t o the dead a n d t o the gods o f
the u n d e r w o r l d . S u c h f i g u r i n e s are u s u a l l y r e f e r r e d t o as " v o o d o o d o l l s " t o d a y a n i n d i c a t i o n that the same practice m a y o c c u r i n w i d e l y d i f f e r e n t c i v i l i z a t i o n s . Such a v o o d o o d o l l
from
the Periclean era has been f o u n d i n t h e K e r a m e i k o s c e m e t e r y at

Athens.
But
t h e same practice was
also e m p l o y e d b y
evil
w i t c h e s i n B a b y l o n i a . T h u s t h e sick p e r s o n c o m p l a i n s : " Y o u
have h a n d e d f i g u r i n e s o f m e t o a c o r p s e , " " m y i m a g e has been
placed i n a t o m b " ; " i f f i g u r i n e s o f a m a n have been e n t r u s t e d t o
a dead m a n b e h i n d h i m , " the m a n w i l l experience a loss o f v i t a l i t y . " M a g i c c o u n t e r c h a r m s are c o n t a i n e d above all i n t h e
Maqlu
collection.
T h i s is n o t t h e o n l y f o r m o f b l a c k m a g i c t o appear i n b o t h
Greece a n d M e s o p o t a m i a . T h e " m a k i n g o f an i m a g e , " " t a k i n g
saliva,
hair, t h e h e m o f a r o b e ,
footprints,"
2 1
may
well
t h o u g h t s i m p l y t o represent u n i v e r s a l f o r m s o f m a g i c .
" h e m o f t h e r o b e " is also used i n the Pharmakeutria
tus.
2 2
rines.
o f Theocri-
T h e r e are also A k k a d i a n l o v e c h a r m s w h i c h use

2 3
T h e Pharmakeutria
be
The
figu-
refers specifically t o a " f o r e i g n e r f r o m
Assyria" w h o supplied a particularly potent substance.
24
T h i s is
H e l l e n i s t i c ; b u t a l r e a d y P l a t o p o r t r a y s t h e u n c a n n y effect o n the
citizens o f a t o w n " w h e n t h e y catch s i g h t o f w a x m o d e l s o u t s i d e
a d o o r o r at a crossroads o r o n a t o m b , perhaps t h a t o f t h e i r
o w n parents":
2 5
T h e s e m a g i c a l practices have already been w i t h
the G r e e k s f o r a l o n g t i m e . I n the same w a y i n B a b y l o n people

are f r i g h t e n e d b y " f a b r i c a t i o n s w h i c h s h o w u p , " i n d i c a t i n g t h a t
" l i f e has been c u t " b y s o m e o n e .
2 6
C o u n t e r m a g i c is u r g e n t l y nec-
essary i n such a case.

A p o w e r f u l r i t e o f a n n i h i l a t i o n is t o m e l t d o w n w a x
effigies.
T h i s is d o n e b y t h e sorceress i n T h e o c r i t u s as i t is p r a c t i c e d i n
M e s o p o t a m i a . I n E g y p t t h e use o f w a x figures i n m a g i c is a t tested as early as t h e t h i r d m i l l e n n i u m .
2 7
F r o m the e i g h t h c e n -
t u r y w e have a r e l e v a n t A r a m a i c t e x t , the t r e a t y t e x t o f S f i r e a
rare o p p o r t u n i t y t o d o c u m e n t w h a t lay i n b e t w e e n B a b y l o n i a
a n d Greece. T h i s is an i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o n t r a c t c o n c l u d e d b y s o l e m n oaths and curses; i n this c o n t e x t i t is said: " A s this w a x is
67
T H E
R E V O L U T I O N
c o n s u m e d b y fire, t h u s . . . ( N . N . ) shall be c o n s u m e d b y
fire."
I n the seventh c e n t u r y t h e same f o r m u l a appears i n a c o n t r a c t

made between the Assyrian
k i n g Esarhaddon
a n d his vassals;
m u c h earlier i t is f o u n d i n a H i t t i t e s o l d i e r s ' o a t h .
2 8
It corre-
s p o n d s t o the o a t h o f the C y r e n e a n s as set o u t i n t h e i r f o u n d a t i o n decree, t r a n s m i t t e d t h r o u g h a f o u r t h - c e n t u r y i n s c r i p t i o n ;

w h e t h e r this is an a u t h e n t i c d o c u m e n t f r o m the seventh c e n t u r y
remains controversial: " T h e y f o r m e d w a x images and b u r n e d
t h e m w h i l e p r a y i n g that anyone w h o d i d n o t keep the oath b u t
f l o u t e d i t m i g h t m e l t a n d f l o w a w a y l i k e the i m a g e s . "
2 9
A t any
rate the practice is w e l l attested f o r the archaic p e r i o d t h r o u g h

the parallel f r o m Sfire, a n d o a t h - t a k i n g r i t u a l s o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l
character have the best chances t o cross c u l t u r a l b o r d e r s .
T h e r e is o n e n a m e i n the sphere o f b l a c k m a g i c w h i c h d e f i nitely travelled f r o m Sumer i n t o Hellenistic E g y p t and o n to
C a r t h a g e : E r e s h k i g a l is t h e S u m e r i a n n a m e o f the t e r r i b l e g o d dess o f the u n d e r w o r l d , a n d E r e s k h i g a l is the n a m e o f an i n f e r nal goddess w h i c h c o m m o n l y appears i n later G r e e k
and m a g i c a l p a p y r i .
3 0
defixions
T h i s is o n e o f the m o s t exact t r a n s c r i p -
tions f r o m Sumerian i n t o Greek: Coincidental h o m o n y m y i n

the case o f such a sequence o f syllables is o u t o f the q u e s t i o n . So
far o n l y texts f r o m the i m p e r i a l era w i t h this n a m e seem t o have
been p u b l i s h e d . B u t g i v e n t h a t the influence o f B a b y l o n
had
l o n g since ceased a n d c u n e i f o r m h a d been f o r g o t t e n , the p e r i o d

o f b o r r o w i n g m a y w e l l be m u c h earlier. I n t h e r e a l m o f m a g i c ,
t h o u g h , exact c h r o n o l o g y
where.
may
be less i m p o r t a n t t h a n else-
I n any case the n a m e E r e s h k i g a l
is p r o o f o f the far-
r e a c h i n g influence o f M e s o p o t a m i a n m a g i c , as is the " A s s y r i a n "

in Theocritus.
A n o t h e r t e x t f r o m C y r e n e s h o u l d be c o n s i d e r e d i n t h i s c o n t e x t : I n the f o u r t h c e n t u r y B . C . an e x t e n s i v e sacred l a w o n p u r i fication
rites as s a n c t i o n e d b y the D e l p h i c oracle was
recorded
at C y r e n e ; t o j u d g e f r o m the c o n t e n t s , i t c o u l d be m u c h o l d e r .
We are c o n c e r n e d here w i t h the s e c t i o n headed Hikesion.
w o r d hikesios
is b e l i e v e d t o be w e l l u n d e r s t o o d , m e a n i n g
31
The
"he
w h o has r e a c h e d " i n the sense o f s u p p l i a n t ; so the first c o m m e n t a t o r s h a d n o d o u b t t h a t i t is the t r e a t m e n t o f s u p p l i a n t s n o r -
68
" A
m a l l y called hiketai
S E E R
O R
H E A L E R "
w h i c h is b e i n g dealt w i t h here. Yet u n d e r
this a s s u m p t i o n t h e i n d i v i d u a l p r e s c r i p t i o n s m a d e i n t h e t e x t
m u s t seem h i g h l y abstruse. I t is n o c o i n c i d e n c e that J o h n G o u l d ,
i n his e x e m p l a r y t r e a t m e n t o f hiketeia,
renean t e x t .
3 2
d i d n o t consider the C y -
T h r e e cases are set apart i n the sacred l a w f r o m
C y r e n e : first a hikesios " s e n t f r o m e l s e w h e r e , " epaktos. T h e m a i n

problem with
t h i s f e l l o w seems t o be t o establish w h o
has
sent h i m :
I f he has been sent t o the house, i f [the o w n e r ] k n o w s f r o m
w h o m he has c o m e o n h i m , he w i l l call his name, p r o n o u n c i n g i t three times a day; i f he has died i n the c o u n t r y o r was
lost elsewhere, i f he k n o w s the name, he w i l l p r o n o u n c e h i m
b y name; i f he does n o t k n o w [he w i l l p r o n o u n c e ] : " O h y o u
m a n , w h e t h e r y o u are m a n o r w o m a n " ; he w i l l make effigies,
[one] male and [one] female, f r o m w o o d o r clay; he w i l l receive t h e m [ i n his house] and present [ t h e m ] w i t h a p o r t i o n
o f e v e r y t h i n g . W h e n y o u have done w h a t is customary, then
take t h e m i n t o an u n c u l t i v a t e d w o o d and cast t h e m i n t o the
g r o u n d , the effigies and their p o r t i o n s [ o f the m e a l ] .
3 3
I t is strange that t h i s r i t u a l c o u l d ever have been h e l d t o be the

p u r i f i c a t i o n a n d acceptance o f a s u p p l i a n t : N o one is seen t o care
f o r s u c h a p e r s o n w h o s h o u l d be present and i n need o f p r o t e c t i o n ; t h e c o n c e r n is a b o u t s o m e i n d i v i d u a l , k n o w n o r u n k n o w n ,
w h o is c l e a r l y absent b u t is p r e s u m e d t o have sent the
hikesios;
a n d o n e o b v i o u s l y w i s h e s u r g e n t l y t o get r i d o f this again. I f

one l o o k s f o r a c o u n t e r p a r t o f t h i s practice as d e s c r i b e d i n the
passage q u o t e d , t h e closest p a r a l l e l is p r o v i d e d b y A k k a d i a n
m a g i c l i t e r a t u r e . H e r e , o n c e m o r e f o r the h e a l i n g o f a sick p e r s o n , an effigy o f " e v e r y t h i n g e v i l " is p r o d u c e d , placed o n the
r o o f n e x t t o t h e s i c k b e d , a n d t e n d e d f o r three days. T h e n , t o the
a c c o m p a n i m e n t o f i n c a n t a t i o n s , the effigy is enclosed i n a p o t ,
t a k e n away, a n d b u r i e d i n " a n a b a n d o n e d w i l d e r n e s s . "
The
3 4
c o r r e s p o n d e n c e b e t w e e n the p r o c e d u r e s t h e m a k i n g o f a
fig-
u r i n e , t h e t e n d i n g o f i t , its disposal i n t h e w i l d e r n e s s i s perfect;

and thus the w o r d
"sent"
i n the Greek
t e x t becomes
clear:
" S e n d i n g u p o n " (epagoge) is a w e l l - k n o w n t e r m o f b l a c k m a g i c ;
69
T H E
R E V O L U T I O N
i n P l a t o i t ranks d i r e c t l y n e x t t o the defixio.
A sorcerer " s e n d s "
i5
e v i l " o n t o the h e a d " o f his e n e m i e s . T h a t is w h y i t is so i m p o r t a n t t o f i n d o u t w h o is b e h i n d i t i n o r d e r t o s t r i k e at t h e r o o t o f

the e v i l , o r rather, i n t h e sense o f appeasement, t o c o m e t o s o m e
solution b y agreement.
F o r this reason t h e effigy o f e v e r y t h i n g
e v i l is f i r s t fed a n d t h e n e n e r g e t i c a l l y disposed of. T h e c o n c l u s i o n is t h a t , i n C y r e n e , hikesios
does n o t m e a n s u p p l i a n t , b u t an
evil spirit w h o "comes u p o n " a house or p e r s o n .
3 6
T h e h y p o t h e s i s m u s t s t a n d o r fall i n the l i g h t o f t h e o t h e r t w o
p a r a g r a p h s i n A p o l l o ' s sacred l a w f o r C y r e n e ,
cases o f hikesioi a n d h o w t o deal w i t h t h e m .
3 7
covering other
T h e second s e c t i o n
is p r e s e r v e d a l m o s t c o m p l e t e l y i n t a c t , b u t its u n d e r s t a n d i n g is
m a d e d i f f i c u l t b y t h e u n c l e a r m e a n i n g o f three t e r m s , a p p l i e d
here i n a special, t e c h n i c a l w a y u n k n o w n f r o m o t h e r d o c u m e n t s :
teliskesthai,
ateles/tetelesmenos,
a n d propheresthai.
I n a d d i t i o n , the
archaic style o f t e n does n o t i d e n t i f y the subject o f t h e v e r b ; n o r

d o w e k n o w w h a t the " p u b l i c s h r i n e " (damosion
hierori) o f C y -
rene was. T h e f o l l o w i n g analysis a t t e m p t s t o r e n d e r the s t r u c ture o f the l a w w i t h o u t the benefit o f m o r e i n f o r m a t i o n , t a k i n g

telein i n the general sense o f " p e r f o r m a n c e
" o t h e r " hikesios,
of a ritual."
3 8
The
either w i t h or w i t h o u t performance o f ritual,
has " t a k e n his seat at t h e p u b l i c s h r i n e " ; i f t h e r e is a " p r o n o u n c e m e n t , " t h e n r i t u a l is t o be p e r f o r m e d o n t h e t e r m s p r o n o u n c e d ;

i f there is n o p r o n o u n c e m e n t , t h e n an a n n u a l o f f e r i n g o f f r u i t s
o f t h e field a c c o m p a n i e d b y l i b a t i o n has t o be m a d e i n p e r p e t u ity. I f o n e s h o u l d f o r g e t t h a t , d o u b l e offerings are d u e t h e n e x t
year; i f a descendant s h o u l d o m i t i t , f o r g e t t i n g i t , a n d there is a
p r o n o u n c e m e n t f o r h i m , he w i l l pay t o t h e g o d a n d
sacrifice
w h a t e v e r w i l l be revealed t o h i m b y the o r a c l e i f he k n o w s , t o
the father's g o d ; o t h e r w i s e t h e oracle is t o be c o n s u l t e d .
I t is clear t h a t t h i s t e x t is a b o u t s e t t i n g u p a n d m a i n t a i n i n g a
c u l t . I n t e r p r e t e r s w h o take this t o refer t o a h u m a n s u p p l i a n t
m u s t m a k e three a d d i t i o n a l a s s u m p t i o n s : I t is d e a l i n g w i t h t h e
case o f a m u r d e r e r a l t h o u g h o n l y t h e t h i r d s e c t i o n o f the l a w
speaks o f k i l l i n g ; t h e c u l t is f o r the b e n e f i t o f t h e v i c t i m o f m u r der; t h e p r o n o u n c e m e n t is m a d e b y a priest: " [ t h e p r i e s t ] lays
d o w n , " a n d " p e r f o r m a n c e o f r i t u a l " means acceptance t o c i t i -
70
" A
zenship,
S E E R
" t o be i n i t i a t e d . "
OR
3 9
H E A L E R "
B u t w i t h these a s s u m p t i o n s ,
the
v e r y first l i n e o f t h e t e x t w o u l d be a b s u r d : t h e r i t u a l can " e i t h e r

be p e r f o r m e d o r n o t , " a n d i t seems t h a t i t can be repeated.
Fur-
ther, the p r i e s t w o u l d be free e i t h e r t o set the t e r m s o r n o t as

capriciously
as he w i s h e s ; precisely
i f he(?)
"does n o t p r o -
n o u n c e , " sacrifices shall be m a d e i n p e r p e t u i t y , whereas i n t h e

o t h e r case the a t o n e m e n t is m a d e once and forever. A b o v e a l l , i f
a p r o b l e m arises i n a s u b s e q u e n t g e n e r a t i o n , w h y s h o u l d first a
priest a n d t h e n , i n a d d i t i o n , an oracle " e s t a b l i s h " t h e sacrifice?
T h e d i r e c t i v e s are d i f f e r e n t a n d m u c h clearer i n d e e d i f one decides t o i m a g i n e t h a t s o m e p o w e r f u l s p i r i t is asserting
himself,
w h e t h e r i n a d r e a m o r i n the f o r m o f v i s i o n s o r a u d i t i o n s ; u n d e r
these c i r c u m s t a n c e s t h e r e w i l l be a r e l i g i o u s p r o c e d u r e , " a c c o r d i n g t o c o m m a n d " (kat' epitagen),
as i t is so o f t e n expressed i n
i n s c r i p t i o n s . T h e t e r m pronouncement
(propheresthai)
then recov-
ers its w e l l - e s t a b l i s h e d m e a n i n g o f " t o r e p r o a c h , t o c o m p l a i n " :

it means t h e same as " t o express a menima";
i t is also close t o the
t e r m " t o g i v e a s i g n o f d i v i n e w i l l , " episemainein.
I f there is n o
precise m a n i f e s t a t i o n , i f the s p i r i t has o n l y i n f l i c t e d
wordless
h o r r o r o n p e o p l e , t h e n t h e usual f o r m o f appeasing sacrifice f o r

the dead applies: f r u i t s o f t h e earth a n d l i b a t i o n s f o r t h e dead.
C h i l d r e n a n d c h i l d r e n ' s c h i l d r e n are affected insofar as t h e c u l t
o f t h e dead is m o s t l y a c u l t o f ancestors. T h u s a f o r g o t t e n ancest o r can express his displeasure a n d " c o m p l a i n " : " T h e s p i r i t o f a
m e m b e r o f m y f a m i l y has l a i d h o l d of m e , " as an A k k a d i a n t e x t
w o u l d p u t i t . I n case o f d o u b t o n e m u s t c o n s u l t an oracle t o f i n d
o u t t h e c o r r e c t offerings t o be m a d e . T h e s e s h o u l d be m a d e t o
the f a m i l y g o d i f he is k n o w n " t h e y m a k e t h e i r sacrifices t o
Z e u s K a r i o s , " states H e r o d o t u s o f t h e f a m i l y o f Isagoras i n A t h ens;
40
o t h e r w i s e t h e oracle w i l l also establish w h o this s h o u l d
be. T h u s t h e t e x t m a k e s sense, i f o n l y i n the sense o f w h a t w e

call s u p e r s t i t i o n . Teliskesthai
t h e n means the r i t u a l e s t a b l i s h m e n t
o f a c u l t . T h a t the p u b l i c sanctuary o f C y r e n e s h o u l d have been

p a r t i c u l a r l y c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e c u l t o f heroes is an a t t r a c t i v e
assumption.
T h e t h i r d s e c t i o n i n t h e l a w o f C y r e n e is unclear as t o the
decisive t e r m c o n c e r n i n g the t h i r d v a r i e t y ofhikesios,
7i
autophonos:
T H E
R E V O L U T I O N
" o n e w h o k i l l e d w i t h his o w n h a n d s " o r " o n e w h o k i l l e d h i m s e l f " ? H e r e t h e i n t r u s i o n o f t h e o n e w h o " c a m e o n " is m e t b y a

c o u n t e r - r i t e o f " m a k i n g h i m w h o arrives g o , "
This vocabulary
aphiketeuein.^
m a k e s i t clear a g a i n t h a t w e are n o t d e a l i n g
w i t h t h e acceptance o f a s u p p l i a n t i n t h e c o m m u n i t y , b u t r a t h e r
w i t h s o m e o n e o n e desires t o get r i d of. T h e t e x t has s o m e l a cunae, h o w e v e r ,
supplements o f w h i c h remain doubtful.
The
p e r s o n affected has t o " a n n o u n c e " t h e r i t u a l ; he makes s o m e b o d y sit o n a fleece o n t h e t h r e s h o l d
4 2
a n d a n o i n t s h i m . T h e n he
w i l l g o o u t w i t h a t t e n d a n t s o n t o t h e p u b l i c h i g h w a y w h i l e all
w h o m e e t h i m k e e p s i l e n t , r e c e i v i n g the h a r b i n g e r , u n t i l t h e r e
is a gap here; t h a t "sacrifices a n d o t h e r " (rites?) take place is s t i l l
legible. I f this text were dealing w i t h the p u r i f i c a t i o n o f one
stained w i t h m u r d e r , t h e n a f i n a l act o f i n t e g r a t i o n , w i t h a d m i s s i o n t o t h e city's shrines, w o u l d have t o be assumed; e d i t o r s have
proposed their supplements accordingly. T h e part o f the text
w h i c h is p r e s e r v e d , h o w e v e r , speaks o f l e a d i n g " a w a y , " " g o i n g
o u t , " "passing b y " ; and it mentions a marginal region
" t h r e e tribes m e e t " (triphylia);
43
where
silence is a p p r o p r i a t e i n t h e pres-
ence o f " m o r e p o w e r f u l b e i n g s " ;
4 4
t h i s is a r i t u a l n o t o f i n t e g r a -
t i o n b u t o f r i d d a n c e , i n all p r o b a b i l i t y i n v o l v i n g d e m o n s rather
than living people.
4 5
T h e c o u n t e r a r g u m e n t r e m a i n s t h a t t h e w o r d hikesios i n s o m e
o t h e r G r e e k texts c l e a r l y carries the m e a n i n g " s u p p l i a n t , " a n d
never else o c c u r s w i t h t h e m e a n i n g " h a u n t i n g s p i r i t . " H o w e v e r ,
t h e r e is an exact p a r a l l e l i n the d u a l m e a n i n g o f t h e w o r d prostropaios, m e a n i n g l i t e r a l l y " h e w h o t u r n s t o s o m e b o d y . " Since A e s c h y l u s w e f i n d t h i s w o r d i n use n o t o n l y f o r a s u p p l i a n t b u t also
f o r a d e m o n w h o attaches h i m s e l f t o o n e . N e v e r t h e l e s s this
m e a n i n g has o f t e n been m i s t a k e n , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e L i d d e l l Scott l e x i c o n , e v e n t h o u g h expressions such as " t h e
prostropaios
o f M y r t i l u s [ m u r d e r e d t r e a c h e r o u s l y ] f o l l o w e d h i m " i n Pausanias o r t h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f prostropaios
w i t h " E r i n y e s a n d sp rits
o f v e n g e a n c e " i n P o l y b i u s is clear e n o u g h .
v o c a t i o n s o f the prostropaios
a n d already
ingly.
4 7
4 6
The threatening . in-
o f t h e dead i n A n t i p h o n t h e
i n A e s c h y l u s are t o be u n d e r s t o o d
oic'.jt
correspond-
T h e " o n e w h o a p p r o a c h e s " can be an u n c l e a n p e r s o n o r
72
S E E R
OR
H E A L E R
an e v i l s p i r i t o f t h e dead; t h e same a m b i v a l e n c e is peculiar t o

b o t h G r e e k w o r d s . I t is t r u e t h a t i n t h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n the d o c u m e n t f r o m C y r e n e shows A p o l l o n i a n r e l i g i o n m o r e deeply i n v o l v e d i n " s u p e r s t i t i o n " t h a n s o m e H e l l e n i s t s have been w i l l i n g
t o accept. T h e y w i l l h a r d l y be d e l i g h t e d at t h e fact t h a t a parallel
f r o m a M e s o p o t a m i a n r i t u a l t e x t is f o u n d h e l p f u l f o r e s t a b l i s h i n g the m e a n i n g o f a p u r e l y Greek w o r d . T h e borderlines bet w e e n t h e eastern a n d t h e G r e e k are seen t o m e l t away.
Substitute
Sacrifice
I n a s i t u a t i o n o f p u r s u i t , seized b y p a n i c , h u m a n beings are n a t u r a l l y r e l i e v e d i f a n o t h e r creature suffers t h a t fate i n t h e i r place.

S u b s t i t u t e sacrifices
are w i d e s p r e a d .
They
were particularly
c o m m o n i n M e s o p o t a m i a because basic anxieties w e r e c o n v e n t i o n a l l y g i v e n shape t h e r e i n t h e f o r m s o f d e m o n i c c a r n i v o r e s .
T h i s was less c o m m o n i n Greece. A l l t h e m o r e n o t a b l e , t h e n , is

one particular account, a cult legend f r o m the sanctuary o f A r t e m i s o f M u n i c h i a at A t h e n s .
O n c e again i t is a pestilence i n w h i c h t h e anger o f the goddess
is m a d e m a n i f e s t . T h e cause is said t o be t h e k i l l i n g o f a sacred
bear. F o r a t o n e m e n t , t h e goddess d e m a n d s
t h e sacrifice o f a
y o u n g g i r l . " E m b a r o s p r o m i s e d to do this on the c o n d i t i o n that

his f a m i l y w o u l d be g r a n t e d t h e office o f priest f o r t h e i r l i f e t i m e .
H e dressed u p his d a u g h t e r , b u t h i d her i n the t e m p l e , dressed
u p a g o a t w i t h a g a r m e n t as his d a u g h t e r , a n d sacrificed t h a t . "
T h i s is t h e t e x t o f Pausanias the A t t i c i s t ; t h e v e r s i o n i n the c o l l e c t i o n o f p r o v e r b s o f Z e n o b i u s is v e r y s i m i l a r . E m b a r o s
m e n t i o n e d i n the comedies o f M e n a n d e r .
was
I t is clear t h a t t h i s anecdote describes a r i t u a l , a s u b s t i t u t e sacrifice p e r f o r m e d i n t h e c u l t o f A r t e m i s f o r t h e l i f t i n g o f a p e s t i lence. T h e m y t h o f I p h i g e n i a ' s sacrifice at A u l i s o b t r u d e s i t s e l f

as a p a r a l l e l , w h e r e the goddess h e r s e l f is said t o have f i n a l l y
substituted a h i n d for the v i r g i n . B u t the M u n i c h i a legend p o r trays t h e a c t u a l m a n i p u l a t i o n s m u c h m o r e g r a p h i c a l l y . T o w h a t
e x t e n t t h i s can be t a k e n as evidence f o r actual c u l t is b y n o
means c e r t a i n , t h o u g h . T h e r e is n o o t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t a
73
T H E
R E V O L U T I O N
family o f E m b a r o s or a p r i e s t h o o d o f E m b a r i d s i n the A t t i c p r o s o p o g r a p h y . B u t t o assume t h a t w e are d e a l i n g w i t h p u r e i n v e n t i o n w o u l d m a k e t h e p r o v e r b i a l status o f E m b a r o s even less e x plicable.

T h e r e are w e l l - d o c u m e n t e d r i t u a l s elsewhere i n w h i c h an a n i m a l is s u b s t i t u t e d f o r a h u m a n b e i n g ; a r e m a r k a b l e instance is
the p r o v i s i o n i n t h e o l d L a w o f the T w e l v e Tables i n R o m e : aries
subicitur,
"a r a m is s u b s t i t u t e d . " T h e closest p a r a l l e l , h o w e v e r ,

4
is p r o v i d e d b y a M e s o p o t a m i a n i n c a n t a t i o n t e x t .
T h i s t e x t deals w i t h t h e h e a l i n g o f a sick p e r s o n . I t bears t h e
t i t l e " S u b s t i t u t i o n o f a M a n f o r E r e s h k i g a l . " E r e s h k i g a l is the
S u m e r i a n - A k k a d i a n goddess o f the u n d e r w o r l d . T h e s u b s t i t u t e
is an " u n m a t e d g o a t . " I t is p u t i n t o bed w i t h the sick p e r s o n and
is s u p p o s e d t o s p e n d the n i g h t w i t h h i m . A t d a w n the c o n j u r e r
arrives, t h r o w s t h e g o a t a n d the sick p e r s o n o u t o f t h e bed o n t o
the floor, touches t h e t h r o a t o f t h e sick p e r s o n w i t h a w o o d e n
k n i f e , a n d t h e n cuts the t h r o a t o f t h e g o a t w i t h a real k n i f e . T h e
s l a u g h t e r e d g o a t is t h e n stuffed w i t h spices, i t is dressed i n a
r o b e a n d g i v e n shoes, its eyes are a d o r n e d , t h e headgear o f the
sick p e r s o n is w o u n d r o u n d its head, a n d i t is t e n d e d "as i f i t
w e r e a dead m a n " w h i l e t h e sick p e r s o n leaves the house.
The
c o n j u r e r speaks an i n c a n t a t i o n , raises the l a m e n t a t i o n f o r t h e

dead over t h e b o d y , b r i n g s offerings f o r t h e dead, makes l i b a t i o n s o f water, beer, r o a s t e d c o r n , m i l k , honey, c r e a m , a n d o i l ;
finally, w i t h offerings f o r t h e " s p i r i t o f t h e dead o f t h e f a m i l y "
a n d t h e g o a t , he b u r i e s t h e a n i m a l . I n this w a y t h e sick p e r s o n is
delivered.
T h e differences b e t w e e n t h e t w o r i t u a l s s h o u l d n o t be o v e r l o o k e d . I n M u n i c h i a a sacrifice at the altar o f a s a n c t u a r y is d e s c r i b e d , w h e r e a s , i n t h e East, d y i n g at h o m e i n b e d is acted o u t .

T h e s i m i l a r i t y o f t h e charade, w h i c h i n b o t h cases has a s a c r i f i cial g o a t dressed u p i n h u m a n c l o t h e s , is s t r i k i n g
nevertheless;
a n d t h e M u n i c h i a l e g e n d is c o n c e r n e d w i t h the h e a l i n g o f s i c k ness, t o o . G e l l i u s states t h a t i n the R o m a n c u l t o f Veiovis a g o a t

is sacrificed ritu humano;
this m a y w e l l p o i n t to a s o m e w h a t s i m -
ilar f o r m o f r i t u a l . O n Tenedos, i n the c u l t o f D i o n y s u s A n t h r o 6
porraistes t h e " S m a s h e r o f M e n " o n c e m o r e w i t h i n the i d e o l -
74
" A
ogy
of human
S E E R
O R
sacrificethe
H E A L E R "
c a l f sacrificed
to
the
p r o v i d e d w i t h b u s k i n s , w h i l e t h e b u t c h e r has t o flee.
god
is
We see t h e r e is n o lack o f parallels. D i r e c t c o n t a c t c o u l d be

p r o v e d b y l i n g u i s t i c b o r r o w i n g s , b u t , nevertheless,
"perhaps."
T h e name
Embaroswith
it remains a
the l o n g adoes
s o u n d G r e e k , at least n o t A t t i c . Pausanias a n d
o t h e r l e x i c o n s g i v e the n a m e B a r o s as a v a r i a n t . T h i s
even m o r e e x o t i c b u t c o r r e s p o n d s
w o r d f o r seer, baru.
precisely
not
subsequently
sounds
t o the A k k a d i a n
O n e c o u l d assume t h a t there lies b e h i n d the
l e g e n d an actual event w h e n a seer o f eastern o r i g i n e m p l o y e d a

s u b s t i t u t e sacrifice t o l i f t a pestilence w i t h a p p a r e n t success. T h e
c u l t a n d s h r i n e o f A r t e m i s at M u n i c h i a is l i n k e d t o the m o n t h
M u n i c h i o n i n t h e A t t i c calendar a n d , l i k e o t h e r festivals o f A r t e m i s , has t h e aura o f G r e e k g i r l s ' i n i t i a t i o n s ; this can h a r d l y be
an o r i e n t a l i m p o r t i n its e n t i r e t y . F u r t h e r m o r e , the evidence f o r
the f o r m Baros is w e a k : T h e M e n a n d e r t e x t s , w h i c h are the o l d est d o c u m e n t s w e have a n d o n w h i c h the l e x i c o n s rely, clearly
have Embaros.
H o w e v e r , a d d i t i o n a l r i t u a l s are n o t e x c l u d e d even
i n established
c u l t s , a n d a l l sorts o f accidents m a y befall i m -
p o r t e d w o r d s . E v e n i f t h e exact p a t h o f t r a d i t i o n c a n n o t be est a b l i s h e d , t h e East-West parallel o f r i t u a l s u b s t i t u t e deserves n o tice.

Asdepius
and
Asgelatas
T h r e e s m a l l b r o n z e statuettes f r o m t h e H e r a sanctuary o n
Sa-
mos p r o v i d e the strongest evidence o f B a b y l o n i a n i m p o r t s to

Greece as regards sickness d e m o n s and h e a l i n g g o d s . T w o o f
t h e m , first p u b l i s h e d i n 1979,
w e r e excavated f r o m levels dated
t o t h e seventh c e n t u r y ( F i g u r e 4 ) . ' These b r o n z e s represent a

m a n s t a n d i n g at p r a y e r w i t h a large d o g . A s c o n f i r m e d b y s i m ilar f i n d s f r o m B a b y l o n i a a n d also b y c u n e i f o r m t e x t s , these f i g ures are c o n n e c t e d
w i t h t h e B a b y l o n i a n goddess o f h e a l i n g ,
G u l a o f I s i n , t h e " g r e a t p h y s i c i a n , " azugallatu.
D o g s w e r e sacri-
ficed i n her c u l t : A w h o l e series o f d o g b u r i a l s has c o m e t o l i g h t

at her s h r i n e at I s i n .
I f several f i g u r i n e s o f this t y p e w e r e d e d i c a t e d t o H e r a o n Sa-
75
THE
ORIENTALIZING
REVOLUTION
Figure 4. Babylonian bronze figurine, "dog and dog-leader," from the

cult of the Babylonian healing goddess Cu/a, found in the Hera
sanctuary at Samos .
. 76 .
" A
S E E R
O R
H E A L E R "
m o s , t h e y c a n n o t be m e r e l y c o i n c i d e n t a l s o u v e n i r s . I t is m o r e
l i k e l y t h a t H e r a is b e i n g a p p r o a c h e d as a goddess o f h e a l i n g , t o o ;
such assistance was requested f r o m p r a c t i c a l l y all the gods b u t
especially f r o m t h e goddesses. W h e t h e r t h e d e d i c a t i o n o f these
b r o n z e s o r i g i n a t e d w i t h eastern m e r c h a n t s w h o h a d reached Sam o s o r w h e t h e r t h e y h a d been b r o u g h t f r o m the East b y Greeks
such as A l c a e u s ' b r o t h e r A n t i m e n i d a s , w h o s o m e w h a t l a t e r
served as a m e r c e n a r y at B a b y l o n , c a n n o t be established. W h a t
sickness
means can easily be u n d e r s t o o d across t h e language
b a r r i e r s ; a n d i f a p a r t i c u l a r t a l i s m a n seems t o be
efficacious
against i t , this w i l l be accepted w i t h e q u a l ease.

B u t this is n o t t h e w h o l e s t o r y . We are led t o g o f u r t h e r b y
the s t r i k i n g r o l e o f t h e d o g i n the c u l t o f t h e m a i n G r e e k g o d o f
h e a l i n g , A s c l e p i u s . A d o g was s t a n d i n g n e x t t o t h e chryselep h a n t i n e statue o f A s c l e p i u s i n his t e m p l e at E p i d a u r u s ; a d e d i c a t o r y r e l i e f f r o m t h e r e has d o g s a l o n g s i d e the sons o f A s c l e pius.
M y t h relates t h a t as a c h i l d A s c l e p i u s was exposed
Mount Kynortion,
found
by
on
w h e r e he was n o u r i s h e d b y a b i t c h a n d
huntsmen w i t h
dogs kynegetai,
4
dog-leaders,
in
G r e e k ; i n a d d i t i o n , a c t u a l c u l t c o m e s t o the fore w i t h the r e q u i r e m e n t o f a lex sacra f r o m t h e s h r i n e o f A s c l e p i u s at Piraeus:

W h o seeks h e a l i n g , i t is stated, m u s t m a k e p r e l i m i n a r y sacrifice
o f t h r e e cakes to M a l e a t a s , A p o l l o , H e r m e s , Iaso, A k e s o , and
Panakeia, a n d
men.
finally
t o " d o g s a n d d o g - l e a d e r s , " t h a t is, h u n t s -
T h e s e d o g s a n d d o g - l e a d e r s can be e x p l a i n e d b y reference t o
m y t h ; b u t the b r o n z e s f r o m t h e s h r i n e o f H e r a present a m u c h
m o r e d i r e c t a n d g r a p h i c e x p l a n a t i o n : H e r e dogs a n d dog-leaders
are seen i n effigy. O n e can easily assume t h a t figures o f this t y p e
w e r e also t o be seen at t h e s h r i n e o f A s c l e p i u s at Piraeus; t h e y
w e r e t r e a t e d w i t h respect, j u s t l i k e t h e o t h e r g o d s a n d p o w e r s i n
the r e t i n u e o f A s c l e p i u s , a n d t h u s h a d t h e i r p a r t i n the r i t u a l .
D o g s a n d d o g - l e a d e r s as r e c i p i e n t s o f a p r e l i m i n a r y sacrifice also
appear i n a g r o t e s q u e p a r o d y o f c u l t i n a piece b y the c o m i c p o e t
Plato.
T h i s , t h e r e f o r e , was a w e l l - k n o w n , s o m e h o w r e m a r k -
able d e t a i l o f a c e r t a i n c u l t . I t becomes c o m p r e h e n s i b l e as s o o n
as o n e considers the statues o f the S a m i a n H e r a sanctuary:
77
By
T H E
R E V O L U T I O N
t h e i r v e r y existence, t h e y i n d i c a t e a p e c u l i a r East-West u n d e r standing i n the r e a l m o f healing gods.

F r o m a n o t h e r place w e are i n d u c e d t o a leap f o r w a r d i n t o t h e
l i n g u i s t i c evidence.
G u l a , t h e goddess o f h e a l i n g , patroness
d o g s a n d d o g - l e a d e r s , is called azugallatu,
of
" t h e great p h y s i c i a n , "
i n A k k a d i a n . O n the C y c l a d i c i s l a n d A n a p h e near T h e r a , h o w 7
ever, a n d o n l y t h e r e , A p o l l o is w o r s h i p p e d as Asgelatas a n d c e l ebrated w i t h a f e s t i v a l , A s g e l a i a .

s o u n d G r e e k , has
repeatedly
T h e n a m e , w h i c h does n o t
attracted attention, particularly
as i t has a r i n g n o t t o o d i s s i m i l a r f r o m t h e n a m e o f A p o l l o ' s
son
Asklapios/Asclepius,
Az(u)gallat(u)
w h i c h equally
a n d Asgelat(as)
variable m o r p h e m e s
complicated
enough
defies
explanation.
s o u n d p e r f e c t l y i d e n t i c a l , i f the
are o m i t t e d ; the sequence o f syllables is

to exclude
sheer c o i n c i d e n c e ,
and
the
m e a n i n g fits: B e i n g a p h y s i c i a n is o n e o f t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t
h o n o r s o f A p o l l o , w h o is e x p r e s s l y called p h y s i c i a n (ietros) i n
other cults.
1 0
I t is t r u e t h a t i n consequence t h e n a m e o f the fes-
t i v a l , A s g e l a i a , m u s t be secondary, r e c o n s t r u c t e d f r o m the n a m e
Asgelatas as i f t h i s h a d t h e n o r m a l G r e e k suffix -tas, -tes. I f the
equation Azugallatu/Asgelatas
is accepted, i t f o l l o w s that t h e r e
m u s t o n c e have been a healer o n this i s l a n d w h o i n v o k e d t h e

n a m e o f t h e M e s o p o t a m i a n azugallatu
against a pestilence and
o s t e n s i b l y succeeded i n d r i v i n g t h e disease away. F r o m t h a t t i m e

A p o l l o Asgelatas was w o r s h i p p e d t h e r e , as A p o l l o E p i k u r i o s at
Bassae was c r e d i t e d w i t h s u c c o r i n g at the great p l a g u e o r
1 1
as
Santa M a r i a della Salute was t o receive w o r s h i p m u c h later at

Venice. A p o l l o A s g e l a t a s , t h e n , p r o v i d e s t h e m o s t d i r e c t p r o o f
o f t h e i n f i l t r a t i o n o f c h a r i s m a t i c p r a c t i t i o n e r s o f t h e eastern t r a d i t i o n i n t o archaic Greece, p a r a l l e l t o the G u l a bronzes f o u n d o n
Samos.
T h e w a y i n w h i c h t h e G r e e k l a n g u a g e absorbs a n d suppresses
these f o r e i g n t e r m s is p a r t i c u l a r l y e v i d e n t i n this case. T h e d e c e p t i v e l y s i m i l a r f o r m Aiglatas
is attested q u i t e early o n A n a p h e ,
" A p o l l o o f t h e r a d i a n t s k y " ; this e p i t h e t has also m a d e its w a y

i n t o t h e m y t h o f t h e A r g o n a u t s ; i t appears i n d e d i c a t i o n s as early
as the fifth c e n t u r y B . C .
1 2
W h o c o u l d guess at t h e existence o f
A k k a d i a n b e h i n d such crystal-clear G r e e k ? I t is a l u c k y chance

78
S E E R
O R
H E A L E R
"
t h a t t h e strange b u t official names o f the c u l t a n d the festival

have been p r e s e r v e d i n a f e w e p i g r a p h i c d o c u m e n t s . I t is e v i d e n t
t h a t Asgelatas is t h e lectio difficilior,
hence o l d e r t h a n A i g l a t a s .
T h e n a m e Asgelatas is, t h e r e f o r e , a t t r i b u t a b l e t o t h e archaic e p o c h at t h e latest. T h u s t h e e x t e r n a l evidence leads close t o the

o r i e n t a l i z i n g p e r i o d , t o w h i c h t h e S a m i a n dog-leaders b e l o n g .
O n e f u r t h e r reference t o a w o r d f r o m the sphere o f A s c l e p i u s
the p h y s i c i a n : O n e w o r d for headache o r dizziness attested since
the A r i s t o t e l i a n Problems
B u t i n A k k a d i a n kdru
karah,
" t o be i l l . "
1 3
is karos.
I t has n o G r e e k
etymology.
means " t o be d i z z y , " and i n A r a m a i c
C o i n c i d e n c e is q u i t e possible w i t h such a
s i m p l e sequence o f p h o n e m e s , b u t o n e can as w e l l i m a g i n e t h a t
the t e r m came t o t h e G r e e k s w i t h t h e eastern b a n q u e t i n g fashi o n s , especially t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f couches o n w h i c h t o recline
(klinai)
i n place o f chairs, w h i c h is d i s t i n c t i v e o f the G r e e k s y m -
p o s i u m since the e n d o f the seventh c e n t u r y b u t first m a k e s its

appearance w i t h A s h u r b a n i p a l . T h e r e m a y be m o r e l o a n - w o r d s
o f t h e k i n d i n m e d i c a l v o c a b u l a r y ; w h a t is u n u s u a l is t h a t karos
escaped c a m o u f l a g e .
Ecstatic
Divination
D i v i n a t i o n is a strange art w h i c h o n l y specialists can practice

successfully u n d e r p a r t i c u l a r c i r c u m s t a n c e s . S o m e t i m e s stress is
l a i d o n the o u t w a r d l y t e c h n i c a l , a c q u i r e d apparatus o f the d i v i n e r , w h i c h seems easy t o l e a r n ; s o m e t i m e s i t is t h e p a r t i c u l a r
state o f m i n d t h a t is seen t o be a l l - i m p o r t a n t , be i t called possess i o n , t r a n c e , o r madness. W i t h the G r e e k s , the " r a v i n g " seer
first
appears o n s t a g e i n A e s c h y l u s '
Agamemnon,
i n the great
scene o f Cassandra. B u t already earlier H e r a c l i t u s h a d s p o k e n o f

the S i b y l p r o p h e s y i n g " w i t h
r a v i n g m o u t h , " and H e r o d o t u s
presupposes ecstatic p r o p h e c y at the P t o o n oracle b y 4 8 0 .
Then
P l a t o discusses d i v i n a t o r y madness at a h i g h l y p h i l o s o p h i c a l
level; i n this c o n t e x t he c l e a r l y c o n f i r m s t h a t the m o s t f a m o u s
seer i n Greece, t h e P y t h i a at D e l p h i , used t o p r o p h e s y i n a state
o f ecstasy. M u c h later t h e Pythia's seance was described i n s o m e
2
d e t a i l b y P l u t a r c h i n his w r i t i n g s o n D e l p h i , a f i r s t h a n d w i t n e s s
3
79
T H E
R E V O L U T I O N
since he served f o r years t h e r e as a priest. A l t h o u g h t h e r a t i o n alizing hypothesis about volcanic vapors rising f r o m the g r o u n d
b e n e a t h t h e t r i p o d i n t h e t e m p l e at D e l p h i a n d t h u s c h e m i c a l l y
" i n s p i r i n g " the P y t h i a has been g e o l o g i c a l l y r e f u t e d , t h i s s h o u l d
n o t serve t o d i s p r o v e t h e ecstatic state characteristic o f A p o l l o ' s
p r o n o u n c e m e n t s at t h e place. A m e d i u m does n o t need c h e m istry. H o w ecstasy m a n i f e s t e d i t s e l f i n i n d i v i d u a l cases m a y have
v a r i e d f r o m p e r s o n t o p e r s o n . T h e r e is n o t h i n g s u r p r i s i n g i n the
fact t h a t a s u i t a b l e peasant g i r l c o u l d be chosen, as P l u t a r c h aff i r m s a l t h o u g h s o m e scholars have f o u n d t h i s d i s c o n c e r t i n g .
Ecstatic p r o p h e c y is a specific g i f t w h i c h c a n n o t be a n t i c i p a t e d
and o n l y partially manipulated.
F a r n e l l w r o t e i n 1911
t h a t , i n c o n t r a s t t o Greece,
p r o p h e c y d i d n o t exist i n B a b y l o n ;
ecstatic
b u t t h i s has l o n g since been
r e f u t e d . Ecstatic priests a n d priestesses (mahhu,
mahhutu) w e r e i n
fact c o m m o n i n M e s o p o t a m i a . T h e m o s t e x t e n s i v e evidence has

appeared i n M a r i ; b u t W e n - A m o n ' s r e p o r t has a case i n B y b l o s ,
too.
I n t h e t i m e o f E s a r h a d d o n ecstatic w o m e n w e r e active i n
A s s y r i a ; i n p a r t i c u l a r , t e m p l e a t t e n d a n t s o f Ishtar o f A r b e l a r e p o r t e d t h e d i r e c t c o m m u n i c a t i o n s o f t h e goddess t o t h e k i n g .
The
d e i t y was
speaking
d i r e c t l y t h r o u g h the m o u t h
w o m a n , i n t h e first p e r s o n : " I , Ishtar . . . "
of a
T h e t r a d i t i o n o f t h e S i b y l o r S i b y l s reaches f r o m B a b y l o n t o
C u m a e w i t h a center o f g r a v i t y i n A s i a M i n o r .
Admittedly
w i d e l y d i v e r g e n t ideas a b o u t date a n d l i f e t i m e o f S i b y l s
were
c u r r e n t i n a n t i q u i t y , a n d i t is d i f f i c u l t t o r e c o n s t r u c t t h e o l d e r
t r a d i t i o n s o u t o f t h e later sources. H e r a c l i t u s , o u r oldest w i t ness, refers t o t h e S i b y l a n d h e r ecstasy, as she u t t e r s unpleasant
p r o p h e c i e s " w i t h r a v i n g m o u t h , " c o v e r i n g " 1 , 0 0 0 years." T r a d i t i o n dates t h e S i b y l o f M a r p e s s a before t h e T r o j a n War, b u t t h e
S i b y l o f E r y t h r a e t o t h e e i g h t h c e n t u r y ; t h e S i b y l o f C u m a e is
8
made a c o n t e m p o r a r y o f Tarquinius Superbus i n R o m e .
This
c h r o n o l o g y s h o u l d be g i v e n c r e d i t insofar as t h e C u m a e t r a d i t i o n m u s t extend back b e y o n d the conquest o f the city b y the

Oscans i n the fifth c e n t u r y .
E a s t e r n o r i g i n s o f t h e S i b y l have been c o n s i d e r e d since a n t i q u i t y . T o a c e r t a i n e x t e n t t h e S i b y l l i n e b o o k s o f late H e l l e n i s t i c
80
" A
S E E R
OR
H E A L E R
and i m p e r i a l t i m e s i n c o r p o r a t e the " e a s t e r n "
opposition to
R o m e w i t h s t r o n g J e w i s h elements. B u t i n v i e w o f the w i d e spread a v a i l a b i l i t y o f m e d i u m i s t i c talents and p r o p h e c i e s , o n l y

specific details o r the n a m e S i b y l i t s e l f c o u l d p r o v i d e clear e v i dence o f c u l t u r a l d i f f u s i o n i n a n c i e n t t i m e s . T h e r e is a " B a b y l o n i a n S i b y l " ; b u t t o l i n k t h e n a m e S i b y l l a d i r e c t l y t o S i d u r i the
ale w i f e , sabitu,
10
w h o appears i n the epic Gilgameshher
r o l e is
t o s h o w G i l g a m e s h t h e w a y t o U t n a p i s h t i m , the h e r o o f the
floodis
f r i v o l o u s . O n c e the special n a m e S a m b e t h e is r e p o r t e d
f o r the B a b y l o n i a n S i b y l , a n d she is said t o have been present i n

the a r k as one o f N o a h ' s d a u g h t e r s - i n - l a w ;
nest reflect t h e sabitu o f Gilgamesh.
1 1
this m i g h t i n ear-
T h e B a b y l o n i a n S i b y l has
also been c o n n e c t e d w i t h Berossos, w h i c h indicates a d a t i n g i n

the H e l l e n i s t i c e p o c h .
A s f o r the archaic p e r i o d , i t s h o u l d g i v e us pause that i n q u i t e
a n o t h e r c o n t e x t , t h a t o f a s t r o n o m y a n d calendar m a k i n g , c o n n e c t i o n s appear t o r u n f r o m M e s o p o t a m i a specifically t o D e l p h i . T h i s i n t e r r e l a t i o n was w o r k e d o u t b y M a r t i n N i l s s o n .
ready
the early
Greek
calendar
system
with
1 2
Al-
its i n t e r c a l a r y
m o n t h s seems t o f o l l o w t h e p r i n c i p l e o f the B a b y l o n i a n O k t a e teris. T h e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f " p e n t e t e r i c " games, i n p a r t i c u l a r the

O l y m p i a d s , presupposes that the calendar h a d been f i x e d acc o r d i n g t o s u c h an e i g h t - y e a r p e r i o d . T h e t r a d i t i o n a l date o f the
first O l y m p i a d is 776 B . C . ; the great rise o f the D e l p h i c s a n c t u ary begins a r o u n d this t i m e . H o w m a n y u n c e r t a i n factors are
present i n s u c h c o m b i n a t i o n s h a r d l y needs t o be stressed: E v e n
i f the e a r l y list o f O l y m p i c v i c t o r s is t a k e n t o be a u t h e n t i c , the
t i m e t a b l e o f t h e e a r l y games r e m a i n s i n d o u b t i t has r e c e n t l y
been a r g u e d t h a t t h e games started o n l y i n a b o u t 700 B . C .
1 3
and t h e r e l a t i o n s t o D e l p h i are n o t v e r y clear. Nevertheless the

perspective i n t r o d u c e d b y N i l s s o n remains i n t r i g u i n g ,
espe-
c i a l l y i f those c o r r e s p o n d e n c e s i n p u r i f i c a t i o n a n d h e a l i n g r i t u a l s
are added w h i c h N i l s s o n d i d n o t take i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n .
T h u s t h e ecstatic p r o p h e c y o f t h e P y t h i a can w e l l be seen i n a
s i m i l a r c o n t e x t . I n fact even the special r i t u a l i n w h i c h , before a
seance o f t h e P y t h i a , a g o a t was s p r i n k l e d w i t h w a t e r a n d its
r e a c t i o n o b s e r v e d , has its parallel i n M e s o p o t a m i a .
Hi
1 4
I t seems
T H E
R E V O L U T I O N
t h a t , p a r a l l e l t o t h e spread o f l i v e r a u g u r y , t h e m o r e d i r e c t art o f
m e d i u m i s t i c p r o p h e c y also c a m e t o supersede o l d e r a n d s i m p l e r
m e t h o d s o f a u g u r y a n d b i r d o b s e r v a t i o n . D i d this establish D e l phi's f a m e ?
15
O n e s h o u l d s t i l l resist the t e m p t a t i o n t o g o so far
as t o d e r i v e t h e n a m e o f A p o l l o f r o m B a b y l o n .
Lamashtu,
Lamia,
and
1 6
Gorgo
N o t o n l y r i t u a l s a n d i n c a n t a t i o n t e x t s b u t also a m u l e t s b e l o n g
t o the sphere o f M e s o p o t a m i a n m a g i c i a n s .
T h e r e are s i m p l e ,
s m a l l c y l i n d e r s as w e l l as beads w i t h p e r t i n e n t i n s c r i p t i o n s , b u t
1
also fantastic i m a g e s s u c h as t h e Pazuzu
heads
and the La-
m a s h t u t a b l e t s . A s w i t h the m o d e l livers o f h e p a t o s c o p y ,
these
are spread as far as N o r t h S y r i a , U g a r i t , a n d C y p r u s . A n d as

the H u m b a b a face reached G o r t y n and t h e d o g - l e a d e r f i g u r i n e s
reached S a m o s , reflexes o f L a m a s h t u i c o n o g r a p h y t r a v e l l e d as
far as I t a l y .
I t is c e r t a i n t h a t t h e Greeks o f t h e archaic p e r i o d
o c c a s i o n a l l y saw s u c h f i g u r e s ; t h e M e s o p o t a m i a n d e m o n s d i d ,
i n fact, leave v a r i o u s traces o f themselves.
T h e h o r r i f y i n g f i g u r e o f G e l l o , an o b j e c t o f t e r r o r f o r c h i l d r e n , is m e n t i o n e d as e a r l y as t h e w o r k o f S a p p h o ; G e l l o
was
said t o steal a n d eat l i t t l e c h i l d r e n . Traces o f t h i s f i g u r e have

persisted t o t h e p r e s e n t d a y .
G r e e k s w i l l associate t h e n a m e
G e l l o w i t h e v i l g r i n n i n g , gelan,
b u t n e i t h e r t h e s p e l l i n g o f the
w o r d n o r its m e a n i n g p r o p e r l y c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h i s . G a l l u is, o n
the o t h e r h a n d , o n e o f t h e m o s t c o m m o n S u m e r i a n - A k k a d i a n
n a m e s f o r an e v i l s p i r i t . T h e c o r r e s p o n d e n c e
has l o n g been
p o i n t e d o u t b y A s s y r i o l o g i s t s a n d i n t e r p r e t e d as a b o r r o w i n g
from Mesopotamia;
t h e t e s t i m o n y o f S a p p h o w o u l d place i t i n
t h e seventh c e n t u r y at t h e latest. T h a t a is r e p r o d u c e d as e has a

parallel i n Azugallatu/Asgelatas
a n d i n the n a m e o f the l e t t e r
delta.
A n even m o r e p o p u l a r h o r r o r f i g u r e t h a n G e l l o is L a m i a . She
is already m e n t i o n e d i n t h e archaic p e r i o d b y S t e s i c h o r o s
has also persisted i n m o d e r n f o l k l o r e . L a m i a is g r o t e s q u e ,

9
and
re-
p u l s i v e , a n d h i d e o u s b e y o n d measure; h o w e v e r , there is n o u n d i s p u t e d G r e e k r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f her. T h e m a i n characteristic o f
82
" A
S E E R
OR
H E A L E R "
L a m i a is t h a t she steals c h i l d r e n , perhaps even f r o m t h e i r m o t h ers' b o d i e s .

I n this especially L a m i a resembles L a m a s h t u the demoness;
the c o r r e s p o n d e n c e b e t w e e n the names was c l o u d e d f o r a w h i l e
b y the earlier r e a d i n g o f h e r n a m e as Labartu."'
Lamashtu
was
feared b y p r e g n a n t w o m e n , b y w o m e n g i v i n g b i r t h , and b y
m o t h e r s . T h e y p r o t e c t e d themselves against her w i t h m a g i c : A n
ass o r a s h i p was s u p p o s e d t o c a r r y her away. A m u l e t tablets
t h e r e f o r e w e r e f a b r i c a t e d w i t h c o r r e s p o n d i n g images, t o offer
direct
tablets have
been
f o u n d far b e y o n d M e s o p o t a m i a , i n U g a r i t , B o g h a z k o y ,
p r o t e c t i o n against
Lamashtu.
Such
Car-
c h c m i s h , a n d Z i n c i r l i . " T h e w e s t e r n c o n n e c t i o n s are stressed i f

o n a seal w e f i n d a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f an A s s y r i a n d e m o n c o m b i n e d w i t h a P h o e n i c i a n i n s c r i p t i o n ; a n d at least one a m u l e t
with
Lamashtu-like
century Italy.
1 2
representation
comes
from
seventh-
D e m o n s s i m i l a r t o L a m a s h t u also appear i n later
Syrian magical beliefs:
13
T h e r e is n o gap b e t w e e n B a b y l o n and
Greece. O n e G r e e k t e x t states t h a t L a m i a is a d a u g h t e r o f the

P h o e n i c i a n B e l o s , t h e r e b y c r e d i t i n g the demoness w i t h S e m i t i c
origins.
1 4
L a m a s h t u has a p a r t i c u l a r i c o n o g r a p h y w h i c h is k n o w n b o t h
f r o m the a m u l e t tablets a n d f r o m related texts: She is n a k e d ; she
has a lion's h e a d , d a n g l i n g breasts, a n d the feet o f a b i r d o f p r e y ;
she lets a p i g and a d o g suck at her breasts; she o f t e n h o l d s a
snake i n each h a n d ; o f t e n she is represented w i t h one knee b e n t ,
i n Knielauf
swift
flight.
p o s i t i o n , w h i c h p r e s u m a b l y is m e a n t t o represent
T h e r e is u s u a l l y an ass u n d e r n e a t h her a n d beneath
t h a t a s h i p , all d e s i g n e d t o c a r r y her a w a y ( F i g u r e 5). S o m e t i m e s

the a n i m a l s appear separated f r o m the m a i n f i g u r e , g r o u p e d t o
the r i g h t and left i n t h e M i s t r e s s o f A n i m a l s s c h e m a .
15
A s has o f t e n been discussed, L a m a s h t u shares a w h o l e range

o f characteristics w i t h t h e G r e e k G o r g o n .
1 6
I t is n o t so m u c h t h e
actual face o f t h e G o r g o n t h a t is s i m i l a r ; the G o r g o n face does

i n c o r p o r a t e l i o n features, yet the l e o n i n e is o n l y one o f t h e elem e n t s , a n d the G o r g o n is always represented en face,
whereas
L a m a s h t u is always represented i n p r o f i l e . T h e r e is, h o w e v e r , a

s t r i k i n g c o r r e s p o n d e n c e i n the d a n g l i n g breasts, the schema o f
83
T H E
R E V O L U T I O N
Figure 5. Bronze plate from Carchemish: Lamashtu. Demoness with

lion's head, bird's talons, standing on a donkey, wielding snakes,
and suckling a pig and a dog.
Knielauf
a n d , above a l l , t h e i c o n o g r a p h i e p a r a p h e r n a l i a .
We
m a y take as an e x a m p l e t h e f a m o u s r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f the G o r g o n f r o m t h e t e m p l e i n C o r f u : She appears i n Knielauf
between
t w o " l i o n s " w h i c h are beasts o f fantasy r a t h e r t h a n z o o l o g y ; t w o

snakes f o r m h e r b e l t , w h i l e a horse a n d a h u m a n , Pegasos a n d
C h r y s a o r h e r " c h i l d r e n , " t o u c h her r i g h t a n d left hands. N e a r l y
84
" A
S E E R
O R
H E A L E R "
all these e l e m e n t s , w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f the h u m a n C h r y s a o r ,

have t h e i r c o u n t e r p a r t s i n t h e i m a g e o f L a m a s h t u , T h e r e m a y be
a horse at her side, a n d b o t h the G o r g o n a n d L a m a s h t u are o c casionally d e p i c t e d h o l d i n g t w o snakes. A n d yet, all these elem e n t s have been shaken u p , t a k e n o u t o f t h e i r c o n t e x t , and
placed i n a n e w o r d e r . T h e basic c o n c e p t r e m a i n s the same: the
fleeing
m o n s t e r b u t t h e G r e e k m y t h has d e v e l o p e d a w h o l e
n e w s y s t e m w i t h t h e m y t h o f Perseus, Pegasos, C h r y s a o r .
The
steed a n d the w a r r i o r are i n d i c a t i v e o f a t r i a l o f i n i t i a t i o n : I t is

the a r m e d h e r o a n d n o t m a g i c t h a t o v e r c o m e s the d e m o n a n d
p e t r i f y i n g fear. I t c a n n o t be d o u b t e d t h a t s o m e artists w h o created G o r g o n c o m p o s i t i o n s o f this k i n d h a d seen L a m a s h t u t a b lets, b u t t h e y t o o k o n l y t h e images and used t h e m t o c o n s t r u c t
s o m e t h i n g closer t o t h e i r o w n t r a d i t i o n s .
1 7
T h e c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n the P e r s e u s - G o r g o n m y t h a n d the
S e m i t i c East is even m o r e c o m p l e x . O n the o n e h a n d the A n d r o m e d a m y t h is l o c a t e d i n Ioppe-Jaffa;
18
has a r e m a r k a b l e c o n n e c t i o n w i t h T a r s o s .
o n t h e other, Perseus
19
Iconographic m o d -
els f o r Perseus' f i g h t w i t h the m a r i n e m o n s t e r (ketos) appear o n

s o m e eastern seals;
eyed female
20
i n M e s o p o t a m i a even t h e s l a y i n g o f a o n e -
monster b y a youthful hero occurs.
21
However,
f i n d i n g names f o r t h e scenes i n o r i e n t a l seal art is b y n o means

s i m p l e ; t h e c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e epic texts such as Gilgamesh
can
be established o n l y i n rare cases. O n e o f these is t h e s l a y i n g o f

H u m b a b a b y G i l g a m e s h and E n k i d u , a scene w h i c h i n t u r n is
one o f the m o d e l s f o r representations o f Perseus k i l l i n g the G o r g o n ( F i g u r e 6).
A strange o r i e n t a l seal, n o w i n B e r l i n , is p a r t i c u l a r l y w o r t h y
of note.
2 2
I t depicts an o v e r s i z e d , d e m o n i c creature s h o w n en face
a n d i n Knielauf
position.
I t has been seized b y a y o u n g h e r o w h o
is h o l d i n g u p a s c i m i t a r , a harpe, i n his r i g h t h a n d , a n d , i n d o i n g
so, he has a p p a r e n t l y t u r n e d his face a w a y f r o m his o p p o n e n t .
H e is w e a r i n g w i n g e d shoes; b e h i n d h i m is the r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f
a large fish. T h i s p i c t u r e was r e p r o d u c e d i n Roscher's
of Mythology
gon.
2 3
Dictionary
as a clear i l l u s t r a t i o n o f Perseus f i g h t i n g the G o r -
Pierre A m i e t is n o less d e c i d e d a b o u t t h e f r a m e w o r k o f
eastern m y t h o l o g y f o r t h i s r e p r e s e n t a t i o n , r e c a l l i n g the U g a r i t i c
T H E
R E V O L U T I O N
Figure 6. TOP LEFT: Seal impression from Nuzi, about 1450

B.C.:
Gilgamesh and Enkidu struggling with Humbaba. From the left, a
goddess is handing a weapon to the champion, T O P R I G H T : Shield
strap, Olympia, about560B.C.:
Perseus killing the Gorgon, with the
help of Athena, turning his face from the petrifying monster.
B O T T O M : Seal from Baghdad, seventh to sixth century B.C.:
Perseus
fighting the Gorgon?
86
" A
S E E R
OR
H E A L E R "
m y t h o f t h e fight b e t w e e n t h e goddess A n a t a n d M o t , w i t h n o
m e n t i o n o f Perseus a n d t h e G o r g o n ,
2 4
I n c o n t r a s t t o the G o r -
g o n , t h e m o n s t e r has b i r d ' s c l a w s , w h i c h is r a t h e r r e m i n i s c e n t
o f L a m a s h t u . T h e r e is n o t m u c h p o i n t i n a r g u i n g a b o u t t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n : E v e n t h e date o f t h e seal is unclear; i t m a y already
be d e p e n d e n t u p o n G r e e k i c o n o g r a p h y ; s t i l l less c o u l d w e h o p e
t o find adequate texts f o r e x p l a n a t i o n . E v e n so, this p i c t u r e is
an i m p o r t a n t d o c u m e n t i l l u s t r a t i n g t h e c o m p l e x i n t e r r e l a t i o n s
o f G r e e k and o r i e n t a l i n t h e archaic p e r i o d . I m a g e s a n d p o s s i b l y
even n a r r a t i v e m o t i f s b e c o m e a m b i g u o u s i n t h e sphere o f i n t e r c u l t u r a l contacts; t h e y are u n d e r s t o o d i n different ways f r o m d i f ferent sides; t h e y f o r m n e w c o n s t e l l a t i o n s . C r e a t i v e
misunder-
s t a n d i n g m i g h t be c o n s i d e r e d t o be m o r e s i g n i f i c a n t t h a n the
t r a n s m i s s i o n i t s e l f i n s u c h cases. B u t t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n r e m a i n s a
fact; t h e i c o n o g r a p h i c
p a t t e r n s r e m a i n preserved,
i n the i n -
stances o f the c o m b a t s o f Perseus as i n t h e case o f L a m a s h t u a n d

the G o r g o n .
O n e difference is s t r i k i n g i n d e e d : F o r t h e Greeks these d e m o n s are n o t r e a l l y d e m o n i c ; t h e y d o n o t c a r r y the association
o f s o m e mysterium
tremendum.
A t best t h e y are apt t o f r i g h t e n
l i t t l e c h i l d r e n . F o r G r e e k m e n Perseus has set an e x a m p l e o f h o w

t o deal w i t h such creatures, w e a p o n i n h a n d , even i f an e l e m e n t
o f m a g i c and s o m e h e l p f r o m t h e g o d s is n o t l a c k i n g . A s i m i l a r
t r a n s f o r m a t i o n can be established i n s t i l l a n o t h e r instance, i n t h e
i m a g e o f t h e snake strangler. T h i s is q u i t e an o l d a n d a p p a r e n t l y
i m p o r t a n t i m a g e i n t h e M e s o p o t a m i a n r e p e r t o i r e : a master o f
a n i m a l s , a s h a m a n i s t i c f i g u r e , w h o has seized t w o large snakes
i n his hands; t h i s t y p e p r o b a b l y has an a p o t r o p a i c
function.
2 5
T h e G r e e k s m a d e this t h e first a d v e n t u r e o f t h e i r H e r a k l e s , the

h e r o i c deed a b a b y p e r f o r m e d i n his c r a d l e .
26
I n e v e r y d a y life o f
course H e r a k l e s is t h e averter o f e v i l , alexikakos,

are used f o r p r o t e c t i o n .
2 7
w h o s e amulets
B u t i n m y t h , o r r a t h e r i n t h e accepted
a n d representative f o r m o f G r e e k p o e t r y , t h e fear o f d e m o n s has

been e l i m i n a t e d . T h e G r e e k h e r o is represented as t r u s t i n g i n his
o w n s t r e n g t h , g o d l i k e even i f i n t h e s h a d o w o f d e a t h .
2 8
figurines
not
are
transformed
into
practical
i n s p i r i n g b u t s i m p l y a source o f w o n d e r .
87
2 9
robots,
Magical
awe-
C H A P T E R
T H R E E
'OR A L S O A G O D L Y
SINGER"
Akkadian and Early Greek Literature
From
A t r a h a s i s to the "Deception
of
Zeus"
Since t h e r e d i s c o v e r y o f the A k k a d i a n epics a n d o f Gilgamesh
in
p a r t i c u l a r , there has been n o s h o r t a g e o f associations
between
m o t i f s i n these a n d i n t h e H o m e r i c epics, especially the
Odyssey.
T h e s e m o t i f s can be h i g h l i g h t e d a n d used t o s u r p r i s e , b u t h a r d l y
t o p r o v e a n y t h i n g : A p p r o x i m a t e l y t h e same m o t i f s a n d t h e m e s
w i l l be f o u n d e v e r y w h e r e . Instead o f i n d i v i d u a l m o t i f s , t h e r e f o r e , w e m u s t focus o n m o r e c o m p l e x s t r u c t u r e s , w h e r e sheer
c o i n c i d e n c e is less l i k e l y : a s y s t e m o f deities and a basic c o s m o l o g i c a l idea, t h e n a r r a t i v e s t r u c t u r e o f a w h o l e scene, decrees o f
the g o d s a b o u t m a n k i n d , o r a v e r y special c o n f i g u r a t i o n o f a t tack a n d defense. O n c e t h e h i s t o r i c a l l i n k , t h e fact o f t r a n s m i s s i o n , has been established, t h e n f u r t h e r c o n n e c t i o n s , i n c l u d i n g
l i n g u i s t i c b o r r o w i n g s , b e c o m e m o r e l i k e l y , even i f these alone
d o n o t suffice t o c a r r y t h e b u r d e n o f p r o o f .
N o t u n t i l 1969 was t h e t e x t o f an A k k a d i a n epic p u b l i s h e d f o r
the first t i m e i n a n y t h i n g a p p r o a c h i n g its e n t i r e t y : T h e s t o r y o f
Atrahasis " o u t s t a n d i n g i n w i s d o m " a telling name i n A k k a d i a n o r r a t h e r a " S t o r y o f M a n k i n d " b e g i n n i n g , as the o p e n i n g l i n e says, w i t h t h e p a r a d o x i c a l p r i m o r d i a l s i t u a t i o n " w h e n
gods were i n the ways o f m e n . "
U p u n t i l t h e n i t h a d been
k n o w n o n l y f r o m a f e w n o t v e r y characteristic f r a g m e n t s . T h e
88
" O R
A L S O
G O D L Y
S I N G E R "
first v e r s i o n i n three b o o k s is d a t e d t o t h e t i m e o f A m m i s a d u q a ,
a f e w g e n e r a t i o n s after H a m m u r a p i , i n the seventeenth c e n t u r y
B . C . V a r i o u s O l d B a b y l o n i a n e x a m p l e s have s u r v i v e d i n f r a g m e n t a r y f o r m ; t h e l i b r a r y o f A s h u r b a n i p a l also c o n t a i n e d other,
s l i g h t l y v a r y i n g e d i t i o n s . A f r a g m e n t o f a n o t h e r recension has
been f o u n d i n U g a r i t . We are t h e r e f o r e d e a l i n g w i t h a t e x t
w h i c h h a d been i n c i r c u l a t i o n a n d p o p u l a r f o r over a t h o u s a n d
years, a t e x t a s t o n i s h i n g l y o r i g i n a l i n c o n c e p t i o n . " W h e n gods
w e r e i n t h e ways o f m e n " and there w e r e n o h u m a n s yet i n existence, t h e g o d s h a d t o d o all the w o r k themselves; this led t o a
r e b e l l i o n b y t h e y o u n g e r g o d s against the senior g o d s a n d espec i a l l y E n l i l , t h e a c t i n g chief. F o r t u n a t e l y E n k i the c u n n i n g g o d
c a m e t o t h e i r a i d , a n d t o g e t h e r w i t h the m o t h e r goddess he created m e n t o act as r o b o t s f o r t h e m : T h e y s h o u l d bear the b u r d e n
o f the w o r k . B u t s o o n , " a f t e r 600 [and?] 600 years," these creatures b e c a m e t o o n u m e r o u s a n d a nuisance t o t h e e a r t h , and so
the g o d s t r i e d t o d e s t r o y t h e m . T h e y m a d e three a t t e m p t s , app a r e n t l y at f o r m u l a i c i n t e r v a l s o f 1,200 years, b y s e n d i n g first a
p l a g u e , t h e n a f a m i n e , a n d f i n a l l y t h e great f l o o d . H o w e v e r , the
c u n n i n g g o d o f t h e deep, E n k i , i n league w i t h the m a n " o u t standing i n w i s d o m , " Atrahasis,
f r u s t r a t e d these attacks.
He
played the g o d s o f f against o n e another, a n d f i n a l l y h a d A t r a hasis b u i l d his a r k . T h e final p a r t o f the t e x t , as can n o w be seen,
is an o l d e r p a r a l l e l v e r s i o n t o the f a m o u s Tablet X I o f the
gamesh
i n f l u e n c e d t h e s t o r y o f N o a h i n t h e first b o o k o f M o s e s .
Atrahasis
Cil-
epic, t h e w e l l - k n o w n s t o r y o f t h e f l o o d , w h i c h i n t u r n
The
t e x t , h o w e v e r , far f r o m b e i n g an e x a m p l e o f O l d Tes-
t a m e n t piety, is i m b u e d w i t h a r e m a r k a b l y h u m a n , i f n o t a
s l i g h t l y c y n i c a l o p t i m i s m : W h e t h e r f o r o r against t h e g o d s ,
m a n k i n d , f o r all the h a r d w o r k a n d all the afflictions i t has t o
bear, is i n d e s t r u c t i b l e . " H o w d i d m a n s u r v i v e i n the d e s t r u c t i o n ? " t h e great g o d E n l i l f i n a l l y asks, baffled as he is ( I I I v i 10).
B e y o n d d o u b t , s u r v i v e he d i d .
A t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e Atrahasis
t e x t , the B a b y l o n i a n p a n -
t h e o n is i n t r o d u c e d s y s t e m a t i c a l l y : " A n u , t h e i r father, was the

k i n g ; t h e i r c o u n s e l l o r was t h e w a r r i o r E n l i l ; t h e i r c h a m b e r l a i n
was N i n u r t a ; a n d t h e i r s h e r i f f E n n u g i . " These verses are c o p i e d
89
T H E
i n the Gilgamesh
the flask
R E V O L U T I O N
epic, b u t n o t t h e f o l l o w i n g lines: " T h e y grasped
o f lots b y
the neck,
t h e y cast t h e l o t s ; t h e g o d s
m a d e the d i v i s i o n : A n u w e n t u p t o h e a v e n . " A second g o d

there is a lacuna i n t h e t e x t h e r e - " t o o k t h e e a r t h , f o r his s u b j e c t s " ; a n d " t h e b o l t s , t h e bar o f t h e sea, w e r e set f o r E n k i , the
far-sighted."
E n l i l , t h e m o s t active o f t h e g o d s , s u r e l y
belongs
i n t h e lacuna, w h i c h p r o d u c e s t h e usual t r i n i t y o f A n u , E n l i l ,
a n d E n k i : t h e s k y g o d , t h e w i n d g o d , the w a t e r g o d . T h e
Atra-
hasis t e x t r e t u r n s r e p e a t e d l y t o t h e d i v i s i o n o f t h e c o s m o s i n t o
the three parts g i v e n o v e r t o t h e d i f f e r e n t g o d s , p a r t i c u l a r l y
w h e n E n l i l undertakes
a total blockade o f the h u m a n w o r l d
w h i l e sending the f a m i n e .
A n u and A d a d s k y
A different version, Tablet X ,
has
g o d a n d w i n d g o d f o r t h e heavens, S i n
a n d N e r g a l m o o n g o d a n d g o d o f t h e u n d e r w o r l d f o r the
e a r t h . T h e u n d e r w o r l d is c l e a r l y i n c l u d e d i n t h e c o n c e p t o f the
e a r t h . T h e r e a l m o f E n k i , t h e L o r d o f t h e D e e p , is f i x e d , n o t as
the salt sea, b u t t h e p o t a b l e g r o u n d a n d s p r i n g w a t e r s t h e s e
are also t h e r e a l m o f P o s e i d o n i n Greece.
I n H o m e r ' s Iliad,
h o w e v e r , t h e r e are those f a m o u s , o f t - q u o t e d
verses i n w h i c h t h e w o r l d is d i v i d e d a m o n g t h e a p p r o p r i a t e H o meric gods; Poseidon
speaks: " F o r w h e n w e t h r e w t h e l o t s I
received t h e g r e y sea as m y p e r m a n e n t abode, H a d e s d r e w t h e

m u r k y darkness, Z e u s , h o w e v e r , d r e w t h e w i d e s k y o f b r i g h t ness a n d c l o u d s ; t h e e a r t h is c o m m o n t o a l l , a n d spacious O l y m pus."
T h i s differs f r o m t h e s y s t e m o f Atrahasis
i n t h a t the e a r t h t o -
g e t h e r w i t h t h e g o d s ' m o u n t a i n is declared t o be u n d e r j o i n t
d o m i n i o n ; P o s e i d o n insists o n his r i g h t t o b e c o m e active o n t h e
p l a i n o f T r o y . S t i l l t h e basic s t r u c t u r e o f b o t h texts is a s t o n i s h i n g l y s i m i l a r : T h e r e are t h r e e d i s t i n c t areas o f t h e c o s m o s
heaven, t h e d e p t h s o f t h e e a r t h , a n d t h e w a t e r s a n d these three
areas are assigned t o t h e t h r e e h i g h e s t g o d s o f t h e p a n t h e o n a l l
o f w h i c h are m a l e . A n d i n b o t h instances t h e d i v i s i o n is said t o
have been m a d e b y d r a w i n g l o t s . T h i s is n o t n o r m a l l y t h e p r a c tice a m o n g G r e e k g o d s : a c c o r d i n g t o H e s i o d , Z e u s d e t h r o n e d
his p r e d e c e s s o r w h o was also his f a t h e r b y f o r c e , a n d t h e n
the o t h e r g o d s asked h i m t o b e c o m e t h e i r k i n g .
90
F r o m another
" O R
A L S O
G O D L Y
S I N G E R
"
p o i n t o f v i e w , t o o , t h i s passage, w h e n l o o k e d at i n m o r e d e t a i l ,
is u n i q u e i n G r e e k m y t h : I n o t h e r passages o f the o l d epic, w h e n
the parts o f the c o s m o s are b e i n g e n u m e r a t e d ,
there is either
a trinity o f heaven-earth-underworld
o r o f heaven-sea-earth,
or
four,
heaven-earth-sea-
u n d e r w o r l d , but n o t heaven-sea-underworld
as assigned t o the
even
combination
three b r o t h e r s .
to
make
F u r t h e r m o r e , the t r i n i t y o f the sons o f K r o n o s
and their realms
does n o t have any
f u r t h e r p a r t t o play i n
H o m e r , n o r is i t r o o t e d i n any G r e e k c u l t . B y c o n t r a s t , the c o r r e s p o n d i n g passage i n the Atrahasis
t e x t is f u n d a m e n t a l t o the
n a r r a t i v e a n d is r e f e r r e d t o repeatedly.
T h e r e is h a r d l y a n o t h e r passage i n H o m e r w h i c h comes so
close t o b e i n g a t r a n s l a t i o n o f an A k k a d i a n epic. I n fact i t is n o t
so m u c h a t r a n s l a t i o n as a r e s e t t i n g t h r o u g h w h i c h the f o r e i g n
f r a m e w o r k s t i l l s h o w s . O n e m a y s t i l l believe this t o be a m i s l e a d i n g c o i n c i d e n c e . H o w e v e r , the passage stands i n a v e r y special c o n t e x t i n r e l a t i o n t o the o v e r a l l s t r u c t u r e o f the Iliad.
The
scene b e l o n g s t o t h e s e c t i o n w h i c h the ancients called the " D e c e p t i o n o f Z e u s " (Dios
Apate).
Its p e c u l i a r i t i e s have o f t e n been
c o m m e n t e d u p o n i n H o m e r i c studies. A l b r e c h t D i h l e l i s t e d l i n g u i s t i c p e c u l i a r i t i e s a n d f o u n d so m a n y d e v i a t i o n s f r o m the n o r m a l , t r a d i t i o n a l use o f H o m e r i c f o r m u l a s t h a t he c o n c l u d e d t h a t

t h i s section o f the Iliad
c o u l d n o t b e l o n g t o the phase o f o r a l
t r a d i t i o n , b u t was a w r i t t e n c o m p o s i t i o n .
T h i s r e s u l t has n o t
been g e n e r a l l y accepted; b u t i t m u s t be a c k n o w l e d g e d
that i n
t h i s p a r t o f t h e Iliad w e are d e a l i n g w i t h a t e x t w h i c h is l i n g u i s tically unusual,
i s o l a t e d i n its c o n t e n t , a n d , i n a way,
quite
"modern."
T h e r e is, above a l l , a p e c u l i a r i t y o f c o n t e n t w h i c h was n o t e d
even b y P l a t o a n d m a y also have been n o t i c e d a n d e x p l o i t e d
before P l a t o b y t h e p r e - S o c r a t i c s :
10
T h i s is the o n l y passage i n
the H o m e r i c c a n o n w h e r e , q u i t e u n e x p e c t e d l y ,
cosmogonic
t h e m e c o m e s t o t h e f o r e . H e r a , i n her d e c e p t i o n speech, says she

w a n t s t o g o t o O c e a n u s , " o r i g i n o f the g o d s , " a n d Tethys the
" m o t h e r " ; O c e a n u s is also called " t h e o r i g i n o f a l l " i n a n o t h e r
verse. O c e a n u s a n d T e t h y s , the p r i m e v a l c o u p l e , have w i t h h e l d
t h e i r c o n j u g a l r i g h t s f r o m each o t h e r f o r a l o n g t i m e , separated
91
T H E
as a r e s u l t o f s t r i f e , neikea.
t h e E m p e d o c l e a n Neikos
R E V O L U T I O N
T h i s sounds l i k e an a n t i c i p a t i o n o f
c o s m o g o n y . T h e genesis o f the gods
has c o m e t o an e n d . I t is t r u e t h a t i n the I l i a d i c n a r r a t i v e all this

is m a d e u p b y H e r a , a patent l i e , as i t were; b u t t h e m o t i f s used
radiate b e y o n d those speeches. T h e v e r y c l i m a x o f this s o n g o f
H o m e r Z e u s a n d H e r a m a k i n g love w i t h i n a g o l d e n c l o u d o n
the s u m m i t o f M o u n t I d a , f r o m w h i c h r e s p l e n d e n t d r o p s are
f a l l i n g s h o w s d i v i n i t y i n a n a t u r a l i s t i c , c o s m i c s e t t i n g w h i c h is
n o t o t h e r w i s e a feature o f H o m e r i c a n t h r o p o m o r p h i s m . T h u s
the d i v i s i o n o f t h e c o s m o s i n t o three parts i n Poseidon's speech
s o m e w h a t later, w h e n Z e u s has r e a w a k e n e d , is t h e t h i r d m o t i f
w h i c h i n v o l v e s t h e g o d s i n the o r i g i n and f u n c t i o n o f t h e n a t u r a l
cosmos.
A r i s t o t l e , f o l l o w i n g Plato, f o u n d in the Oceanus
cosmogony
o f H o m e r the v e r y b e g i n n i n g o f n a t u r a l p h i l o s o p h y , the i n s p i r a t i o n for T h a l e s , u s u a l l y c o n s i d e r e d t h e first p h i l o s o p h e r . M o d e r n research has d r a w n a t t e n t i o n t o antecedents o f T h a l e s ' w a t e r

cosmogony
a m o n g the Egyptians,
the Phoenicians,
least, t h e B a b y l o n i a n epic o f c r e a t i o n , t h e Enuma
and, n o t
Elish.
12
The
B a b y l o n i a n epic b e g i n s : " W h e n a b o v e " the heavens d i d n o t yet

exist n o r t h e e a r t h b e l o w , A p s u was there, t h e f r e s h w a t e r ocean,
" t h e f i r s t , the b e g e t t e r , " a n d w i t h h i m T i a m a t , the s a l t w a t e r sea,
"she w h o b o r e t h e m a l l . " T h e y " w e r e m i x i n g t h e i r w a t e r s . "
1 3
T h i s c a m e t o an e n d w h e n A p s u was p u t t o sleep a n d k i l l e d b y
Ea, a n d T i a m a t was v a n q u i s h e d b y M a r d u k i n a d r a m a t i c f i g h t .
T h e n M a r d u k established the c o s m o s as i t n o w exists.
T h u s Hera's i n c i d e n t a l i n v e n t i o n s closely c o r r e s p o n d t o the
b e g i n n i n g of Enuma
Elish.
A p s u a n d T i a m a t equal O c e a n u s a n d
T e t h y s as the o r i g i n a l p a r e n t a l c o u p l e . B u t T e t h y s is i n n o w a y
an active f i g u r e i n G r e e k m y t h o l o g y . I n c o n t r a s t t o the sea g o d dess T h e t i s ( w i t h w h o m she was s o m e t i m e s confused even i n
a n t i q u i t y ) , she has n o established c u l t s , a n d n o o n e h a d a n y t h i n g
f u r t h e r t o t e l l a b o u t her. She a p p a r e n t l y exists o n l y b y v i r t u e o f
the H o m e r i c passage; h o w she came t o achieve the h o n o r e d p o s i t i o n o f the m o t h e r o f all r e m a i n s a m y s t e r y . B u t n o w the
" r h y m i n g o f t h e n a m e s " f i n a l l y comes i n t o play. Ti-amat is the
f o r m n o r m a l l y w r i t t e n i n t h e t e x t of Enuma Elish
92
f o r the m o t h e r
" O R
A L S O
G O D L Y
S I N G E R
" w h o b o r e t h e m a l l . " T h e A k k a d i a n w o r d w h i c h lies b e h i n d

t h i s , h o w e v e r , is j u s t tiamtu or tdmtu,
the n o r m a l w o r d f o r the
sea. T h e n a m e can also be w r i t t e n i n this m o r e p h o n e t i c o r t h o g r a p h y ; b u t i n the Enuma
Elish
w e also f i n d the f o r m taw(a)tu. *

1
If
o n e proceeds f r o m Tomtit, t h e n Tethys is an exact t r a n s c r i p t i o n .

T h e different r e p r o d u c t i o n s o f the dentals, t a n d th, m i g h t d i s t u r b the p u r i s t ; b u t S o p h i l o s w r o t e Thethys,
Greek orthography,
the Enuma
Elish
which, in normal
w o u l d a u t o m a t i c a l l y y i e l d Tethys.
I n fact
b e c a m e k n o w n t o E u d e m o s , the p u p i l o f A r i s -
totle, i n translation;
1 5
here w e f i n d T i a m a t t r a n s c r i b e d as
w h i c h is s t i l l closer t o the r e c o n s t r u c t e d f o r m Tawtu.
Tauthe,
T h a t the
l o n g v o w e l a is c h a n g e d t o e i n the I o n i a n dialect even i n b o r r o w e d w o r d s has parallels i n Kubaha

c o m i n g Belos,
a n d Mada
b e c o m i n g Kybebe,
k n o w n as Medes.'
Thus
Baal
be-
the p r o o f
seems c o m p l e t e t h a t here, r i g h t i n the m i d d l e o f the Iliad,
the
influence o f t w o A k k a d i a n classics can be detected d o w n to a

m y t h i c a l name.
T h e r e can be n o q u e s t i o n o f B r o n z e A g e b o r r o w i n g i n this
case. We are r a t h e r d e a l i n g , i n the w o r d s o f M a r t i n West, w i t h a
" n e o - o r i e n t a l e l e m e n t . " F o u r h u n d r e d years o f o r a l t r a d i t i o n i n
Greece w o u l d have l e d t o s t r o n g e r d i s t o r t i o n s i n the process o f
a s s i m i l a t i o n ; a n d i t is n o t at all clear w h e t h e r the Enuma
can be g i v e n s u c h an early d a t e .
Albrecht
Dihle's
observations
17
Elish
T h i s a r g u m e n t accords w i t h
from
the
other
side o n
the
" y o u n g " character o f this H o m e r i c piece.

O n c e an o r i e n t a l i z i n g b a c k g r o u n d is established f o r the " D e c e p t i o n o f Z e u s , " f u r t h e r o b s e r v a t i o n s are b o u n d t o f o l l o w .
A p h r o d i t e has her S e m i t i c c o n n e c t i o n s a n y h o w , b u t the e m b r o i dered g i r d l e (kestos) b o r r o w e d i r o m her as a love c h a r m b y H e r a
seems to be o r i e n t a l i n a p a r t i c u l a r
way.
The
w o m e n once l o v e d b y Z e u s a t h e t i z e d b y ancient
catalogue
of
commenta-
t o r s h a s its c o u n t e r p a r t i n G i l g a m e s h ' s e n u m e r a t i o n o f the l o v ers o f I s h t a r .
18
T h e f a m o u s o a t h o f the gods w h i c h H e r a is m a d e
t o swear, e n d i n g " b y the R i v e r S t y x , " is, i n tact, a c o s m i c o a t h :

heaven, e a r t h , a n d the w a t e r s o f the u n d e r w o r l d are called u p o n
t o bear w i t n e s s . I t is p r e c i s e l y such a c o s m i c f o r m u l a w h i c h c o n cludes the e n u m e r a t i o n o f d i v i n e witnesses i n the o n l y A r a m a i c
93
T H E
R E V O L U T I O N
t r e a t y t e x t w h i c h has s u r v i v e d f r o m t h e e i g h t h c e n t u r y : " H e a v e n
a n d e a r t h , t h e deep a n d t h e s p r i n g s , day a n d n i g h t . "
1 9
Z e u s t h e w e a t h e r g o d m a k e s l o v e t o his w i f e at t h e t o p o f t h e
m o u n t a i n w i t h i n the t h u n d e r s t o r m ; the weather g o d
together
w i t h his w i f e u n v e i l i n g h e r s e l f o n t h e i r s t o r m d r a g o n s is a m o t i f
frequently represented
o n eastern
seals, a n d t h e m a r r i a g e
of
heaven a n d e a r t h is a m y t h i c a l t h e m e set o u t e x p l i c i t l y i n A k k a dian literature.
2 0
B u t e v e n a f a m o u s w o o d e n statuette o f Z e u s
e m b r a c i n g H e r a f r o m the H e r a s a n c t u a r y o n S a m o s , a represent a t i o n m o s t p r o b a b l y i n s p i r e d b y t h e t e x t o f t h e Iliad,

g r a p h i c a l l y d e p e n d e n t o n eastern p r o t o t y p e s .
is i c o n o -
2 1
M o r e specific is t h e q u e s t i o n o f t h e T i t a n s . O f the five H o m e r i c passages i n w h i c h t h e p r e v i o u s g o d s , h e l d p r i s o n e r i n t h e

u n d e r w o r l d , are m e n t i o n e d , t h r e e b e l o n g i n t h e c o n t e x t o f the
"Deception o f Zeus." The
o t h e r t w o also b e l o n g t o d i v i n e
scenes, b e i n g p r o c l a m a t i o n s o f Z e u s , t h e father o f t h e g o d s .
Since t h e Kumarbi
discovery
2 2
i t has been w e l l k n o w n t h a t t h e
c o n c e p t o f a n c i e n t , fallen g o d s connects G r e e k m y t h o l o g y w i t h
the H i t t i t e s , t h e P h o e n i c i a n s , a n d the B a b y l o n i a n s . T h e details
o f t h e evidence,
however,
remain more
c o m p l i c a t e d i n the
G r e e k as w e l l as i n t h e eastern settings. I n G r e e k t r a d i t i o n the

c o n c e p t o f t h e T i t a n s as a c o l l e c t i v e g r o u p is n o t easily r e c o n c i l e d w i t h t h e v e r y special p e r s o n a l i t y o f K r o n o s ; o n the o t h e r
side w e f i n d , besides K u m a r b i t h e h e r o o f t h e H u r r i a n - H i t t i t e
m y t h o f succession, a p p a r e n t l y o t h e r " a n c i e n t g o d s , " always
m e n t i o n e d c o l l e c t i v e l y i n t h e p l u r a l . We l e a r n t h a t t h e w e a t h e r
g o d w h o corresponds t o Z e u s b a n i s h e d t h e m t o the u n d e r world.
2 3
T h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g deities i n M e s o p o t a m i a are the " d e -
f e a t e d " o r " f e t t e r e d g o d s , " Hani kamiiti.
24
T h e y , t o o , have been
b a n i s h e d beneath t h e e a r t h b y t h e v i c t o r i o u s g o d o r g o d s . I n t h e
Enuma
Elish
these have been t h e s u p p o r t e r s o f T i a m a t ; i n o t h e r
texts t h e y are the e v i l " S e v e n " w h o have been b o u n d b y t h e g o d

o f the heavens. N o t e t h a t i n O r p h i c t r a d i t i o n t h e T i t a n s , sons o f
H e a v e n a n d E a r t h b u t " b o u n d " i n t h e n e t h e r w o r l d , are precisely
seven i n n u m b e r .
2 5
T h e e v i l Seven b e l o n g above all i n t h e r e a l m o f e x o r c i s m a n d

p r o t e c t i v e m a g i c . T h i s fact leads t o a f u r t h e r possible
94
connec-
" O R
A L S O
G O D L Y
S I N G E R
"
d o n : I n protective magic, figurinessome friendly, but m o s t l y

hostileare
often fabricated b u t then destroyed.
c o m m o n m a t e r i a l is clay, A k k a d i a n titu.
G r e e k as titanos, p l a s t e r .
26
The
This w o r d
most
reached
L a t e r G r e e k a u t h o r s have t a k e n p r e -
cisely t h i s w o r d t o p r o v i d e an e t y m o l o g y f o r t h e n a m e o f the
T i t a n s : W h e n t h e T i t a n s a t t a c k e d the c h i l d D i o n y s u s t h e y d i s g u i s e d t h e i r faces w i t h plaster; hence t h e i r n a m e .
2 7
I n the Greek
l a n g u a g e , h o w e v e r , t h i s e t y m o l o g y fails as a r e s u l t o f t h e fact
t h a t t h e i o f Titanes/Titenes
is l o n g , whereas t h a t o f titanos is
s h o r t . T h e S e m i t i c base w o r d , h o w e v e r , has a l o n g i, so t h a t
w i t h t h e h y p o t h e s i s o f b o r r o w i n g the ancient e t y m o l o g y bec o m e s p l a u s i b l e a g a i n . A r i t u a l c o n t e x t t h e n w o u l d be possible:
T h e T i t a n s bear t h e i r n a m e o f f/f-people
28
because eastern m a g i -
cians used t o fabricate clay f i g u r e s s a l m e tit i n A k k a d i a n t o

2 9
represent the defeated gods w h o w e r e used f o r p r o t e c t i v e m a g i c

o r as witnesses i n oaths. T h i s d a r i n g h y p o t h e s i s , h o w e v e r , lacks
specific m a t e r i a l f o r v e r i f i c a t i o n ; o t h e r p o s s i b i l i t i e s r e m a i n o p e n .
A h y p o t h e s i s o f l i t e r a r y t r a n s m i s s i o n is perhaps
preferable.
B o t h passages w h i c h resonate so n o t a b l y i n t h e " D e c e p t i o n o f

Zeus"Apsu
a n d T i a m a t m i n g l i n g t h e i r w a t e r s , a n d the three
gods c a s t i n g l o t s f o r the p a r t i t i o n o f the u n i v e r s e c o m e

the v e r y b e g i n n i n g s o f t h e respective texts, Enuma
Atrahasis,
m y t h o l o g i c a l texts
which
were
Elish
from
and
particularly well
k n o w n a n d f r e q u e n t l y used. I t is attested t h a t these texts w e r e

used i n s c h o o l c u r r i c u l a i n p a r t i c u l a r .
30
I n such a s i t u a t i o n the
emphasis falls n a t u r a l l y o n t h e o p e n i n g s e c t i o n : M a n y w i l l recall

arma virumque
cano, b u t n o t m u c h m o r e o f V i r g i l f r o m
their
schooldays. A G r e e k desirous o f e d u c a t i o n m i g h t w e l l have been

e x p o s e d t o p r e c i s e l y these sections o f "classical" eastern l i t e r a t u r e , e i t h e r d i r e c t l y o r p o s s i b l y i n d i r e c t l y via A r a m a i c versions,
even i f he d i d n o t progress v e r y far w i t h his studies. A scholastic
t r a d i t i o n , i f o n l y o n an e l e m e n t a r y level, is i n h e r e n t i n the t r a n s mission o f the alphabet to Greece.
31
A n y h o w , the various chan-
nels o f t r a n s m i s s i o n t o be considered-the r i t u a l , the i c o n o g r a p h i c , a n d t h e l i t e r a r y a r e i n n o w a y m u t u a l l y exclusive, b u t

m a y have o v e r l a p p e d a n d r e i n f o r c e d o n e a n o t h e r i n m a n y d i f f e r ent w a y s . B e t h a t as i t may, the c o n c l u s i o n is t h a t H o m e r ' s
95
Iliad
T H E
R E V O L U T I O N
bears the m a r k , at least at one p r o b a b l y " l a t e " stage, o f the o r ientalizing i m p a c t .
3 2
Complaint
in Heaven:
Ishtar and
Aphrodite
T h e " a p p a r a t u s o f the g o d s " w h i c h a c c o m p a n i e s the sequence

o f events n a r r a t e d i n the Iliad
Odyssey
a n d , i n a m o d i f i e d f o r m , i n the
has m o r e t h a n o n c e been called a " l a t e " e l e m e n t i n the
t r a d i t i o n o f G r e e k h e r o i c e p i c . T h e r e has also been an awareness

1
o f o r i e n t a l parallels w i t h precisely
gods.
these scenes i n v o l v i n g the
I t is t r u e t h a t the d o u b l e stage o f d i v i n e a n d h u m a n ac-
t i o n s , w h i c h is h a n d l e d so m a s t e r f u l l y b y the c o m p o s e r o f the
Iliad,
is n o t f o u n d i n t h i s e x t e n s i v e f o r m i n the
epics. S t i l l , Atrahasis
a n d Gilgamesh
Mesopotamia!!
repeatedly
i n t r o d u c e the
g o d s i n t e r a c t i n g w i t h the deeds a n d sufferings o f m e n ; a n d k i n g s

are m a d e t o w i n t h e i r h e r o i c battles i n d i r e c t c o n t a c t w i t h t h e i r
protective gods.
I n Gilgamesh
deity
and
i n p a r t i c u l a r , there is a f a m o u s m e e t i n g b e t w e e n
man:
W h e n Gilgamesh
has
killed Humbaba
and
cleansed h i m s e l f o f t h e g r i m e o f b a t t l e , Ishtar " r a i s e d an eye at

the b e a u t y o f G i l g a m e s h " : " D o b u t g r a n t m e o f y o u r f r u i t ! " she
says, a n d she offers
fabulous
goods for h i m . B u t
Gilgamesh
s c o r n f u l l y rejects her, r e c i t i n g the catalogue o f all her p a r t n e r s

w h o m she once "has l o v e d " o n l y t o d e s t r o y o r t o t r a n s f o r m
subsequently.
" I f y o u w o u l d l o v e m e , y o u w o u l d [treat m e ] l i k e
them." Whereupon
Ishtar, w h e n h e a r i n g this,
Ishtar was enraged and [ w e n t u p ] to heaven.
[ F o r t h w e n t Ishtar before A n u , her father;
before A n t u m , her m o t h e r [her tears were f l o w i n g ] :
[ " O h m y father! G i l g a m e s h has heaped insults u p o n me!
G i l g a m e s h has recounted m y insults,
m y insults and m y curses."
A n u opened his m o u t h to speak,
he said to g l o r i o u s Ishtar:
" S u r e l y y o u have p r o v o k e d [the K i n g o f U r u k ] ,
96
.. 0 R
A1 S 0
AGO D I. Y SIN G R
and (thus) Gilgal11esh recountcd your insults,

your insults and your curses." J
Compare this with a scene from the Iliad:" Trying to protect

Aeneas, Aphrodite has been wounded by Diomedes; her blood
is flowing. "But she. beside herself. went away. she felt horrible
pain." With (he help ofIris and Ares she reaches Olympus. "But
she, glorious Aphrodite. fell into the lap of Dione. her mother;
but she took her daughter in her arms, stroked her with her
hand, spoke the word and said: Who has done such things to
you, dear child?" Aphrodite replies: "Wounded has Illt" the son
of Tydeus, high-minded Diomedes." Mother sets OUt to comfort her with mythical examples: Athena her sister, less sympathetic, makes a scornful comment; but Zeus the father smiles:
"He called golden Aphrodite and said to her: 'My child. not for
you are the works of war! But you should pursue the tender
offices of marriage .. .' .. In otht"r words: It's partly your own
fault.
The two scenes parallel each other in structure, narrative
form, and ethos to an astonishing degree. ~ A goddess. injured
by a human, goes up to heaven to complain to her father and
mother. and she carns a mild rebuke from her father.
Of course this may be called a universal scenario from the
realm of children's stories. The scene repeats itself with variations in the battle of the gods later in the Iliad. 6 Artemis, after
being beaten by Hera, climbs weeping onto the knees of father
Zeus. He pulls her to him and asks, laughing: "Who did this to
you?" And she replies: "Your wife beat me." The scene from the
Diomedes book is simpler in that both parents appear as a refuge, the stepmother being left out, with the father taking the
stance of slightly distant superiority. This corresponds exactly
to the Gilgamesh scene.
But what is more: The persons involved in both scenes are, in
fact. identical. the sky god and his wife. and their common
daughter the goddess of love. Aphrodite is in general the equivalent of Ishtar; she has offered herself to a mortal man. Anchises
the father of Aeneas, and Allchises suffered some strange fate as
. 97 .
THE
ORIENTALIZING
REVOLUTION
a result of his contact with the goddess-another case of what

Gilgamesh is blaming on [shtar. It is possible that the name
Aphrodite itself is a Greek form of western Semitic Ashtorith.
who in turn is identical with lshtar.' And by force of an even
more special parallelism. Aphrodite has a mother who apparently lives in Olympus as Zeus's wife, Dione; Hera seems to be
forgotten for a moment. Dione at Olympus makes her appearance in the context of the Diomedes scene, and only there. The
contrast with Hesiod's account of Aphrodite's birth from the
sea, after Uranos had been castrated, has been found disconcerting since antiquity. Dione is attested in the cult of Dodona;
scholars have also referred to the Mycenaean goddess Diwija. 8
In any event. the mother of Aphrodite is given here a name
which is crystal clear in Greek. being just the feminine form of
Zeus. Such a system of naming is unique in the Homeric family
of gods, where couples enjoy complicated private names. But it
is this very detail which has its counterpart in the Akkadian text:
Antu mother of Ishtar is the usual. obviously feminine form of
AmI, Heaven. This divine couple, Mr. and Mrs. Heaven, is
firmly established in the worship and mythology of Mesopotamia. Homer proves to be dependent on Gilgamesh even at the
linguistic level, forming the name Dione as a calque on Antu
when recasting an impressive scene among the gods. This may
be seen as a counterpart to the relation Tethys/Tawtu, though
rather at the level of narrative structure and divine characters
than of cosmic mythology.
A few observations may be added about Diomedes in relation
to the Aphrodite scene. Diomedes belongs to Argos, as the catalogue of ships has it; it is at Argos that we find a ritual corresponding to the lIiadic narrative, the shield of Diomedes carried
in a procession with the image of Pallas Athena on a chariot. 9
But Diomedes also belongs to Salamis on Cyprus; it is said that
there was human sacrifice for Diomedes and Agraulos, performed in the sanctuary of which Athena had her share, in the
month of Aphrodisios; the victim was killed with a spear and
burnt.lO Thus we find Diomedes, Athena, and Aphrodite in
strange company combined with spear-killing; some have found
" O R
A L S O
G O D L Y
S I N G E R "
the C y p r i o t e h o l o c a u s t r e m i n i s c e n t o f S e m i t i c p r a c t i c e . " A t any

rate an aspect o f t h e D i o m e d e s l e g e n d , w h i c h seems s o m e h o w
t o tie i n w i t h t h e A p h r o d i t e scene i n H o m e r , p o i n t s t o t h a t i s l a n d w h e r e H e l l a s a n d t h e S e m i t i c East e n j o y e d t h e i r closest
c o n t a c t and w h e r e p r e c i s e l y i n t h e H o m e r i c p e r i o d t h e A s s y r i a n
kings c o m m e m o r a t e d their power i n i n s c r i p t i o n s .
1 2
I n this p e r -
spective t h e c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e H o m e r i c a n d the A k k a d i a n
epic h a r d l y appears a s t o n i s h i n g any m o r e .
S t i l l , a m o n g all the s i m i l a r i t i e s i t is i m p o r t a n t t o keep s i g h t o f
the differences.
Ishtar's m e e t i n g w i t h G i l g a m e s h is f i r m l y a n -
c h o r e d i n t h e s t r u c t u r e o f t h e Gilgamesh
epic; i t c o n s t i t u t e s the
n a r r a t i v e l i n k f r o m t h e H u m b a b a t h e m e t o the n e x t h e r o i c deed,
the v a n q u i s h i n g o f t h e b u l l o f heaven. G l o r i o u s Ishtar, i n her
r e v e n g e , has t h e b u l l o f heaven m a k e his attack, t h u s g i v i n g G i l g a m e s h a n d E n k i d u t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o o v e r c o m e the b u l l a n d
thus establish sacrifice. T h e r i t u a l b a c k g r o u n d is clear even i n
details. G i l g a m e s h ' s r e j e c t i o n o f I s h t a r c o r r e s p o n d s t o the h u n t ers' t a b o o : I t is sexual r e s t r a i n t t h a t ensures a successful h u n t .
H e n c e t h e d e n i a l o f l o v e causes the b u l l t o a p p e a r .
13
A l s o the
t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s o f Ishtar's lovers as r e p o r t e d i n G i l g a m e s h ' s cata l o g u e have t h e i r special m e a n i n g a n d f u n c t i o n , b e i n g basically

m y t h s a b o u t t h e i n s t a l l m e n t o f c u l t u r e : I n this w a y the horse was
bridled.
1 4
W h a t has r e m a i n e d i n H o r n e r is t h e n a r r a t i v e t h r e a d
o f a g e n r e scene, all t h e m o r e c a r e f u l l y presented because i t is,

o n t h e w h o l e , f u n c t i o n l e s s . I t has its o w n c h a r m a n d aesthetic
m e r i t i n t h e f r a m e w o r k o f the Iliad,
b u t i t does n o t c a r r y the
same w e i g h t e i t h e r i n t h e n a r r a t i v e o r i n t e r m s o f r i t u a l b a c k g r o u n d as i n t h e A k k a d i a n epic. T h e m a n n e r i n w h i c h A k k a d i a n
d e m o n s have been t u r n e d i n t o fantastic m o n s t e r s , m o r e a m u s ing than frighteningLamashtu
transformed
into
the
Gor-
g o n h a s its c o u n t e r p a r t o n the level o f epic p o e t r y a b o u t t h e

gods.
T h e i n f l u e n c e o f Gilgamesh
f r o m t h e Odyssey.
T h e Odyssey
m a y also be detected i n a scene

once describes a f o r m o f prayer
w h i c h h i s t o r i a n s o f r e l i g i o n have f o u n d c o n f u s i n g : W h e n Penelope learns a b o u t t h e r i s k y j o u r n e y u n d e r t a k e n b y Telemachos

a n d the s u i t o r s ' p l o t t o k i l l h i m , she first bursts i n t o tears and
99
T H E
R E V O L U T I O N
l a m e n t s . T h e n , c a l m i n g d o w n , she washes a n d dresses i n clean

c l o t h e s , goes t o t h e u p p e r s t o r y w i t h her m a i d s , t a k i n g b a r l e y
i n a basket, a n d prays t o A t h e n a f o r t h e safe r e t u r n o f T e l e m a chos; she ends w i t h an i n a r t i c u l a t e a n d s h r i e k i n g c r y .
basket w i t h b a r l e y a n d t h e c r y (ololyge)
B o t h the
1 5
have t h e i r p r o p e r place
i n b l o o d sacrifice; t h e i r use i n t h i s scene is u n p a r a l l e l e d elsew h e r e . So scholars e i t h e r s p o k e o f an " a b b r e v i a t i o n o f sacrifice"

o r o f an o t h e r w i s e u n k n o w n r i t u a l o f bloodless o f f e r i n g o r o f an
i n v e n t i o n o f t h e p o e t , i f n o t i n c o m p e t e n c e o f the " r e d a c t o r . "
B u t l o o k at Gilgamesh:
1 6
W h e n Gilgamesh together w i t h E n k i d u
is l e a v i n g his c i t y t o f i g h t H u m b a b a , his m o t h e r " N i n s u n enters

her c h a m b e r , she takes a . . . [special h e r b ] , she p u t s o n a g a r m e n t as befits her b o d y , she p u t s o n an o r n a m e n t as befits h e r
breast . . . she s p r i n k l e s w a t e r f r o m a b o w l o n e a r t h a n d dust.
She w e n t u p t h e stairs, m o u n t e d t h e u p p e r storey, she c l i m b e d
the r o o f , t o S h a m a s h [ t h e s u n g o d ] she offered incense,
she
b r o u g h t t h e o f f e r i n g a n d raised her hands before S h a m a s h " ; t h u s

she prays, f u l l o f distress a n d s o r r o w , f o r a safe r e t u r n o f her
son.
1 7
T h e s i t u a t i o n , m o t h e r p r a y i n g f o r an a d v e n t u r o u s s o n , is
n o t a special o n e . Yet i n its details t h e scene f r o m t h e

c o m e s close t o b e i n g a t r a n s l a t i o n o f Gilgamesh;
t o the Gilgamesh
Odyssey
i n fact i t is closer
t e x t t h a n t o t h e c o m p a r a b l e scene o f A c h i l l e s '
prayer i n t h e Iliad.
16
W h e r e a s t h e r i t u a l is o d d i n the
n o n e o f these o d d i t i e s is f o u n d i n the passage o f
Odyssey,
Gilgamesh:
B u r n i n g incense o n the r o o f is a w e l l - k n o w n S e m i t i c p r a c t i c e ,
1 9
a n d i t is especially a p p r o p r i a t e w h e n t u r n i n g t o t h e s u n g o d .
C e r e m o n i a l prayer i n the women's
u p p e r s t o r y is
otherwise
u n h e a r d - o f i n Greece. I t seems t h e p o e t k n e w t h a t b u r n i n g i n cense was o u t o f place i n t h e h e r o i c w o r l d , so he t o o k as a s u b s t i t u t e t h e female p a r t i n n o r m a l sacrifice, t h a t is, t h r o w i n g o f

b a r l e y (oulochytai)
a n d ololyge.
E v e n the use o f r e l i g i o u s r i t u a l as
an effective m o t i f i n epic n a r r a t i v e has its antecedent i n the o r i ental t r a d i t i o n .
The Overpopulated
Earth
T h e basic c o n c e p t o f t h e a n c i e n t B a b y l o n i a n Atrahasis
almost disconcertingly m o d e r n . H u m a n s
ioo
multiply,
epic is
the l a n d
" O R
A L S O
G O D L Y
S I N G E R "
feels oppressed b y t h e i r m u l t i t u d e , the o u t c o m e can o n l y be cat a s t r o p h e t o a n n i h i l a t e m a n k i n d ; yet m a n s u r v i v e s the a t t e m p t s

at d e s t r u c t i o n ; a n d so, u l t i m a t e l y , the o n l y effective m e t h o d is
f o u n d : b i r t h c o n t r o l . T o achieve t h i s , t h o u g h , the p o e m has o n l y
o n e m e t h o d t o offer: the i n s t i t u t i o n o f priestesses w h o are n o t
a l l o w e d t o bear c h i l d r e n .
T h e s u f f e r i n g o f the e a r t h is expressed i n verses w h i c h recur

at the b e g i n n i n g o f each n e w act o f Atrahasis:
years h a d n o t yet passed, w h e n
"Twelve hundred
the l a n d e x t e n d e d
and
peoples m u l t i p l i e d . T h e l a n d was b e l l o w i n g l i k e a b u l l .
the
The
g o d s g o t d i s t u r b e d w i t h t h e i r u p r o a r . E n l i l h e a r d t h e i r noise and
he addressed t h e great g o d s : ' T h e noise o f m a n k i n d has b e c o m e
t o o intense f o r m e , w i t h t h e i r u p r o a r I a m d e p r i v e d o f sleep
. . .' "
H e n c e he proceeds t o orchestrate
the catastrophes o f
plague, famine, and flood.

T h i s c a n n o t b u t r e m i n d o f a passage o f G r e e k epic, o f an e x t r e m e l y p r o m i n e n t t e x t i n fact, the v e r y b e g i n n i n g o f the T r o j a n
c y c l e , w h i c h tells a b o u t the u l t i m a t e cause o f the T r o j a n War.
T h i s is the o p e n i n g o f t h e Cypria,
an epic t h a t was s t i l l q u i t e w e l l
k n o w n i n the classical p e r i o d b u t s u b s e q u e n t l y fell i n t o d i s r e g a r d a n d g o t l o s t ; a l r e a d y H e r o d o t u s d o u b t e d the a u t h o r s h i p o f

Homer,
w h i c h P i n d a r s t i l l accepted. T h e o p e n i n g lines have
been p r e s e r v e d as a f r a g m e n t , albeit i n a c o r r u p t t e x t u a l f o r m .
T h e y are q u o t e d i n o r d e r t o e x p l a i n the " d e c i s i o n o f Z e u s " m e n t i o n e d r i g h t at the b e g i n n i n g o f the
T h e Cypria
Iliad.
b e g a n i n the style o f a f a i r y tale:
O n c e u p o n a t i m e , w h e n countless people m o v e d o n the face

o f the earth . . .
[lacuna; they oppressed?] the breadth o f the deep-chested
earth.
Zeus saw this and t o o k p i t y and deep i n his heart
H e decided to relieve the a l l - n o u r i s h i n g earth o f m a n k i n d
b y setting alight the great conflict o f the Ilian War.
I n the same scholia t h e r e is also a prose n a r r a t i v e :
E a r t h , being oppressed b y the m u l t i t u d e o f m e n , since there

was n o p i e t y o f m e n , asked Zeus to be lightened o f this b u r den. A n d first Zeus caused at once the T h e b a n War b y w h i c h
101
T H E
R E V O L U T I O N
he destroyed m a n y m e n t h o r o u g h l y . A f t e r w a r d s he caused
again the T r o j a n War, c o n s u l t i n g w i t h M o m o s t h i s is called
the " d e c i s i o n o f Z e u s " b y H o m e r ; he c o u l d have destroyed
t h e m all w i t h bolts o f l i g h t n i n g or floods, b u t M o m o s prevented this and suggested rather t w o measures t o h i m , t o
m a r r y T h e t i s t o a h u m a n and t o generate a beautiful daughter.
T h u s A c h i l l e s a n d H e l e n are b o r n a n d , w i t h t h e m , t h e seeds o f
the T r o j a n War.
T h e t w o t e x t s c a n n o t d i r e c t l y be c o m b i n e d . I n t h e verses
q u o t e d , Z e u s reacts d i r e c t l y t o t h e c o n d i t i o n s o n t h e e a r t h ,
" s e e i n g " a n d f e e l i n g p i t y at h e r p l i g h t , a n d i m m e d i a t e l y plans
the T r o j a n War. A s t h e excerpts f r o m t h e Cypria
i n Proklos i n -
d i c a t e , Z e u s discussed f u r t h e r details w i t h T h e m i s . I n the prose

5
v e r s i o n , h o w e v e r , t h e e a r t h is n o t a d u m b o b j e c t o f p i t y , b u t a
s p e a k i n g p a r t n e r . T h e d e c i s i o n i n v o l v e s first the T h e b a n War,
a n d t h i s is f o l l o w e d b y a r e m a r k a b l e d i s c u s s i o n w i t h M o m o s .
We are c l e a r l y d e a l i n g w i t h t w o c o m p e t i n g v e r s i o n s . I n fact a
t h i r d v e r s i o n c o m e s f r o m t h e e n d o f the H e s i o d i c
Catalogues,
H e r e Z e u s m a k e s his d e c i s i o n all alone w h i c h t h e o t h e r s " d i d

n o t yet f u l l y c o m p r e h e n d . " H i s a i m is t o b r i n g an e n d t o t h e
c o n f u s i o n o f the h u m a n a n d d i v i n e spheres a n d t h e r e b y t o b r i n g
the age o f heroes t o a close. " H e s o u g h t t o d e s t r o y t h e greater
part o f m a n k i n d " t h r o u g h the catastrophe o f w a r . A c c o r d i n g to
6
H e s i o d ' s Erga i t was b o t h t h e T h e b a n and t h e T r o j a n w a r s t h a t

m a r k the e n d o f t h e age o f heroes (163-165). T h e t e x t o f the
Catalogues
is so b a d l y p r e s e r v e d i n this s e c t i o n t h a t i t is n o t f u l l y
c o m p r e h e n s i b l e ; b u t i t is clear t h a t the catastrophe is l i n k e d t o

Helen.
H e r e are, t h e r e f o r e , three v a r i a t i o n s o n the basic c o n c e p t o f a
c a t a s t r o p h e affecting m a n k i n d t h r o u g h the d e c i s i o n o f the r u l i n g
g o d . B o t h t h e Cypria
a n d t h e Catalogues,
even i f w e c a n n o t g i v e
t h e m an exact date, m u s t b e l o n g t o the archaic p e r i o d , whereas

the s o u r c e o f t h e p r o s e v e r s i o n can h a r d l y be f i x e d i n t i m e . Yet
i t is p r e c i s e l y t h e p r o s e v e r s i o n w h i c h has a p a r t i c u l a r a f f i n i t y
w i t h t h e Atrahasis
t e x t . H e r e plans f o r different
catastrophes,
t h o u g h n o t c a r r i e d o u t , are s t i l l c o n s i d e r e d i n a s y s t e m a t i c
102
fash-
" O R
A L S O
G O D L Y
S I N G E R *
i o n , a n d , s o m e w h a t s u r p r i s i n g l y , i t is the flood w h i c h appears

as the m o s t r a d i c a l m e a s u r e . W h a t is strange is the r o l e o f M o m o s , the p e r s o n i f i c a t i o n o f R e p r o a c h , as i t seems; he is i n t r o d u c e d o n l y here as an a d v i s o r o f Z e u s t o reject t w o suggest i o n s m u c h p o e t i c i n v e s t m e n t w i t h l i t t l e effect. O r is i t his r o l e
t o r e p r o a c h m a n k i n d ? W h a t is even m o r e c u r i o u s is t h a t , at the
b e g i n n i n g o f Enuma
Elish,
A p s u , " t h e f i r s t o n e , the begetter,"
distressed b y t h e n o i s e o f the y o u n g e r g o d s , w h o are d e p r i v i n g

h i m o f his sleep, m a k e s plans t o k i l l t h e m a l l , and d o i n g so he
has an advisor, M u m m u , " g i v i n g counsel t o A p s u . "
Is M o m o s
the same as M u m m u ? I f so, the G r e e k t e x t w o u l d present a c o n t a m i n a t i o n o f m o t i f s f r o m Atrahasis
and Enuma
Elish,
as appears
t o be the case i n the c o n t e x t o f the " D e c e p t i o n o f Z e u s " t o o .

T h i s possible c o n n e c t i o n s t i l l does n o t a l l o w us t o place this t e x t
s e c u r e l y w i t h i n the f r a m e w o r k o f G r e e k l i t e r a t u r e . I n the case
o f Typhon-Typhoeus,
t o take a n o t h e r e x a m p l e , a prose t e x t p r e -
served i n the l i b r a r y o f A p o l l o d o r u s p r o v i d e s the m o s t s t r i k i n g

p a r a l l e l w i t h the H i t t i t e m y t h o f I l l u y a n k a s the d r a g o n ; i t m a y
come f r o m a Hellenistic source.
A s regards the Cypria,
the Atrahasis
t h a t the m o t i f o f the o p p r e s s i o n
t e x t s h o w s i n any case
o f the e a r t h a n d the p l a n o f
d e s t r u c t i o n o f m a n k i n d b y the h i g h e s t o f the g o d s , the weather

g o d , is e x t r e m e l y o l d . T h i s discourages one f r o m s i m p l y f i n d i n g s o m e " p o s t - H o m e r i c i n v e n t i o n " i n the o p e n i n g o f the
pria.
Cy-
I n a d d i t i o n , t h e r e is a reference t o the East even f r o m the
G r e e k side: T h e r e m a r k a b l e t i t l e Cypria
as a reference t o the i s l a n d o f C y p r u s ,
can be u n d e r s t o o d o n l y
1 0
h o w e v e r skeptical
we
m a y be a b o u t t h e later i n f o r m a t i o n t h a t m a k e s Stasinus o f C y prus the a u t h o r o f the p o e m . A n i n d i c a t i o n t h a t at least the m a i n

c o n t e n t s o f the Cypria
w e r e k n o w n a r o u n d 650 B . C , is p r o v i d e d
b y the r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f the J u d g m e n t o f Paris o n the C h i g i

vase.
11
H o w e v e r , these o b s e r v a t i o n s m u s t t h e n p o i n t t o that e p -
o c h w h e n C y p r u s , t h o u g h r i c h a n d p o w e r f u l , was s t i l l f o r m a l l y
u n d e r A s s y r i a n d o m i n a t i o n . T h e flavor o f this p e r i o d o n C y p r u s
appears t o be a m i x t u r e o f eastern l u x u r y and H o m e r i c life style.
T h e b u r i a l s are as l a v i s h as t h a t o f P a t r o k l o s ; i n the
chamber
t o m b s there is elaborate eastern f u r n i t u r e ; before t h e i r entrances
103
T H E
R E V O L U T I O N
horses w e r e sacrificed a n d i n t e r r e d a l o n g w i t h t h e i r c h a r i o t s ;
even a s w o r d w i t h silver nails, as k n o w n f r o m H o m e r i c d i c t i o n ,
has been f o u n d .
1 2
T h i s does n o t e x p l a i n w h y i t was t h e H o m e r i c
t h e m e o f the T r o j a n W a r w h i c h c a u g h t t h e i m a g i n a t i o n o f C y prians t o result i n t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f " t h e C y p r i a n e p i c . " B u t i t

is a fact, e v i d e n c e d b y t h e c u r r e n t t i t l e Cypria.
N o less clear t h a n
the H o m e r i c c o n n e c t i o n s o f C y p r u s at t h e t i m e w e r e those t o
S y r i a a n d M e s o p o t a m i a ; t h e c o m m e m o r a t i v e steles o f A s s y r i a n
k i n g s w e r e erected i n the cities o f C y p r u s .
A m o n g t h e s p l e n d i d objects o f art p r o d u c e d o n C y p r u s i n t h i s
p e r i o d are t w o silver b o w l s w i t h r e l i e f d e c o r a t i o n , u n i q u e i n s o far as t h e o u t e r b a n d o f reliefs e v i d e n t l y i l l u s t r a t e s a c o n t i n u o u s
s t o r y : A p r i n c e i n his c h a r i o t leaves t h e c i t y t o g o o u t h u n t i n g ;
he a l i g h t s f r o m his c h a r i o t a n d kneels d o w n t o s h o o t at a stag;
he f o l l o w s the b l e e d i n g a n i m a l ; he flays the corpse; he m a k e s
offerings t o his g o d , represented as a w i n g e d s u n d i s k above the
scene; a w i l d m a n f r o m t h e w o o d s attacks the p r i n c e w i t h a
stone; b u t a w i n g e d f e m a l e d i v i n i t y lifts t h e p r i n c e u p w i t h h e r
a r m s a n d saves h i m ; t h e p r i n c e m o u n t s his c h a r i o t a n d pursues
the w i l d m a n ; t h e p r i n c e k i l l s t h e w i l d m a n w i t h his axe; t h e
p r i n c e r e t u r n s t o his c i t y . O n e o f these b o w l s reached
Italy
t h r o u g h trade a n d was f o u n d i n the lavish B e r n a r d i n i t o m b at

Praeneste/Palestrina ( F i g u r e 7); the o t h e r is preserved
in only
f r a g m e n t a r y c o n d i t i o n . I t has been p r o p o s e d t h a t w o r k s o f art

1 3
l i k e this p r o v i d e d t h e G r e e k s w i t h the i n c e n t i v e f o r i n v e n t i n g
their o w n m y t h o l o g y .
1 4
Today
t h e reverse h y p o t h e s i s
seems
m o r e a t t r a c t i v e : T h e artists w h o d e c o r a t e d these pieces, P h o e n i cians o n C y p r u s o r G r e e k s t r a i n e d b y P h o e n i c i a n s , w e r e i l l u s t r a t i n g a G r e e k tale, a " s o n g " c u r r e n t o n C y p r u s .
1 5
I t is clear
h o w easily t h e tale w h o s e c o n t e n t s w e can f o l l o w i n t h e frieze

c o u l d be t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o H o m e r i c h e x a m e t e r s ,
especially
i n t e r v e n t i o n o f t h e d i v i n i t y t o save h e r p r o t e g e :
"And
the
here
A i n e i a s , p r i n c e o f m e n , c o u l d w e l l have p e r i s h e d , h a d n o t t h e
d a u g h t e r o f Z e u s s h a r p l y n o t i c e d this . . . "
1 6
I n this perspective
the Praeneste b o w l a n d its c o u n t e r p a r t a l l o w the n o t i o n o f H o m e r i c p o e t r y o n C y p r u s a r o u n d 700 B . C .

A n o t h e r possible r e f l e c t i o n o f Atrahasis
104
i n the Iliad s h o u l d be
Figure 7. Cypriote silver bowl, about 700 B.C., found in the

Bernardini tomb, Praeneste: a hunting adventure,
including a fight with a wild man.
m e n t i o n e d : O n e o f t h e m o s t d r a m a t i c episodes r i g h t at the beg i n n i n g o f the B a b y l o n i a n p o e m is t h e attack o f the l o w e r gods

o n E n l i l , t h e i r chief. T h e y are t i r e d o f d o i n g all t h e t o i l s o m e
w o r k o f d i g g i n g dikes; so t h e y b u r n t h e i r i m p l e m e n t s a n d that
n i g h t t h e y g a t h e r i n f r o n t o f the h o u s e t h e t e m p l e o f E n l i l i n
105
T H E
R E V O L U T I O N
o r d e r t o start a r e v o l t . E n l i l b e c o m e s a l a r m e d a n d q u i c k l y sends
a messenger t o A n u i n t h e heavens and t o E n k i i n the depths o f
the w a t e r s . B o t h c o m e at his call a n d g i v e t h e i r a d v i c e , t h e o u t come being the creation o f the h u m a n r o b o t s .
1 7
I n t h e first b o o k
o f t h e Iliad, T h e t i s tells a s t o r y w h i c h does n o t o t h e r w i s e appear

a n y w h e r e else, " h o w t h e o t h e r g o d s o f O l y m p u s w a n t e d t o b i n d
Zeus"there
is n o reason g i v e n f o r t h e r e v o l u t i o n . I n t h i s i n -
stance T h e t i s acted as messenger a n d f e t c h e d f r o m t h e d e p t h s o f

the sea t h e p o w e r f u l B r i a r e o s - A i g a i o n , w h o sat d o w n at Zeus's
side a n d w i t h his f e r o c i o u s aspect scared t h e o t h e r g o d s a w a y .
T h e correspondence
w i t h Atrahasis
18
is n o t v e r y d e t a i l e d ; stories
o f disputes a m o n g t h e g o d s are n o t u n u s u a l . Yet i f c o n n e c t i o n s

b e t w e e n eastern a n d G r e e k epic texts are established
already,
t h e y a l l o w us t o take i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n t h e eastern m o d e l even

i n t h i s case. O n c e m o r e w e f i n d w h a t h a d been an i n t e g r a l elem e n t o f t h e m a i n s t o r y i n Atrahasis
an u n c o n n e c t e d
d e v o l v e d i n t o a casual m o t i f ,
improvisation without
precedent
or
conse-
quence.
F u r t h e r threads lead f r o m c u n n i n g A t r a h a s i s t o t h e P r o m e theus m y t h . B u t these are less specific w h e n set i n t h e c o n t e x t
o f the very c o m m o n trickster f i g u r e .
Seven
against
1 9
Thebes
H i s t o r y is, t o a great e x t e n t , t h e h i s t o r y o f w a r ; a n d w a r s g i v e
the i m p r e s s i o n o f r e a l i t y . T h e w a r o f t h e " S e v e n against T h e b e s "
is u s u a l l y
accepted as an actual h i s t o r i c a l event o f t h e
Late
B r o n z e A g e ; this seems even less c o n t r o v e r s i a l t h a n t h e h i s t o r i c i t y o f t h e T r o j a n War, w h i c h s h o u l d have h a p p e n e d o n e g e n e r a t i o n later: " T h e r e is n o reason t o suppose t h a t the tale was
n o t based o n h i s t o r i c a l f a c t . "
A d e s t r u c t i o n level at T h e b e s t o -
w a r d s t h e e n d o f L a t e H e l l a d i c I I I B t h a t is, i n t h e t h i r t e e n t h
c e n t u r y h a s been established a r c h a e o l o g i c a l l y , a l t h o u g h its e x act c h r o n o l o g i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h t h e fall o f P y l o s a n d M y cenae a n d t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f T r o y V I I A is d i s p u t e d . A t T h e b e s
2
t h e d e s t r u c t i o n w o u l d be l i n k e d t o t h e attack b y t h e E p i g o n e s ,
106
" O R
who
A L S O
G O D L Y
S I N G E R "
b e l o n g t o t h e same g e n e r a t i o n as the heroes w h o f o u g h t at
T r o y , I n t h e c a t a l o g u e o f ships i n t h e Iliad i t is p r e s u p p o s e d t h a t
T h e b e s has been d e s t r o y e d a n d o n l y s o m e s m a l l Hypothebai
been l e f t .
the
has
O n e u s u a l l y assumes t h a t T h e b e s lay i n r u i n s s t i l l i n
e i g h t h c e n t u r y , a n d t h a t its rise t o h e g e m o n i c p o w e r i n
Boeotia occurred later.

No
a r c h a e o l o g i c a l trace can be e x p e c t e d o f the w a r o f t h e
Seven against T h e b e s , w h i c h e n j o y e d far greater l i t e r a r y fame

t h a n t h a t o f t h e E p i g o n e s . T h e seven gates a n d the w a l l s o f
T h e b e s w e r e n o t s t o r m e d at this t i m e , t r a d i t i o n says; o n the c o n t r a r y , t h e attack p r o v e d disastrous f o r the assailants. T h e epic
p o e m w h i c h dealt w i t h these events e v i d e n t l y was t h e core o f
the T h e b a n c y c l e . Its c o n t e n t s are p r e s u p p o s e d i n m o r e t h a n one
passage o f t h e Iliad.
I n particular, the f o r m u l a
"seven-gated
T h e b e s " c o u l d have been t a k e n f r o m the T h e b a n e p i c .
Yet i t is here t h a t the p r o b l e m o f r e a l i t y arises. I t is d i f f i c u l t t o

i m a g i n e a seven-gated c i t y i n t h e B r o n z e " A g e ; i t is nonsense t o
t h i n k o f a f o r t i f i e d palace i n the s t y l e o f M y c e n a e w i t h seven
gates. I n 1891 W i l a m o w i t z c a l m l y declared t h a t the seven gates
e x i s t e d f o r the sake o f t h e seven assailants i n t h e saga o n l y : a
n a r r a t i v e s y m m e t r y w h i c h b o r e n o r e l a t i o n t o reality. T h e later
G r e e k c i t y e x t e n d e d s o m e distance over the p l a i n a n d was c o r r e s p o n d i n g l y w a l l e d . I n fact t h e h i l l u p o n w h i c h the c u r r e n t c i t y
o f T h e b e s lies a n d w h e r e , i n t h e c e n t r a l s e c t i o n , finds f r o m the
M y c e n a e a n palace have c o m e t o l i g h t , is large e n o u g h f o r a c i t y
o f that p e r i o d . L o c a l a r c h a e o l o g i s t s , i n t h e i r m a p s , have l o n g p u t
the seven gates o n t h e b o u n d a r i e s o f t h a t h i l l .
A s a result o f
c o n s t a n t o v e r b u i l d i n g , t h e r e are n o c o r r e s p o n d i n g a r c h a e o l o g i cal
finds.
O t h e r s have i n s i s t e d t h a t the h i l l always h a d a n d s t i l l
has t h r e e a n d n o t seven n a t u r a l approaches. Sarantis S y m e o n o g l o u , i n his recent a n d a u t h o r i t a t i v e r e i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f T h e b a n

t o p o g r a p h y , agrees t h a t t h e Late B r o n z e A g e c i t y can have h a d
o n l y t h r e e o r f o u r g a t e s h e decides o n f o u r b u t t h e n a t t r i butes t h e seven gates t o the smaller, earlier settlement: o f the
M i d d l e B r o n z e A g e , f i n d i n g c o n f i r m a t i o n i n w h a t Pausanias
w r o t e s o m e 1,600
years later, u n d a u n t e d b y the consequence
107
T H E
R E V O L U T I O N
t h a t , i f he w e r e r i g h t , t h e p u t a t i v e h i s t o r i c a l " S e v e n " o f t h e Late

B r o n z e A g e c o u l d n e v e r have f o u n d t h e i r p r o p e r seven gates.
This paradox finally should vindicate W i l a m o w i t z ' skepticism.
T h e Seven themselves are a strange g r o u p . T h e i r n a m e s v a r y
i n different v e r s i o n s , a n d i t is i m p o s s i b l e t o r e c o n s t r u c t the o l d est o n e w i t h a n y c e r t a i n t y . I t is n o t even clear w h e t h e r t h e leader,
Adrastos,
and the instigator o f the enterprise, Polyneikes
e x i l e d k i n g o f T h e b e s , s h o u l d be c o u n t e d i n w i t h t h e m .
o f the heroes, as w e k n o w t h e m f r o m A e s c h y l u s ,
the
Some
have a s t o r y
a n d hence s o m e i n d i v i d u a l i t y o f t h e i r o w n , i n c l u d i n g A m p h i araos t h e seer, w h o h a d his s a n c t u a r y and his c u l t a f t e r w a r d s ,
a n d T y d e u s , father o f the i m m o r t a l D i o m e d e s . O t h e r s appear as

s t o c k figures t o f i l l o u t t h e l i s t . T o call o n e o f t h e m E t e o k l o s ,
v i s - a - v i s E t e o k l e s the b r o t h e r o f P o l y n e i k e s , appears t o be the
a l m o s t desperate i n v e n t i o n o f a f a l t e r i n g p o e t . B u t seven t h e y
w e r e . P o l y n e i k e s a n d E t e o k l e s have t e l l i n g n a m e s w h i c h refer t o
p r e c i s e l y t h i s w a r : " m u c h s t r i f e " against " t r u e g l o r y , " the assailant against t h e p r o t e c t o r o f t h e c i t y . I t is a b s o l u t e l y
impossible
t h a t b o t h t h e w a r a n d the names o f the c o m m a n d e r s s h o u l d be

h i s t o r i c a l , t h a t is, c o i n c i d e n t a l . These names are i n v e n t i o n s t o f i t
a specific c o n c e p t .
T h i s a n d s i m i l a r c o n s i d e r a t i o n s l e d E r n s t H o w a l d t o a radical
thesis presented i n 1 9 3 9 w h i c h has, since t h e n , f o u n d h a r d l y
any echo. H e c l a i m e d t h a t t h e tale o f t h e seven e v i l assailants
w h o are f o r t u n a t e l y r e p u l s e d , l e d b y A d r a s t o s t h e " i n e s c a p a b l e "
o n his m a g i c h o r s e , is p u r e m y t h i n its essence: O r i g i n a l l y these
w e r e seven d e m o n s , an " o u t b r e a k f r o m H e l l . " A d r a s t o s
betrays
his i n f e r n a l status even t h r o u g h t h e t r a g i c choruses b y w h i c h he

was h o n o r e d at S i k y o n , as w e are t o l d b y H e r o d o t u s ; his horse
A r i o n , b o r n o f E r i n y s , is an i n f e r n a l steed; A d r a s t o s '
followers
are seven d e m o n s f r o m the u n d e r w o r l d , i n c l u d i n g T y d e u s w i t h

his c a n n i b a l i s t i c d e s i r e s . L a t e r a n d s e c o n d a r i l y t h e u n d e r w o r l d
9
m y t h was t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o a h e r o i c epic l i n k e d t o t h e actual c i t y

o f T h e b e s . T h i s has created " h i s t o r y , " accepted as such r i g h t u p
t o The Cambridge
Ancient
History.
W h a t H o w a l d d i d n o t k n o w was t h a t the s t o r y o f t h e attack

o f t h e e v i l Seven f r o m t h e u n d e r w o r l d u n d e r t h e c o m m a n d o f a
108
" O R
A L S O
G O D L Y
S I N G E R
t e r r i f y i n g g o d exists i n fact, i n the f o r m o f an A k k a d i a n epic

t e x t : t h e s t o r y o f E r r a , the p l a g u e g o d . I t was first p u b l i s h e d i n
a v i r t u a l l y c o m p l e t e f o r m i n 1956,
appearing in 1969.
individual
10
w i t h an i m p r o v e d v e r s i o n
I t is u n i q u e insofar as i t is the w o r k o f an
poet n a m e d
Kabti-Ilani-Marduk, who
introduces
h i m s e l f at the e n d o f t h e t e x t . T h e g o d E r r a h i m s e l f , he says,
revealed the c o m p l e t e t e x t t o h i m i n a d r e a m . I n c o n t r a s t t o
Atrahasis,
t h i s w o r k is r e l a t i v e l y " y o u n g . " I t has been d a t e d t o
the n i n t h o r e i g h t h c e n t u r y B . C .
1 1
K a b t i - I l a n i - M a r d u k i n t r o d u c e s the Seven (Sibitti)
as t h e sons
o f heaven a n d e a r t h , " c h a m p i o n s w i t h o u t p e e r " t h i s e x p r e s s i o n is used as a f o r m u l a a n d a b s o l u t e l y t e r r i f y i n g ; each o f

t h e m is assigned his special d e s t r u c t i v e " f a t e " b y father A n u .
T h e y call o n t h e g o d E r r a , the g o d o f w a r a n d p l a g u e , t o d e s t r o y
mankind.
Marduk,
the h i g h e s t
t h r o n e and abandons
the w o r l d
god
o f Babylon,
leaves his
t o its d e s t r u c t i o n .
Foreign
peoples b e g i n t o i n v a d e B a b y l o n i a , o n l y t o be themselves
at-
t a c k e d b y t h e Seven. T h e c r y goes u p o n every side: " E r r a has

k i l l e d . " B u t t h e n t h e g o d , w h o has d e m o n s t r a t e d his p o w e r so
i r r e s i s t i b l y , calms d o w n , a n d , before m a n k i n d is c o m p l e t e l y d e s t r o y e d , he w i t h d r a w s t o g e t h e r w i t h his Seven. T h e epic c o n cludes w i t h a blessing f o r t h e l a n d o f A k k a d a n d praise f o r the
powerful god.
T h i s is a v e r y s h o r t s u m m a r y o f a c o m p l i c a t e d c o m p o s i t i o n .
I t c a n n o t be c l a i m e d t h a t t h i s t e x t is s i m p l y a n d d i r e c t l y the
o r i g i n a l v e r s i o n as p o s t u l a t e d b y H o w a l d . T h e r e are, n e v e r t h e less, r e m a r k a b l e parallels: t h e seven " c h a m p i o n s w i t h o u t peer,"
w h o s e n u m b e r is used as t h e i r v e r y n a m e i n this t e x t , w i t h an
i n e l u c t a b l e g o d at t h e i r head; an attack and great danger; a n d
then,
finally,
the retreat w h i c h means s a l v a t i o n f o r those u n d e r
t h r e a t . A s i g n i f i c a n t difference b e t w e e n the G r e e k and B a b y l o n i a n versions is t h a t t h e G r e e k saga concentrates o n the c i t y o f

T h e b e s w h i l e i n the o t h e r t h e a c t i o n is set i n a w o r l d w i d e f r a m e w o r k ; a n d whereas t h e B a b y l o n i a n poet c o m b i n e s plague and
war, t h e G r e e k s t o r y p o r t r a y s p u r e h e r o i c b a t t l e .
Erra
is an u n u s u a l epic i n t h a t t h e l i t e r a r y t e x t s o o n came t o
assume m a g i c f u n c t i o n s . I t appeared s u i t e d t o serve as a m y t h i -
109
T H E
R E V O L U T I O N
cal m o d e l t o reverse t h e attacks o f t h a t v e r y p l a g u e g o d a n d

t h e r e b y t o act as a f o r m o f e x o r c i s m . T h e t e x t , o r parts thereof,
w e r e w r i t t e n o n a m u l e t s t o p r o t e c t against s i c k n e s s .
12
I n fact t h e e v i l Seven are w e l l k n o w n i n a w h o l e range o f

A k k a d i a n incantation texts, f r o m different c o l l e c t i o n s .
1 3
Occa-
s i o n a l l y t h e y are l i s t e d i n d i v i d u a l l y a n d g i v e n v a r i o u s d e m o n i c
n a m e s , such as asakku,
limnu ( e v i l g o d ) ,
1 4
namtaru,
utukku,
alu,
etemmu,
gallu,
ilu
b u t also S o u t h W i n d , G r e a t D r a g o n , Panther,
Snake, S l i m e Beast, W h i r l w i n d ,
Evil Wind.
c o n s t a n t is t h e i r n u m b e r , w h i c h is repeated
1 5
What
remains
almost c o m p u l -
sively: " T h e y are seven, t h e y are seven." T h e y l i v e i n t h e depths

o f t h e e a r t h , t h e y rise u p f r o m t h e e a r t h ;
1 6
they " k i l l , " they b r i n g
diseases o f all k i n d s ; i t is t h e y w h o a t t a c k the m o o n g o d a n d

thus cause t h e eclipses o f t h e m o o n . F o r t u n a t e l y the e x o r c i s t
p r i e s t has g o o d , s t r o n g h e l p i n g s p i r i t s t o c o u n t e r a c t t h e i r i n f l u ence.
A m o n g t h e texts i n w h i c h t h e Seven appear is an i n c a n t a t i o n
t e x t f r o m t h e series Bit meseri,
tecting spirits."
1 7
" t h e house s u r r o u n d e d b y p r o -
T h i s also deals w i t h t h e h e a l i n g o f sickness.
T h e e v i l p o w e r s o f disease are represented b y the Seven, the

" S e v e n w i t h t e r r i b l e w i n g s . " I n t h e r i t u a l t h e y are represented i n
effigy, perhaps e v e n d r a w n o n t h e w a l l . " I placed t h e p i c t u r e o f
N e r g a l at t h e i r heads." N e r g a l is the g o d o f t h e u n d e r w o r l d and
o f p l a g u e w h o is v e r y close t o E r r a i n f u n c t i o n . B u t t h e n u n usual figures o f t w i n s are n a m e d : t w o i m a g e s o f " t w i n s b r o u g h t
t o g e t h e r " at t h e head o f t h e sick t o t h e r i g h t a n d t h e left, " t w i n s
f i g h t i n g each o t h e r m a d e o f p l a s t e r " i n t h e center o f t h e d o o r way, s i m i l a r t w i n s m a d e o f asphalt o n the d o o r frames t o the
r i g h t a n d t o t h e left. I n a d d i t i o n , t h e g o d s Ea a n d M a r d u k are
placed as g u a r d i a n s t o t h e r i g h t a n d left i n t h e center o f the d o o r .
T h e use o f f i g u r i n e s , p r o d u c e d ad h o c a n d t h e n d e s t r o y e d , is n o t
an u n c o m m o n feature i n t h e practice o f e x o r c i s m ,
1 8
b u t the
t w i n s appear o n l y i n this p a r t i c u l a r t e x t . T h e r e f o l l o w s an i n c a n t a t i o n o f t h e " S e v e n before w h o m there stands t h e i m a g e o f

N e r g a l " ; b u t then the exorcist turns to other "Seven gods w h o
c a r r y w e a p o n s " a n d calls u p o n t h e m t o d e s t r o y enemies a n d e v i l
forces a n d t o g r a n t l i f e .
I 10
" O R
A L S O
G O D L Y
S I N G E R
Seven t e r r i b l e b e i n g s t h e r e f o r e are present, w i t h the g o d o f

p l a g u e a n d d e a t h at t h e i r head; seven d i v i n e c o m b a t a n t s are s u p posed t o o v e r c o m e t h e e v i l ; a n d i n a d d i t i o n there are the t w i n s
f i g h t i n g each o t h e r i n t h e d o o r w a y .
close t o t h a t o f the Seven
1 9
T h e s i t u a t i o n is u n c a n n i l y
against Thebes as k n o w n f r o m A e s c h y -
lus: Seven e v i l a n d f r i g h t f u l assailants are e n u m e r a t e d , l e d b y

one w h o s e n a m e is " i n e s c a p a b l e " ; seven a r m e d heroes are p i t t e d
against t h e m ; a n d t h e decisive b a t t l e is b e t w e e n t h e t w o b r o t h e r s
w h o are t o f i g h t a n d k i l l each o t h e r at t h e seventh gate.
I n a d d i t i o n there is a r e m a r k a b l e i c o n o g r a p h i c b r i d g e
from
East t o West. A m o n g t h e o r t h o s t a t e reliefs f r o m the palace o f

T e l l H a l a f i w h i c h , a l o n g w i t h C a r c h e m i s h a n d Z i n c i r l i , are i m p o r t a n t e x a m p l e s o f Late H i t t i t e m o n u m e n t a l a r t , there appears
side b y side w i t h l i o n s and g r i f f i n s a c o u p l e o f a l m o s t i d e n t i c a l
m e n , t w i n s , w h o have seized each o t h e r b y the f o r e l o c k and are
s i m u l t a n e o u s l y r u n n i n g each o t h e r t h r o u g h w i t h t h e i r s w o r d s
( F i g u r e 8). T h i s is i c o n o g r a p h i c a l l y parallel t o t h e
representa-
t i o n s o f E t e o k l e s a n d P o l y n e i k e s i n m u t u a l f r a t r i c i d e as became
p o p u l a r i n E t r u r i a f r o m a p p r o x i m a t e l y 600 o n w a r d .
2 0
T h e r e are
n o k n o w n i n t e r m e d i a r y l i n k s ; a p o s s i b i l i t y w o u l d be l o s t m e t a l
reliefs. Instead o f i m a g e s , h o w e v e r , t h e r e is a t e x t f r o m Palestine
t o fill t h e gap, f r o m t h e s e c o n d b o o k o f S a m u e l : D u r i n g the c i v i l
w a r b e t w e e n Saul's successor a n d D a v i d , events lead t o a t o u r n a m e n t b e t w e e n t w e l v e h a n d - p i c k e d w a r r i o r s f r o m each side.
" B u t each seized his o p p o n e n t b y the f o r e l o c k a n d t h r u s t his
s w o r d i n t o his side so t h a t all fell t o g e t h e r . "
21
T h i s episode has
also been c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e fight o f t h e H o r a t i i a n d the C u r i a t i i

in Roman tradition.
2 2
I n G r e e k m y t h there appear t h e t w o p o w -
erful b r o t h e r s , O t o s a n d E p h i a l t e s , t h e A l o a d a e ,
who would
have been i n v i n c i b l e h a d t h e y n o t a c c i d e n t l y s h o t each o t h e r

w h e n a i m i n g at a d o e w h i c h leaped b e t w e e n t h e m .
2 3
Mytholog-
ical i m a g i n a t i o n s t u b b o r n l y keeps p o r t r a y i n g w h a t , i n reality,

w o u l d be t h e m o s t u n l i k e l y event. T h i s seems t o be t h e ideal o f
absolute a n d a u t o g e n o u s a n n i h i l a t i o n ; n o o u t s i d e r s are i n v o l v e d ,
a n d the c o n f l i c t e l i m i n a t e s itself. Perhaps i t is f o r t h i s reason that
the Etruscans f o u n d i t a p p r o p r i a t e t o use this i m a g e so o f t e n as
a reference t o d e a t h , again and again d e c o r a t i n g t h e i r f u n e r a r y
111
THE
ORIENTALIZING
REVOLUTION
Figure 8. 01'thostate relieffrom the palace at Cuzana- Tell HalaJ, ninth

century B. c.: twins killing each other.
urns with the fight of Eteokles and Polyneikes. But the apotropaic function which the Tell Halaf relief must have possessed can
well be understood in this sense, too, and finally also the miniature figurines used by the magicians officiating in the Bit meseri
ritual fall into place. The conflict eliminates itself, after which
harmony and health will return.
More perplexing is the question of what an exorcism of this
type can possibly have to do with an epic about Boeotian
Thebes. Yet several answers come to mind. Boeotia had its ori.
112
OR
A L S O
G O D L Y
S I N G E R
e n t a l i z i n g p e r i o d t o o ; i t lies close e n o u g h t o E u b o e a , the center

o f East-West t r a d e i n t h e e i g h t h c e n t u r y . B o e o t i a n f i b u l a e f r o m
a r o u n d 700 B . C . have t h e earliest m y t h o l o g i c a l representations
w e k n o w i n Greece, i n c l u d i n g t h e T r o j a n horse b u t also H e r akles f i g h t i n g the seven-headed snake. T h i s m o t i f clearly has t o
d o w i t h the S e m i t i c East, as does the l i o n f i g h t .
2 4
Thebes, h o w -
ever, lay i n r u i n s a n d h a d been replaced b y H y p o t h e b a i , i f the

catalogue o f ships can be t a k e n as evidence o f the g e o m e t r i c o r
early archaic p e r i o d . T h e K a d m e a n h i l l h a d been l a i d t o waste
u n t i l the r e b u i l d i n g b e g a n , w h i c h s t i l l a l l o w e d s o m e o f the M y cenaean r u i n s t o s t a n d as sacred relics, such as the " H o u s e o f
K a d m o s . " I t can be t a k e n f o r g r a n t e d t h a t seers w e r e i n v o l v e d i n
such a n e w b e g i n n i n g . T h e p r o m i n e n c e o f l i v e r d i v i n a t i o n and
the occasional o c c u r r e n c e o f f o u n d a t i o n deposits s h o w t h a t specialists f r o m
diviners.
2 5
t h e East k n e w h o w
t o o u t d o the n a t i v e
bird-
T h u s all t h e elements are there t o a l l o w us t o e n t e r -
t a i n t h e idea t h a t , t o avert e v i l forces f r o m the n e w f o u n d a t i o n ,

a m i g r a n t p r a c t i t i o n e r c a r r i e d o u t s o m e f o r m o f hit meseri r i t u a l ;
a n d t h a t a p o e t , i n s p i r e d w i t h m a n y ways o f s o n g b y t h e g o d ,
t o o k t h e p l o t o f t h e seven e v i l assailants a n d the seven p r o t e c t o r s
t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e t w i n s as represented i n the f i g u r i n e s t o m a k e
it t h e c e n t r a l t h r e a d o f an epic s o n g : I t was this c i t y o f T h e b e s
w h i c h , i n o l d e n t i m e s , once was a t t a c k e d b y t h e d r e a d f u l seven
b u t successfully
rebuffed t h e m a l l , even t h o u g h t h e r o y a l b r o t h -
ers k i l l e d each o t h e r s i m u l t a n e o u s l y at t h e gate. T h a t details o f

l o c a l t r a d i t i o n s u c h as A m p h i a r a o s and Tydeus a n d , m o s t i m p o r t a n t o f a l l , O e d i p u s , the u n c a n n y father o f f r a t r i c i d e s , w e r e
i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t h e w e b o f p o e t r y is n o t t o o a s t o n i s h i n g .
T h e r e is also a second p o s s i b i l i t y . Disease is a u n i v e r s a l p r o b l e m ; e p i d e m i c s d o n o t pause at l a n g u a g e b a r r i e r s . I t has been
a r g u e d t h a t there was a c a t a s t r o p h i c d r o u g h t i n Greece t o w a r d
the e n d o f t h e e i g h t h c e n t u r y ;
m i n e a n d pestilence
2 6
b u t t h i s is far f r o m c e r t a i n . Fa-
w o u l d easily
go hand i n
handreason
e n o u g h t o seek o u t even u n f a m i l i a r , f o r e i g n remedies, p r o v i d i n g

an o p p o r t u n i t y f o r m i g r a n t c h a r i s m a t i c s . S i m i l a r l y t o t h e w a y
i n w h i c h Asgelatas reached A n a p h e , s o m e after-effects o f M e s o p o t a m i a n m a g i c a l p r a c t i c e m a y have r e m a i n e d i n B o e o t i a , a d -
113
T H E
R E V O L U T I O N
m i l t e d l y t r a n s f o r m e d a l m o s t b e y o n d r e c o g n i t i o n i n t o the f o r m
o f a h e r o i c s o n g . I t has been asked w h y , j u d g i n g b y t h e archaic
i m a g e r y , t h e tale o f T h e b e s was so m u c h m o r e p o p u l a r w i t h t h e
E t r u s c a n s t h a n i t was i n Greece, a n d the a n s w e r g i v e n has been
t h a t this was because o f t h e special r o l e g i v e n t o t h e seers and t o
d i v i n a t i o n i n this e p i c .
bore
more
traces o f such interests t h a n the f e w f r a g m e n t s p r e s e r v e d
allow
2 7
Perhaps the lost Thebaid
us t o r e c o g n i z e .
I f t h e p o e m o f t h e Seven
against
Thebes
is an i n v e n t i o n o f the
o r i e n t a l i z i n g p e r i o d , i t m u s t s t i l l have been q u i t e a success a n d

spread r a p i d l y . E v e n i n p r i m i t i v e t i m e s this w o u l d n o t have
t a k e n m o r e t h a n a f e w years, and t h e c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h the T r o j a n theme, w i t h Tydeus/Diomedes
above a l l , c o u l d also have
o c c u r r e d v e r y q u i c k l y . T h e Iliad presupposes t h e existence o f t h e

T h e b a n t h e m e i f n o t necessarily t h e w r i t t e n t e x t w h i c h later
c a m e t o t h e A l e x a n d r i a n l i b r a r y . I t seems t h a t t o w a r d s the e n d
o f t h e g e o m e t r i c p e r i o d a m o r e a n c i e n t t o m b was d i s c o v e r e d at
Eleusis a n d f i t t e d o u t afresh f o r a c u l t o f heroes. T h i s p r e s u m a b l y is t h e grave w h i c h s u b s e q u e n t l y was called t h e T o m b o f t h e
Seven, even t h o u g h n o d i r e c t e v i d e n c e has been f o u n d t o i d e n tify that t o m b .
2 8
I t fits i n w i t h o t h e r e x a m p l e s o f h e r o i c c u l t
established u n d e r t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e epic since t h e e i g h t h c e n tury.
2 9
T h i s gives a t e r m i n a l date f o r t h e fame o f t h e T h e b e s
t h e m e . T h e t e x t o f o u r Iliad m a y w e l l c o m e f r o m t h e first h a l f
o f t h e seventh c e n t u r y .
3 0
M u c h r e m a i n s o b s c u r e a n d u n c e r t a i n f o r us even after the e n d

o f t h e " d a r k ages." A l l t h e m o r e reason, t h e n , t o d r a w o n all the
i n d i c a t i o n s w h i c h p o i n t t o l i k e l y c o n n e c t i o n s . W h o e v e r resists
t h e idea t h a t t h e Seven against T h e b e s have t o s o m e e x t e n t a
M e s o p o t a m i a n p e d i g r e e s h o u l d nevertheless n o t o v e r l o o k t h a t a
s i m i l a r p r o v e n i e n c e m u s t be accepted f o r the seven-headed H y d r a as w e l l as f o r t h e Seven Sages.
31
Seven g o d s o r d e m o n s
also k n o w n a m o n g t h e A r a m a e a n s i n t h e e i g h t h c e n t u r y .
Common
Style
and Stance
in Oriental
and Greek
were
3 2
Epic
E v e r since the m y t h o l o g i c a l texts f r o m H a t t u s a a n d U g a r i t have

a t t r a c t e d t h e a t t e n t i o n o f classicists, parallels f r o m H e s i o d a n d
114
" O R
A L S O
G O D L Y
S I N G E R
"
H o m e r i n m o t i f s a n d n a r r a t i v e techniques have been c o l l e c t e d ,

occasionally
also t o u c h i n g o n M e s o p o t a m i a n
materials.
cently, L u i g i a A c h i l l e a Stella has presented an extensive

logue o f correspondences.
Recata-
She pleads d e c i s i v e l y f o r t h e B r o n z e
Age cultural bridge. B u t comparisons
b y themselves
do not
p r o v i d e specific i n d i c a t o r s f o r e i t h e r an earlier o r a later b o r r o w i n g , i n d e e d f o r a n y b o r r o w i n g at all i n c o n t r a s t t o the chances

o f p a r a l l e l d e v e l o p m e n t . I n a n y case, u n c e r t a i n t i e s a b o u t t h e date
o f " i n f l u e n c e " s h o u l d n o t d i s t r a c t us f r o m a c k n o w l e d g i n g h o w
extensive these c o r r e s p o n d e n c e s
are.
I n a sense, o f course, G r e e k epic is a v e r y self-sufficient

ering. T h e formulaic system, w h i c h M i l m a n Parry
flow-
discovered
a n d e x p l a i n e d i n t e r m s o f its necessary f u n c t i o n w i t h i n an o r a l
t r a d i t i o n , is t i e d t o t h e G r e e k l a n g u a g e .
F r o m this p o i n t o f v i e w
H o m e r has b e c o m e t h e m o d e l e x a m p l e o f an o r a l t r a d i t i o n .
By
c o n t r a s t , t h e eastern epic, at least i n M e s o p o t a m i a , is based i n a

fixed
t r a d i t i o n o f w r i t i n g a n d schools o f scribes s p a n n i n g m o r e
t h a n t w o m i l l e n n i a . W i t h i n this t r a d i t i o n tablets are c o p i e d and

r e c o p i e d again a n d a g a i n , a n d s o m e t i m e s also translated w i t h i n
the c u n e i f o r m systems.
O n e s h o u l d e x p e c t t h e r e f o r e t o e n c o u n t e r q u i t e different p r i n ciples o f style i n the East a n d i n the West. Yet a n y o n e w h o cares
t o c o n s i d e r b o t h sides w i l l be s t r u c k b y t h e s i m i l a r i t i e s . T h e
m o s t i m p o r t a n t o f these have been i n d i c a t e d l o n g ago; a p a r t i a l
listing follows.
I n b o t h cases " e p i c " means n a r r a t i v e p o e t r y w h i c h e m p l o y s ,
i n f o r m , a l o n g verse w h i c h repeats i t s e l f i n d e f i n i t e l y , w i t h o u t
s t r o p h i c d i v i s i o n . A s t o c o n t e n t , t h e tale is a b o u t g o d s and great
m e n f r o m the past, o f t e n i n t e r a c t i n g . M a i n characteristics o f
style are t h e s t a n d a r d e p i t h e t s , t h e f o r m u l a i c verses, the r e p e t i t i o n o f verses, t h e t y p i c a l scenes.
E p i t h e t s have always appeared t o be a special characteristic o f
H o m e r i c s t y l e . We are f a m i l i a r w i t h " c l o u d - g a t h e r i n g Z e u s , "
" O d y s s e u s o f m a n y counsels," " O d y s s e u s o f m a n y
sufferings."
B u t i n A k k a d i a n epic, t o o , t h e c h i e f characters have characteristic e p i t h e t s . T h e c h i e f g o d , E n l i l , o f t e n appears as " t h e h e r o

Enlil,"
the h e r o o f t h e flood is " U t n a p i s h t i m the
far-away,"
and t h e d a n g e r o u s Seven i n t h e E r r a epic are " c h a m p i o n s w i t h -
us
T H E
R E V O L U T I O N
o u t p e e r . " S i m i l a r l y t h e U g a r i t i c epics have
fixed
formulas
such
as B a a l " t h e r i d e r o f c l o u d s , " " t h e V i r g i n A n a t , " a n d " D a n e l t h e

Rephaite."
W h a t s o u n d s even m o r e H o m e r i c is t h e d e s i g n a t i o n
o f a c o m b a t a n t as " k n o w l e d g e a b l e i n b a t t l e . " I t is less clear w h y

8
the " m i s t r e s s o f t h e g o d s " is " g o o d i n s h o u t i n g , " b u t i t was also

9
unclear even t o G r e e k s w h y K a l y p s o as w e l l as K i r k e s h o u l d be
"a f r i g h t f u l goddess u s i n g speech," dane theos audeessa.
B e that
as i t may, an epic p o e t c a n n o t d o w i t h o u t e p i t h e t s : T h e e a r t h is
"the broad e a r t h , "
1 0
a n d a g o d o f heavens can be called " f a t h e r
o f gods and m e n . "
1 1
T h e e p i t h e t s are d e c o r a t i v e insofar as t h e y
are n e i t h e r essential t o t h e actual c o n t e x t o f t h e c u r r e n t s i t u a t i o n

n o r m o d e l e d s p e c i a l l y f o r i t . A m o n g o t h e r t h i n g s , t h e y are e x t r e m e l y h e l p f u l t o fill o u t a half-verse.
I n f o r m u l a i c verse w h a t is m o s t s t r i k i n g is the c o m p l i c a t e d
i n t r o d u c t i o n o f d i r e c t speech. T h e l a v i s h use o f d i r e c t speech,
the r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f w h o l e scenes i n the f o r m o f d i a l o g u e is,
i n d e e d , a p e c u l i a r i t y o f t h e genre. I n A k k a d i a n , t h e i n t r o d u c t o r y
f o r m u l a is, i n l i t e r a l t r a n s l a t i o n : " H e set his m o u t h a n d s p o k e ,
to . . .
he said [ t h e w o r d ] . "
T h e s i m p l e m e a n i n g o f speak
1 2
is
expressed i n three s y n o n y m s j u s t as w i t h the w e l l - k n o w n H o meric
formula
"he
raised
his
voice
and
spoke the
winged
w o r d s . " I t is perhaps even m o r e r e m a r k a b l e t h a t characters i n

Gilgamesh,
r e f l e c t i n g o n a n e w s i t u a t i o n , "speak t o t h e i r o w n
h e a r t . " " C o n s u l t i n g w i t h her heart she s p o k e , i n d e e d she t o o k

c o u n s e l w i t h h e r s e l f " d i r e c t speech f o l l o w s .
1 3
I n a similar way
H o m e r i c heroes speak t o t h e i r o w n " g r e a t - h e a r t e d thymos"
or to
t h e i r " h e a r t . " W h e n G i l g a m e s h is t r a v e l l i n g , t h e n e w day is a l ways i n t r o d u c e d w i t h t h e same f o r m u l a : " B a r e l y a s h i m m e r o f

the m o r n i n g d a w n e d , "
1 4
reminiscent o f Homer's famous
line
" B u t w h e n e a r l y - b o r n r o s y - f i n g e r e d Eos a p p e a r e d . " I t is n a t u r a l

f o r a n a r r a t i v e t o m o v e o n f r o m day t o day, b u t t o e m p l o y
s t e r e o t y p e d f o r m u l a s f o r sunrise a n d sunset, pause a n d a c t i o n is
a specific t e c h n i q u e used i n Gilgamesh
Among
as i n H o m e r .
the r e p e t i t i o n s w h i c h cover a w h o l e sequence o f
verses a s t r i k i n g feature is t h e exact v e r b a l c o r r e s p o n d e n c e
be-
tween c o m m a n d and performance, r e p o r t i n g and repetition o f

the r e p o r t . T h e M e s o p o t a m i a ! ! scribes, w e a r y o f w e d g e s , o c c a -
116
" O R
A L S O
G O D L Y
S I N G E R "
s i o n a l l y used a " r e p e a t " s i g n , w h i c h t h e H o m e r i c scribes d i d n o t

p e r m i t themselves.
A m o n g t y p i c a l scenes t h e assembly o f t h e g o d s is p r o m i n e n t .
A k k a d i a n has a f i x e d e x p r e s s i o n f o r i t , puhur
Hani; the designa-
t i o n is the same i n U g a r i t i c , and t h e respective scene is also f u l l y

e l a b o r a t e d i n t h e H i t t i t e Song
of Ullikummi.*
T h a t i n the as-
s e m b l y o f t h e g o d s i t is o f t e n d e c i d e d t o send o u t a messenger is
natural and still w o r t h n o t i n g .
S i m i l e s are a p o p u l a r d e vic e i n the A k k a d i a n epic as i n related
p o e t r y ; details need n o t be g i v e n h e r e . '
m a r k a b l e is t h a t i n Gilgamesh,
W h a t seems m o r e re-
the longest and h i g h e s t - r a n k i n g
t e x t , m o r e c o m p l i c a t e d f o r m s o f n a r r a t i v e t e c h n i q u e are b e i n g
t r i e d o u t , as is t h e case especially i n t h e Odysseytablet o f Gilgamesh
I n t h e eleventh
a d i s t a n t b u t p a r t i c u l a r l y g r i p p i n g piece o f
a c t i o n , t h e great flood, is i n c o r p o r a t e d t h r o u g h d i r e c t speech b y

the m a i n p a r t i c i p a n t , U t n a p i s h t i m t h e far-away. T h e d u a l a c t i o n
at t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e epic w h i c h has t o b r i n g t o g e t h e r E n k i d u
and G i l g a m e s h is set o u t i n such a w a y t h a t the n a r r a t i v e
first
f o l l o w s E n k i d u ' s a d v e n t u r e s a n d his t r a n s f o r m a t i o n t o c i v i l i z a t i o n a n d t h e n r e c o u n t s G i l g a m e s h ' s p r e p a r a t i o n s f o r the m e e t i n g

t h r o u g h d i r e c t speech w h i c h t h e p r o s t i t u t e addresses t o E n k i d u
( I v 23 v i 24). T h u s even t h e n a r r a t i v e t e c h n i q u e o f the poet o f
the Odyssey,
a
first-person
w h o i n c o r p o r a t e s m o s t o f O d y s s e u s ' adventures i n
speech b y O d y s s e u s h i m s e l f t o the Phaeacians and
devises a d o u b l e p l o t t o b r i n g O d y s s e u s and Telemachos
to-
gether, is n o t t o t a l l y i s o l a t e d . T h e s i m i l a r i t y b e t w e e n t h e o p e n ings o f Gilgamesh
a n d the Odyssey
has s t r u c k readers t o o : A t t e n -
t i o n is called t o t h e h e r o w h o w a n d e r e d w i d e a n d saw
t h i n g s w h i l e his n a m e is i n t e n t i o n a l l y w i t h h e l d .
F o r e s h a d o w i n g t h e Iliad,
many
1 7
as i t w e r e , Gilgamesh
i n particular
e x h i b i t s a c e r t a i n ethos o f the m o r t a l i t y o f h u m a n beings.
The
m a i n t h e m e o f t h e p o e m is, i n its o w n w o r d s , the "fates o f h u m a n i t y " (simatu awilutim),
w h i c h means death, i n c o n t r a s t t o the
life o f t h e g o d s , w h i c h o n l y U t n a p i s h t i m succeeded i n w i n n i n g
f o r h i m s e l f . B e f o r e his fight w i t h H u m b a b a , G i l g a m e s h
draws
the h e r o i c consequence: " T h e g o d s , w i t h S h a m a s h [ t h e s u n g o d ]

t h e y sit f o r e v e r ; as f o r m a n k i n d , n u m b e r e d are t h e i r days . . .
117
T H E
B u t y o u here, y o u fear death? . . .
R E V O L U T I O N
I w i l l g o ahead o f y o u . . . I f
I m y s e l f w e r e t o f a l l , let m e s t i l l set u p m y n a m e . "
Thus, pre-
1 8
cisely because m a n is d e n i e d e t e r n i t y , all t h a t r e m a i n s f o r h i m is

t o w i n f a m e t h r o u g h r i s k i n g d e a t h , fame w h i c h s u r v i v e s b e y o n d
d e a t h ; i m p e r i s h a b l e g l o r y (kleos aphthiton),
i n contrast to m o r t a l
m e n , these are t h e concepts set o u t i n t h e Iliad i n G r e e k .
"Yes,
dear f r i e n d ! If, h a v i n g escaped f r o m this w a r , w e w e r e t o l i v e

f o r e v e r ageless, i m m o r t a l , even I w o u l d n o t f i g h t a m o n g t h e
f r o n t r a n k s . . . B u t n o w , as t h e d e m o n s o f d e a t h s t a n d before
us a n y h o w . . . L e t us g o ! w h e t h e r w e b r i n g g l o r y t o a n o t h e r
m a n o r s o m e o n e gives g l o r y t o u s " t h i s is H o m e r .
1 9
This i n -
s i g h t i n t o t h e l i m i t s o f t h e h u m a n c o n d i t i o n does n o t , h o w e v e r ,
lead t o c a u t i o n i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e g o d s . Far f r o m i t , aggressive
o u t b u r s t s m a y o c c u r . E n k i d u t h r o w s the h i n d leg o f t h e b u l l o f
heaven t o I s h t a r a n d s h o u t s : " I f I c a u g h t y o u , l i k e this I w o u l d
do to y o u . "
2 0
" I n d e e d I w o u l d take revenge i f I o n l y h a d the
p o w e r , " cries A c h i l l e s t o A p o l l o , w h o has deceived h i m .
2 1
B u t m a n is w e a k a n d changeable. " O f such a k i n d is the i n s i g h t o f m o r t a l m e n , as t h e day w h i c h t h e father o f g o d s a n d

m e n b r i n g s o n " states o n e o f the m o s t f a m o u s passages o f the
Odyssey.
P r a c t i c a l l y i d e n t i c a l is a sentence a b o u t m o r t a l s f r o m
22
the A k k a d i a n c o m p o s i t i o n / Will Praise
the Lord
of
Wisdom:
" T h e i r i n s i g h t changes l i k e day a n d n i g h t . W h e n s t a r v i n g , t h e y

b e c o m e corpses; w h e n replete, t h e y v i e w i t h t h e i r g o d s . "
Closer
scenes.
comparisons
One
notable
c o u l d also be
example
is
made
o f actual
the E g y p t i a n
poem
2 3
battle
about
Ramses I I i n t h e b a t t l e o f Q a d e s h . T h e h e r o finds h i m s e l f alone

a m i d s t t h e e n e m i e s , he prays t o his father t h e g o d , t h e g o d hears
h i m , w h e r e u p o n t h e h e r o attacks a n d k i l l s a l l t h e e n e m i e s .
o t h e r s u g g e s t i v e t e x t is i n c o r p o r a t e d i n the Annals
of
24
An-
Sennacherib
and refers t o t h e b a t t l e o f H a l u l e i n 691 B . C . ; i t tells h o w t h e k i n g

takes u p his a r m o r , m o u n t s his c h a r i o t , a n d w i t h t h e assistance
o f his g o d k n o c k s d o w n t h e e n e m i e s ; so f i n a l l y " m y p r a n c i n g
steeds, harnessed f o r m y r i d i n g , p l u n g e d i n t o t h e streams o f
b l o o d as i n t o a r i v e r ; t h e w h e e l s o f m y c h a r i o t , w h i c h b r i n g s
d o w n t h e w i c k e d a n d the e v i l , w e r e bespattered w i t h b l o o d and
118
O R
A L S O
G O D L Y
S I N G E R
f i l t h " n o t e t h e s t a n d a r d e p i t h e t s ; a n d j u s t l i k e Ramses the

2 5
E g y p t i a n , t h e A s s y r i a n k i n g , t o o , is represented f i g h t i n g
from
his B r o n z e A g e c h a r i o t . We are i r r e s i s t i b l y r e m i n d e d o f t h e Iliad:

"Thus
under
greathearted
Achilles
his
one-hoofed
horses
stepped o n corpses a n d shields t o g e t h e r ; w i t h b l o o d the w h o l e

axle was b e s p a t t e r e d , a n d t h e rails a r o u n d t h e seat, w h i c h t h e
d r o p s f r o m t h e h o o f s o f t h e horses w e r e h i t t i n g . . ." C o n s i d e r i n g t h e date o f t h e A s s y r i a n t e x t , one m i g h t even t o y w i t h the
idea t h a t s o m e G r e e k singer h a d a r r i v e d i n A s s y r i a t o g e t h e r w i t h
t h e m e r c e n a r i e s , a n d t h a t he c o m p o s e d this s o n g o n the b a t t l e
o f H a l u l e w h i c h so m u c h pleased t h e k i n g t h a t i t was i n c o r p o r a t e d i n the o f f i c i a l annals, w h e r e i t f o r m s a strange c o n t r a s t t o
the s t a n d a r d d r e a r y a n d d u l l list o f b a t t l e a n d p l u n d e r i n g .
m o r e systematic
research
i n t o this genre w o u l d be due.
2 6
But
The
" S o n g o f D e b o r a h a n d B a r a k " s h o u l d n o t be f o r g o t t e n i n this

context;
i t has,
among
" b a t t l e at the r i v e r . "
other stirring
events,
remarkable
2 7
S o m e f u r t h e r c o n n e c t i o n s i n d e t a i l b e t w e e n East a n d West,
t h o u g h s t r i k i n g , have r e m a i n e d a m y s t e r y . T h i s applies t o the
" W o r d o f Tree a n d S t o n e " as i t appears i n U g a r i t , i n J e r e m i a h ,
a n d i n H o m e r a n d H e s i o d ; i t seems t o be c o n n e c t e d w i t h a m y t h
a b o u t t h e o r i g i n o f m a n i n the O l d T e s t a m e n t a n d i n the
Odyssey,
b u t is used as a less l u c i d s a y i n g i n U g a r i t as i n the Iliad a n d i n

Hesiod.
2 8
Less s u r p r i s i n g is t h a t t h e blessing o f t h e l a n d u n d e r the r u l e

o f a g o o d k i n g is established i n M e s o p o t a m i a , b u t i t also appears
i n H o m e r a n d H e s i o d : T h e earth b r i n g s f o r t h her c r o p s , the
trees t h e i r f r u i t , t h e a n i m a l s t h r i v e , and " p e o p l e t h r i v e u n d e r
h i m " t h e g o o d k i n g ; c o m p a r e A s h u r b a n i p a l o n h i m s e l f i n his
o w n a c c o u n t : " S i n c e the g o d s . . . b e n i g n l y m a d e m e take m y
seat o n the t h r o n e o f m y father, m y begetter, A d a d released his
t o r r e n t s o f r a i n , Ea o p e n e d his s p r i n g s , the ears o f t h e crops
g r e w five ells h i g h . . . t h e f r u i t s o f t h e f i e l d f l o u r i s h e d . . . the
trees b r o u g h t t h e i r f r u i t s t o an a b u n d a n t g r o w t h , t h e cattle b r e d
successfully.
D u r i n g m y r e i g n there was a b u n d a n c e , d u r i n g m y
years g o o d t h i n g s o v e r f l o w e d . "
2 9
119
T H E
R E V O L U T I O N
E n o u g h o f parallels. S t y l e is h a r d l y separable f r o m c o n t e n t .
F o r s t y l i s t i c e l e m e n t s , d i r e c t d e p e n d e n c e is h a r d t o p r o v e : E a c h
l a n g u a g e has its o w n l a w s and its o w n life. I n H o m e r w e c a n n o t
ascertain t h e presence o f " y o u n g e r , " a d d i t i o n a l e l e m e n t s against
the o l d e r epic t r a d i t i o n i n the characteristics discussed so far, i n
c o n t r a s t t o the m y t h o l o g i c a l concepts f o u n d i n the c o n t e x t o f
the " D e c e p t i o n o f Z e u s , " t h e o p e n i n g o f t h e Cypria,
against
Thebes.
o r the
Seven
F o r t h e s t y l e o f b a t t l e scenes w e d e f i n i t e l y reach
the B r o n z e A g e w i t h R a m s e s ' a c c o u n t . S t i l l , c o n s i d e r i n g t h e fact

t h a t w e are d e a l i n g w i t h s p a t i a l l y a n d c h r o n o l o g i c a l l y l i n k e d
spheres o f c i v i l i z a t i o n a n y h o w , t o insist o n c o m p l e t e l y separate
developments
a n d p u r e l y c o i n c i d e n t a l parallels is b e g g i n g
the
q u e s t i o n . O n e has t o r e c k o n w i t h m u l t i p l e contacts, t o be set

against b o t h the general h u m a n b a c k g r o u n d a n d c o m m o n t e n dencies o f h i s t o r i c a l - s o c i a l d e v e l o p m e n t s .
W h a t was i n fact a
h e r i t a g e o f t h e B r o n z e A g e c o u l d also be r e v i t a l i z e d b y
new
i n c e n t i v e s . I t is p r o b a b l y s y m p t o m a t i c t h a t besides t h e t r a d i t i o n a l G r e e k l o a n - w o r d f o r l i o n , leon, a n o t h e r w o r d o f clearly

S e m i t i c - P a l e s t i n i a n p e d i g r e e , lis, has been a d o p t e d i n s o m e H o meric similes.
3 0
I n a n y event, t h e eastern e v i d e n c e offers
such
closely related m a t e r i a l t h a t i t s h o u l d n o t be o v e r l o o k e d i n the

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f H o m e r . T h i s f i n d i n g m u s t set c e r t a i n l i m i t s t o
assessments o f p u r e l y " I n d o - E u r o p e a n " h e r o i c t r a d i t i o n .
T h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f the first G r e e k l i b r a r y t h e Iliad w r i t t e n
d o w n o n t w e n t y - f o u r ( P ) leather s c r o l l s a n d o f t h e great l i b r a r y
o f A s h u r b a n i p a l at N i n e v e h , w h o r u l e d f r o m 668 t o 627,
may
w e l l have t a k e n place at a b o u t t h e same t i m e . E v e n this m a y n o t

be t o t a l l y c o i n c i d e n t a l . T h e S e m i t i c East s t i l l h e l d the c u l t u r a l
lead u n t i l t h a t date.
Fables
T h e g e n r e o f t h e a n i m a l fable has m e t w i t h d i s d a i n since the e n d
o f t h e E n l i g h t e n m e n t ; a n d yet i t is o n e o f the m o s t peculiar a n d
e n d u r i n g f o r m s o f f o l k l i t e r a t u r e . O n e m i g h t be t e m p t e d t o
1
relegate i t t o t h e l e v e l o f p o p u l a r tale a n d t h e r e b y t o s o m e f o r m
o f general a n d diffuse o r a l t r a d i t i o n . B u t m o r e d e t a i l e d research,
120
O R
A L S O
G O D L Y
S I N G E R
p a r t i c u l a r l y i n the area o f m e d i e v a l a n d early m o d e r n
fables,
d e m o n s t r a t e s r e p e a t e d l y t h a t i t was t h e w r i t t e n a n t h o l o g i e s , the
t r a n s l a t i o n s a n d selections o f A e s o p , a n d f u r t h e r e l a b o r a t i o n s
w h i c h w e r e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r the d i f f u s i o n o f these stories. I t is
t r u e t h a t the fables e n t e r e d i n t o l i v i n g f o l k t r a d i t i o n t h r o u g h
children's e x p e r i e n c e at t h e level o f e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o l , so that
f i e l d w o r k e r s w o u l d r e d i s c o v e r t h e m as i f t h e y h a d always b e l o n g e d t o people's o r a l w i s d o m . B u t t h e i r l i t e r a r y c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n
lies m u c h f u r t h e r b a c k .
A e s o p , the n a m e w i t h w h i c h t h e basic c o l l e c t i o n o f G r e e k
a n i m a l fables is c o n n e c t e d , is n o t the b e g i n n i n g . I t has l o n g been
k n o w n t h a t a n i m a l fables e x i s t e d n o t o n l y i n E g y p t i a n , b u t also
2
in Surnerian and A k k a d i a n
a n d , at least i n t h e g e n r e o f p l a n t
fables, i n H e b r e w . H e r m a n n D i e l s w r o t e o n " o r i e n t a l fables i n

4
G r e e k c l o t h i n g " as e a r l y as 1910;
he was d e a l i n g w i t h the n e w l y
d i s c o v e r e d t e x t o f C a l l i m a c h u s , w h i c h presents the fable " T h e

L a u r e l a n d the O l i v e T r e e " as a tale o f " t h e a n c i e n t - L y d i a n s . "
B a b r i u s , w h o set d o w n t h e fables o f A e s o p i n verse, states e x pressly at t h e b e g i n n i n g o f his second b o o k t h a t this t y p e o f

" m y t h " is an i n v e n t i o n o f t h e a n c i e n t " S y r i a n s " f r o m t h e t i m e
o f N i n o s a n d B c l o s ; A e s o p was the first t o relate t h e m t o the
"sons o f t h e H e l l e n e s . " N i n o s (that is, N i n e v e h ) a n d B e l o s are
t e r m s used since t h e h i s t o r i e s o f Ktesias t o designate t h e A s s y r i a n era. B a b r i u s was w r i t i n g i n S y r i a o r C i l i c i a f o r s o m e m i n o r
p r i n c e . H e k n o w s w h a t he is t a l k i n g a b o u t , even i f w e are n o t
6
i n a p o s i t i o n t o p r o v e w h a t his sources w e r e f o r this thesis. F o r

c o n f i r m a t i o n t h e r e is t h e fact t h a t t h e s t o r y o f A h i q a r was t r a n s lated f r o m the A r a m a i c i n t o G r e e k a n d was m a d e a p a r t o f the
Life
of Aesopmaybe
j u s t at the t i m e o f B a b r i u s ; b u t C a l -
l i m a c h u s ' reference t o " t h e a n c i e n t L y d i a n s " w o u l d p o i n t t o o r i ental contacts i n t h e archaic p e r i o d .
F o r us G r e e k fable b e g i n s w i t h H e s i o d ' s ainos " t h e h a w k a n d

the n i g h t i n g a l e " (Erga
2 0 3 - 2 1 2 ) ; t h e n A r c h i l o c h u s presents his
fables w i t h m o r a l appeal i n a p o i g n a n t a n d aggressive f o r m . We

k n o w m o s t a b o u t his p o e m w h i c h i n t r o d u c e s " t h e eagle a n d t h e
f o x . " Its p o i n t is q u i t e clear: t o w a r n h i g h - r a n k i n g a n d i n s o l e n t
c r i m i n a l s o f t h e r e v e n g e w h i c h even the w e a k m a y take s o m e -
121
T H E
R E V O L U T I O N
day. T h e f o x a n d the eagle e n t e r e d i n t o a pact, b u t o n e day the

eagle ate the fox's y o u n g a n d j e e r e d at h i m f r o m t h e inaccessible
h e i g h t s o f his nest. T h e f o x called o n Z e u s , the p o w e r f u l g u a r d i a n o f hybris
a n d dikea
Retribution follows.
s e c t i o n o f d i r e c t speech i n the p o e m .
I t has l o n g been r e m a r k e d t h a t an A k k a -
d i a n t e x t has n e a r l y t h e same s t o r y . T h i s is n o t i t s e l f an i n d e p e n d e n t fable, b u t r a t h e r an i n t r o d u c t i o n t o the m y t h o f E t a n a , w h o

flew
u p t o heaven o n an eagle. I n this case i t is an eagle a n d a
snake w h o enter i n t o a pact a n d j o i n t l y gather f o o d , w h i c h t h e y

share u n t i l the eagle perpetrates the o u t r a g e a n d eats the snake's
y o u n g . T h e snake t u r n s t o S h a m a s h , the s u n g o d , a n d , i n d i r e c t
speech, calls o n h i m as the g u a r d i a n o f j u s t i c e . R e t r i b u t i o n f o l l o w s , t h a n k s t o the c u n n i n g o f the s n a k e . A d m i t t e d l y the f o r m
9
o f r e v e n g e is d i f f e r e n t i n the t w o texts, a n d a snake is i n v o l v e d

instead o f a f o x . T h e p o l a r i t y snake-eagle has a respectable s y m b o l i c t r a d i t i o n a n d may, t o t h a t e x t e n t , be the o r i g i n a l m o d e l .
1 0
A n y h o w w e are n o t d e a l i n g w i t h a case o f t r a n s l a t i o n . A n d yet

it is n o t j u s t the basic idea a n d the sequence o f the m o t i f s , the
strange pact, the t r a n s g r e s s i o n , the r e v e n g e , w h i c h the t w o texts
have i n c o m m o n , b u t also a l i t e r a r y d e v i c e , the d i r e c t speech i n
the p a t h e t i c appeal t o the h e a v e n l y g o d as a g u a r d i a n o f r i g h t
a n d p u n i s h e r o f those w h o transgress i t . A prayer o f t h i s n a t u r e
is n o t c o m m o n i n Greece at t h e t i m e o f A r c h i l o c h u s , as far as
w e k n o w , w h e r e a s f o r the Easterners the s u n g o d is p e r f o r m i n g
o n e o f his u s u a l f u n c t i o n s . T h a t the s o l e m n prayer is p u t i n the
m o u t h o f an a n i m a l has a g r o t e s q u e a n d m e m o r a b l e effect i n
b o t h the A k k a d i a n a n d the G r e e k t e x t s . B y the way, E t a n a b e i n g
c a r r i e d u p t o heaven o n t h e w i n g s o f an eagle is o f t e n r e p r e sented o n o r i e n t a l seals. I t m a y easily be p r e s u m e d t h a t the m y t h
o f the rape o f G a n y m e d e b y Z e u s i n the guise o f an eagle has
been i n f l u e n c e d b y s u c h r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s .
11
T h i s s t i l l does n o t e x -
p l a i n h o w A r c h i l o c h u s c o u l d have h a d k n o w l e d g e o f a M e s o p o t a m i a n t e x t . B u t a f u r t h e r s u r p r i s i n g l i n k has surfaced f o r A r c h i l o c h u s : T h e n e w A r c h i l o c h u s p o e m c o n t a i n e d i n the C o l o g n e

p a p y r u s uses t h e adage o f the " h a s t y b i t c h w h o
bears b l i n d p u p p i e s . "
1 2
consequently
A g o o d t h o u s a n d years before A r c h i l o -
chus t h i s p r o v e r b m a k e s its appearance i n a r o y a l letter f r o m
122
" O R
Mari.
A L S O
G O D L Y
S I N G E R
T h i s m a y be called f o l k t r a d i t i o n e l a b o r a t i n g o n b i o l o g -
1 3
ical facts, b u t w e s h o u l d r a t h e r a c k n o w l e d g e a t r a d i t i o n o f w i s d o m w h i c h transcends l i n g u i s t i c a n d c u l t u r a l b a r r i e r s , especially

i n the f o r m o f the a n i m a l fable. I n the case o f the E t a n a t e x t ,
d i r e c t l i t e r a r y c o n n e c t i o n is n o t at all r u l e d o u t .
k n e w the leather scrolls o f P h o e n i c i a n - A r a m a i c
Archilochus
type.
1 4
A m u c h m o r e e n g a g i n g m o t i f appears t o be f o l k l o r i c a n d l i t e r a r y at the same t i m e , a n d i t is found i n b o t h A k k a d i a n l i t e r a t u r e a n d later i n a n c i e n t Greece: the s t o r y o f the h e r b o f r e j u v e n a t i o n , w h i c h has been l o s t t o m a n k i n d because i t was eaten b y
the snake. I n Gilgamesh
this is the d r a m a t i c c o n c l u s i o n t o the
j o u r n e y t o U t n a p i s h t i m . T h e search t o evade death has been the

i n c e n t i v e f o r G i l g a m e s h ' s travels; f i n a l l y all has been i n v a i n . U t n a p i s h t i m h a d i n d i c a t e d h o w G i l g a m e s h c o u l d fetch the p l a n t o f
eternal y o u t h f r o m the d e p t h s o f the sea. G i l g a m e s h
does so,
a n d he sets o f f f o r h o m e w i t h his p r e c i o u s f i n d ; b u t , w h i l e he is
b a t h i n g i n a c o o l s p r i n g , a snake c o m e s , attracted b y the a r o m a
o f the p l a n t , a n d eats i t . T h e snake t h e n sheds its o l d s k i n t h i s
s k i n o f snakes was called geras,
m e s h can o n l y l a m e n t his l o s s .
o l d age, b y the Greeks.

1 5
Gilga-
I n the G r e e k v e r s i o n , Z e u s gave
m a n k i n d a d r u g against g r o w i n g o l d as a r e w a r d f o r h a v i n g i n f o r m e d against P r o m e t h e u s .
T h e d r u g is l o a d e d o n t o an
ass.
T h e ass arrives at a s p r i n g a n d w a n t s t o d r i n k , b u t a snake p r e vents h i m f r o m g e t t i n g t o the w a t e r u n t i l the ass gives over

w h a t e v e r he is c a r r y i n g o n his b a c k . T h u s , the snake is able t o
rejuvenate i t s e l f w h i l e m a n k i n d is left e m p t y - h a n d e d . I n w h a t
w e have o f G r e e k l i t e r a t u r e the s t o r y f i r s t appears i n the w o r k o f
Ibycus.
1 6
T h u s i t was k n o w n t o the Greeks i n the archaic p e r i o d .
O n e tends t o t h i n k o f o r a l n a r r a t i v e t r a d i t i o n s at t h i s p o i n t .
T h e basic t h o u g h t a n d general h u m a n e x p e r i e n c e b e h i n d the
s t o r y are d r a m a t i c a l l y i m p r e s s i v e a n d easy t o c o m p r e h e n d .
s t r u c t u r e a n d the details i n I b y c u s differ f r o m those o f
The
Gilga-
mesh: a n o t h e r c o n t e x t , a n o t h e r m o t i v a t i o n , a n o t h e r a n i m a l i n v o l v e d as bearer o f the m i r a c u l o u s substance. T h a t snakes shed

t h e i r s k i n is a b i o l o g i c a l fact, a n d snakes t e n d t o be close t o
w a t e r b o t h i n n a t u r e a n d i n G r e e k m y t h o l o g y . S t i l l , real snakes
d o n o t feed o n herbs o r d r u g s . I t c a n n o t be p r o v e d that the tale
123
T H E
migrated directly f r o m
Gilgamesh
R E V O L U T I O N
to Ibycus.
Yet the
general
f r a m e w o r k o f the o r i e n t a l i z i n g p e r i o d and the connections o f

the G r e e k w i t h t h e M e s o p o t a m i a n a n i m a l fable i n p a r t i c u l a r , this
tale o f l o s t i m m o r t a l i t y b e c o m e s yet a n o t h e r e l e m e n t i n t h e
shared c u l t u r a l h o r i z o n o f East a n d West.
Magic
and
Cosmogony
I t r e m a i n s t o reflect o n h o w m u c h t h e c o n n e c t i n g threads w h i c h
have been
f o l l o w e d here
intertwine:
Images,
practices,
and
m y t h i c a l tales are all m u t u a l l y c o n n e c t e d . Seals, scarabs, a n d

a m u l e t s can be p u t t o p r o f a n e as w e l l as m a g i c a l use. R e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , h o w e v e r , can p r o d u c e a p u r e l y m y t h i c a l f i g u r e f r o m p r o t e c t i v e s y m b o l s : L a m a s h t u b e c o m e s the G o r g o n .
Mythical mo-
tifs can g r o w f r o m i m a g e s s u c h as the c o m b a t s w i t h t h e l i o n a n d

w i t h the seven-headed snake: T h e s e t u r n i n t o tales o f t h e a d v e n tures o f H e r a k l e s , l o c a l i z e d at N e m e a a n d L e r n a ; a n o t h e r b a t t l e
2
w i t h t h e m o n s t r o u s snake changes t o b e c o m e t h e deeds o f Perseus; a n d t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e d e a t h o f A g a m e m n o n c o n 3
nects w i t h t h e H u m b a b a i m a g e s .
I n this way a system o f i n d i g -
enous m e a n i n g s is p r o j e c t e d o n f o r e i g n m a t e r i a l s t o m o d i f y a n d
r e i n f o r c e G r e e k h e r o i c m y t h o l o g y ; m i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n proves t o
be creative, b u t i t s t i l l f o l l o w s t h e lead o f t h e a d o p t e d f o r m s .
T h e fact t h a t m y t h a n d m a g i c r i t u a l can p r o f o u n d l y influence
each o t h e r is w e l l k n o w n .
M a g i c a l i n c a n t a t i o n s t e n d t o use
m y t h i c a l stories as e x e m p l a r y precedents w h i c h p r e d i c t t h e o u t c o m e a n d t h u s assist i n a c h i e v i n g t h e i r a i m . T h i s h o l d s t r u e

f r o m t h e Veda t o s o m e o l d G e r m a n c h a r m s , b u t i t is n o specialty
o f t h e I n d o - E u r o p e a n t r a d i t i o n ; M e s o p o t a m i a n texts p r o v i d e
e x a m p l e s w h i c h are n o less t e l l i n g . T h e r e is t h e m y t h o f A d a p a
the fisher, w h o b r o k e t h e S o u t h W i n d ' s w i n g s w i t h a c h a r m a n d
was s u m m o n e d t o heaven i n consequence; t h e A s s y r i a n v e r s i o n
o f t h i s m y t h t u r n s , i n t h e e n d , i n t o an e x o r c i s m against sickness
supposedly
caused b y t h e S o u t h W i n d . T h e p o e m Erra
ends
w i t h t h e g o d o f w a r a n d pestilence l u c k i l y appeased; t h e t e x t is
t h e r e f o r e w r i t t e n o n m a g i c a m u l e t s t o p r o t e c t against
l e n c e . T h e c r e a t i o n o f m a n k i n d as t o l d i n Atrahasis
6
124
pesti-
is also used
" O R
A L S O
G O D L Y
S I N G E R
"
as a m a g i c a l t e x t t o h e l p at c h i l d b i r t h , a n d t h e tale o f h o w
d r o u g h t was o v e r c o m e ,
making
charm.
f r o m the same t e x t , becomes a r a i n -
A n o t h e r incantation text recounts h o w
the
m o o n g o d Sin couples w i t h a v i r g i n , she as a cow, he as a b u l l ;

the g o d begets c h i l d r e n i n t h i s w a y a n d t h e n lends a h e l p i n g
h a n d t o ease t h e b i r t h : T h i s is a t r a n s p a r e n t m a g i c rite o f c h i l d b i r t h , t o o . T h e s t o r y recalls t h e G r e e k m y t h o f Z e u s a n d I o ,
w h o has been t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o a cow, a n d t h e b i r t h o f E p a p h o s
b y means o f t h e father's h e l p i n g t o u c h (epaphon).
T h e r e are also
c o s m o g o n i c a l texts w h i c h are used against headaches a n d t o o t h ache.
I t is i n this w a y t h a t s p e c u l a t i o n a n d practice m e e t i n the cosm o g o n i c perspective: A n e w a n d p r o p e r o r d e r has t o be created

o r recreated f r o m its v e r y f o u n d a t i o n s . S o m e t h i n g has
gone
w r o n g , as sickness a n d p a i n i n d i c a t e ; so o n e s h o u l d b e g i n afresh
f r o m the b e g i n n i n g . T h e c o s m o g o n i c epic Enuma
Elish
was o f -
f i c i a l l y i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t h e N e w Year's festival at B a b y l o n t o
r e b u i l d the j u s t a n d sacred order, i n c l u d i n g all t h e p r i v i l e g e s o f
the g o d a n d his c i t y . T h i s means t o act o u t the same idea w h i c h
1 0
a m a g i c i a n tries as he is g e t t i n g t o the r o o t o f a p a r t i c u l a r s i c k ness w i t h i n t h e h u g e l y e n l a r g e d f r a m e w o r k o f the c i t y at the

center o f t h e w o r l d . " H i g h " l i t e r a t u r e a n d p r a c t i c a l i n c a n t a t i o n s
c o m e t o g e t h e r o n t h e same l e v e l , at any rate i n t h e East. I t is the
p r a c t i c i n g priests w h o also c o n t r o l t h e l i t e r a r y t e x t s , as is s h o w n
b y the existence o f p r i e s t s ' l i b r a r i e s i n U g a r i t , E m a r , and S u l t a n tepe. '
1
T u r n i n g f r o m this to Greek c i v i l i z a t i o n , we f i n d the double

aspect o f c a t h a r t i c p r a c t i c e a n d speculative m y t h o l o g y c o m b i n e d
in O r p h i s m i n p a r t i c u l a r :
1 2
T h e r e are the m i g r a n t , m e n d i c a n t
priests w i t h t h e i r i n i t i a t i o n s s c o r n e d b y P l a t o ;
1 3
there is the fa-
m o u s and controversial m y t h about the o r i g i n o f m a n k i n d f r o m

the ashes o f t h e T i t a n s w h o h a d t o r n apart D i o n y s u s w h i c h is
w h y w e c a r r y the r e b e l l i o u s as w e l l as the d i v i n e e l e m e n t i n
ourselves.
14
T h e necessary l i n k b e t w e e n r i t u a l a n d a n t h r o p o -
g o n i c m y t h can be seen f r o m t h e f u n c t i o n o f t h e c h a r i s m a t i c
healers: T h e sick p e r s o n desperately asks w h a t t h e source o f the
affliction m i g h t be, " w h e n c e i t s p r a n g , w h a t the r o o t o f e v i l can
125
T H E
R E V O L U T I O N
be, w h i c h g o d s t h e y s h o u l d appease w i t h sacrifice i n o r d e r t o

find relief f r o m their sufferings."
15
T h e answer m u s t lie some-
w h e r e i n t h e past: T h u s E p i m e n i d e s t h e seer " p r o p h e s i e d n o t

about the f u t u r e , b u t about the p a s t . "
1 6
B u t the m o s t
general
a n s w e r w h i c h can be g i v e n , e x t e n d i n g far b e y o n d t h e i n d i v i d u a l
case, is t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f h u m a n existence as t h e consequence
o f an a n c i e n t c r i m e , as a p u n i s h m e n t g o i n g b a c k t o t h e o l d e s t
" w r a t h " o f great g o d s . E m p e d o c l e s ,
as late as t h e f i f t h c e n t u r y ,
is a m i g r a n t seer a n d healer h i m s e l f w h o i d e n t i f i e s his l i f e s t y l e

w i t h t h e f u n d a m e n t a l s o f h u m a n existence: H e r e I a m ,
ished f r o m the gods and a w a n d e r e r . "
"ban-
1 7
F o r classicists t h e fact t h a t t h e D i o n y s i a c - O r p h i c a n t h r o p o g o n y as an e x p l i c i t t e x t is f o u n d o n l y i n O l y m p i o d o r u s , t h a t is,

i n t h e s i x t h c e n t u r y A . D . , has r e p e a t e d l y r o u s e d t h e s u s p i c i o n
t h a t t h i s is a " l a t e i n v e n t i o n . " I t is a l l the m o r e a s t o u n d i n g t h a t
the closest parallels are i n fact p r o v i d e d b y t h e M e s o p o t a m i a n
m y t h o l o g i c a l t e x t s , w h i c h g o b a c k w e l l i n t o t h e second m i l l e n n i u m B . C . T h e Enuma
Elish
depicts t h e c r e a t i o n o f m a n k i n d
f r o m the b l o o d o f a rebellious g o d c o n d e m n e d by the j u d g m e n t

o f the o t h e r g o d s . O t h e r texts offer v a r i a t i o n s o n t h e t h e m e .
1 8
M o r e s t a r t l i n g is t h e v e r s i o n o f the c r e a t i o n o f m a n k i n d as t o l d
i n Atrahasis:
T h e flesh a n d b l o o d o f a g o d m u s t be m i x e d w i t h
clay (tit) " t h a t g o d a n d m a n m a y be t h o r o u g h l y m i x e d i n the

clay: . . . let t h e r e be a s p i r i t f r o m t h e god's flesh: L e t i t p r o c l a i m
l i v i n g [ m a n ] as its s i g n ; t h a t he be n o t f o r g o t t e n , let there be a
spirit."
1 9
T h e w o r d t r a n s l a t e d as " s p i r i t " is etemmu,
which oth-
e r w i s e refers t o a s p i r i t o f t h e dead, o f t e n subject t o e x o r c i s m s .

T h e Atrahasis
2 0
passage e v i d e n t l y has a special, speculative p o i n t
t o m a k e , t h o u g h i t has p r o v e d d i f f i c u l t t o c a p t u r e i t . A
possible
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n is t h a t t h e " g o d ' s flesh" w i t h i n t h e clay is m e a n t

t o a c c o u n t b o t h f o r life i n the l i v i n g b e i n g a n d f o r the g h o s t w h o
is left after d e a t h , " t h a t he be n o t f o r g o t t e n . " C o n t r a s t e d w i t h
" c l a y , " this s t i l l m a r k s t h e r u d i m e n t s o f a d u a l i s t i c a n t h r o p o l o g y
as e a r l y as a t h o u s a n d years before H o m e r : " G o d " g i v i n g rise t o
life a n d " s p i r i t " a m i d s t s o m e f o r m o f m a t t e r t h i s c o n c e p t i o n
states t h e existence o f o p p o s i t e elements i n m a n , v i o l e n t l y yet
" t h o r o u g h l y m i x e d " i n t h e act o f c r e a t i o n . T h e r e is n o a n a c h -
126
OR
A L S O
G O D L Y
S I N G E R
r o n i s m at all i n a t t r i b u t i n g s i m i l a r l o r e t o O r p h i c s as early as the

archaic p e r i o d , the assertion o f s o m e d i v i n e e l e m e n t i n m a n left
f r o m the g o d w h o was k i l l e d at the p r i m o r d i a l act o f c r e a t i o n .
T h e r e m a y even have been d i r e c t l i n k s . ' O f course the O r p h i c
2
m y t h o f D i o n y s u s is n o t a t r a n s l a t i o n f r o m any eastern t e x t . B u t
w e m a y w e l l envisage the e v o l u t i o n o f a c o n t i n u o u s t r a d i t i o n
t h r o u g h those
"families"
o f w a n d e r i n g priests
a n d seers f o r
w h o s e craft a m y t h o f t h i s t y p e was so p r a c t i c a l , nay
almost
necessary. T h i s w o u l d p r o v e once m o r e t h a t the East-West c o n n e c t i o n s w e n t b e y o n d accidental contacts a n d b o r r o w i n g s and

o c c a s i o n a l l y reached the level o f basic a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l ideas.
127
CONCLUSION
To s u m up a l o n g and often tortuous investigation: Emanating

f r o m the N e a r East, i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h m i l i t a r y e x p a n s i o n a n d
g r o w i n g economic activities, a cultural c o n t i n u u m i n c l u d i n g l i t eracy was created b y the e i g h t h c e n t u r y e x t e n d i n g over t h e e n t i r e M e d i t e r r a n e a n ; i t i n v o l v e d g r o u p s o f Greeks w h o entered
i n t o intensive exchange w i t h the h i g h cultures o f the Semitic
East. C u l t u r a l p r e d o m i n a n c e r e m a i n e d f o r a w h i l e w i t h t h e O r i ent; b u t G r e e k s i m m e d i a t e l y b e g a n t o d e v e l o p t h e i r o w n d i s t i n c t i v e f o r m s o f c u l t u r e t h r o u g h an a s t o n i s h i n g a b i l i t y b o t h t o
a d o p t a n d t o t r a n s f o r m w h a t t h e y h a d received. S o o n Greece
was t o take over t h e l e a d i n g r o l e i n M e d i t e r r a n e a n c i v i l i z a t i o n .
It is safe t o state t h a t t h e East-West c o n n e c t i o n s o f t h i s e p o c h
w e r e m o r e i n t e n s i v e t h a n t h e " A e g e a n koine"
o f the B r o n z e A g e .
T h e r e w e r e t h e m i l i t a r y advances f r o m B a b y l o n i a t o C i l i c i a a n d
Cyprus
i n v o l v i n g Greek
merchants,
Greek
mercenaries,
G r e e k cities; t h e r e w e r e t h e s e t t l e m e n t s o f t h e P h o e n i c i a n s
and
on
C y p r u s a n d i n t h e West, o f t h e G r e e k s i n S y r i a a n d t h e n also i n
the West. T h e r e w e r e t h e massive i m p o r t s o f g o o d s ,
metalwork,
especially
b u t also t h e transfer o f m a n u a l craft s k i l l s i n t o
Greece. W i t h b r o n z e reliefs, t e x t i l e s , seals, a n d o t h e r p r o d u c t s ,

a w h o l e w o r l d o f eastern i m a g e s was o p e n e d u p w h i c h the
G r e e k s w e r e o n l y t o o eager t o a d o p t a n d t o adapt i n t h e course
o f an " o r i e n t a l i z i n g r e v o l u t i o n . " A l o n g w i t h o t h e r c r a f t s m e n ,
m i g r a n t seers a n d p u r i f i c a t i o n priests seem t o have a r r i v e d i n
G r e e k cities; l i v e r d i v i n a t i o n , f o u n d a t i o n deposits, t h e practice
128
C O N C L U S I O N
o f c a t h a r t i c h e a l i n g m a g i c all bear t h e traces o f this influence.

O v e r and above all this t h e r e was the d i r e c t i m p a c t o f w r i t t e n
c u l t u r e as s h o w n b y t h e a l p h a b e t , the w r i t i n g tablet, the leather
s c r o l l , a n d t h e f o r m a t o f w r i t i n g b o o k s . T h i s i m p a c t is c o n f i r m e d b y e x t a n t passages o f early G r e e k l i t e r a t u r e that clearly
echo M e s o p o t a m i a n classics. H o m e r ' s decisive r o l e i n f o r m i n g
the w o r l d v i e w o f t h e G r e e k s f o r subsequent ages was
achieved
b y t h e force o f w r i t t e n c u l t u r e i n t o w h i c h the Greeks f i n a l l y

a l l o w e d themselves t o be d r a w n r i g h t at this p e r i o d . Just as i n
the case o f l i v e r d i v i n a t i o n , the l i t e r a r y b o r r o w i n g s seem t o bel o n g o n l y t o t h e last phase o f G r e e k epic p o e t r y ; i t is p o s t B r o n z e A g e w o r k s such as Enuma
Elish a n d Erra w h i c h have left
t h e i r m a r k . I t is p r e c i s e l y t h e H o m e r i c e p o c h o f Greece t h a t is
the e p o c h o f t h e o r i e n t a l i z i n g r e v o l u t i o n .
C u l t u r e is n o t a p l a n t s p r o u t i n g f r o m its seed i n i s o l a t i o n ; i t is
a c o n t i n u o u s process o f l e a r n i n g g u i d e d b y c u r i o s i t y a l o n g w i t h
p r a c t i c a l needs a n d interests. I t g r o w s especially t h r o u g h a w i l l ingness t o l e a r n f r o m w h a t is " o t h e r , " w h a t is strange and f o r e i g n . A r e v o l u t i o n a r y p e r i o d such as the o r i e n t a l i z i n g e p o c h
p r o v i d e d this v e r y o p p o r t u n i t y f o r c u l t u r a l d e v e l o p m e n t .
The
" m i r a c l e o f G r e e c e " is n o t m e r e l y the result o f a u n i q u e talent.

I t also owes its existence t o the s i m p l e p h e n o m e n o n t h a t the
G r e e k s are the m o s t easterly o f the Westerners. U n d e r the special c i r c u m s t a n c e s o f t h e e i g h t h c e n t u r y , t h e y c o u l d p a r t i c i p a t e
i n e v e r y d e v e l o p m e n t at t h e t i m e w i t h o u t f a l l i n g v i c t i m t o the
c o n c o m i t a n t m i l i t a r y devastations,
as d i d t h e i r n e i g h b o r s i n
S y r i a a n d s o u t h e r n A n a t o l i a . T h e m i r a c l e d i d repeat i t s e l f once
again, w h e n t h e Persian E m p i r e reached b u t f i n a l l y spared the
G r e e k s . L a t e r t h e catastrophes w e r e t o c o m e f r o m b o t h t h e West
a n d t h e East. Greece has r e m a i n e d i n an uneasy i n t e r m e d i a r y
p o s i t i o n . H e l l a s is n o t H e s p e r i a .
129
ABBREVIATIONS
C o m m o n periodicals cited i n the notes are referred to b y standard

abbreviations. For f u l l titles o f classical w o r k s cited i n abbreviated
f o r m i n the notes, see The Oxford Classical
Dictionary.
ABV
AHw
ANEP
ANET
Atrahasis
J. D . Beazley, Attic Black-Figure

Vase Painters ( O x f o r d 1956)
W. v o n Soden, Akkadisches Handwrterbuch
(Wiesbaden 1965-1981)
J. B. P r i t c h a r d , ed., The Ancient Near East in Pictures
Relating to the Old Testament, 2d ed. w i t h supplement
(Princeton 1969)
J. B. P r i t c h a r d , ed., Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament, 3d ed. w i t h supplement
(Princeton 1969)
W. G. L a m b e r t and A . R. M i l l a r d , Atra-hasis,
The
Babylonian Story of the Flood ( O x f o r d 1969)
W. v o n Soden, " D i e erste Tafel des altbabylonischen
A t r a m h a s i s - M y t h u s , ' H a u p t t e x t ' u n d Parallelvers i o n e n , " ZA 68 (1978) 5 0 - 9 4
BM
CAD
Translations: B o t t e r o and K r a m e r (1989) 530-564;

D a l l e y (1989) 9 - 3 8
British Museum
I . J. Gelb et a l . , eds., The Assyrian Dictionary of the
Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago (Chicago
1956-)
CAH
The Cambridge
Ancient History
131
(Cambridge-1924-)
A B B R E V I A T I O N S
CIS
CT
Enuma Elish
EPRO
Erra
Gilgamesh
Corpus Inscriptionum Semiticarum (Paris 1881)

C u n e i f o r m texts f r o m B a b y l o n i a n tablets i n the
B r i t i s h M u s e u m ( L o n d o n 1896-)
W. G . L a m b e r t and S. B. Parker, eds., Enuma
Elis
( O x f o r d 1967) ( c u n e i f o r m text)
G. F. Steiner, Der Sukzessionsmythus
in Hesiods
'Thogonie'
und ihren orientalischen Parallelen
(Diss.
H a m b u r g 1959) 7-35 ( t r a n s c r i p t i o n o f Tablets I - V I )
Translations: ANET
6 0 - 7 2 ; Labat et al. (1970) 3 6 70; B o t t r o and K r a m e r (1989) 6 0 4 - 6 5 3 ; D a l l e y
(1989) 233-277
Etudes
prliminaires
aux religions
orientales
dans
l'Empire
romaine, ed. M . J. Vermaseren (Leiden
1961-)
L. C a g n i , L'epopea di Erra ( R o m e 1969) ( t r a n s c r i p t i o n and Italian translation)
L. C a g n i , Das Erra-Epos
( R o m e 1970) ( c u n e i f o r m
text)
Translations: Labat et al. (1970) 114-137; B o t t r o
and K r a m e r (1989) 681-707; D a l l e y (1989) 285-315
R. C . T h o m p s o n , The Epic of Gilgamish. Text, Transliteration and Notes ( O x f o r d 1930)
Translations: ANET
7 2 - 9 9 ; Labat et al. (1970) 145226; A . Schott, Das Gilgamesch-Epos
bersetzt und mit
Anmerkungen
versehen, ed. W. v o n Soden (Stuttgart
1982); D a l l e y (1989) 50-153
HAL
Hebrisches und Aramisches Lexikon zum Alten Testament von L. Koehler und W. Baumgartner,
ed. W.
B a u m g a r t n e r , 3d ed. (Leiden 1967-1990)
HKL
R. Borger, Handbuch der Keilschriftliteratur, vols. IIII

( B e r l i n 1967-1975)
H . D o n n e r and W. R l l i g , Kanaanische und aramische Inschriften,
vols. I - I I I (Wiesbaden 1 9 6 6 1969 )
KAI
KAR
KBo
E. E b e l i n g , Keilschrifttexte aus Assur religisen Inhalts,

vols. III ( L e i p z i g 1915-1923)
Keilschrifttexte
aus Boghazki,
vols. I - V I (Leipzig
1916-23), V I I ff. ( B e r l i n 1954-)
132
A B B R E V I A T I O N S
KTU
KUB
L1MC
LSAM
M . D i e t r i c h , O . L o r e t z , and J. Sanmartfn, Die Keilalphabetischen Texte aus Ugarit einschliesslich der keilalphabetischen Texte ausserhalb Ugarits, v o l . I (Kevelaer 1976)
Keilschrifturkunden
aus Boghazki ( B e r l i n 1921-1944)
Lexicon Iconographicum Mythologiae Classicae ( Z u r i c h
1981-)
F. S o k o l o w s k i , Lois sacres de l'Asie
Mineure
(Paris
1955)
LSCG
LSJ
LSS
Lugal-e
Maql
PGM
F. S o k o l o w s k i , Lois sacres des cits grecques (Paris

1969)
H . G . L i d d e l l , R. Scott, and H . S. Jones, A GreekEnglish Lexicon ( O x f o r d 1925-1940)
F. S o k o l o w s k i , Lois sacres des cits grecques, supplem e n t (Paris 1962)
J. Van D i j k , LUGAL
UD ME-LAM-bi
NIR-GAL,
Le rcit pique et didactique des Travaux de Ninurta, du
Dluge et de la Nouvelle Cration, v o l . I (Leiden 1983)
Translation: B o t t r o and K r a m e r (1989) 340-368
G . Meier, Die assyrische Beschwrungssammlung
Maql
( B e r l i n 1937)
K . Preisendanz, e d . , Papyri Graecae Magicae (Leipzig
1 9 2 8 - 3 1 , S t u t t g a r t 1973-74 )
Paulys Realencyclopdie der classischen
Altertumswissenschaft ( S t u t t g a r t 1894-1980)
Reallexikon der Assyriologie ( B e r l i n 1932-)
W. H . Roscher, e d . , Ausfhrliches
Lexikon der griechischen und rmischen Mythologie (Leipzig 1884-1937)
A . Falkenstein and W. v o n Soden, Sumerische und Akkadische Hymnen und Gebete ( Z u r i c h 1953)
E. Reiner, e d . , A Collection of Sumerian and Akkadian
Incantations (Graz 1958)
H . v o n A r n i m , e d . , Stoicorum Veterum Fragmenta I - I V
( L e i p z i g 1905-1924)
1
RE
RIA
RML
SAHG
Shurpu
S VF
133
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NOTES
Introduction
1. 2. 142.
2. See The Oxford English Dictionary V I I (1933) 199; E. Littr,
Dictionnaire de la tangue franaise V (1857) 1125; J . G r i m m , Deutsches
Wrterbuch V I I (1889) 1345. T h e antithesis oriens-occidens o r i g i n a t e d
i n R o m a n i m p e r i a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n and was taken u p i n C h r i s t i a n
L a t i n literature; see Thesaurus Linguae Latinae I X 2, 2004.52 ff. T h e
m o t t o " E x O r i e n t e L u x " is m o d e r n .
3. T h e e t y m o l o g y o f K a b e i r o i f r o m Semitic kabir, great, goes
back to J . J . Scaliger, Coniectanea in M. Terentium de Lingua I.atina
(1565) 146 ( I o w e this reference t o A . K u r m a n n ) ; see H e m b e r g
C 9 5 ) 318-320; contra,). Wackernagel p r o d u c e d an I n d i a n e t y m o l ogy, ZVS 41 (1907) 316-318, R K r e t s c h m e r another e t y m o l o g y
f r o m Asia M i n o r , ZVS 55 (1928) 8 2 - 8 8 . T h e idea o f " g r e a t " gods
expressed b y t h e Semitic r o o t kbr is n o w definitely attested f o r
N o r t h Syria i n the t h i r t e e n t h century B . C . : T h e n e w texts f r o m
E m a r have personal names such as Rasap-Kabar and Baal-Kabar,
"Reshep" o r " B a a l is great," A r n a u d (1985/87) n o . 15, line 15; n o .
20, p. 23 f. T h e equation o f K a d m o s w i t h Semitic qdm, East, is
traced back t o 1646 b y E d w a r d s (1979) 58 n.6o; that o f Europa w i t h
rb, sunset, West, is ancient: ETJOU'OT]- f| %()Qa xf\ bvaew,
Hsch.;
cf. E d w a r d s 78 f.; see also B u r k e r t (1991). O n lapetos see Chapter
i , " T h e P r o b l e m o f L o a n - W o r d s , " note 37.
1
4. R. Pfeiffer, History of Classical Scholarship from 1300 to 1850

(1976) 173 gives m o r e precise i n f o r m a t i o n ; see also E. Schrder,
" P h i l o l o g i a e studiosus," NJb 32 (1913) 168-171; E. J. Kenney, The
153
N O T E S
T O
P A G E S
2-3
Classical Text (1974) 98 n . 1; H . Lloyd-Jones, Blood for the Ghosts

(1982) 169 n.8.
5. T h e G e r m a n t e r m was Stammeskultur. See B u r k e r t (1980)
162-168 and the provocative s t u d y o f Bernal (1987), w h o is sharply
critical o f this a n t i - o r i e n t a l stance; see for discussion o f his p o s i t i o n :
" T h e Challenge o f ' B l a c k A t h e n a , ' " Arethusa special issue 1989.
K. O . M l l e r had challenged the Semitic e t y m o l o g y o f the name
K a d m o s : Orchomenos und die Minyer (1820) 113-122 and (1844 )
107-116.
2
6. See L . P o l i a k o v , Le my the arien (1971), The Aryan

Myth
(1974), A basic contrast between Greeks and Semites is stated, e.g.,
b y F. G . Welcker, Griechische
Gtterlehre
I (1857) 116-118a
scholar w h o was a n y t h i n g b u t n a r r o w - m i n d e d .
7. See, e . g . , K . Lehrs, Populre Aufstze aus dem Alterthum
(1856) v i i i ; cf. (1875 ) v i : "dass i c h unter Griechen dasjenige V o l k
verstehe, welches i n Griechenland w o h n t e u n d Griechen hiess,
durchaus keine N a t i o n a m Ganges oder H i m a l a y a . " See also i d e m ,
Kleine Schriften (1902) 388 f. K a r l Lehrs was b o r n a Jew, b u t assimilated t o G e r m a n - C h r i s t i a n c u l t u r e .
2
8. See also the arguments o f E. Zeller against the supposed

oriental " o r i g i n " o f Greek p h i l o s o p h y i n his Die griechische Philosophie in ihrer geschichtlichen Entwicklung I (1856) 18-34
d I (i9i9)
21-52; H . Diels uses a sharper tone i n his r e v i e w o f G r u p p e (1887),
AGPh 2 (1889) 8 8 - 9 3 ; i d e m , "Thaies ein Semite?" i b i d . 165-170.
2
9. U . v o n W i l a m o w i t z - M o e l l e n d o r f f , Homerische
Untersuchungen (1884) 215: " d i e seit Jahrhunderten faulenden v l k e r u n d Staaten
der Semiten u n d A e g y p t e r , die den H e l l e n e n t r o t z ihrer alten c u l t u r
nichts hatten abgeben k n n e n als ein paar Handfertigkeiten u n d
techniken, abgeschmackte trachten u n d gerate, zopfige Ornamente,
w i d e r l i c h e fetische fr n o c h w i d e r l i c h e r e g t z e n " ; i d e m , Hellenistische Dichtung I (1924) 2: "aus d e m O r i e n t u n d ist d e m echten H e l l e n e n t u m t o d f e i n d " ; see also i d e m , Aus Kydathen (1880) 40; he also
w r o t e that Poseidonios is " d o c h schon orientalisch i n f i z i e r t " (Die
Kultur der Gegenwart [1910 ] 145), a l t h o u g h "eine N a t u r w i s s e n schaft w i e die des Poseidonios hat k e i n Semit i m A l t e r t u m auch
n u r v o n fern b e g r if f e n" (Der Glaube der Hellenen I I [1932] 403). Yet
he acknowledges the parallel o f H e s i o d and A m o s , Antigonos von
Karystos (1881) 314 f., and provides m o r e balanced j u d g m e n t s o n
the o r i e n t a l i z i n g p e r i o d i n Der Glaube der Hellenen I (1931) 76, I I
3
154
N O T E S
T O
P A G E S
3-4
(1932) 7. W i l a m o w i t z had learned H e b r e w at Schulpforta'see his

Inwieweit befriedigen die Schlsse der erhaltenen griechischen
Trauerspiele? ed. W. M . Calder (1974) 116 f . b u t he d i d n o t let this show
in his later p u b l i c a t i o n s .
10. As a y o u n g m a n W i l a m o w i t z r i d i c u l e d Schliemann; see his
Erinnerungen (1928) 148. T h e interrelations o f Mycenaean c i v i l i z a t i o n and H o m e r d r e w a t t e n t i o n esp. i n E n g l i s h scholarship; an i n fluential synthesis was given by M . P. N i l s s o n , Homer and Mycenae
(1933) ; see esp. 19-30 o n the h i s t o r y o f scholarship.
11. A . J e r e m i a s , Izdubar-Nimrod,
eine altbabylonische
Heldensage
(1891) and RML
(1890/94) I I 773-823, r e p u d i a t i n g the reading
" G i l g a m e s h , " 774; " I z d u b a r " also i n H . Usener, Die
Sintfluthsagen
(1899) 4 ff., w h o tries t o prove the independence o f the Greek m y t h
o f the flood f r o m the Semites. I n RE I A 1405 (Tkac, 1920) one
finds " G i s - d u b a r r u , auch G i b i l - g a m i s u n d N a m r u d u genannt." O n
the f o r m s o f spelling G i l g a m e s h i n c u n e i f o r m see H . Z i m m e r n i n
O b e r h u b e r (1977) 23.
12. See W i l a m o w i t z , Die Heimkehr des Odysseus (1927) v i ,
about " d i e A n f n g e der A s s y r i o l o g i e , die ich m i t e r l e b t habe": " a u f
d e m Nachbargebiet wartet man besser ab." T h e slogan " B a b e l u n d
B i b e l " was launched b y t w o lectures given i n the presence o f the
e m p e r o r b y E Delitzsch, published i n B e r l i n i n 1903; the designat i o n " P a n b a b y l o n i s m u s " was used b y A . Jeremias i n his preface t o
Das Alte Testament im Lichte des alten Orients (1906 , 1930 ); see also
A . Jeremias, Die Panbabylonisten
(1907); Handbuch der altorientalischen Geisteskultur
(1913, 1929 ); H . Winckler, Die
babylonische
Geisteskultur (1907, 1912 ); P. Jensen, Das Gilgamesch-Epos
in der
Weltliteratur I / I I (1906/28); see also Jensen (1912/13) and (1924).
2
13. W i r t h (1921); see Chapter 3. As t o the h i s t o r y o f r e l i g i o n ,

o n l y Farnell (1911) u n d e r t o o k m e t h o d i c a l discussion; see Chapter
2, " P u r i f i c a t i o n . "
14. E. Meyer, Geschichte des Altertums I (1884), P (1913); o r i ental h i s t o r y and classical h i s t o r y were also c o m b i n e d i n the w o r k
o f C. E L e h m a n n - H a u p t ; W. O t t o changed the title o f Handbuch der
klassischen Altertumswissenschaft
t o Handbuch der Altertumswissenschaft
i n 1920. M u c h earlier A . B o e c k h and E H u l t s c h had proved rem a r k a b l e connections between Greek and oriental c i v i l i z a t i o n i n
m e t r o l o g y , the system o f measures and weights.
15. J. Beloch, " D i e Phoeniker a m aegaeischen Meer," RhM 49
155
N O T E S
T O
P A G E S
4 - 5
(1894) m - 1 3 2 ; i d e m , Griechische Geschichte I (1893) 75 f., 167 f.

and I 2 (1913) 65-76. O n Julius B e l o c h see A . M o m i g l i a n o , Terzo
contribute alia storia degli studi classici e del mondo antico (1966) 2 3 9 269; K . C h r i s t , Von Gibbon zu Rostovtzeff (1979) 2 4 8 - 2 8 5 . I n fact
even F. C . M o v e r s , Die Phnizier
(1841/56), L e w y (1895), a n d
B r o w n (1898) had r e m a i n e d outsiders, as d i d B e r a r d (1902/03 and
m a n y later p u b l i c a t i o n s ) . For corrections o f Beloch's p i c t u r e o f the
Phoenicians see N i e m e y e r (1982), esp. the article b y C o l d s t r e a m .
2
16. H o g a r t h (1909) had concentrated o n Ionia. Poulsen (1912)

also dealt w i t h H o m e r (168-183). See also M l l e r (1929), B a r n e t t
(1956), A k u r g a l (1968), and S t r e m (1971); cf. C h a pt e r 1, " O r i e n t a l
Products i n Greece."
17. See Schefold (1967) 19: "Es ist also eine n i c h t sehr g l c k liche G e w o h n h e i t , die K u n s t des 7. Jahrhunderts 'orientalisierend'
zu n e n n e n . " T h e t e r m the orientalizing revolution is f r o m B o a r d m a n
(1990).
18. See his r e v i e w o f CAH i n Gnomon 7 (1931) 65-74.
19. F. B o l l and K . B e z o l d , Reflexe astrologischer
Keilinschriften
bei griechischen Schriftstellern, Sitzungsber. H e i d e l b e r g 1911.7; i d e m ,
Zenit- und Aequatorialgestirne
am babylonischen Fixsternhimmel,
ibid.
1913.11; i d e m , " E i n e neue babylonisch-griechische Parallele," i n
Aufstze zur Kultur- und Sprachgeschichte E. Kuhn gewidmet (1916)
226-235; i d e m , Sternglaube und Sterndeutung (1918, 1931 ); F. B o l l ,
" Z u r b a b y l o n i s c h e n P l a n e t e n o r d n u n g , " ZA 25 (1911) 372-377;
i d e m , " N e u e s zur b a b y l o n i s c h e n P l a n e t e n o r d n u n g , " i b i d . 28 (1914)
3 4 0 - 3 5 1 ; i d e m , Antike Beobachtungen farbiger Sterne, A b h . M n c h e n
30 (1916). Boll's o b i t u a r y o f C a r l B e z o l d is i n F. B o l l , Kleine Schriften zur Sternkunde des Altertums (1950) 397-405; cf. i b i d . x x i i i f.; O .
Neugebauer, " Z u r Geschichte des P y t h a g o r i s c h e n Lehrsatzes,"
NGG math.-ph. Kl. (1928) 4 5 - 4 8 ; cf. B u r k e r t (1972) 429.
4
20. D o r n s e i f f (1933) 25-27, f o l l o w i n g E. H o n i g m a n n , RE I V

A (1932) 1577 s.v. Syria; and W. P o r z i g , " I l l u y a n k a s u n d T y p h o n , "
i n Kleinasiatische Forschungen I 3 (1930) 379-386. See f u r t h e r D o r n seiff (1934) and (1937).
21. H . G . G t e r b o c k , Kumarbi,
Mythen
vom churritischen
Kronos (1946) and The Song of Ullikummi (1952); Lesky (1950),
(1954), (1955); D i r l m e i e r (1955); H e u b e c k (1955); Steiner (1959);
Walcot (1966); West (1966); see already D o r n s e i f f (1937) = (1959)
55-
156
j
N O T E S
T O
P A G E S
5-8
22. Lesky (1955); D i r l m e i e r (1955); G o r d o n (1955) w i t h the

r e v i e w o f Lesky Gnomon 29 (1957) 321-325; Webster (1956) and
(1958); H . H a a g , Homer, Ugarit und das Alte Testament (1962); g o i n g
t o o far was A s t o u r (1965), criticized b y j . B o a r d m a n , CR 16 (1966)
86-88.
23. Eissfeldt (1939), (1952); H e u b e c k (1955); see n o w B a u m garten (1981).
24. See G o r d o n (1955), Webster (1958), A s t o u r (1965) w i t h his
characteristic subtitle, H a r m a t t a (1968), Laroche (1973), Stella
(1978), D u c h e m i n (1980a) 848 f.; J. B o u z e k , The Aegean,
Anatolia
and Europe: Cultural Interrelations in the 2nd Millennium B.C. (1985);
J. L. C r o w l e y , The Aegean and the East (1989); C. L a m b r o u P h i l i p p s o n , Hellenorientalia:
The Near Eastern Presence in the Bronze
Age Aegean, ca. 3000-1100 B.C. (1990).
25. A . R e h m , Handbuch der Archologie I (1939) 197 f.; cf. 194
f.: "lieber ins X . als ins I X . J a h r h u n d e r t " ; hence G. Klaffenbach,
Griechische Epigraphik (1957) 35, m o r e cautious (1966 ) 36; see also
W Schadewaldt, Von Homers Welt und Werk (1951 ) 26 and 94 n.4;
Heubeck (1955) 521 n.56: " A u f alle Flle k o m m e n w i r betrchtlich
v o r die Epoche der 'orientalisierenden' K u n s t . " T h e early date for
Greek w r i t i n g was refuted b y j e f f e r y (1961); see Chapter 1, " W r i t i n g and L i t e r a t u r e i n the E i g h t h C e n t u r y . "
2
26. See Chapter 1.

27. See alsojeffery (1976), M u r r a y (1980).
28. I t was H e u b e c k (1955) w h o argued for post-Mycenaean
transmission o f eastern, esp. H i t t i t e m y t h o l o g y ; see also F. Schachermeyr, Die griechische Rckerinnerung im Lichte neuer Forschungen,
Sitzungsber. W i e n 404 (1983) 23.
29. Od. 17.383-385. See C o n t e n t s .
30. See esp. Walcot (1966) and West (1966), (1978b). A n i m p o r t a n t n e w parallel t o the a d o r n m e n t o f Pandora is W. R.
Mayer
(1987).
31. T h e locus classicus for this thesis is already [Plat.] Epin.
987d; cf. O r i g . Cels.
1.2.
32. T h e a u t h o r is a Flellenist, n o t an orientalist, b u t he has
made some effort t o s t u d y the Semitic texts i n the o r i g i n a l .
33. Special fields are d r i f t i n g apart: T h e e x t r e m e l y useful article " G r i e c h e n " b y W. R l l i g in RIA I I I (1971) 6 4 3 - 6 4 7 ignores the
presence o f Greeks i n Syria and C i l i c i a d u r i n g the e i g h t h century,
'57
I
N O T E S
T O
P A G E S
O - I I
hence j u d g e s the oldest c u n e i f o r m text about Greeks (see Chapter

i , " H i s t o r i c a l B a c k g r o u n d , " note 15) to be " q u i t e u n c e r t a i n " (643),
and states that there can be no question o f any direct influence o n
H o m e r ("dass etwa v o n e i n e m d i r e k t e n Einfluss a u f H o m e r . . .
keine Rede sein k a n n , " 646).
/. "Who Are Public
HISTORICAL
Workers"
BACKGROUND
1. For a historical survey see CAH I I I 3, i n c l u d i n g B r a u n

(1982a), (1982b); K l e n g e l (1980); M u r r a y (1980). A keen and i n t e r esting study b y M a z z a r i n o (1947) is n o w o u t d a t e d i n some respects;
see also A . M o m i g l i a n o , Quarto contribute alia storia degli studi classici
e del mondo antico (1969) 581-588. T h e names o f A s s y r i a n and B a b y l o n i a n kings usually appear i n f o u r variants i n o u r t r a d i t i o n , dep e n d i n g o n the H e b r e w B i b l e , the Greek B i b l e (Septuagint), the
L a t i n B i b l e , and technical t r a n s c r i p t i o n o f A k k a d i a n , respectively.
Here the (questionable) praxis o f CAH
is f o l l o w e d .
2. See Sendschitii I - V (the T u r k i s h name o f this site has been
spelled Z i n c i r l i since the i n t r o d u c t i o n o f the L a t i n alphabet i n T u r k e y ) ; Landsberger (1948); m o r e recent special studies are W i n t e r
(1973), Genge (1979), and a survey i n van L o o n (1991) 1-15.
2
3. A bronze b o w l w i t h a Phoenician i n s c r i p t i o n was f o u n d i n

a t o m b at Knossos, dated about 900 B . C . : Arch.Rep.
1976/77, 1114; M . Sznycer, Kadmos 18 (1979) 8 9 - 9 3 ; C o l d s t r e a m (1982) 263,
271, p i . 27. See also Stucky (1981), B l o m e (1982).
4. See O p p e n h e i m (1967/69), Wafler (1982), R l l i g (1982) 26.
5. See Chap te r 1, " W r i t i n g and Literature i n the E i g h t h C e n tury."
6. See V. K a r a g e o r g h i s , Kition,
Mycenaean and
Phoenician
(1976); i d e m , Excavations at Kition I I I (1977) 7-10; N . C o l d s t r e a m ,
JHS 102 (1982) 288 f., i n his r e v i e w o f V. Karageorghis and J. Des
Gagniers, La cramique chypriote de style figur (1974/79); C o l d stream, Archaeology in Cyprus (1985) 58. Cf. i n general S. F r a n k enstein, " T h e Phoenicians i n the Far West: A F u n c t i o n o f N e o A s s y r i a n I m p e r i a l i s m , " i n Power and Propaganda, ed. M . T r o l l e
Larsen (1979) 263-294.
7. See W o o l l e y (1953); M u r r a y (1980) 91-93; B o a r d m a n (1980)
35-54 and (1990); B r a u n (1982a) 7-11; C o l d s t r e a m (1982) 262; Riis
(1982).
158
N O T E S
T O
P A G E
12
8. B o a r d m a n (1965) and (1980) 45 f.

9. Riis (1970), and (1982); R C o u r b i n , "Fragments d'amphores
p r o t o g o m e t r i q u e s grecques Bassit," i n Resurrecting the Past, ed.
P. M a t t h i a e , M . van L o o n , and FL Weiss (1990) 4 9 - 6 4 .
10. P o p h a m , Sackett, and T h e m e l i s (1980); cf. Arch.Rep.
1984/
85 (relations t o A t h e n s and t o the O r i e n t ) and 1988/89, 117-129;
the F l e r o o n o f the t e n t h c e n t u r y : M . R. P o p h a m , " T h e H e r o o f
I . e f k a n d i , " Antiquity 51 (1982) 169-176. Euboea has made its i m pact o n H o m e r i c studies: West (1978a), (1978b) 29 f., (1988) 165169; P. Wathelet, " L a langue h o m r i q u e et le rayonnement littraire
de l ' E u b e , " AC 50 (1981) 819-833; B l o m e (1984). West t h i n k s
(oral c o m m u n i c a t i o n ) that "farther than E u b o e a " i n the m o u t h o f
i m a g i n a r y Phaeacians (Od. 7.321) means that, e contrario, Euboea is
the center i n the real w o r l d .
11. T h e finds, m a i n l y due t o G i o r g i o B c h n e r , have never been
f u l l y published; the greatest sensation was created by the " c u p o f
N e s t o r " i n 1955. See G. B u c h n e r i n R i d g w a y and R i d g w a y (1979)
129-144 and (1982); B o a r d m a n (1980) 165-169; K o p e k e (1990)
i o i - n o ; o n E g y p t i a n objects H l b l (1979); o n the documents for
w r i t i n g see Chapter 1, " W r i t i n g and Literature i n the E i g h t h C e n tury."
12. See Chapter 1, " W r i t i n g and Literature i n the E i g h t h C e n tury."
13. O n solos see C h a p t e r
note 29. For " C h a l k i s " see M .
chischen Nominalsuffixes
(1975)
sasu): W. F. A l b r i g h t , BASOR
w h e t h e r Tarsis refers to Tarsos
Tarschisch (1984).
1, " T h e P r o b l e m o f L o a n - W o r d s , "
Meier, -id-. Zur Geschichte eines grie52 f.; Tarsis, f o u n d r y (Assyrian ra81 (1941) 14 f.; i t is controversial
or t o some place i n Spain: M . K o c h ,
14. Od. 1.184; the place-name m e n t i o n e d i n this verse was

controversial already i n a n t i q u i t y : T e u i o n v is the reading o f the
manuscripts and s h o u l d refer t o a place i n southern Italy, b u t
S t e p h . B y z . s.v. Tamasos attests T d j x a o o v , i.e., a c i t y i n C y p r u s ; cf.
B r a u n (1982a) 13; K . H a d j i i o a n n o u , AA 81 (1966) 205-210, suggested EC T ' "Akaaiv,
Alasia being the B r o n z e A g e name either o f
C y p r u s or o f the m o s t i m p o r t a n t c i t y o f C y p r u s ( E n k o m i ) .
15. H . W. Saggs, Iraq 25 (1963) 7 6 - 7 8 ; B r a u n (1982a) 15. T h e
bronze plaques o f K i n g Hazael, p i o u s l y dedicated t o Hera o f Samos
and A p o l l o o f Eretria i n consequence (see Chapter 1, " O r i e n t a l
159
N O T E S
T O
P A G E S
12-13
Products i n Greece," note 14), may w e l l have been l o o t e d at such

an occasion. E p h a l and N a v e h (1989) conclude f r o m the i n s c r i p t i o n
" W h a t H a d a d has g i v e n t o L o r d Hazael f r o m U m q i . . ." that H a zael h i m s e l f had t a k e n the pieces as b o o t y , b u t they d o n o t see such
a chance for Greeks (200).
c
16. B e l o c h (1913) I 2 67 f.; L. W. K i n g , JHS 30 (1910) 327335; L u c k e n b i l l (1933); M a z z a r i n o (1947) 112-130; B r a u n (1982a)
1-5. "Jawan" appears a m o n g the p r o g e n y o f N o a h i n the "table o f
n a t i o n s " i n Genesis 10:2-4; his " s o n s " seem t o refer t o C y p r u s ,
Tarsos, and Rhodes; see West (1985) 14 f.
2
17. A n i n s c r i p t i o n o f Essarhaddon has b o t h names, Iadnana

and lawan, and keeps t h e m d i s t i n c t ; see H i r s c h b e r g (1932) 68; B o r ger (1956) 86 57 line 10; cf. L u c k e n b i l l (1933), B r a u n (1982a) 3,
20; against B e l o c h and M a z z a r i n o , w h o identified b o t h names. A l l
the evidence about Iadnana and Iamani is i n S. Parpola,
Neo-Assyrian
Toponyms (1970) 183, 186 f.
18. //. 13.685. U . v o n W i l a m o w i t z - M o e l l e n d o r f f , Die Mas und
Homer (1916) 227 n . i , w r o t e : " D i e I o n i e r sind m i t den A t h e n e r n
i d e n t i s c h " f o r h i m , this is a " l a t e " i n t e r p o l a t i o n ; he was unaware
o f the i m p o r t a n c e o f Euboea and Athens i n the e i g h t h century. T h e
p r o b l e m about TdFoveg is that especially i n the A t t i c / I o n i a n dialect F had disappeared early and c o n t r a c t i o n o c c u r r e d , r e s u l t i n g i n
Ttoveg. I t has been suggested that 'IdFoveg is m u c h older than the
e i g h t h c e n t u r y ; see J. C h a d w i c k i n Greece and the Eastern Mediterranean in Ancient History and Prehistory, Studies Presented to F. Schachermeyr (1977) 106-109: " A g r o u p o f the Mycenaean inhabitants
o f Greece called themselves T d F o v e g " (109). Yet i t is a fact that the
u n c o n t r a c t e d f o r m remained i n current use, and this is h a r d l y a
result o f the epic t r a d i t i o n : I t m u s t have been used b y n o n - I o n i a n s ,
i.e., D o r i a n s and C y p r i a n s ; Tarsos, C y p r u s , and Rhodes were
p r o m i n e n t i n the v i e w f r o m the East (see note 16 above); people
f r o m these places w i l l have referred to Euboeans and Athenians as
Iawones. For Persians speaking o f Iaones, see Aesch. Persae, A r i s t o p h . Ach. 104. Even the " l o n i a n s " o f Sicily do n o t stem f r o m Asia
M i n o r , b u t f r o m e i g h t h - c e n t u r y N a x o s . T h e " I o n i a n " sea seems t o
m a r k the E u b o e a n - N a x i a n r o u t e t o I t a l y and Sicily ( a l t h o u g h the
d e v e l o p m e n t f r o m * T a o v t o g t o T o v t o g is n o t w i t h o u t difficulty
either).
19. Stele o f K i t i o n : L u c k e n b i l l (1927) I I 179-189; cf. 70,
160
N O T E S
T O
P A G E S
1 3 - I 4
99; E l a y i and Cavigneau (1979). I a m a n i : L u c k e n b i l l (1927) I I 30,

6 2 - 6 3 , 7 9 - 8 o , 294-295; ANET
285 f.; hailed b y H . B e n g t s o n ,
Griechische Geschichtc (1950) 21 and 69, (1977 ) 24 and 77, as the
first contact o f Greeks and Assyrians, H . T a d m o r , JCS
12 (1958)
80 n.219; E l a y i and C a v i g n e a u (1979) plead to understand Iamani as
a personal name o f local t y p e , n o t m e a n i n g " t h e Greek."
20. See Laminger-Pascher (1989) 16-25.
5
21. Berossos; FGrHist 680 F 7 p. 386; A b y d e n o s : FGrHist

685
F 5 6; Streck (1916) c c c x c i - i i i . T h e m o r e authentic t r a d i t i o n is to
be f o u n d w i t h A b y d e n o s ; see M o m i g l i a n o (1934); cf. M a z z a r i n o
(1947) 125 f., B o a r d m a n (1965).
22. B o r g e r (1956) 60; L u c k e n b i l l (1927) I I 690.
23. First m e n t i o n e d b y H d t . 2.150.3 and H e l l a n i k o s , FGrHist
4 F 63, i.e., before the histories o f Ktesias. See Streck (1916) I
c c c l x x x v i - c d v ; an i m p o r t a n t d o c u m e n t is Streck I I 140 f , the p r i s m
o f A s h u r b a n i p a l c o n t a i n i n g a list o f kings o f C y p r u s ; cf. C. B a u r a i n , BCH 105 (1981) 366-370.
24. Hence G. Scheibner,
Wissenschaftliche Zeitschrift
der
Friedrich-Schiller-Universitat
Jena, gesellsch. u. sprachwiss., Reihe 15
( 965) 9 3 - 9 6 , t h i n k s this is a terminus ante quern for the H o m e r i c
poems w h i c h a c k n o w l e d g e the riches o f Sidon; cf. B u r k e r t , WSt 89
(1976) 20.
T
25. For the various consecutive versions o f the contacts w i t h

L y d i a i n Ashurbanipal's Annals see C o g a n and T a d m o r (1977); the
final version is i n Streck (1916) I I 2 0 - 2 3 ; cf- L u c k e n b i l l (1927) I I
849, 909 f.
26. H e r o d o t u s 5.49-53 describes the " R o y a l R o a d " w h i c h still
goes via G o r d i o n i n P h r y g i a ; i.e., i t presupposes the r o u t e P h r y g i a C i l i c i a - A s s y r i a , whereas X e n o p h o n i n the service o f C y r u s t o o k
the shorter r o u t e via K e l a i n a i - I k o n i o n . See R. W M a c a n , Herodotus
Books IV V VI (1895) I I 289-303; H a n f m a n n (1948). Before the
discoveries at Euboea and A l M i n a , scholars, f o l l o w i n g H o g a r t h
(1909), had overestimated the i m p o r t a n c e o f " I o n i a " i n Asia M i n o r
as to oriental contacts for the early p e r i o d . Barnett (1956) had ass u m e d another r o u t e f r o m U r a r t u t o Trapezunt at the Black Sea;
contra, Carter (1972) 41 w i t h n . 86. For a reassessment o f the dev e l o p m e n t o f Ionia see R. M . C o o k , " I o n i a and Greece i n the
E i g h t h and Seventh Centuries B . C . , " JHS 66 (1946) 6 7 - 9 8 .
161
N O T E S
T O
P A G E S
I 5 -
I 6
O R I E N T A L P R O D U C T S I N GREECE
1. See Poulsen (1912), D u n b a b i n (1957), A k u r g a l (1968),

H e r r m a n n (1975), H e l c k , (1979), B o a r d m a n (1980), B r a u n (1982a),
K o p e k e (1990); cf. also I n t r o d u c t i o n at note 16.
2. Barnett (1948), (1956); Greifenhagen (1965); B. FreyerSchauenburg, Elfenbeine
aus dem samischen Heraion (1966); E . - L .
M a r a n g o u , Lakonische
Elfenbeinund Beinschnitzereien
(1969); I .
Winter, Iraq 38 (1976) 1-26; G. H e r r m a n n , Iraq 51 (1989) 85-109;
see also H e l c k (1979) 175 n.28; B o a r d m a n (1980) 62 f., w h o also
illustrates the remarkable i v o r y statuettes f r o m a t o m b at A t h e n s ,
t h i r d quarter o f the e i g h t h century.
3. E. D i e h l , AA 1965, 827-850; R. A . Stucky, Engraved Tridacna Shells (1974); B o a r d m a n (1980) 71 f.; S. Boessneck and A .
v o n den D r i e s c h , MDAI
(Athens) 98 (1983) 22-24.
4. //. 14.183; see C. Kardara, AJA 65 (1961) 6 2 - 6 4 ; f - E- L .
S m i t h s o n , Hesperia 37 (1968) 77-116 w i t h p i . 33: a necklace f r o m a
t o m b at the A r e o p a g u s , A t h e n s , m i d - n m t h century; P o p h a m ,
Sackett, and T h e m e h s (1980) 221 p i . 2 3 i d ; cf. BSA 77 (1982) p i .
30b: i m p o r t and local i m i t a t i o n ; see further H e l c k (1979) 203 f.;
B o a r d m a n (1980) 76; C o l d s t r e a m (1982) 266.
c
5. J. B o a r d m a n , Island Gems (1963) and Archaic Greek Gems

(1968); B o a r d m a n and Vbllenweider (1978); B o a r d m a n (1980) 71;
and AA 1990, 1-17; a deposit at the t e m p l e o f A p o l l o , Eretria: BCH
103 (1979) 597-599 and 104 (1980) 657 f. f i g . 156; Arch.Rep, 1980/
81, 8 f i g . 8.
6. B o a r d m a n and B c h n e r (1966); cf. P. Zazoff,
Gemmen (1983) 59.
Die antiken
7. P o p h a m , Sackett, a n d T h e m e l i s (1980) pis. 233c, 2350-e;

C o l d s t r e a m (1982) 264 f.; C . B e r a r d , Eretria I I I : L'Heroon la Porte
de VOuest (1970) 14-16; M u r r a y (1980) 70.
8. A . F u r t w n g l e r , " D i e B r o n z e n u n d die b r i g e n kleineren
Funde v o n O l y m p i a , " i n Olympia I V (1890) 187; E. D i e h l , A A
1965, 823-827 (Samos); H . Gallet de Santerre and J. Treheux, BCH
71/72 (1947/48) 240-243 f l g . 39 (Delos).
9. //. 23.741-745; Od.4. 615-619; f o r the shield o f Achilles, //.
18, see Fittschen (1973). T h e bronze and silver b o w l s have been
comprehensively treated b y M a r k o e (1985); earlier studies include
K. K u b i e r , Kerameikos V 1 (1954) 201-205; Canciani (1970); Carter
162
N O T E S
T O
P A G E S
I 6 -
(1972); I m a i (1977); B o r e l l (1978) 7 4 - 9 2 . See, i n general, C u r t i s

(1988) , esp. G. Falsone, "Phoenicia as a B r o n z e w o r k i n g C e n t r e i n
the I r o n A g e , " 227-250.
10. O l y m p i a : F u r t w n g l e r (see above, note 8) 141 p i . 52; CIS
I I 112 (not i n K/47). B o w l f r o m Pontecagnano near Salerno, i n the
T y s k i e w i c z C o l l e c t i o n , Paris: B. D ' A g o s t i n o , Stud.Etr. 45 (1977)
51-58; G. G a r b i n i , i b i d . 5 8 - 6 2 . Praeneste, I ' o m b a B e r n a r d i n i : CIS
I 164; Guzzo A m a d a s i (1967) 157 f. Falerii: M . C r i s t o f a n i and P.
F r o n z a r d i , Stud.Etr. 39 (1971) 313-331. See also above, " H i s t o r i c a l
B a c k g r o u n d , " n o t e 40, on the Phoenician b o w l f r o m Knossos. Cf.
B o r e l l (1978) 8 0 - 8 2 .
11. To be p u b l i s h e d b y B. Seidel-Borell; cf. E. Kunze,
Arch.Delt.
17 B (1961/62) 115 f. pis. 129-130 and 19 B (1964) p i .
181 b - c ; A . M a l l w i t z and H . V. H e r r m a n n , Die Funde aus Olympia
(1980) 53 f. pis. 23-24. For a Late H i t t i t e l i o n p r o t o m e f o u n d at
O l y m p i a ( f r o m a v o t i v e shield?), see Illustrated London News, 25
J u l y 1964, 121; H . V. H e r r m a n n , 10. Bericht ber die Ausgrabungen
in Olympia (1981) 7 2 - 8 2 .
12. H . V. H e r r m a n n , Die Kessel der orientalisierenden Zeit IUI
( O l y m p i s c h e Forschungen 6 and n ) (1966, 1979); cf. i d e m , Jdl 81
(1966) 7 9 - 1 4 1 ; H e r r m a n n (1975) 306 f.; B o a r d m a n (1980) 6 4 - 6 7 .
13. K u n z e (1931); C a n c i a n i (1970); H e r r m a n n , Olympische
Forschungen 6 (1966) 179-185 and (1975) 308, t h i n k s they are i m ports; H e l c k (1979) 191 f.; B o a r d m a n (1980) 5 8 - 6 0 ; H . V e r b r u g gen, Le Zeus cretois (1981) 71-99; B l o m e (1982) 15-23; K o p e k e
(1990) 111 t h i n k s o f a cult b y "Semites"; sec also at n . 38. For recent
excavations i n the Idaean cave see J. A . Sakellarakis i n H g g , M a rinatos, and N o r d q u i s t (1988) 173-193, esp. n.6.
14. H e r r m a n n (1975) 308 f.; H e l c k (1979) 187-190; B u r k e r t
(1979) 114-118; B o a r d m a n (1980) 69 f.; H . P h i l i p p , 10. Bericht ber
die Ausgrabungen in Olympia (1981) 91-108. Hazael's bronze plates:
C h a r b o n n e t (1986); K y r i e l e i s and R l l i g (1988); B r o n and Lemaire
(1989) ; D . Parayre, Rev. d'Ass. 83 (1989) 4 5 - 5 1 ; E p h a l and Naveh
(1989); possibly l o o t e d first by Hazael, then b y Greeks (see " H i s torical B a c k g r o u n d , " n o t e 15).
15. C o l d s t r e a m (1969), (1982) 268 f.; on B e l o c h , see I n t r o d u c t i o n at note 15 and below, note 37. T h e r e are Greek testimonies as
to Phoenicians at Rhodes ( A t h . 360 f. = Ergias, FGrHist
513 F 1;
Polyzelos, FGrHist
521 F 6), and Zeus A t a b y r i o s at Rhodes seems
c
63
N O T E S
T O
P A G E S
I 7 - I 9
t o be the Baal f r o m T a b o r / A t a b y r i o n ; A . B . C o o k , Zeus I I 2 (1925)

9 2 2 - 9 2 5 ; O . Eissfeldt, Kleine Schriften I I (1963) 2 9 - 5 4 ; H e l c k
(1979) 160.
16. G. M . H a n f m a n n , Bibl.Or. 30 (1973) 199; and H . V. H e r r m a n n , Gnomon 47 (1975) 401, i n their reviews o f Jantzen (1972); cf.
B r k e r - K l a h n (1973); Hazael's bronze plate, note 14, above.
17. See notes 4, 5, and 7 as to E r e tr ia and A t h e n s , notes n - 1 2
as t o O l y m p i a ; C. Rolley, " B r o n z e s g o m t r i q u e s et o r i e n t a u x
D l o s , " B C H s u p p l . 1 (1973) 523 f.
18. W. L. B r o w n ( i 9 6 0 ) ; S t r a m (1971); A . Rathje i n R i d g w a y
and R i d g w a y (1979) 145-183; Verzr (1980); E. R i c h a r d s o n , Etruscan Votive Bronzes (1983).
19. Not.Scav.
1876, 282-295; C. D . C u r t i s , " T h e B e r n a r d i n i
T o m b , " Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome 3 (1919) 9 - 9 0 ; G.
P r o i e t t i and M . P a l l o t t i n o , II Museo Nazionale Etrusco di Villa Giulia
(1980) nos. 363-379; Civilt del Lazio primitivo (1976) 213-249; A .
B e d i n i , PP 32 (1977) 274-309.
20. See notes 2, 12, and 40.
21. See A h l b e r g (1967), (1971); B o r e l l (1978); H e l c k (1979)
192; B o a r d m a n (1980) 7 7 - 8 2 ; Stucky (1982).
22. O n the "mistress/master o f a n i m a l s " see B l o m e (1982) 6 5 76; B . Johnson, Lady of the Beasts (1988). T h e p a t t e r n is f o u n d at
M y c e n a e as w e l l as o n one o f the Cassite seals w h i c h came f r o m
M e s o p o t a m i a t o B r o n z e A g e Thebes (P. A m i e t , Orientalia 34 [1976]
28 f i g . 13; K. D e m a k o p o u l o u and D . K o n s o l a , Archaeological
Museum of Thebes [1981] 52 f ) , b u t i t also appears again and again o n
objects i m p o r t e d d u r i n g the o r i e n t a l i z i n g p e r i o d . B o a r d m a n (1980)
78 finds i t " v i r t u a l l y i m p o s s i b l e t o demonstrate the t r a n s m i s s i o n "
i n such cases. For one line o f t r a d i t i o n w h i c h goes f r o m Syria t o
B o e o t i a see C o l d s t r e a m (1977) 13; cf. H e l c k (1971) 223-229, (1979)
210.
23. For some t i m e a g e o m e t r i c representation f r o m A t h e n s ,
m i d - e i g h t h century, was h e l d t o be the first example (Schefold
[1964] p i . 5a), u n t i l a n i n t h - c e n t u r y p i c t u r e appeared at Knossos;
H . Sackett, BSA 71 (1976) 123 f.; B o a r d m a n (1980) 78. See i n g e n eral W. L. B r o w n ( i 9 6 0 ) ; G a b e l m a n n (1965); Carter (1972); B l o m e
(1982) 9 3 - 9 7 and AA 1988, 5 5 9 - 5 6 5 ; G. E. M a r k o e , ClAnt 8
(1989) 86-115. O n the e t y m o l o g y o f the w o r d lion see Ch a pt e r 1,
" T h e P r o b l e m o f L o a n - W o r d s , " note 30.
164
N O T E S
T O
P A G E S
1 0 - 2 0
24. H e l c k (1979) 194-197; B o a r d m a n (1980) 78 f. O n the

s p h i n x , see Vermeille (1977) and H . D e m i s c h , Die Sphinx (1977)
7 7 - 8 2 . O n griffins, see A . D i e r i c h s , Das Bild des Greifen in der frhgriechischen Flchenkunst (1981) 275-294.
25. " C h i m a e r a " o f C a r c h e m i s h : E. A k u r g a l , Die Kunst der Hethiter (197 ) p i . n o ; o f Z i n c i r l i : Sendschirli I I I (1902) p l . 43; cf.
H e l c k (1979) 212 f.; B o a r d m a n (1980) 79.
26. O n fishmen, called kulilu i n A k k a d i a n (AHw 501), see E.
U n g e r , RIA I I I 70 f.; R i t t i g (1977) 9 4 - 9 6 ; H e l c k (1979) 219; R.
Stucky, e d . , Trsors du muse de Bagdad (1977) n o . 141. See also K .
Shepart, The Fish-tailed Monster (1940); H . R Isler, Acheloos (1970)
92-9527. A r e m a r k a b l e "tree o f l i f e " appears o n the "Cesnola hater';
R R Kahane, AK 16 (1973) 114-138; see further C . R Kardara,
" O r i e n t a l Influences o n R h o d i a n Vases," i n Les cramiques de la Grce
de l'est et leur diffusion en occident, C o l l . internat, d u centre J . B r a r d
(1976/78) 6 6 - 7 0 ; B o a r d m a n (1980) 81 f.
28. For prothesis see K . A . Sheedy, MDAI
(Athens) 105 (1990)
117-151; f o r s y m p o s i u m scenes H . Kyrieleis, Thronen und Klinen
(1965); B . Fehr, Orientalische und griechische Gelage (1971); J . M .
Dentzer, Le motif du banquet couch et le monde grec du Vile au IVe
sicle avant J.-C.
(1982) 143-153. A w e l l - k n o w n picture o f r e c l i n i n g
Herakles b y the A n d o k i d e s painter, LIMC
Herakles n o . 1487 (cf.
i 4 8 6 ) , is i c o n o g r a p h i c a l l y a direct descendant o f "Ashurbanipal's
garden p a r t y , " Meissner (1920/25) Ifig.46.
2
29. E. K u n z e , A&A 2 (1946) 95-115; D . C o l l o n , " T h e S m i t i n g

G o d , " Levant 4 (1972) 111-134; B u r k e r t (1975); H e l c k (1979) 1 7 9 182; H . Seeden, The Standing Armed Figurines in the Levant (1980);
H . Gallet de Santerre, "Les statuettes de bronze mycniennes au
type d i t d u ' d i e u Rechef' dans leur contexte g e n , " BCH n i
(1987) 7-29; B l o m e (1990) nos. 12 and 16.
30. R Jacobsthal, Der Blitz in der orientalischen und griechischen
Kunst (1906); additions a n d corrections i n G . F u r l a n i , Stud.Etr, 5
(1931) 2 0 3 - 2 3 1 ; see also H . L . L o r i m e r , BSA 37 (1936-37), o n the
g o d w i t h t w o l i g h t n i n g s , Zeus D i p a l t o s .
31. See R J. Riis, Berytus 9 (1949) 6 9 - 9 0 and ( i 9 6 0 ) 193-198;
H e l c k (1971) 233 f. and (1979) 173-177; B o a r d m a n (1980) 76 f.; U .
W i n t e r (1983); comprehensive treatment n o w i n B o e h m (1990).
32. F o r an A s s y r i a n image o f a goddess w i t h h i g h hat (polos)
165
N O T E S
T O
P A G E
20
at Samos, dated t o the r e i g n o f Sargon I I , seejantzen (1972) B 165

p i . 69; H e r r m a n n , Gnomon 47 (1975) 398; H e l c k (1979) 184-186;
see also K r a n z (1972).
33. See A . L . O p p e n h e i m , " T h e G o l d e n G a r m e n t s o f the
G o d s , " JNES
8 ( i 9 4 9 ) 172-193; Fleischer (1973) 96 and ( o n the fillet, " R c k e n t a e n i e " ) 50 f.; B r k e r and K l h n (1973) 45. Ishtar is
said t o " h o l d keppe" (e.g., "Descent o f I s h t a r " 27, ANET 107);
a c c o r d i n g t o B . Landsberger, WZKM
56 ( i 9 6 0 ) 121-124 and 57
(1961) 23, this is a j u m p rope, " S p r i n g s e i l " (AHw 467); Landsberger refers t o representations o f the goddess o n seals such as W. H .
Ward (1910) nos. 9 1 2 - 9 2 3 ; i n these the " r o p e " i n the hands o f the
goddess, t h o u g h , is meant t o be the seam o f her g a r m e n t lifted u p
b y her; cf. H e l c k (1971) 112 f. Still the s i m i l a r i t y to the r i b b o n s the
goddess is h o l d i n g at Ephesos and Samos (Fleischer 102-111) is
h i g h l y suggestive.
34. Samos: H . Walter, Das griechische Heiligtum. Heraion von
Samos (1965) 28. Sparta: R. M . D a w k i n s , " T h e Sanctuary o f A r temis O r t h i a , " JHS s u p p l . 5 (1929) 163-186 pls. 4 7 - 6 2 ; B o a r d m a n
(1980) 77; J. B . Carter, " T h e M a s k s o f O r t h e i a , " AJA 91 (1987)
355-383; her f u r t h e r suggestion ( i n H g g , M a r i n a t o s , and N o r d quist [1988] 8 9 - 9 8 ) that the masks were used i n a sacred marriage
r i t u a l i n t h e c o n t e x t o f A l k m a n ' s Partheneion w i l l h a r d l y f i n d
consent. O n M e s o p o t a m i a n and Syro-Phoenician masks, f o u n d i n
t o m b s , see R. D . B a r n e t t i n Elements ( i 9 6 0 ) 147 f.; A . Parrot, Ugaritica V I (1969) 4 0 9 - 4 1 8 ; S. M o s c a t i i n Near Eastern Studies in Honour ojW. F. Albright (1971) 356 f., 362 f.; I L K h n e , Bagdader Mitt.
7 (1974) 101-110; E. Stern, Palestine Exploration Quart. 108 (1976)
109-118; S. M o s c a t i , ed., The Phoenicians (1988) 354-369; for three
Punic p r o t o m e s at B r a u r o n , see M . B e l l , Morgantina I (1981) 87;
see also Chapter 2, " H e p a t o s c o p y , " note 23, H u m b a b a mask f r o m
Gortyn.
35. H . Luschey, Die Phiale (1939); cf. H e r r m a n n (1975) 309;
B o a r d m a n (1980) 68. O n the use o f frankincense see K . Nielsen,
Incense in Ancient Israel (1986); D . M a r t i n e t z , K . L h s , and J. Janzen, Weihrauch und Myrrhe (1989); W. Z w i c k e l , Rucherkult und Ruchergerte (1990); cf. Chapter 1, " T h e P r o b l e m o f L o a n - W o r d s , " at
note 8.
36. See J. W. Shaw, Hesperia 51 (1982) 185-191 and AJA 93
(1989) 165-183; cf. B o a r d m a n (1990) 184; B l o m e (1991) 54L
166
N O T E S
T O
P A G E S
2 I - 2 3
37. O n Phoenicians see D u n b a b i n (1957) 35-43; W. A , Ward

(1968); esp. C o l d s t r e a m (1969), (1982); M u h l y (1970); Edwards
(1979) ; Bunnens (1979); N i e m e y e r (1982); B a m m e r (1985); G u b e l
and L i p i n s k i (1985); G e h r i g and N i e m e y e r (1990), esp. J. Latacz,
" D i e Phnizier bei H o m e r , " 11-20. T h e direct b u t late evidence o n
Phoenicians i n Greece is collected b y F. V a t t i o n i , " F e n i c i , Siri e
A r a b i e m i g r a t i i n area greca," AION
9/10 (1987/88) 91-124. See
also above, n o t e 15; " H i s t o r i c a l B a c k g r o u n d , " notes 3, 6; for B e l o c h , see I n t r o d u c t i o n at n o t e 15.
38. B o a r d m a n (1961) 150 f.; (1967) esp. 6 3 - 6 7 ; (1970) 14-25;
(1980) 5 6 - 6 2 ; see also B a r n e t t (1948) 6; P. Jacobsthal, J HS 71 (1951)
,91-93; D u n b a b i n (1957) 40 f.; Greifenhagen (1965) 127, 136;
C o l d s t r e a m (1968) 348 f.; van L o o n (1974); M u r r a y (1980) 71.
39. Greifenhagen (1965); B o a r d m a n (1980) 71; C o l d s t r e a m
(1982) 266.
40. Van L o o n (1974) 23; cf. B o a r d m a n (1980) 57 w i t h n.73:
"Techniques such as these cannot be learned b y o b s e r v a t i o n . "
41. D u n b a b i n (1957) 37, 59 n . 5 ; Riis ( i 9 6 0 ) 197; Rizza and
Santa M a r i a Scrinari (1968) 212-245; B o a r d m a n (1980) 76 f.;
B l o m e (1982) 2 8 - 3 6 ; B o e h m (1990) 7 3 - 8 6 .
42. H e r r m a n n prefers t o t h i n k the t y m p a n o n f o u n d i n the
Idaean cave (see note 13 above) was i m p o r t e d f r o m the East; (1975)
304; contra, B l o m e (1982) 16.
43. H e l c k (1979) 55, 226-228; cf. I . W i n t e r (1973) 477-482;
G r o t t a n e l l i (1982b) 664.
44. Plut. Sol. 24.4: (xexoLXLêaoai EJTL Tt%vr\i. See i n general F.
C o a r e l l i , Artisti e artigiani in Grecia (1980); L. Neesen, Demiurgoi
und Artifices. Studien zur Stellung freier Handwerker in antiken Stdten
(1989). '
45. C o r i n t h : H d t . 2.167.2; Athens: D i o d . 11.43.3.
46. See J . B o a r d m a n , "Amasis: T h e I m p l i c a t i o n s o f H i s
N a m e , " i n Papers on the Amasis Painter and His World ( M a l i b u 1987),
141-152.
47. A r i s t . Polit. 127837: O'XQV T dvauaov f\ ^ e v i x v , i JTEQ o i JT0XX.01 TOiouTOt x c d vuv. Slave w o m e n were " t a k e n " and
traded as weavers: II. 6.290 f., 23.263; Od. 15.418; cf. H e l c k (1979)
226 o n E g y p t . O n the "craftsmen's t a x " (xEiQtovd^tov, A r i s t . Oik.
I345b7) and its Persian b a c k g r o u n d see M . W r r l e , Chiron 9 (1979)
91 f.
167
N O T E S
T O
P A G E S
2 3 - 2 5
48. o l LIETCUTOQEULIEVOI TE/VTCU: M . W r r l e , Chiron 9 (1979)

8349. Sirac. 38.30, f o l l o w i n g t h e Syrian t e x t ; see E. Kautzsch,
Die Apokryphen
und Pseudepigraphen
des Alten Testaments 1 (1900)
422.
50. S. K r o l l i n D . A h r e n s , e d . , Archologie entdeckt Geschichte:
Urartu (1979) 5351. Strabo 5 p . 220: ETJJTOQICC onixiouoyorv X&V o"t)vaxoA.ou9r|odvTCv OLXO8EV; P l i n . N.H. 35.152; cf. 12.5: Heiko ex Helvetiis ob
. . . fabrilem artem Romae commoratus.
52. I K i n g s 5:32, 15-25; cf. 5:20; R l l i g (1982) 22.
53. Ahiqar 16.3: F. N a u , Histoire et sagesse d'Ahikar
l'Assyrien
(1909) 204; F. C . C o n y b e a r e , J. Rendell H a r r i s , and A . S m i t h L e w is, The Story of Ahikar from the Aramaic, Syriac, Arabic,
Armenian,
Ethiopie, Old Turkish, Greek and Slavonic Versions (1913) 115.
54. L u c k e n b i l l (1927) I I 100, 105.
55. Sasson (1968) 47.
56. Atrahasis p . 128 f.; Gilgamesh X I 85.
57. J . F r i e d r i c h , Staatsvertrge des Hatti-Reiches (1930) 77 18
lines 65, 67 (restored); Sasson (1968) 51.
58. Sasson (1968) 48 f.
59. H d t . 3.125-137.
60. E. F. Weidner i n Mlanges Syriens offerts R. Dussaud (1939)
I I 932 f.; ANET
308b; B o a r d m a n (1980) 52.
2
6 1 . G . M . A . Richter, AJA 50 (1946) 15-30; C . N y l a n d e r , Ionians at Pasargadae (1970); B o a r d m a n (1980) 102-105 and / H S 100
(1980) 204-206.
62. O n the i n s c r i p t i o n o n t h e T y s k i e w i c z b o w l , see note 10,
above. C f . Chapter 2, " C r a f t s m e n o f the Sacred," note 29.
63. H d t . 2.152.
64. Alcaeus fr. 350; cf. 4 8 t h e first m e n t i o n o f B a b y l o n and
A s k a l o n i n Greek literature; Sappho fr. 202 = H d t . 2.135. See also
A Selection of Greek Historical Inscriptions, e d . R. M e i g g s a n d D .
L e w i s (1969), n o . 7.
65. I I Sam. 8:18, 15:18, 20:7, 23; I K i n g s 1:38.
66. I I K i n g s 11:4; o n Carians i n E g y p t see H d t . 2.152; O . M a s son and J . Yoyotte, Objects pharaoniques inscription carienne (1956);
O . M a s s o n , Carian Inscriptions from North Saqqara and Buhen (1978).
67. See " H i s t o r i c a l B a c k g r o u n d , " n o t e 20, above.
168
N O T E S
T O
P A G E S
2 5 - 2 6
68. O n A s s y r i a n and Urartaean p r o t o t y p e s o f the Greek h o p lite shield see A . Snodgrass, Early Greek Armour and Weapons (1964)
66 f.; G o r g o n shield f r o m C a r c h e m i s h : L . Woolley, Carchemish I I
(1921) 128; H . L . L o r i m e r , Homer and the Monuments (1950) 191 A
6; B o a r d m a n (1980) 51; G o r g o n shield f r o m O l y m p i a : E. K u n z e ,
5. Bericht ber die Ausgrabungen in Olympia (1956) 4 6 - 4 9 pis. 12-14;
f r o m D e l p h i : L . Lerat, BCH 104 (1980) 103-114. O n the shields
f r o m the Idaean cave see note 13, above.
W R I T I N G A N D LITERATURE
I N THE EIGHTH
CENTURY
1. T h e basic b o o k f r o m the Greek side is Jeffery (1961, 1990 );

see also G u a r d u c c i (1967); U . H a u s m a n n , ed., " D i e Schrift u n d die
Schriftzeugnisse," i n Handbuch der Archologie I (1969) 207-393; a
series o f articles w i t h the collective title " D a l sillabario miceneo a l l'alfabeto g r e c o , " PP 31 (1976) 1-102; I m m e r w a h r (1990); Powell
(1991); PHOINIKEIA
GRAMM
ATA. Lire et crire en Mditerrane,
ed. C . B a u r a i n , C . B o n n e t , and V. K r i n g s (1991); an excellent acc o u n t given b y H e u b e c k (1979) is already outdated i n some details.
H e d i d n o t yet k n o w the sensational alphabet f r o m Izbet Sartah,
t w e l f t h - c e n t u r y Palestine: M . K o c h a v i , Tel Aviv 4 (1977) 1-13; A .
D e m s k y , i b i d . 14-27 and i n Izbet Sartah, " A n E a r l y I r o n Site near
Rosh H a ' a y i n , " Israel (1986) 186-197; J. N a v e h , Bibl.
Archaeologist
43 (1980) 22-25 a n d (1982) 36 f.; K . Seybold i n j . v o n U n g e r n Sternberg and H . Reinau, eds., Vergangenheit in mndlicher Uberlieferung (1988) 142; n o r a b o u t the Phoenician alphabet f r o m the
e i g h t h c e n t u r y : A . L e m a i r e , Semitica 28 (1978) 7-10; n o r about the
e i g h t h - c e n t u r y alphabet f r o m the A t h e n i a n agora: J o h n s t o n i n Jeffery (1990) 431 n o . 2a; I m m e r w a h r (1990) 8 f i g . 2. C f . also M .
Lejeune, RPh 57 (1983) 7-12.
2
2. See M . P. N i l s s o n , Opuscula Selecta I I (1952) 1029-56 ( o r i g i n a l l y p u b l i s h e d 1918); Jeffery (1961) 22; H e l c k (1979) 165-167. I t
m u s t still be stressed that the use o f aleph, jod, waw to indicate a, i,
u is c o m m o n i n A r a m a i c f r o m early times; i n f o r m , Greek Y is
almost identical w i t h Semitic w a w ; F is a variant o f it.
3. For the dependence o f the P h r y g i a n script o n the Greek, see
H e u b e c k (1979) 78 against R. S. Y o u n g , Proc. Am. Philos. Soc. 107
(1963) 362-364. P h r y g i a n script seems t o be i n evidence since about
725 B . c . , a l t h o u g h a later d a t i n g was advocated b y A . M . S n o d grass, The Dark Age of Greece (1971) 349 f.; m o r e l i k e l y i t arrived
169
N O T E S
T O
P A G E S
2 6 - 2 7
o n the r o u t e f r o m C i l i c i a t o G o r d i o n rather than f r o m either the

T r o a d o r Ionia; see " H i s t o r i c a l B a c k g r o u n d , " note 26, above.
4. H d t . 5.58; JtoivtKaaxdg was the designation f o r a " w r i t e r , "
a secretary i n archaic Crete; L. H . Jeffery and A . M o r p u r g o Davies,
Kadmos 9 (1970) n 8-154 and SEG 27, n o . 6 3 1 .
5. Pride o f place remains for the D i p y l o n j u g at A t h e n s , w h i c h
for a l o n g t i m e was b y far the earliest d o c u m e n t , dated ca. 73 5
725; IG I 919; Jeffery (1990) 68, 76 n o . 1; H e u b e c k (1979) 116-118;
B o a r d m a n (1980) 83; SEG 30 n o . 46, 38 n o . 34; Y. D u h o u x , Kadmos 30 (1991) 153-169. B u t an i n s c r i p t i o n f r o m Ischia is n o w c o n sidered t o be older: B c h n e r (1978) 135-137 (ca. 7 5 0 - 7 3 0 ) ; cf.
J o h n s t o n (1983) and i n Jeffery (1990) 453 w i t h p i . 76. A g e o m e t r i c
sherd f r o m N a x o s w i t h a graffito has been dated t o 770 b y the
excavator: B . L a m b r i n o u d a k i s , BCH 106 (1982) 605, 604 f i g . 132;
SEG 33, 677; J o h n s t o n i n Jeffery (1990) 466 A w i t h p i . 78; cf. graffiti f r o m A n d r o s ( 7 5 0 - 7 2 0 ) , J o h n s t o n i n Jeffery (1990) 466, 52a. F o r
L e f k a n d i , see Jeffery i n P o p h a m , Sackett, and T h e m e l i s (1980) 8 9 92; f o r E r e t r i a , J o h n s t o n i n Jeffery (1990) 434 w i t h p i . 73; i n g e n eral, P o w e l l (1991) 123-180. Some material f r o m Euboea is still
u n p u b l i s h e d . O f special i m p o r t a n c e is the " c u p o f N e s t o r " f r o m
Ischia, dated t o 7 3 0 - 7 2 0 : Jeffery (1961) 235 n o . 1; H e u b e c k (1979)
109-116. I t e v i d e n t l y reflects a practice o f w r i t i n g b o o k s ; cf. I m m e r w a h r (1990) 18 f.
2
6. A t w o - l e t t e r graffito f r o m Ischia w i t h sidelong A , P. K .

M c C a r t e r , AJA 79 (1975) 140 f., is taken t o be Greek b y G u a r d u c c i
(1967) 225 a n d H e u b e c k (1979) 123, b u t as A r a m a i c b y G a r b i n i
(1978) and C o l d s t r e a m (1982) 271; cf. J o h n s t o n i n Jeffery (1990) 454
f. A Greek and an A r a m a i c graffito occur o n the same sherd; J o h n ston (1983) 64 fig. 2. Graffito f r o m A l M i n a , O x f o r d : J . B o a r d m a n ,
Oxford Journal of Archaeology
1 (1982) 365-367; C ^ 4 H I I I : Plates
(1984) 291 f. n o . 3 i 6 e ; J o h n s t o n i n Jeffery (1990) 476 D .
2
7. See the recent discussions o f B . B . P o w e l l , " T h e O r i g i n o f

the P u z z l i n g Supplements c() x *K" TAPA 117 (1987) 1-20; and R.
Wchter, " Z u r Vorgeschichte des griechischen A l p h a b e t s , " Kadmos
28 (1989) 19-78; the " c o l o r s " t o characterize Greek alphabets were
i n t r o d u c e d b y A . K i r c h h o f f , Studien zur Geschichte des griechischen
Alphabets (1863; 1887 ).
4
8. V. K a r a g e o r g h i s , CRAI
1980, 122-136; E. and O . Masson
i n V. K a r a g e o r g h i s , Ausgrabungen in Alt-Paphos aufCypern I I I (1983)
170
N O T E S
T O
P A G E S
2 7 - 3 0
411415; for the role o f C y p r u s see also Heubeck (1979) 85-87; cf.
64-70; J o h n s t o n (1983).
9. See L i p i n s k i (1988) 242. For the v a r y i n g d i r e c t i o n o f w r i t i n g
i n C y p r i o t e linear script see O . Masson, Les inscriptions chypriotes
syllabiques (1983 ) 78.
10. Jeffery (1961) 310-313; B o a r d m a n (1970) 18-23 and (1980)
60; for the Phoenician b o w l , see " H i s t o r i c a l B a c k g r o u n d , " note 3,
above, and, i n general, Chapter 1, " O r i e n t a l Products i n Greece."
T h e earliest Greek w r i t i n g o n Crete so far is an owner's i n s c r i p t i o n
on a g e o m e t r i c pithos f r o m Phaistos (ca. 700?); Kret. Chron. 21
(1969) 153-170; H e u b e c k (1979) I 2 5 ; j o h n s t o n i n Jeffery (1990) 468
n o . 8a.
2
11. Jeffery (1961) 13-16.

12. Esp. J. Naveh, AJA 77 (1973) 1-8, (1982), and Kadmos 30
(1991) 143-152. H e is contradicted n o t o n l y b y specialists for
Greeksee M c C a r t e r (1975); B . S. Isserlin, Kadmos 22 (1983) 151163; J o h n s t o n i n Jeffery (1990) 426 f . b u t also b y some Semitists:
A . D e m s k y , Tel Aviv 4 (1977) 22 f.; L i p i n s k i (1988); Sass (1991).
L i p i n s k i and Sass still t h i n k the n i n t h century w o u l d be the latest
possible date.
13. A n i m p o r t a n t n e w d o c u m e n t f r o m the m i d - e i g h t h century
was published i n 1982: A . A b o u - A s s a f et a l . , La statue de Tell Fekherye et son inscription bilingue assyro-aramenne (1982); i t has some
s u r p r i s i n g l y "archaic" letter f o r m s ; see L i p i n s k i (1988) 242. T h e
relations between Greek and A r a m a i c script were stressed by S.
Segert, Klio 41 (1963) 3 8 - 5 7 ; for a balanced j u d g m e n t , see L i p i n s k i
(1988) 243 f.; cf. also C o l d s t r e a m (1982) 271; J o h n s t o n i n Jeffery
(1990) 425. T h e role o f cursive f o r m s was discussed b y Johnstone
(1978).
14. U g a r i t i c alphabets: KTU
phabets see note 1, above.
5.6; for earliest " P h o e n i c i a n " al-
15. Lemaire (1981).

16. Ios. c.Ap.
1.28.
17. Z d v : Pindar fr. 70 b 3; cf. E. Schwyzer, Griechische
matik I (1939) 140 f ; R. Wachter, Kadmos 30 (1991) 4 9 - 8 0 .
Gram-
18. G a l l i n g (1971); KTU

5.7; i n H e b r e w : Lachish I: The Lachish Letters (1938) 79 f ; KAI n o . 194; A . Lemaire, Inscriptions Hbraques I : Les ostraca (1977) 110 f ; KAI 43.12; cf. M a s s o n (1967)
64. T h e A k k a d i a n w o r d for w r i t i n g tablet is different, le'u, H e b r e w
171
N O T E S
T O
P A G E S
3 O -
Iwh, A r a m a i c luha. For malthe see M . Stol, Phoenix 24 (1978) 1114; HAL 558.
19. For the w r e c k , see G. Bass, National Geographic 172 (1987)
633-733, esp. 731; i d e m et a l . , AJA 93 (1989) 1-29, esp. 10; for the
N i m r u d tablets, D . J. W i s e m a n , "Assyrian W r i t i n g - B o a r d s , " Iraq
7 ( 955)
3 ; M . H o w a r d , "Technical D e s c r i p t i o n o f the I v o r y
W r i t i n g - B o a r d s f r o m N i m r u d , " i b i d . 14-20; H . T. Bossert, "Sie
schrieben a u f H o l z , " i n Minoica, Festschr. J. Sundwall (1958) 6 7 - 7 9 ;
H . H u n g e r , Babylonische und Assyrische Kolophone (1968) 7 f.; H e u beck (1979) 143 f
20. II. 6.119-211; B u r k e r t (1983c) 51-53. T h e "fatal l e t t e r "
m o t i f is n o w attested n o t o n l y i n the s t o r y o f U r i a h ( I I Sam. i r . i 27) b u t already i n the Sumerian legend o f Sargon: B. L e w i s , The
Sargon Legend (1980); B. Alster, " A N o t e o n the U r i a h Letter i n the
Sumerian Sargon L e g e n d , " ZA 77 (1987) 169-173.
l
I _ I
21. Aesch. Eum. 275, fr. 281a 21 Radt, Prom. 789 (overlooked
b y M a s s o n [1967] 62); btkxoi x o A x c t i : P o l l u x 8.128; cf. R. S t r o u d ,
Hesperia 32 (1963) 138-143.
22. O . M a s s o n , Les inscriptions chypriotes syllabiques (1983 ) n o .
217.26, cf. Masson (1967) 61-65.
23. Wendel (1949). For a n e w A k k a d i a n - A r a m a i c d o c u m e n t
f r o m Syria see n o t e 13, above. T h e A k k a d i a n t e r m for scroll scribe,
sepiru, is a l o a n - w o r d f r o m A r a m a i c ; cf. H e b r e w sefet; b o o k ; AHw
1036b. A r a m a i c leather scrolls f r o m E g y p t : G. R. D r i v e r , Aramaic
Documents of the Fifth Century B.C. (1954).
2
24. R. A . B o w m a n , Aramaic Ritual

17-19; cf. Ktesias i n D i o d . 2.32.4.
Texts from Persepolis
(1970)
25. A r c h i l o c h u s fr. 185 West; the m e a n i n g " l e t t e r " is contested

b y S. West, C Q 38 (1988) 4 2 - 4 9 .
26. H d t . 5.58; diphtherion: J. G. V i n o g r a d o v , "Olbia."
Xenia,
Konstanzer althistorische Beitrge und Forschungen 1 (1981) 19; molibdion: SEG 26 n o . 845 rev.; cf. SEG 38 n o . 13. T h e use o f d i m i n u tives seems characteristic for w r i t i n g materials, as also i n deltion and
biblion.
27. Eur. fr. 627; there is a p r o v e r b " o l d e r than the leather
[ s c r o l l ] , " cxpxaiTEoa t r i g tcêgag, D i o g e n . 3.2 (Paroemiogr.Gr. I
214); cf. Z e n o b . 4.11; P o r p h y r y i n Schob B //. 1.175; H s c h . 8 1992
attests the t e r m KfjEoaÔKJJg for C y p r u s (see note 8, above),
w h i c h sounds archaic and may refer t o the use o f leather scrolls.
172
N O T E S
T O
P A G E S
3 2 - 3 3
28. See D . van B e r c h e m , MH 48 (1991) 129-145, esp. 140 f.;

for Guzana, see J. F r i e d r i c h , G. R. Meyer, A . U n g n a d , and E.
Weidner, Die Inschriften vom Tell Halaf (194.0) 47 (nos. 101-106) and
7 0 - 7 8 (nos. 1-5); on Tarsos see Chapter 2, "Hepatoscopy," note 7
and " P u r i f i c a t i o n , " n o t e 6; O . R. Gurney, J. J. Finkelstein, and P.
H u l i n , The Sultantepe Tablets (1957-1964); cf. M . f l u t t e r , Altorientalische Vorstellungen von der Unterwelt (1985) 18-20; the tablets are
dated between 718 and 619 B . C .
29. Wendel (1949)30. F. C. C o n y b e a r e , J. Rendell H a r r i s , and A . S m i t h L e w i s ,
The Story of Ahikar from the Aramaic, Syriac, Arabic,
Armenian,
Ethiopic, Old Turkish, Greek and Slavonic Versions (1913 ; the first
e d i t i o n , 1898, d i d n o t yet have the A r a m a i c text); F. N a u , Histoire
et sagesse dAhikar
l'Assyrien (1909); for the text f r o m Elephantine,
see E. Sachau, Aramische Papyrus und Ostraka aus einer jdischen
Militr-Kolonie
zu Elephantine (1911) 147-182 pls. 4 0 - 5 0 ; A . U n g nad, Aramische Papyrus aus Elephantine (1912); E. Meyer, Der Papyrusfund von Elephantine
und seine Bedeutung (1912) 102-128; T.
N l d e k e , Untersuchungen zum Achiqar-Roman,
A b h . G t t i n g e n N.F.
14.4 (1913); A . H a u s r a t h , Achiquar und Aesop, Sitzungsber. H e i d e l berg 1918.2; B. E. Perry, Aesopica (1952) 1-10; P. G r e l o t , Documents
arameens dEgypte
(1972) 427-452; F. M . Fales, " L a tradizione A s sira ad Elefantina d ' E g i t t o , " Dialoghi di Archeologia I I I 5 (1987) 6 3 70; see also L i p i n s k i (1976) o n A k k a d i a n religious t r a d i t i o n a m o n g
Aramaeans. A h i q a r is m e n t i o n e d i n the b o o k T o b i t h 14.10.
31. Rev. Bibl. 52 (1985) 6 0 - 8 1 ; cf. Fales (note 30) 70.
32. GLGMS:
J. T. M i l i k , The Books of Enoch (1976) 3'3; Gilgamos: A e l . Nat.An.
12.21.
33. R o d r i g u e z A d r a d o s (1979) 290-293, 674 f., 6 8 0 - 6 8 7 ;
i d e m , QUCC
30 (1979) 93-112. B u t ' A x i x a o o c , was k n o w n to
Theophrastus; D i o g . L a e r t . 5.50; still D c m o c r i t u s B 299 = C l e m .
Str. 1.69.4 is a p o c r y p h a l ; the reading o f Poseidonios fr. 133 Theiler
= Strab. 16 p. 762 is uncertain: ' A x c u x a o o c , (?) j r a p o a i t o gnvoCg.
34. J. G o o d y a n d j . Watt i n j . Goody, ed., Literacy in Traditional
Societies (1968) 42; see Chapter 3.
35. For the " B i l e a m " text f r o m D e i r A l l a s e e j . H o f t i j z e r and
G. van der K o o i j , Aramaic Texts from Deir Alia (1976); J. A . H a c k ett, The Balaam Text from Deir Alla (1984); Der Knigsweg (1988)
2
173
N O T E S
T O
P A G E S
3 4 - 3 6
n o . 157 w i t h b i b l i o g r a p h y ; B u r k e r t i n D . H e l l h o l m , e d . , Apocalypticism in the Mediterranean World and the Near East (1983) 246; for
M o p s o s and Karatepe see C h ap te r 2, " H e p a t o s c o p y , " note 31.
T H E PROBLEM OF L O A N - W O R D S
1. See, e.g., Vermeule (1971) 185 f.: " I f eastern influence had
been c o m p a r a t i v e l y recent, one m i g h t expect the seams t o show, or
names and terms t o have been m e r e l y transliterated f r o m another
language."
2. See I n t r o d u c t i o n at note 15. A local substrate is readily assumed for characteristic M e d i t e r r a n e a n flora such as " w i n e " (Greek
woinos, A r a m a i c wajn, H e b r e w jain; see J. P. B r o w n [1969] 147151) and " r o s e " ( A r a b i c ward, A r a m a i c werad, Greek
(w)rhodon;
J. P. B r o w n [1980] 11, 19 n . i ) .
3. RhM 49 (1894) 130, accepted b y H i l l e r v o n G r t r i n g e n ,
RE
I I 1887; see above, C h a p t e r i , " O r i e n t a l Products i n Greece," note

15.
4. O . H o f f m a n n and A . D e b r u n n e r , Geschichte der griechischen
Sprache I (1953 ) 18: "ganz v e r s c h w i n d e n d g e r i n g " ; A . M e i l l e t ,
Aperu d'une histoire de la langue grecque (1935 ) 56 = (1965 ) 59:
" n ' a t t e i n t sans d o u t pas la dizaine."
5. Masson (1967) has also a survey o f older studies; see also
H e m m e r d i n g e r (1970); Krause ( 1 9 7 0 ) w i t h o u t o r i g i n a l c o n t r i b u tions; J. P. B r o w n (1965), (1968), (1969); Salonen (1974); Szemernyi (1974); i d e m , Gnomon 53 (1981) 113-116; i d e m , o-o-pe-ro-si:
Festschr. E. Risch (1986) 425-450.
6. Cf. L. Deroy, L'emprunt
linguistique (1965); R. S c h m i t t ,
Probleme der Eingliederung fremden Sprachguts in das grammatische System einer Sprache, I n n s b r u c k e r B e i t r g e zur Sprachwissenschaft
11
(1973); O t t i n g e r (1981). As an example for the m a n i f o l d levels and
p r o b l e m s of c u l t u r a l b o r r o w i n g s see H . Kahane and R. Kahane,
" B y z a n t i u m ' s I m p a c t o n the West: T h e L i n g u i s t i c Evidence," Illinois Classical Studies 6 (1981) 389-415.
7. E . g . , E. Boisacq, Dictionnaire tymologique de la langue grecque (1916) V I I : "l'influence smitique . . . borne l ' a d o p t i o n . . .
de quelques termes c o m m e r c i a u x " ; A . M e i l l e t , Aperu (see note 4
above) 55; M a s s o n (1967) 114; she treats kanna, reed, p. 47 f. b u t
forgets kanon, m e a s u r i n g r o d .
3
'74
N O T E S
T O
P A G E S
3 6 - 3 8
8. T h i s is f o l l o w i n g Masson (1967), a l t h o u g h the w o r d s

treated i n n n . 9-11, 16, 19, 21-26, 31-33, and 36 are missing i n her
collection.
9. A k k a d i a n lip, accusative lip, fat, e m p l o y e d especially i n
magic; see AHw 555. I t is t r u e there are I n d o - E u r o p e a n comparative materials for Greek lipa; C h a n t r a i n e (1968/80) 642.
10. T h r o u g h L a t i n simila i t even reached G e r m a n , Semmel; see
S z e m e r n y i (1974) 156; C h a n t r a i n e (1968/80) 996.
I r. Salonen (1974) 143.
12. Cf. J. Tischler, Glotta 56 (1978) 60 f.;
1026; for Mycenaean pa-ra-ku see E. Risch,
Saussure 41 (1987) 167.
13. T h e Semitic w o r d , however, is n o t
been i n f e r r e d ; G. G a r b i n i , Riv. di Studi Fenici
Chantraine (1968/80)
Cahiers Ferdinand de
d o c u m e n t e d b u t has
3 (1975) 15 f.
14. C h a n t r a i n e (1968/80) 594; already attested in Mycenaean.

15. I b i d . 212.
16. I b i d . 660.
17. Masson (1967) 32-34; N i e m e y e r (1984) 69. T h e standard
w e i g h t was the m i n a o f C a r c h e m i s h ; O p p e n h e i m (1967/69) 239
n. 8. T h e w o r d mana is also attested i n H i e r o g l y p h i c L u w i a n ; G. N e u m a n n , ZVS 98 (1985) 306; see also H . B u s i n g , " M e t r o l o g i s c h e Beitrge," Jdl 97 (1982) 1-45. O n talanton see C h a n t r a i n e (1968/80)
1089.
18. Sendschirli V 119 ff. w i t h p i . 58; specialists are still discussing to w h a t extent this s h o u l d be considered as a precursor or an
early f o r m o f m i n t e d m o n e y ; see M . S. B a l m u t h , AJA 67 (1963)
208 and i n D . G. M i t t e n et a l . , eds., Studies Presented to G . M. A.
Hanfmann (1971) 1-7; N . F. Parise, Dialoghi di Archeologia 7 (1973)
382-391.
19. T h e Semitic parallel is m e n t i o n e d i n LSJ, n o t i n Masson
(1967); " h y p o t h s e . . . en t o u t cas aberrante": Chantraine (1968/
80) 1247. Semitic het is H i n the Greek alphabet, b u t A k k a d i a n hurasu corresponds to Greek %QXto; the name H a m is XCXLI i n the
Septuagint; M o u n t H a z z i is. rendered K d o i o v OQO (cf. H e m b e r g
[1950] 129, 320)there are n o p h o n e t i c rules i n l o a n - w o r d s . Harasu is used i n the sense o f " w r i t i n g , " Gilgamesh I 1.8.
20. AHw 48a; o n d i s t r i b u t i v e ana i n Greek see T. H o r o v i t z ,
Vom Logos zur Analogie (1978) 137-144.
175
N O T E S
T O
P A G E S
3 8 - 3 9
21. AHw 898; cf. 650. H . Kronasser, Kratylos 7 (1962) 163,

maintains that qan was b o r r o w e d i n d i r e c t l y , " h c h s t w a h r s c h e i n lich d u r c h mehrere anatolische Sprachen."
22. A k k a d i a n tidu: see AHw
1391.1: " z u m Bauen u n d Verp u t z e n " ; H e b r e w tit; the Semitic parallels are n o t m e n t i o n e d i n the
e t y m o l o g i c a l lexicons o f Pîsacq, Frisk, and Chantraine, n o r i n
Masson (1967). O n a pc
j l e association w i t h " T i t a n s " see C h a p ter 3, " F r o m Atrahasis to the ' D e c e p t i o n o f Zeus,' " notes 2 8 - 2 9 .
23. A k k a d i a n g a s s u : AHw 282; Salonen (1974) 139.
24. AHw 522; J. P. B r o w n (1968) 182; S z e m e r n y i (1974) 149.
T h e mirage o f an " A e g e a n " suffix -inthos created b y the adaptation
to Greek is n o a r g u m e n t against this d e r i v a t i o n ; see n o t e 11 above
on lekane.
25. AHw 332; H e m m e r d i n g e r (1970) 45; the axe (hassinnu) is
n o w attested as the s y m b o l o f the weather g o d carried i n procession
at B r o n z e A g e E m a r : A r n a u d (1985/87) n o . 369 line 45. Salonen
(1974) also compares Greek sphen, wedge, w i t h A k k a d i a n suppinu;
but a c c o r d i n g to AHw 1060 the m e a n i n g o f this w o r d is unclear.
26. AHw 627: tent, also i n A r a m a i c ; S z e m e r n y i , Gnomon
(1981) 114; cf. H e b r e w miskan, abode.
53
27. See Chapter 2, " C r a f t s m e n o f the Sacred," notes 2 8 - 3 0 ,

36; cf. above, " O r i e n t a l Products i n Greece," note 62.
28. S z e m e r n y i , Gnomon 43 (1971) 647 and (1974) 156, referred
to A k k a d i a n bel qati, " L o r d o f H a n d , " w h i c h , however, means
" g u a r a n t o r " ; AHw 120; b u t i n H i t t i t e the same expression (always
w i t h S u m e r i a n - A k k a d i a n spelling, EN qati) means " c r a f t s m a n " ; J.
F r i e d r i c h , Hethitisches Wrterbuch (1952) 271. T h e H i t t i t e w o r d may
w e l l have been the m o d e l for cheironax, either d i r e c t l y or indirectly.
29. Laroche (1973); for Soloi as place-name see above, " O r i ental Products i n Greece," note 13.
30. Masson (1967) 86; lis occurs a few times i n H o m e r ; the
n o r m a l Greek w o r d , leon, seems t o come f r o m E g y p t ; see J. C.
B i l l i g m e i e r , Talanta 6 (1975) 1-6.
31. A r a m a i c tawr(u), H e b r e w sor; HAL 1346-48; J. P. B r o w n
(1969) 159-164. I n spite o f this close s i m i l a r i t y Chantraine (1968/
80) states: " I l n'y a pas lieu . . . d ' v o q u e r les formes smitiques."
32. H e b r e w hrb; J. P. B r o w n (1968) 178-182; the harpe is
specially used b y o r i e n t a l i z i n g Perseus; see Jameson (1990) 218. B u t
176
N O T E S
T O
P A G E S
3 9 - 4 1
there is a satisfactory I n d o - E u r o p e a n e t y m o l o g y t o o : Chantraine

(1968/80) 114.
33. For onvkov
see S z e m e r n y i , Gnomon 53 (1981) 115; for
avXv A k k a d i a n salalu, t o l o o t , AHw 1142, w i t h i m p e r a t i v e Mia!
(cf. Zeus Syllanios and A t h a n a Syllania i n the Spartan Rhetra, Plut.
Lyc. 6?).
34. T h e r e is n o I n d o - E u r o p e a n e t y m o l o g y f o r machomai, and
"la structure de \ia%oaaoQai
reste obscure"; Chantraine (1968/80)
674. For mahas/maha see HAL 541; 537.
35. See AHw 34 s.v. alalu, "a c r y used at w o r k . " O f course
exclamations can o r i g i n a t e spontaneously (Chantraine [1968/80]
530), b u t " H u r r a h ! " has b o t h its (Germanic) e t y m o l o g y and its d i f fusion i n E u r o p e a n warfare.
36. See above, " O r i e n t a l Products i n Greece," note 67.
37. A s t o u r (1965) w e n t furthest i n this sport. T h e r e remains
the o l d e q u a t i o n o f Iapetos, father o f Prometheus, w i t h j a p h e t , son
o f N o a h (see West [1966] 202 f . ) ; b u t also Nereus, g o d o f waters,
father o f the Nereids, is r e m a r k a b l y similar t o the Semitic w o r d for
river, A k k a d i a n nam, H e b r e w nahar. See for Asgelatas Chapter 2,
"Asclepius and Asgelatas," note 8; f o r Tethys, Chapter 3, " F r o m
Atrahasis t o the ' D e c e p t i o n o f Z e u s , ' " note 15; f o r L a m i a , Chapter
2, " L a m a s h t u , L a m i a , and G o r g o , " note 10; f o r Titans, Chapter 3,
" F r o m Atrahasis t o the ' D e c e p t i o n o f Zeus,' " notes 2 8 - 2 9 .
38. See f o r haruspex Chapter 2, "Hepatoscopy," note 24; f o r
kathairo, lyma, ara, C h ap te r 2, " P u r i f i c a t i o n , " notes 4 6 - 4 8 ; for E m baros, Chapter 2, " S u b s t i t u t e Sacrifice," note 8.
39. HAL 8 7 8 n o t a Semitic w o r d i n o r i g i n ; cf. J. P. B r o w n
(1968) 166-169; C h a n t r a i n e (1968/80), w i t h o u t presenting the Sem i t i c w o r d s , declares: " L ' h y p o t h s e d ' u n e m p r u n t smitique . . .
n'est accepte par personne."
2. "A Seer or a Healer"
"CRAFTSMEN
OF T H E SACRED"
1. T h e expression is used i n Plat. Phdr. 248a. For a m o d e r n

investigation i n t o the i n t e r r e l a t i o n o f magic and scientific medicine
see G . E. R. L l o y d , Magic, Reason and Experience (1979); o n "craftsm e n o f the sacred" see B u r k e r t (1982a) and (1987a) 31.
2. Papyrus o f D e r v e n i i n ZEE47
(1982) c o l . X V I 3 f.: Txvnu
177
N O T E S
T O
P A G E S
4 2 - 4 3
JtoiotJuevog xct leget. Strab. 10.3.23 p. 474: TO (JHXOXEXVOV . . . TO

JIEQI Tag A i o v u o r c t x a g xe^vag x a t x g ' O o c j n x g . H i p p o c r .
Morb.Sacr. 18, V I 396 L i t t r e : avauoLT).
3. West (1971) 239-242 has stressed the i m p o r t a n c e o f m i g r a n t
magi for Iranian-Greek contacts i n the s i x t h century B . C .
4. N u m b e r s 22:5, 24. F o r the s u r p r i s i n g evidence about B i l e a m / B a a l a m i n the D e i r A l l a i n s c r i p t i o n see Ch a pt e r 1, " W r i t i n g
and Literature i n the E i g h t h C e n t u r y , " note 35.
c
5. H e l c k (1979) 226 f.; E. Edel, gyptische rzte und gyptische

Medizin am hethitischen Knigshof (1976); see K n u d t z o n (1915) n o .
49.22 f o r U g a r i t , n o . 35.26 f o r Alasia.
6. Meissner (1920/25) I I 198 (KBo I 10 Rs.42 f f . ) .
7. See G r o t t a n e l l i (1982b) esp. 6 5 1 , 655 f., 664 f.
8. H d t . 9.33-36; o n the M e l a m p o d i d a e see I . Lfner, Die Melampodie (1963); K e t t (1966) 9 4 - 9 6 .
9. Plat. Rep. 34b-e; cf. Leg. 909b.
10. FGrHist 475, esp. T 4b; B u r k e r t (1972) 15 f.
11. P l u t . De sera 56oe-f and fr. 126; Phigalia is a conjecture
( M i t t e l h a u s ) instead o f the t r a n s m i t t e d names Italia o r Thettalia. See
RE XIX 2084; B u r k e r t , RhM 105 (1962) 48 f.
12. P l u t . Mus. 4 2 . i i 4 6 b - c = Pratinas TGrF 4 F 9, P h i l o d e m .
Mus. 4 = Diogenes o f B a b y l o n SVFll
232; P l u t . Mus. 9 f., 1134be f o l l o w i n g Glaukos o f R h e g i o n . T h e date is established b y the
connection w i t h the f o u n d i n g o f the festival G y m n o p a i d i a i n
Sparta; P l u t . Mus. 1134c; cf. Euseb. Chron. a.Ahr. 1348 = O l y m piad 27 = 6 7 2 - 6 6 8 B . C .
13. e j i i 8 r | i i o w x a xaxct xexvrrv i i a v x t x f j v : A r i s t .
Polit.
1274325-28. O n the practice and concept o f epidemia see H . D i l l e r ,
Wanderarzt und Aitiologe (1934).
14. Plat. Symp.
20id-e.
15. Empedocles B 115.13; cf. B 112, w h e r e he introduces h i m self a r r i v i n g at Akragas as a seer and a healer.
16. See note 8, above.
17. P i n d . Ol. 6; H e p d i n g , RE I X 685-689 s.v. lamos; K e t t
(1966) 8 4 - 8 9 . Telmissos: A r r . Anab. 2.3.3 f.
18. See K . C l i n t o n , The Sacred Officials of the Eleusinian
Mysteries (1974); B u r k e r t (1987a) 36 f.
19. P l u t . Is. 28.362a; Tac. Hist. 4.83 f.; A . Alfldi, Chiron 9
( 979) 554 f ; B u r k e r t (1987a) 37.
T
178
N O T E S
T O
P A G E S
4 3 - 4 5
20. Isoer. 19.5 f., 45; K e t t (1966) 49 f., 66 f . w h o does n o t

realize that the activities o f Polemainetos as a seer must be dated
about fifty years before the trial. O n the legal issue u n d e r l y i n g the
speech see H . J. W o l f f Sitzungsber. H e i d e l b e r g 1979.5, 1534.
21. D e m o s t h . 19.249; 18.120; 259 f.; H . W a n k e l , Demosthenes,
Rede fr Ktesiphon ber den Kranz (1976) 710-712, 1132-49; a f a m i l y
o f seers: SEG 16 n o . 193, w i t h an e p i g r a m a l l u d i n g t o A m p h i a r a o s
(Thebais fr. 7 Davies = P i n d . Ol. 6.13).
22. W. Schubart, Amtliche Berichte aus den Kgl. Preussischen
Kunstsammlungen 38 (1916/17) 189 f.; see G . Z u n t z , Opuscula Selecta
(1972) 8 8 - 1 0 1 ; P. M . Frser, Ptolemaic Alexandria I I (1972) 345 f.;
B u r k e r t (1987a) 33. C f . I I T i m o t h y 3:14 (and 2:1): " k n o w f r o m
w h o m y o u have learnt . . . "
23. O . K e r n , Die Inschriften von Magnesia
A . H e n r i c h s , HSCP 82 (1978) 123-137.
(1900) n o . 215 a; cf.
24. M . B e r t h e l o t , Collection des anciens alchimistes grecs (1888) I I

30.7: EÔQXUKXC; . . . tmEvi u E x a i v a i EL LIT) LIVOV TEKVWL x c a
tyikun yvr\oiwi.
1.193.
PGM 4.475: (.lvan 6 E TEXVCOI J t a p a o x d ; cf.
25. T h e real existence o f "Asclepiads" i n the classical p e r i o d ,

w h i c h had been contested b y E. J . and L . Edelstein, Asclepius I I
(1945) 52-63, was p r o v e d b y an i n s c r i p t i o n f r o m D e l p h i ; see J .
Bousquet, " D e l p h e s et les Asclepiades," BCH 80 (1956) 579-593;
SEG 16 n o . 326; M . Gamberale, "Ricerche sul G E N O S degli A s clepiadi," RAL 33 (1978) 8 3 - 9 5 ; S. M . S h e r w i n - W h i t e , Ancient Cos
(1978) 257-263. Asclepiads are m e n t i o n e d b y Plato Prot. 311b, Rep.
408b, Phdr. 270c; the physician E r y x i m a c h o s i n Symp. i86e refers
to Asclepius as " o u r ancestor"; " t h e y were trained at their parents'
f r o m c h i l d h o o d " : Galen Anat.Admin.
2.1, I I 280 f. K h n ; Soran.
Vit .Hippocr. 1 f.
26. L . Edelstein, The Hippocratic Oath (1943), reedited i n L .
Edelstein, Ancient Medicine (1967) 3 - 6 3 , esp. 4 0 - 4 4 ; he was t h i n k i n g o f a special Pythagorean p r o v i s i o n , because he failed t o see the
craftsmen's t r a d i t i o n .
27. Lex 5, I V 642 L i t t r e .
28. C o d e x H a m m u r a p i 188; B o r g e r (1979) 37; ANET
174 f.
29. bn nsk; see C h a p t e r 1, " O r i e n t a l Products i n Greece," note
10 and at n o t e 62.
30. Mud,
mr ummani:
Schrank (1908) 16; cf. mr bare, " s o n
179
N O T E S
T O
P A G E S
4 5 - 4 6
o f the seer," Z i m m e r n (1901) n o . 1.1 p. 97 f.; Z i m m e r n p. 87 o n

the " g u i l d " o f seers. Cf. A m o s 7:14: " I a m n o t a p r o p h e t , n o r the
son o f a p r o p h e t . "
31. M . Weinfeld, The Organizational Pattern and the Penal
of the Qumran Sect (1986) 61; cf. E b e l i n g (1931) 37, 47, i n .
32. Z i m m e r n (1901) 118 f., n o . 24.19-22.
Code
33. D i o d . 2 . 2 9 . 4 h i s source cannot be i d e n t i f i e d ; p r o b a b l y

n o t Poseidonios; cf. FGrHist I I C p. 157.
34. See T h u l i n (1905/09) I I I 131-149; Pfiffig (1975) 3 6 - 4 1 ,
115-127. J. H e u r g o n , " T a r q u i t i u s Priscus et l ' o r g a n i s a t i o n de
l ' o r d r e des haruspices sous l ' e m p e r e u r C l a u d e , " Latomus 12 (1953)
402-417.
35. Tac. Ann. 11.15: Primores Etruriae . . . retinuisse scientiam et
in familias propagasse; C i c . Div. 1.92: ut de principum film X ex singulis Etruriae populis in disciplinam traderentur; ad Fam. 6.6.3 (to A .
Caecina): Tuscae disciplinae, quam a ptre . . . acceperas.
36. D i o n . H a l . Ant. 3.70; see below, " H e p a t o s c o p y , " note 9.
37. D i o d . 1.73.5; J. Bidez and E C u m o n t , Les mages hellniss
I I (1938) 8 f., 119. Siberian shamanism t o o is t r a n s m i t t e d f r o m father t o son; see M . Eliade, Schamanismus und archaische Ekstasetechnik (1957) 22, 24 f., 28 f., 3 0 - 3 2 .
38. N o t e d as a case o f l i n g u i s t i c b o r r o w i n g b y S z e m e r n y i
(1974) 157; F e h l i n g (1980) 15 f.
39. Plat. Rep. 408b, Leg. 769b. For o r i e n t a l examples see notes
2 8 - 3 0 , above.
40. VIE ' A x c a o r v belongs t o the H o m e r i c f o r m u l a s ; o r i e n t a l
influence is b y n o means excluded even i n this case (see Chapter 3,
" F r o m Atrahasis t o the ' D e c e p t i o n o f Z e u s ' " ) . A u r v i t a e :
H d t . 1.27.4. "Sons o f H a i t i " ( = H i t t i t e s ) , "sons o f M i t t a n n i " (mare
Hatti, mare Mittanni) i n a treaty between H i t t i t e s and H u r r i t e s :
E. F. Weidner, Politische Dokumente aus Kleinasien (1923) 20.68, etc.
41. "Sons o f m e n " equivalent t o " m e n , " Gospel o f T h o m a s 28;
see A . G u i l l a u m o n t i n Studies in Gnosticism and Hellenistic
Religions
Presented to G. Quispel (1981) 191.
HEPATOSCOPY
i . A B a b y l o n i a n hepatoscopy text was first p u b l i s h e d b y L e n o r m a n t i n 1873; cf. B e z o l d i n Blecher (1905) 247. For general references t o the B a b y l o n i a n provenience o f Greek hepatoscopy see
180
N O T E S
T O
P A G E S
4 6 - 4 8
B o u c h - L e c l e r c q (1879/82) I 170; Farnell (1911) 248 f. O n the M e s o p o t a m i a n - E t r u s c a n relations see Boissier (1905); Blecher (1905),
esp. n.5; T h u l i n (1905/09) I I ; R. Pettazzoni, Stud. Etr. 1 (1927) 195199; N o u g a y r o l (1955b) a n d (1966); M . P a l l o t t i n o , Etmscologia
(1963 ) 247 f.; Pfiffig (1975) 115-127. For M e s o p o t a m i a see H . D i l l o n , Assyro-Babylonian
Liver-Divination
(1932); A . Boissier, Mantique babylonienne et mantique hittite (1935); G. C o n t e n a u , La divination chez les Assyriens et les Mesopotamiens (1940); La divination en
Msopotamie ancienne, 14 R e n c o n t r e Assyriologique International
(1966); N o u g a y r o l (1968); Jeyes (1980); Starr (1983); M e y e r (1987).
2. See HKL I I I 96. A first f o u n d a t i o n was laid b y Boissier
(1905); a r i c h selection i n G e r m a n translation is t o be f o u n d i n j a s t r o w (1905/12) I I 213-415. See R. Labat, Commentaires
assyrobabyloniennes sur les prsages (1933); B . Meissner, O m i n a z u r E r kenntnis der E i n g e w e i d e des O p f e r t i e r s , " AOF 9 (1933) 118-122;
J. N o u g a y r o l , "Textes hpatoscopiques d ' p o q u e ancienne c o n servs au M u s e d u L o u v r e , " RA 38 (1941) 6 7 - 8 8 ; A . Goetze, " R e ports o n Acts o f E x t i s p i c y f r o m O l d B a b y l o n i a n and Kassite
T i m e s , " JCS 11 (1973) 89 ff; Starr (1983).
5
3. F o u n d i n 1877; see W. Deecke, " D a s T e m p l u m v o n P i acenza," Etruskische Forschungen 4 (1880); Blecher (1905) 201; T h u l i n (1905/09) I I 20 f., 37-39, pis. I , I I ; i d e m , Die Gtter des Martianus
Capella und die Bronzeleber von Piacenza (1906); Pfiffig (1975) 121127; L . B . van der Meer, The Bronze Liver of Piacenza: Analysis of a
Polytheistic Structure (1987). A n o t h e r liver m o d e l , made o f clay,
f r o m Falerii: N o u g a y r o l (1955b) 513, 515-517; Pfiffig (1975) 116 f.
fig- 454. B M B u 89-4-26, 238, published b y T . G. Pinches, CT 6
(1898) pis. 1-3; A . Boissier, Note sur un monument babylonien se rapportant l'extispicine
(1899); T h u l i n (1905/09) I I p l . I I ; Meissner
(1920/25) I I fig. 40; N o u g a y r o l , RA 38 (1941) 77-79. A n o t h e r exemplar, B M R m 620, i n T h u l i n p l . I l l and Boissier (1905) 7 6 - 7 8 ; a
t h i r d i n N o u g a y r o l (1966).
5. Blecher (1905) 199-203, 241-245.
6. T h u l i n (1905/09) I I 30.
7. See n o w M e y e r (1987). H i t t i t e s : KUB I V 71-75, X X X V I I
6 8 - 7 2 nos. 216-230; A . Goetze, Kulturgeschichte Kleinasiens (1957 )
pis. 11, 2 1 . M a r i : M . R u t t e n , RA 35 (1938) 3 6 - 7 0 . A l a l a k h : L .
Woolley, Alalakh (1955) 2 5 0 - 2 5 7 p l . 59. Tell el H a j j : R. A . Stucky,
2
181
NOTES
TO PAGES
4 8 - 4 9
AK 16 (1973) 84 p i . 15.2; U g a r i t : Ugaritica V I (1969) 91-119; cf.

165-179; O . L o r e t z , Leberschau Siindenbock Azazel in Ugarit und Israel (1985). H a z o r : B . Landsberger and H . T a d m o r , Israel
Explor.J.
14 (1964) 201-218. M e g g i d o : H . T. Bossert, Altsyrien (1951) n o .
1193. C y p r u s : BCH 95 (1971) 384 w i t h f i g . 93a; Kadmos 11 (1972)
185 f. A t e x t f r o m Tarsos: Goetze (1939) 12-16.
8. Pfiffig (1975) 117. M e y e r (1985), b y contrast, suggests the
Etruscans b r o u g h t hepatoscopy w i t h t h e m w h e n they i m m i g r a t e d
f r o m the East i n the age o f the Sea Peoples.
9. I n the e n u m e r a t i o n o f Etruscan saecula, Varro i n Cens. 17,
the first f o u r o f these are g i v e n r o u n d n u m b e r s , 100 each, b u t then
specific n u m b e r s are presented, a c c o r d i n g t o celebrations actually
held. T h i s indicates that f r o m about 600 B . C . Etruscans h a d d e t a i l e d w r i t t e n - d o c u m e n t a t i o n , i n contrast t o vague " r e c o n s t r u c t i o n s " about the earlier p e r i o d ; cf. T h u l i n (1905/09) I I I 66; see
also above, " C r a f t s m e n o f the Sacred," n o t e 36.
10. See C h a p t e r 1, " O r i e n t a l Products i n Greece," note 18.
11. //. 1.69; cf. Bouche-Leclercq (1879/82) I 168 f.
12. //. 24.221; Od. 21.145, 22.318-323.
13. D i o n . H a l . Ant. 1.30; cf. Lydos Mag. prooem.
14. Van der M e e r (1979); J . L . D u r a n d and F. Lissarrague, Hephaistos 1 (1979) 92-108; R . B l o c h , BCH suppl. 14 (1986) 7 7 - 8 3 ;
the so-called D i o t i m a statue f r o m M a n t i n e a : BCH 12 (1888) 3 7 6 380; Blecher (1905) p i . 3.3; H . M o b i u s , Jdl 49 (1934) 4 5 - 6 0 .
15. Plat. Phdr. 244c: TEX.EIOTEQOV x a l EVTIUCJTEQOV |xavxtxf|
oioovtoTixfig.
16. Tac. Hist. 2.3.1: scientiam artemque haruspicum accitam et Cilicem Tamiram intulisse . . . ipsa, quatn intulerant, scientia hospites cessere: tantum Cinyrades sacerdos consulitur. Bouche-Leclercq (1879/82)
I 170 combines this w i t h the c u l t o f Zeus S p l a n c h n o t o m o s , " c u t t i n g the entrails" (Hegesandros i n A t h . 174 a) and the alleged i n v e n t i o n o f sacrifice o n C y p r u s (cf. B u r k e r t [1975] 76 f . ) . H e r o d o t u s
2.58 asserts that sacrificial d i v i n a t i o n came f r o m E g y p t ; there is
n o t h i n g t o substantiate this c l a i m .
Div.
17. H s c h . s.v. pylai = A r i s t o p h . fr. 554 Kassel-Austin; C i c .

1.91; cf. above, " O r i e n t a l Products i n Greece," n o t e 65.
18. O n e e x a m p l e , f r o m the B r i t i s h M u s e u m (116624), is often

illustrated, e . g . , Elements ( i 9 6 0 ) p i . Ha; C a q u o t a n d L e i b o v i c i
182
N O T E S
TO
P A G E S
49-51
(1968) opposite p. 32; T. Jacobsen, The Treasures of Darkness (1976)

194; i t is dated t o 7 0 0 - 5 0 0 B . C . See S. S m i t h , " T h e Face o f H u m baba," Annals of Archaeology and Anthropology n (1924) 107-114 and
fiRAS (1926) 4 4 0 - 4 4 2 .
19. Rizza and Santa M a r i a Scrinari (1968) 206 p i . 32 n o . 215;
cf. below, " F o u n d a t i o n Deposits," note 10. For O r t h e i a see above,
" O r i e n t a l Products i n Greece," note 34.
20. T h e " p l a c e " (mazzazu),
the " p a t h " (padanu),
the
" s t r e n g t h " (dananu), the "gate o f the palace" (bah ekalli), the lulmu
(unclear), the " g a l l " (martu), the "left p a t h o f the g a l l " (padan sumel
marti), the " f i n g e r " (ubanu), the " y o k e " (niru), the " a p p e n d i x " ( p r o cessus papillaris) (sibtu); seejeyes (1978).
21. See T h u l i n (1905/09) I I 5 0 - 5 4 ; the most detailed Greek text
is Rufus Onom. 158.5 f. ed. D a r e m b e r g - R u e l l e (nvXai,
TQCXJTECO:,
udxoaoa, ovu). " G a t e " : Eur. El. 828, A r i s t o p h . fr. 554 KasselA u s t i n , Plat. Tim. 71c, A r i s t . Hist.an. 496b32. " H e a d " : see note 23,
b e l o w ; cf. T h u l i n 3 0 - 3 4 . " H e a d o f the l i v e r " (res amutim):
AHw
46b. " H e a d o f the f i n g e r " (res ubanim): AHw 975a. " R i v e r " : H s c h .
s.v. potamos. " R i v e r o f the l i v e r " (nar amutim): AHw 46b, T h u l i n
54. " P a t h " : H s c h . s.v. akeleutha. A " w e a p o n " i n the liver: AHw
46b; cf. uex/capa i n Rufus. See also N o u g a y r o l (1955) 512; Starr
(1983) 7 7 - 9 1 22. T h u l i n (1905/09) I I 34 f., f o l l o w i n g Boissier (1905) 2 2 0 234; Starr (1983) 15-24.
23. M i s s i n g " h e a d " : Plut. Kim. 18.5, Marc. 29; L i v . 41.14 f.
T w o "heads": Sen. Oed. 353-365; Lucan Bell.civ.
1.618-629; t o o direct lines are d r a w n b y W. G. Schileico, " E i n O m e n t e x t Sargons
von A k k a d u n d sein N a c h k l a n g bei rmischen D i c h t e r n , " AOF 5
(1928/29) 214-218.
24. A . Boissier, Mmoires de la Socit linguistique 11 (1901)
e x x x i x , 330; T h u l i n (1905/09) I I 3 n . i ; A . E r n o u t and A . M e i l l e t ,
Dictionnaire tymologique de la langue latine (1959'') 290, w i t h question mark.
25. AHw
46.
26. M . P a l l o t t i n o , Etruscologia (1963 ) 247 f.

27. AHw 1350 f ; cf. Z i m m e r n (1901) 88 f.
28. C i c . Div. 2.28: nec esse unam omnium scientiam; cf. Blecher
(1905) 202.
5
183
NOTES
TO
PAGES
5 2 - 5 3
29. T h e m a i n texts are collected i n Prinz (1979) 382-384, w h o

t h i n k s all o f i t is p u r e i n v e n t i o n ; see also I . Lffler, Die
Melampodie
(1963) 47-5130. T h e so-called M a d u w a t t a s t e x t , A . Goetze,

Maduwattas,
M i t t e i l u n g e n der Vorderasiatisch-gyptischen
Gesellschaft
32
(1928) 37; o n the date o f this text, see H . O t t e n , Sprachliche
Stellung
und Datierung des Maduwatta-Textes
(1969); J. D . M u h l y , Historia 23
(1974) I 3 9 - H 5 ; R- D - B a r n e t t , CAH I I 2 (1975) 363-366.
31. KAI n o . 26, I 16, I I 11, I I I 12; see F. B r o n , Recherches sur
les inscriptions de Karatepe (1979) 172-176; Barnett, CAH I I 2 (1975)
363-366; A . Strobel, Der sptbronzezeitliche
Seevlkersturm
(1976)
31-38.
32. X a n t h o s the L y d i a n , FGrHist 765 F 17. A name mo-qo-so
also appears i n Linear B, K N D e 1381 B; P Y Sa 774.
33. For M a l l o s see RE X I V 916 f.; f o u r t h - c e n t u r y coins have a
w i n g e d figure reminiscent o f the w i n g e d sun disk o f Syrian-Persian
i c o n o g r a p h y ; one type o f these coins has a b i l i n g u a l , A r a m a i c Greek i n s c r i p t i o n ; see C. M . Kraay, Archaic and Classical
Greek
Coins (1978) 285.
34. " I f a w o m a n gives b i r t h t o a l i o n " occurs i n an A k k a d i a n
text, as i n H d t . 1.84; cf. C i c . Div. 1.53; see G. Bunnens, Hommages
RenardU (1968) 130-132.
35. For b i r d s , see H u n g e r (1909) 23-25; Jastrow (1905/12) I I
7 9 8 - 8 1 2 ; E. Reiner, JNES
19 ( i 9 6 0 ) 28. For lecanomancy, see
Z i m m e r n (1901) 85, 89; J. H u n g e r , Becherwahrsagung bei den Babyloniern nach zwei Keilschrifttexten aus der Hammurabi-Zeit
(1903); Jast r o w (1905/12) I I 7 4 9 - 7 7 5 ; see also Ganszyniec, RE X I I 1879-88
s.v.
Lekanomanteia.
3
36. Aesch. Ag. 322; Farnell (1911) 301; cf.J. N o u g a y r o l , " A l e u romancie babylonienne," Orientalia, n.s. 31 (1963) 381386.
FOUNDATION DEPOSITS
1. See E. D . van B u r e n , Foundation Figurines and Offerings
(1931); Ellis (1968); RIA I I I (1971) 6 5 5 - 6 6 1 s.v.
Grndungsbeigaben.
M a g i c a l figurines deposited i n clay capsules are to be distinguished
f r o m these; see R i t t i g (1977); see also J. M . Weinstein, Foundation
Deposits in Ancient Egypt (1973).
2. ANET
356 f.
3. East r o o m o f the sanctuary at Archanes, pebbles: I . Sakel-
184
N O T E S
T O
P A G E S
54-5
larakis, Praktika 1979, 381. M i n i a t u r e vessels, animal bones, one

seal under a r o c k placed i n the r o o m at Knossos where evidence for
cannibalistic feasts seems t o come f r o m : P. Warren i n R. H g g and
N . M a r i n a t o s , eds., Sanctuaries and Cults in the Aegean Bronze Age
(1981) 166. T h r e e pairs o f kylikes under a cult r o o m at T i r y n s : K.
K i l i a n , i b i d . 53.
4. V. Karageorghis, BCH 99 (1975) 831-835.
5. B o a r d m a n (1967) 5 7 - 6 7 and (1980) 57; cf. Chapter 1, " O r i ental Products i n Greece," note 38. See n o w i n general for this and
the f o l l o w i n g finds Wells (1988), w h o draws a t t e n t i o n especially
to f o u n d a t i o n deposits o f clay vessels under f o r t i f i c a t i o n walls o f
Asine, 7 2 0 - 7 0 0 B . C .
6. H . Gallet de Santerre and J. Treheux, BCH 71/72 (1947/48)
148-254; H . Gallet de Santerre, Delos primitive et archaique (1958)
129; V. R. d ' A . D e s b o r o u g h , The Last Mycenaeans and Their Successors (1964) 45 f., t h i n k s that the Mycenaean objects had been accidentally discovered and reinterred d u r i n g the b u i l d i n g process.
O n e m a y compare the fact that the Assyrians i n t e n t i o n a l l y sought
for the "ancient temennu" w h e n r e b u i l d i n g temples: Ellis (1968)
147-150.
7. A . B a m m e r , " N e u e G r a b u n g e n an der Zentralbasis des A r t e m i s i o n v o n Ephesos," JOEAI
58 (1988) Beiblatt 1-32. For the
older discussion, see P. Jacobsthal, JHS 71 (1951) 85-95; L. W e i dauer, Probleme der frhen Elektronprgung (1975) 7 2 - 8 0 ; B o a r d m a n
(1980) 101; A . H e u b e c k , Kadmos 22 (1983) 62; D . Kagan, AJA 86
(1982) 343-360. For Priene, Perachora, I s t h m i a , see Sinn (1985) 136
f. n.23 w i t h further b i b l i o g r a p h y .
8. Rizza and Santa M a r i a Scrinari (1968) 24 f.
9. Cf. the i n s c r i p t i o n f r o m K a l l i p o l i s c o m m a n d i n g the erect i o n o f a statue o f A p o l l o i n o r d e r t o get r i d o f a plague; K. B u resch, Klaros (1889) 8186; J. Krauss, Die Inschriften von Sestos (1980)
n o . 11. O n b o u n d a r y stones, see Die Schriften der rmischen Feldmesser, ed. K . L a c h m a n n I (1848) 141.
10. Sinn (1985).
11. Ellis (1968) 42 f.
12. See i b i d . 138-140, 167 f. w i t h the vague f o r m u l a t i o n : " t o
enhance the value o f the b u i l d i n g and the v a l i d i t y o f the ceremonies
connected w i t h its c o n s t r u c t i o n " (140).
13. I b i d . 16, 31, 34; the f o r m u l a ina sipir asiputi i n D . D . L u c k -
185
N O T E S
T O
P A G E S
5 6 - 5 7
e n b i l l , The Annals of Sennacherib

(1924) 137.31 ( = L u c k e n b i l l
[1926/27] I I 437) and i n S. L a n g d o n , Die neubabylonischen
Knigsinschriften (1912) 62, 4 0 - 4 3 (Nabopolassar).
PURIFICATION
1. P r o k l . Chrestom. p. 106 f. A l l e n = p. 47 Davies; Schob T

//. 11.690a ( I I I 261 Erbse): Jtag' 'Oufjgoot o x oauEv cjjova
x a O a i g i i e v o v ; b u t cf. //. 24.480 w i t h schob
2. N i l s s o n (1967) I 91 f., 6 3 2 - 6 3 7 ; i d e m , Greek Piety (1948)
41-47; D o d d s (1951) 2 8 - 6 3 ; L. M o u l i n i e r , Le pur et l'impur dans la
pense et la sensibilit des grecs (1952); b u t Parker (1983) 15 f., 6 6 - 7 0 ,
115 f., 130-143 warns against s i m p l i s t i c ideas o f " d e v e l o p m e n t . "
3. K . M e u l i , " S k y t h i c a , " Hermes 70 (1935) 121-176 = Gesammelte Schriften I I (1975) 817-879; cf. D o d d s (1951) 135-178.
4. Farnell (1911) 289; Farnell's b o o k seems t o be the o n l y u n prejudiced and careful discussion o f the p r o b l e m t o date, even
t h o u g h he seems n o t to have studied the eastern languages. Cf.
above, " H e p a t o s c o p y , " note 36.
5. Survey i n HKL I I I 8 5 - 9 3 ; see also Meissner (1920/25) I I
198-241; E. Reiner, La magie babylonienne (1966); G. R. Castellino,
" L a letteratura magica," i n Storia dlie letterature d'orient, ed. O .
B o t t o , I (1969) 227-238. Earlier editions include Z i m m e r n (1901),
Fossey (1902), T h o m p s o n (1903/04), T h u r e a u - D a n g i n (1921),
E b e l i n g (1931); there are g o o d editions o f Maql ( G . M e i e r 1937)
and Shurpu (E. Reiner 1958).
6. Goetze (1939) 11 ff. (an amulet?).
7. See Z i m m e r n (1901) 8 2 - 9 3 ; Meissner (1920/25) I I 6 4 - 6 6 .
8. Heraclitus B 5; (j)6v)i cjjvov as a f o r m u l a i n Soph.
100; Eur. Here. 40, I.T. 1213, Or. 510, 816.
O.T
9. Aesch. Bum. 441, frs. 8 9 - 9 3 Radt; w r i t t e n H I E I Q N on a

vase p a i n t i n g , i.e., associated w i t h ixTT|, suppliant; E. S i m o n ,
Wrzburger Jahrb. 1 (1975) 177-185. FIdt. 1.35.2 says that the L y d ians had the same m e t h o d o f p u r i f i c a t i o n as the Greeks. M y t h has
even A p o l l o u n d e r g o p u r i f i c a t i o n after k i l l i n g , be i t w i t h K a r m a n o r
in Crete (Paus. 2.30.3, 10.7.2; Schob P i n d . Pyth. hypothesis c), at
Tempe (Hymn of Aristonoos at Delphi I 17, p. 163 P o w e l l ; A e l . V.LI.
3.1), o r t h r o u g h exile w i t h A d m e t u s (Eur. Alk. 5-7).
10. Aesch. Eum. 281: L i i a o i i a exuX/utov; 283: x a 8 a g u . o
rector) x o i g o x x o v o i ; cf. 4 4 8 - 4 5 2 . T h e m o s t detailed description
186
NOTES
T O
PAGES
5 7 - 5 9
o f p u r i f i c a t i o n f r o m m u r d e r i n later literature is i n A p o l l o n i u s
Rhodius 4.662-717; see Parker (1983) 370-374. There is n o w an
extensive "sacred l a w " f r o m Selinus, fifth century B . C . , i n the J.
Paul G e t t y M u s e u m , part o f w h i c h contains detailed prescriptions
for p u r i f i c a t i o n ; i t w i l l be published b y M . Jameson, D . Jordan,
and Roy K o t a n s k y .
11. //. 1.3 14: " T h e y t h r e w the lymata i n t o the sea."
12. L o u v r e K 710: A . D . Trendall and A . C a m b i t o g l o u , The
Red-Figured
Vases of Apulia I (1978) n o . 4/229; G. SchneiderH e r m a n n , AK 13 (1970) 59 p i . 30.1; A . Kossatz-Deissmann, Dramen des Aischylos auf westgriechischen Vasen (1978) 107-111; cf. R. R.
Dyer, " T h e Evidence for A p o l l o P u r i f i c a t i o n Rituals at D e l p h i and
A t h e n s , " JHS 89 (1969) 3 8 - 5 6 , w i t h additional illustrations f r o m
vases.
13. Farnell (1911) 129 f. For M e s o p o t a m i a n b l o o d rituals see
L. C a g n i i n F. V a t t i o n i e d . , Sangue e antropologia biblica (1981) 7 4 76; R. G e l l i o , i b i d . 4 3 8 - 4 4 5 . T h e r e are i m p o r t a n t b l o o d rituals i n
H i t t i t e and H u r r i t e r i t u a l texts, t o o .
14. E. L a n g l o t z and M . H i r m e r , Die Kunst der Westgriechen
(1963) 24; A . D . T r e n d a l l , The Red-Figured
Vases of Lucania,
Campania and Sicily (1967) 602 n o . 103; G. S c h n e i d e r - H e r r m a n n , AK
13 (1970) 59 f. p i . 30.2; a s i m i l a r representation is f o u n d o n a cameo
f r o m the C o l l e c t i o n Fouad, RML I I 2574. For the m y t h o f the
Proetids see B u r k e r t (1983a) 168-173.
15. Cf. Soph. Tr. 1235: "he m i g h t be sick o n account o f avengi n g d e m o n s , " ei; akaoxQMV v o o o i .
16. T h o m p s o n (1903/04) I I 16-21 ( w i t h slight adjustments o f
the translation); Meissner (1920/25) I I 222.
17. See the c o m i c d e s c r i p t i o n o f the p u r i f i c a t i o n o f the Proetids
i n D i p h i l o s fr. 125 Kassel-Austin, M e l a m p u s o p e r a t i n g " w i t h one
t o r c h , one squill . . . w i t h sulphur, asphalt, and l o u d - r o a r i n g sea."
18. O v . Fast. 6.158-162. T h e r e is an equally close parallel i n a
H i t t i t e i n c a n t a t i o n text; see H . Kronasser, Die Sprache 7 (1961) 140167; V. Flaas, Orientalia 40 (1971) 4 1 0 - 4 3 0 ; FI. S. Versnel, ZPE 58
(1985) 267.
19. Od. 5.396: TiryeQg e 01 eôae aiLiorv. For the d o g l i k e
Erinyes see Aesch. Cho. 1054, Bum. 264-267; see also below, " S u b stitute Sacrifice," n o t e 2.
20. arrat saggaste i n Shurpu
5.48 f. Closer to the Greek is the

187
NOTES
TO PAGES
O-2
O l d Testament: the spilled b l o o d " c r i e s " f r o m the earth, Gen. 4:10,

j u s t as i n Aesch. Cho. 4 0 0 - 4 0 4 .
21. See above, " C r a f t s m e n o f the Sacred," note 10; cf. Parker
(1983) 125 f.
22. For the f i g u r i n e s , see R i t t i g (1977) 188-194. E x p u l s i o n o f
"ravenous h u n g e r " (bulimos)
at C h a i r o n e i a : P l u t . Q.Conv.
693 f.:
8<JL> o X t i i o v eoto Jtoxov x a l y i e t a v .

23. U n c l e a n hands, etc.: T h o m p s o n (1903/04) I I 138-141; cf.
L e v i t i c u s 5:2 f.; " L o r d o f g u i l t " (bel ami): Shurpu
a X a f | c avvovaa:
I I I 134-137;
Aesch. Eum. 285. " N o s p e a k i n g " : i b i d . 448
and i n the a e t i o l o g y o f the Anthesteria r i t u a l , B u r k e r t (1983a) 221 f.

24. Ludlul
bel nemeqi I I I 23-28. L a m b e r t ( i 9 6 0 ) 48 f.; cf.
ANET
436, Castellino (1977) 487. Branchos: A p o l l o d o r u s o f K e r k y r a i n

C l e m . Strom. 5.48.4; C a l l i m . fr. 1 9 4 . 2 6 - 3 1 .
25. F o r the i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f this f i g u r e o f t e n b u t w r o n g l y
called Oannes after Berossos, FGrHist
(1981) 14-30; cf. AHw 58 s.v. apkallu(m);
680 F 1 4see K o l b e
represented, e . g . , beside
the bed o f the sick o n the L a m a s h t u tablet (see below, " L a m a s h t u ,

L a m i a , and G o r g o , " note 15); representation f r o m Terqa, n o r t h e r n
Syria: Genge (1979) 44 r e f e r r i n g t o Annales archologiques de Syrie 2
(1952) 179 p l . 2.
26. D e m o s t h . 18.259; H a r p o k r . s.v. jtoiidxxtuv; Soph. fr. 34
Radt: oxpaxo x a o a Q x f | xjtoiiayLidxcov pi. A real case o f " p u r i f y i n g " an a r m y : X e n o p h . Anab.
5.7.35; cf. W. K . P r i t c h e t t , The
Greek State at War I I I (1979) 200 f.

27. AHw 442 f.; Z i m m e r n (1901) 92; Schrank (1908) 81-88.
28. AHw 509; S o p h r o n fr. 5 K a i b e l ; for M e l a m p u s see note 17,
above.
29. Shurpu
1.13,
18, r e v . 9 ' , 5 . 6 0 - 7 2 ; K r a t i n o s fr. 250 Kassel-
A u s t i n ; D i p h i l o s fr. 125.3 (
note 17, above); T h e o p h r .
16.14; OKikfat) 'EmiiEViEio: T h e o p h r . H.Plant.

30. Shurpu
Char.
7.2.1.
8.89 f.; Maql 7 . 8 1 .
31. E b e l i n g (1931) 8 0 - 8 2 n o . 21.1-38; 138 n o . 30 C 9.

32. H s c h . : 4>aQfxdxrp r\ %vxa fjv xoiiaov x o x a o a t o o u a L V
x
KXEI.
I n the L a t i n c o m e d y Querolus
(p. 38.10-15 Ranstrand)
the w o u l d - b e m a g i c i a n asks f o r a l i t t l e coffer, arcula inanis . . . in

qua lustrum Mud exportetur foras.
I n the H i t t i t e Telepinu t e x t , "Tele-
p i n u s ' rage, anger, malice fand] f u r y " are enclosed i n subterranean

bronze caldrons; ANET
128.
188
N O T E S
T O
P A G E S
6 2 - 6 4
33. E b e l i n g (1931) 138 n o . 30 C 11; 82 n o . 21.38; Shurpu 7.64

ff.; cf. Ebeling (1918/19) 1 3 3 = Castellino (1977) 633.
34. H i p p o e r . V I 362 L i t t r e .
35. T h o m p s o n (1903/04) I I 138 f. Petronius 134.1: quod purgamentum in node calcas in trivio out cadaver; L i v . 8.10.12: ubi ilhtd
signum defossum erit, eo magistratum Romanum escendere fas non esse.
36. A r i s t . fr. 496 Rose = Paus. Att. cj> 5 Erbse; Leviticus 14:47; 4 9 - 5 3 37. D i o g . L a e r t . 1.114 = Epimenides, FGrHist 457 T 1.
38. E b e l i n g (1931) 150 n o . 30 F 35 f.
39. Historia Alexandri Magni 2.31.3 K r o l l ; Testamentum Alexandri, R. M e r k e l b a c h , Die Quellen des griechischen
Alexanderromans
(1977 ) 254; cf. Paus. 8.18.6: T h e water o f Styx can be kept o n l y i n
a horse's hoof.
40. D i o g . L a e r t . 8.3. Epimenides m e n t i o n e d the Idaean cave i n
the c o n t e x t o f the m y t h o f Zeus, FGrHist 457 F 18. T h e name o f
E p i m e n i d e s ' m o t h e r , Balte, has been associated w i t h Semitic
Ba alat;
G r o t t a n e l l i (1982b) 659; T. Poliakov, RhM 130 (1987)
411 f.
41. See Chapter 1, " O r i e n t a l Products i n Greece," note 13.
42. See above, " C r a f t s m e n o f the Sacred," note 12.
43. See note 9, above.
44. A p o l l o and numenia: H d t . 6.57.2; Philochoros,
FGrHist
328 F 88, numeniastai o f A p o l l o D e l p h i n i o s : F. Graf, M H 3 1 (1974)
214; cf. RF X V I I 1293. F o r the celebration o f the n e w m o o n i n
Israel see, e.g., I Samuel 20:3, I I K i n g s 4:23, Ezra 3:1. A p o l l o and
"Seven": EotiayETac;, Aesch. Sept. 800 f ; cf. H d t . 6.57.2;
'EitEioc,: IG I I / I I I 4974; 'Eouou'urv: Inschriften von Erythrai
(1972/73) 207.87; a festival " E o i i a i a o f the Molpoi o f M i l e t o s ,
LSAM
50.6; 2 i , etc. See also B u r k e r t (1975).
2
45. See notes 9 a n d 25, above. Rhakios is the husband o f

M a n t o , m o t h e r o f M o p s o s , A k k a d i a n rahu is a sort o f magician;
AHw 944a.
46. S. L e v i n , SMEA
13 (1971) 31-50 c o m m e n t i n g o n nektar;
B u r k e r t (1975) 77; cf. AHw 907 (qataru), 930 f. (qutrenum, sacrifice
o f incense); HAL 1022-24;
I I K i n g s 23:5, e.g., the f o r m is jeqatter(u), " t h e y b u r n t incense," w h i c h , transcribed, w o u l d produce
s o m e t h i n g like E x d B n o a v . For the mirage o f a G r e e k - s o u n d i n g suffix i n xcxaog ( G . N e u m a n n , ZVS 98 [1985] 305 f . ) ; cf. XExdvn,
o
189
N O T E S
T O
P A G E S
6 4 - 6 5
C h a p t e r 1, " T h e P r o b l e m of L o a n - W o r d s , " note 11. I t is even m o r e

t e m p t i n g t o assume that the name o f A p h r o d i t e the goddess o f i n cense, KuGepeia, is f r o m the same Semitic r o o t ; cf., e.g., H e b r e w
mequtteret, " f i l l e d w i t h fragrance" ( i n spite o f Greek p o p u l a r etym o l o g y c o n n e c t i n g the name w i t h the island K8r|pct; the change
T|- is l i n g u i s t i c a l l y impossible; cf. G. M o r g a n , " A p h r o d i t e C y therea," TAPA
108 [1978] 115-120 for another e t y m o l o g y ) . " H e
cleaned/fumigated w i t h s u l p h u r , " e x d r i p e Geeum: //. 16.228; cf.
Od. 22.481 f.
47. AHw 565; the r o o t is used as adjective and verb, the n o u n
is lutu; for its use i n p u r i f i c a t i o n ceremonies, see, e.g., Maql 1.102;
1.105; 3.113. O n the p r o b l e m s o f w o r d f o r m a t i o n as to \v\xa/Xv9QOV see C h a n t r a m e (1968/80) 650 f.; for a detailed investigation
i n t o the m e a n i n g o f these w o r d s see E. Tagliaferro i n Sangue e Antropologia Biblica I (1980) 182 n.36, 186-189. For lustrum see note
32, above.
48. O n araru see AHw 65, HAL 88; used as a l o a n - w o r d i n
H u r r i t e ; E. Laroche, RHA 28 (1970) 61. B i l e a m : N u m b e r s 22:6; cf.
above, " C r a f t s m e n o f the Sacred," note 4; on d p a see Chantraine
(1968/80) 100 f.
SPIRITS O F T H E D E A D A N D B L A C K
MAGIC
1. Cf. above, " P u r i f i c a t i o n , " note 19.

2. AHw 263 f.
3. See Rohde (1898), esp. I 2 5 9 - 2 7 7 , " E l e m e n t e des Seelencultes i n der B l u t r a c h e u n d M o r d s h n e . "
4. See below, Ch ap te r 3, " F r o m Atrahasis t o the ' D e c e p t i o n o f
Z e u s , ' " note 1.
5. E b e l i n g (1931) 68 f. n o . 15.23-25 (burial i n the context o f a
r i t u a l o f s u b s t i t u t i o n ; cf. C h ap te r 2, " S u b s t i t u t e Sacrifice").
6. Aesch. Pers. 611-618; cf. Eur. l.T. 159-166: water, m i l k ,
w i n e , honey.
7. Spirits l a c k i n g the " p o u r i n g s o f w a t e r " (naq me) become u n r u l y ; T h o m p s o n (1903/04) I 40. A s h u r b a n i p a l reinstated f o o d offerings and " p o u r i n g s o f w a t e r " for the earlier kings; Streck (1916)
II 250 f.; cf. E b e l i n g (1931) 131 n o . 30 A 38; Frber (1977) 150 f.,
text A I I a 158. O n offerings o f water i n the Greek cult o f the dead
see B u r k e r t (1985) 73, 194.
8. N o t i c e d b y T. W i e g a n d , Sechster vorlufiger Bericht ber die in
190
N O T E S
T O
P A G E S
65-67
Milet und Didyma vorgenommenen Ausgrabungen, A b h . B e r l i n (1908)

27; hence N i l s s o n (1967) 177 n . i ; RE Suppl. V I I I 136.
9. CAD I I ( A ) 324 s.v. arutu (this w o r d is interpreted differently b y E b e l i n g [1931] 132 and AHw 72b).
t o . A r i s t o p h . fr. 322 Kassel-Austin; see T . Geizer, ZPE 4
(1967) 123-133.
i t . Esp. i n E b e l i n g (1931) n o . 30 A - F ; n o . 31.
12. I b i d . 84 n o . 21.1; 138 n o . 30 C 1; 142 n o . 30 D r.
13. I b i d . 141 n o . 30 C verso 10 f. = SAHG 341.
14. E b e l i n g (1931) 84 n o . 21 verso 23; cf. Castellino (1977)
647.
15. T h o m p s o n (1903/04) I 38 f , f r o m the series utukki lemnuti;
Gilgamesh X I I 151 f.; cf. Ebeling (1931) 145 n o . 30 C 22-29.
16. E b e l i n g (1931) 145 n o . 30 E 22.
17. 17. 22.358, Od. 11.73.
18. Plat. Phdr. 244a, Leg. 854b; cf. Trag.Adesp. F 637.16 Snell;
Eur. Phoen. 934: i n b o t h these passages there is a mantis t o deal w i t h
the menima. C f . I . M . L i n f o r t h , "Telestic Madness i n Plato,"
IJCPCP
13 (1946) 163-172; B u r k e r t (1987a) 19, 24.
19. A r i s t . Rhet. 1 4 ^ 2 4 - 2 6 = Epimenides, FGrHist 457 F 1.
20. J. T r u m p f , "Fluchtafel u n d Rachepuppe," MDAI
(Athens)
73 ('958) 94-102; cf. B u r k e r t (1985) 75; Faraone (1991) and ClAnt
10 (1991) 164-203; Faraone and b b i n k (1991) index s.v. voodoo dolls. Maql 4 . 2 7 - 4 7 ; cf. 1.1; Ebeling (1918/19) I I 38.26
= Castellino (1977) 675.27; Frber (1977) 211-213, text A I I I 10;
E b e l i n g (1931) 133 n o . 30 A subscriptio.
21. Maql 1.131 ff. = Castellino (1977) 618, Biggs (1967) 28.
22. Theoer. 2.53.
23. B i g g s (1967), esp. 28.22-24: figurines made o f w a x , fat,
b i t u m e n , g y p s u m ; cf. E b e l i n g (1925).
24. Theocr. 2.162.
25. Plat. Leg. 933b.
26. E b e l i n g (1931) 71 n o . 17.2.
27. T h e second tale i n A . E r m a n , "Papyrus Westcar," i n Die
Literatur der gypter (1923) 66; E. B r u n n e r - T r a u t ,
Alt-gyptische
Mrchen (1965 ) 12 f. C f . the magical destruction o f A p o p i i n G.
Roeder, Der Ausklang der gyptischen Religion mit Reformation,
Zauberei und Jenseitsglauben
(1961) 150 f.; P. D e r c h a i n , Le papyrus Salt
825 (1965) 161 f.; E. H o r n u n g , Altgyptische Llllenv or Stellungen,
2
19t
NOTES
TO
PAGES
68-69
A b h . L e i p z i g 59.3 (1968) 27; M . J. Raven, " W a x i n E g y p t i a n M a g i c

and S y m b o l i s m , " OMRO
54 (1983) 7-47. Figurines o f w a x and fat
i n H i t t i t e magic: G u r n e y (1954) 162.
28. Text o f Sfire: ANET
660, KAI 222, F i t z m y e r (1967) 14 f.,
16 f. (I 35, 42); L e m a i r e and D u r a n d (1984). Esarhaddon: D . J.
Wiseman, Iraq 20 (1958) 75 f.; ANET
540.608-610; S. Parpola and
K. Watanabe, State Archives of Assyria II: Neo-Assyrian
Treaties and
Loyalty Oaths (1988). H i t t i t e : J. F r i e d r i c h , " D e r hethitische Soldateneid," ZA 35 (1924) 161-192; ANET
353; N . O e t t i n g e r , Die militrischen Eide der Hethiter (1976) 6-17; see D . J. M c C a r t h y , Treaty
and Covenant (1963, 1978 ); M . Weinfeld, JAOS
93 (1973) 190-199.
B u r n i n g o f effigies is c o m m o n i n Maql.
2
29. S. F e r r i , Abh. Berlin 5 (1925) 19-24; SEC 9 n o . 3; R.

M e i g g s and D . L e w i s , A Selection of Greek Historical
Inscriptions
(1969) n o . 5.44; x r | g i v o g J t X d o a v t e g x o X o a g xax6xcuov. O n this
text see A . D . N o c k , AR W 24 (1926) 172 f.; A . J. G r a h a m , JHS 80
( i 9 6 0 ) 95-111; M u r r a y (1980) 113-119. A c c o r d i n g to S. Dusanic,
Chiron 8 (1978) 55-76, i t is a f o r g e r y (or " r e c o n s t r u c t i o n " ) f r o m
the f o u r t h c e n t u r y B.c.
30. PGM
2.34; 4.339, 1419. 2485, 2750, 2912; 5.340, 425;
7-317, 985; 13.923; 70; etc.; i t occurs also i n defixions and o n m a g ical gems; see D r e x l e r , RML I I 1584-87.
31. S. Ferri, Notiziario Archeologico 4 (1927) 91-145; SEG 9 n o .
72; U . v o n W i l a m o w i t z - M o e l l e n d o r f f , " H e i l i g e Gesetze. Eine U r k u n d e aus K y r e n e , " Sitzungsberichte B e r l i n (1927) 155-176; G. I .
Luzzato, La Lex Cathartica di Cirene (1936); H . Jeanmaire, REG 58
(1945) 6 6 - 8 9 ; J. Servais, BCH 84 ( i 9 6 0 ) 112-147; LSS 115; Parker
(1983) 332-351. I t m u s t n o w be c o m p a r e d w i t h the u n p u b l i s h e d
lex sacra a b o u t p u r i f i c a t i o n f r o m Selinus; see above, " P u r i f i c a t i o n , "
note 10.
32. J. G o u l d , " H i k e t e i a , " JHS 93 (1973) 74-103.
33. LSS
115 B 35-39: KOXOOOC,
Jtotrioavxa EQOEVCX xou fjX.ia[v] f| x a X i v o g t | yai'vog imobe'E,\ievov
jta0TL8[e]LiEV TO LIEQOC;
jtdvTCDV EJtEt E x a jtoifjoEg x d v o i i i ^ o L i e v a , ((>Egovxa Eg vkav
dEgyov g [ t ] o m x d g x o X o o o g x a i x d uigr|. For c o n j u r i n g a spirit
"either male or female" cf. Maql 1.73-86 = Castellino (1977)
Maql I I 3 8 - 4 9 = Castellino 620; Maql I I 108-110 = Castellino
622 f.; Maql I I 131 = Castellino 623; cf. 632.28-30.
34. E b e l i n g (1931) 8 0 - 8 2 n o . 21 recto lines 1-39,
192
cf. i b i d . 82
NOTES
TO
PAGES
7O-72
f., 84 f. verso lines 23-32. For the p o t see above, " P u r i f i c a t i o n , "
notes 31-32.
35. Plat. Rep. 364c: EJtaycoYaic; x t a t x a t xaxaSEauoLc;; Eur.
Hipp. 318: e ETtaxxoT) Jir]uovf]c;; cf. T h e o p h r . Char. 16.7; H i p p o c r .
Morb.Sacr. 1, V I 358 L i t t r e ; Vict. 4.89, V I 652 L i t t r e ; Parker (1983)
348.
36. T h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n was first advanced b y H . J. Stukey, CP
32 (1937) 32-43, f o l l o w e d by Parker (1983) 348 f.
37. T h i s was Stukey's o p i n i o n t o o , b u t Parker (1983) 348
thinks the second and t h i r d sections deal w i t h a hikesios w h o is " p a l pably h u m a n . "
38. " T o do rites o n , " according to K. D o w d e n , RHR
197
(1980) 415 f.
39. T h u s LSJ s.v. prophero and telisko; cf. S o k o l o w s k i o n LSS
115.40-49.
40. H d t . 5.66.1. T h e n e w lex sacra f r o m Selinus (note 31,
above) speaks about establishing a cult to an elasteros (opposite to
hikesios?).
41. LSJ Suppl. has " d u b . sense" for autophonos, b u t " t o supplicate" for aphiketeuein. autophonos occurs a few times i n poetry; i t
refers to suicide i n O p p . Cyn. 2.480.
42. l o o a v x a line 52 i n o p p o s i t i o n to looctfiEVog line 40 f. m u s t
be transitive. Is i t the corpse o f the suicide w h i c h "is seated"?
43. XQi<jnjA.fcrv is preceded b y . . . ]jtoA.iov; aAAoJjro?uav is a
possible supplement. [tiEXpi 6pco]v ( [ E m l a p d ) ] v is the supplement
at line 55 b y O l i v e r i o p r i n t e d i n LSS. Cf. Plat. Leg. 873d: A suicide
is to be i n t e r r e d "at the borders o f the twelve sections."
44. Cf. E p i c h a r m . fr. 165 K a i b e l ; FIsch. s.v. kreittones; Schol.
A r i s t o p h . Av. 1490.
45. There seems to be a certain parallel to the Skira procession
in A t h e n s , an apopompe w h e r e a ram's fleece is o f some i m p o r t a n c e ;
see B u r k e r t (1985) 230.
46. Paus. 2.18.2; EOtvDg xcu Jtoiv&q xcci J t p o a x p o j t a i o u g xarv
61' EXELVOV rjxnxTlxoxoov: P o l y b . 23.10.2.
47. A n t i p h . 2.3.10; 4.1.4; 4.2.8 (the passages are parallel, b u t
LSJ translates " s u p p l i a n t for vengeance" at 2.3.10 and "avenger" at
4.2.8); Aesch. Ch. 286 f.: xo y a p OXOXELVOV xarv EVEpxEpurv PeXog
EX JtpooTpOJtaiarv EV YVEL JXEJXXOIXOXCOV, " t h e dark missile o f those
below, f r o m prostropaioi k i l l e d w i t h i n the f a m i l y . " T h e ancient c o m -
193
NOTES
TO PAGES
7 3 - 7 7
m e n t a t o r explains: " f r o m A g a m e m n o n , w h o supplicates the gods

to o b t a i n avenge"; this has misled LSJ astray t o translate " s u p p l i a n t
for vengeance" instead o f avenging spirit w h o "attaches h i m s e l f "
to the c u l p r i t . R o h d e (1898) I 264 n.2. had i t r i g h t , n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g
his a n i m i s t i c i n t e r p r e t a t i o n : " D i e zrnende Seele w i r d z u m
KQoaxQnaioc,."
See also Aeschin. 2.158 w i t h H a r p o k r . s.v. JTQOa T Q J t a i o v tuaatxa. C f . H . J. Stukey, CP 32 (1937) 40; Parker
(1983) 108, 349.
SUBSTITUTE SACRIFICE
1. See B u r k e r t (1979) 7 0 - 7 2 and (1981b) 115 f.
2. See F u r l a n i (1940) 285-305, esp. 290 f.; cf. Chapter 2, " P u r i f i c a t i o n , " at note 19.
3. Paus. A t t . e 35 ed. Erbse; Z e n o b . A t h . 1.8 p. 350 M i l l e r ; the
c o m m o n source is D i d y m o s ; cf. R u p p r e c h t , RE X V I I I 4, 1754 f.;
cf. W. Sale, RhM 118 (1975) 265-284. M e n a n d . Phasma 80 Sandbach and fr. 368 K o e r t e .
4. L e x X I I Tab. V I I I 24a, explained b y Festus 347, 351 M =
470, 476 L.
5. E b e l i n g (1931) 6 5 - 6 9 n o . 15; cf. F u r l a n i (1940) 294 f. and
RA 38 (1941) 60. A s i m i l a r b u t shorter text i n Ebeling 69 f. n o . 16;
for Ereshkigal see above, " P u r i f i c a t i o n , " note 30; f o r libations see
above, " S p i r i t s o f the Dead and Black M a g i c , " note 5.
6. Gell. 5.12.12.
7. A e l . Nat.An.
12.34; cf. B u r k e r t (1983a) 183.
8. AHw 109 f
ASCLEPIUS AND ASGELATAS
1. K y r i e l e i s (1979); cf. A . F u r t w n g l e r , AK zi (1978) 113 f.
2. F u h r (1977) 136.
3. Paus. 2.27.2, c o n f i r m e d b y coins; cf. F u h r (1977) 140 f i g .
10. T h e r e l i e f f r o m E p i d a u r u s , A t h e n s N M 1426: U . H a u s m a n n ,
Kumt und Heiltum (1948) f i g . 10; K . K e r e n y i , Der gttliche Arzt
(1948) f i g . 15; cf. N i l s s o n (1906) 409 n.7.
4. A p o l l o d . , FGrHist 244 F 138.
5. IG I I / I I I 4962 = LSCG
21.9 f.: moiv
xwriYETcag j t j t a v a xoia.
2
nnava
xoia-
6. Plato, Phaon fr. 188.16 Kassel-Austin. T h e b e g i n n i n g o f the

verse is c o r r u p t ; see Kassel-Austin for suggested emendations.
194
NOTES
7.
TO PAGES
K. L . T a l l q v i s t , Akkadische
7 8 - 8 0
Gtterepitheta
(1938) 5; Fuhr
(1977); AHw 92b; i n A r a m a i c - S y r i a n asja, physician, is a current

word, too.
8. Asgelatas: IG X I I 3.248 = LSCG
129 = SIG
977.8, 27
(end o f second c e n t u r y B . C . ) ; Asgelaia: IG X I I 3.249; cf. N i l s s o n

(1906) 175 f.
9. See U . v o n W i l a m o w i t z - M o e l l e n d o r f f , hyllos
von Epidauros
(1886) 93. A H i t t i t e e t y m o l o g y f o r Asclepius is advanced b y Szem e r e n y i (1974) 155.

10. Esp. at the Black Sea; W. M . Calder, A]A 75 (1971) 3 2 5 329; S E C 30 n o . 880; A r i s t o p h . Av. 584, Pint.
11, etc.
11. Paus. 8 . 4 1 . 7 - 9 ; even i f the name E p i k u r i o s o r i g i n a l l y designated the g o d o f mercenaries, the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n " t h e H e l p e r " as
given b y Pausanias shows w h a t Greeks w o u l d n o r m a l l y expect.
12. IG X I I 3 412 (Thera, fifth century B . C . ) ; X I I 3 259, 260
( A n a p h e ) ; A p o l l . R h o d . 4.1716; C a l l i m . fr. 7.23; Aiglatas as a personal name: Jeffery (1990) 199 n o . 22.
13. x d p o g is n o t f o u n d i n C h a n t r a i n e (1968/80). For kam and
kam sec AHw 452a. F o r s y m p o s i u m couches see Chapter 1, " O r i ental Products i n Greece," note 28.
ECSTATIC DIVINATION
1. Heraclitus B 92; Aesch.
"Die
Kassandragestalt
Ag. 1072-1263; cf. H . L. Jansen,
in Aischylos'
Agamemnon,"
Temenos 5
(1969) 107-119; H d t . 8.135; cf. also Pindar Pyth. 4.10 f. o n Medea

prophesying:
â[XEvf]c; . . . ctJtejtvenae.
Already
i n the Odyssey
T h e o k l y m e n o s the seer is said t o be " o u t o f his m i n d , " ct>paiVEi

(Od. 20.360); cf. S. Scheinberg, HSCP
83 (1979) 16.
2. Plat. Phdr. 244a; the ecstasy o f the Pythia was contested b y

P. A m a n d r y , La mantique
apollinienne
Delphes
(1950); and b y J.
Fontenrose,
The Delphic
Oracle (1978) 204-212, w h o w o u l d a l l o w
"enthusiasm
b u t n o t u n c o n t r o l l e d and i r r a t i o n a l f r e n z y " for the
P y t h i a a s i f d i v i n a t i o n were n o t i r r a t i o n a l i n any case. See D o d d s

(1951) 70-743. Esp. Def.Or.
Phars.
5.69-236,
51.4383-d; interesting details also i n Lucan
t h o u g h overlaid w i t h
reminiscences
o f Virgil
Aeneid V I .
4. Farnell (1911) 303.
5. F. Ellermeier, Prophetie
in Mari und Israel (1968); E. N o o r t ,
195
NOTES
TO PAGES
8o-8l
Untersuchungen
zum Gottesbescheid
in Mari (1977); W e n - A m o n :
AN'ET
26; cf. G r o t t a n e l l i (1982b) 666-668;
o n mahhu, mahhutu see
AHw 852 f.
6. Jastrow (1905/12) I I 158-165; L u c k e n b i l l (1926/27) I I 2 3 8 241; A NET 449 f.; cf. A . K . Grayson and W. G . L a m b e r t , JCS 18
(1964) 7-30; W W H a l l , Israel Explor.J.
16 (1966) 231-242.
7. See Rzach, RE I I A 2073-2183 s.v. Sibyllen.
8. T h e fame o f the S i b y l o f E r y t h r a e seems t o date f r o m her
rediscovery b y a prophetess at the t i m e o f Alexander; Kallisthenes,
FGrHist
124 F 14; cf. A p o l l o d o r u s , FGrHist 422; Die Inschriften von
Erythrai und Klazomenai I I (1973) 224-228; G r a f (1985) 335-350.
9. T h e o r i g i n and date o f the libri Sibyllini i n R o m e w i l l r e m a i n
controversial; see R. B l o c h i n Neue Beitrge zur Geschichte der Alten
Welt I I (1965) 281-292; R. M . O g i l v i e , A Commentary on Livy I
(1965) 654 f.
10. C f . A . Peretti, La sibilla babilonese nella propaganda ellenistica
(1943); further Semitic e t y m o l o g i e s for Sibylla i n O . G r u p p e , Griechische Mythologie und Religionsgeschichte
I I (1906) 927; H . Lewy,
Philologus 57 (1898) 350 f.; F. Eilermeier, Sibyllen, Musikanten, Haremsfrauen (1970) 7 - 9 ; R. B . C o o t e , Journal of North West Semitic
Languages 5 (1977) 3 - 8 .
11. Schob Plat. Phdr. 244b = N i k a n o r , FGrHist
sos, FGrHist 680 F 7; cf. Hfer, RML I V 264-269.
146; B e r o s -
12. M . P. N i l s s o n , " D i e lteste griechische Z e i t r e c h n u n g ,

A p o l l o n u n d der O r i e n t , " ARW 14 (1911) 423-448 = Opuscula Selecta I (1951) 3 6 - 6 1 ; i d e m , Die Entstehung und religise Bedeutung des
griechischen Kalenders (1918, 1962 ); Nilsson's ideas are o u t d a t e d i n sofar as Linear B has p r o v e d that there was already a Mycenaean
system o f m o n t h names, b u t this does n o t invalidate the w h o l e o f
his theory. See also A u f f a h r t (1991) 417-420 o n the nineteen-year
p e r i o d . C f . B . C . D i e t r i c h , "Reflections o n the O r i g i n s o f the
O r a c u l a r A p o l l o , " BICS 25 (1978) 1-18. M . L . West t h i n k s i t possible that t h e H u r r i a n - H i t t i t e m y t h s reached H e s i o d v i a D e l p h i :
JHS 105 (1985) 175.
2
13. See A . M a l l w i t z and H . M . Lee i n The Archaeology of the

Olympics, ed. W. J . Raschke (1988) 7 9 - 1 0 9 and 110-18.
14. P l u t . Def.Or. 435c, 4 3 7 b " s p r i n k l i n g an o x w i t h water t o
observe its r e a c t i o n " : Reiner (1960a), 25, 28.
196
NOTES
TO PAGE
82
15. See also K . Latte, " T h e C o m i n g o f the P y t h i a , " HThR

(1940) 9 - 1 8 .
33
16. Apollo f r o m A k k a d i a n abullu, A r a m a i c abul, c i t y gate: E.

S i m o n , Die Gtter der Griechen (1967) 132; f r o m A k k a d i a n aplu,
son: H . L e w y , Wochenschrift fr Klassische Philologie 10 (1893) 860;
L. R. Palmer i n A . H e u b e c k and G. N e u m a n n , eds., Res Mycenaeae
(1983) 362.
LAMASHTU, LAMIA, AND GORGO
r. See Reiner (1960b), esp. 154.
2. F. T h u r e a u - D a n g i n , RA 18 (1921) 192-198; Frank (1941)
15-23; F I . W. Saggs, " P a z u z u , " AOF ig (1959/60) 123-127;
ANEP
857; f r o m Z i n c i r l i : Sendschirli V (1943) 31 figs. 24-25 a n d
pl. I2a-d.
3. I n c u n e i f o r m , the signs mas and bar (no. 74 B o r g e r ) have
become i d e n t i c a l ; the earlier reading had been Labartu. T h e reading
Lamastu was established b y a text published i n 1934; see Frank
(1941) 4 n . 1. Earlier studies include D . W. M y h r m a n , " D i e
L a b a r t u - T e x t e , " ZA 16 (1902) 141-200; reliefs: K . Frank, Babylonische Beschwrungsreliefs,
Leipziger Semitistische Studien 3.3
(1908); F. T h u r e a u - D a n g i n , " R i t u e l s et amulettes contre L a b a r t u , "
RA 18 (1921) 161198; Frank (1941); F. Koecher, Beschwrungen gegen die Dmonin Lamastu, Diss. B e r l i n (1949); L. J . K r u s i n a - C e r n y ,
" T h r e e N e w A m u l e t s o f L a m a s h t u , " Arch. Orientalin 18.3 (1950)
297-303; H . K l e n g e l , " N e u e L a m a s t u - A m u l e t t e aus den Vorderasiatischen M u s e e n z u B e r l i n , " Mitt. d. Inst. f. Orientforsch. 7 (1960)
334-355; cf. 8 (1963) 25-29; W. v o n Soden, AOF 20 (1963) 148;
L e i b o v i c i (1971) 92, 95 f.; E. L i c h t y , " D e m o n s a n d P o p u l a t i o n
C o n t r o l , " Expedition 13.2 (1971) 22-26; M . V. L b n i e t t i , " U n i n c a n tesimo sumerico c o n t r a la L a m a s t u , " Orientalia 48 (1978) 301-323;
G. W i l h e l m , ZA 69 (1979) 3 4 - 4 0 ; Patzek (1988); see also RML I I I
269; Meissner (1920/25) I I figs. 33-34; ANEP
857. A c o m p r e h e n sive survey is given b y W. Farber, RIA V I (1983) 4 3 9 - 4 4 6 ; he m e n tions s i x t y - t h r e e reliefs (441-443).
4. Patzek (1988); f o r H u m b a b a a n d dog-leaders see above,
" H e p a t o s c o p y , " note 19; and "Asclepius and Asgelatas," note 1.
5. Sappho 178 A V o i g t ; Maas, RE V I I 1005 f. w i t h reference
to m o d e r n Greek beliefs about TuM-d), cf. R. Reitzenstein, Poiman-
197
NOTES
TO
PAGES
8 2 - 8 3
dres (1904) 299 and ZA 23 (1909) 1 5 7 - 1 6 3 ; ] . C. L a w s o n ,

Greek Folktale and Ancient Greek Religion (1910) 176-179.
Modern
6. C. Frank, ZA 24 (1910) 161-165; Meissner (1920/25) I I 200;

cf. AHw 275; contra, W. Eilers, Sitzungsber. M n c h e n 1979.7, 5^ f
7. See Chapter 1, " W r i t i n g and L i t e r a t u r e i n the E i g h t h C e n t u r y , " at note 18; and above, "Asclepius and Asgelatas," note 8.
8. Stesichorus 220 P M G / D a v i e s ; D u r i s , FGrHist
76 F 17;
D i o d . 20.41.3; equated w i t h Gello i n Schob Theoer. 16.38/39C; a l lusions i n A r i s t o p h . Vesp. 1035 and 1177, Pax 758, fr. 724 KasselA u s t i n ; cf. Schwenn, RE X I I 5 4 4 - 5 4 6 ; } . Fontenrose, Python (1959)
100-104; o n the p r o b l e m o f Greek p i c t o r i a l representations see Vermeule (1977).
9. S t o l l , RML I I 1820 f.; Schwenn, RE X I I 545 f.; L a w s o n
(note 5, above) 173-176.
10. See n o t e 3, above.
11. U g a r i t : J. N o u g a y r o l , Ugaritica V I (1969) 393-408; B o g h a z k y : i b i d . 405; C a r c h e m i s h : G o l d m a n (1961) p i . 4.1; Z i n c i r l i :
i b i d . p i . 4.2; K l e n g e l (note 3, above) nos. 4 6 - 4 7 ; cf. RIA V I 442.
12. C. C l e r m o n t - G a n n e a u , Etudes d'archologie
orientale 1
(1895) 8 5 - 9 0 ; cf. W. C u l i c a n , "Phoenician D e m o n s , " JNES
35
(1976) 21-24. Patzek (1988): a m u l e t f r o m P o g g i o C i v i f a t e , 675-650
B.C. Patzek also suggests that H o m e r ' s calling A r t e m i s "lioness for
w o m e n " (//. 21.483) is dependent o n the image and f u n c t i o n o f
Lamashtu.
13. H . Gollancz, " A Selection o f C h a r m s f r o m Syriac M a n u scripts," Actes du XI Congrs International des Orientalistes (1897) I V
7 7 - 9 7 , esp.80, 85.
14. Schob A r i s t o p h . Pax 758.
15. For some representations see note 3, above; the standard
i l l u s t r a t i o n is the b i g a m u l e t i n the L o u v r e , C o l l e c t i o n de C l e r c q ,
RML
I I I 269, RIA V I 442; the "Mistress o f A n i m a l s " schema is
especially clear i n Meissner (1920/25) I I p l . 34, w h i c h also has a
horse next t o L a m a s h t u .
16. O n the i c o n o g r a p h y o f the G o r g o n see T. G. Karayorga,
(1970); J. F l o r e n , Studien zur Typologie des Gorgoneion (1977); the o r i e n t a l connections are discussed i n C. H o p k i n s ,
" A s s y r i a n Elements i n the Perseus-Gorgon Story," AJA 38 (1934)
341-358; M . E. W i l l , Rev. Arch. V I 27 (1942) 6 0 - 7 6 ; Barnett ( i 9 6 0 )
rooyeiri Ke<j)cAfj
198
NOTES
TO
PAGES
8 5 - 8 7
145-158; Hopkins (1961); Goldman (1961); Kantor (1962); Akurgal

(1968) 187; W. Culican, "Phoenician Demons," JNES
35 (1976) 2 1 24; Helck (1979) 214 f.; for details borrowed from Pazuzu heads see
Boardman (1980) 79.
17. For Corfu see, e.g., G. Richter, A Handbook of Creek Art
(i959) 63; Schefold (1964) 49. For the horse besides Lamashtu see
note 15, above; Gorgon holding two snakes: gold pendant from
Delphi, Hopkins (1961) pi. 15.2. See also Burkert (1987b) 2 6 - 3 2 .
18. Strab. 16 p. 759; Konon, FGrHist 26 F 1.40; los.
Bell.lud.
3.420; Plin. N.H. 5.69; 128; Paus. 4.35.9.
19. Coins of Tarsos: Burkert (1983a) 210 n.26.
20. Burkert (1987b) 28 nn. 7 9 - 8 0 with fig. 2.7, esp. "Williams
cylinder"; Ward (1910) 201 no. 578; P. Amiet, Syria 42 (1965) 245;
also in West (1971) pi. Ha.
21. The so-called Polyphema type: E. Unger, DLZ 85 (1964)
694; M. Knox, JHS 99 (1979) 164 f.
22. Berlin VA 2145; M. Ohnefalsch-Richter, Kypros, the Bible,
and Homer (1893) pi. 31.16; cf. p. 208; A. de Ridder, BCH 22 (1898)
452 fig. 4; Ward (1910) 212 no. 643c; A. Moortgat, Vorderasiatische
Rollsiegel (1940) no. 781; C. Flopkins, AJA 38 (1934) 351 fig. 5 and
(1961) pi. 15.3; Amiet (1976) 26 f.; B. Brentjes, Alte Siegelkunst des
Vorderen Orients (1983) 165, 203, with the information that it was
bought at Baghdad, whereas Ohnefalsch-Richter had made people
think of Cyprus; Burkert (1987a) 276 f. fig. 2.3.
23. E. Kuhnert, RML III 2032; also in Goldman (1961) 21 f.
24. Amiet (1976) 26, preceded by Hopkins (1961) 31.
25. An old and impressive instance: steatite vessel from Khafajah, dated about 2700 B . C . , BM 128887, Strommenger (1962) pi.
38 f; cf. a circular amulet from Luristan in Geneva, Goldman
(1961) pi. lb.
26. Pind. Nem. 1,43-47, fr. 52U 7-18 Snell-Maehler; Eur. Here.
1266-68; Theocr. 24; for pictures see LIMC
Herakles nos. 1598-
1664; for some other eastern elements in the myth and iconography
of Herakles see Burkert (1979) 8 0 - 8 3 and (1987b).
27. Egyptian Bes amulets were reinterpreted to represent Herakles the "Daktylos"; see C. Grottanclli, "Eracle dattilo dell'Ida,
Aspetti 'Orientali,'" Orlens Antiquus 11 (1972) 201-208; that the
iconography of Herakles is dependent on that of Bes had been
199
NOTES
TO
PAGES
shown already by A. Furtwngler,
87-88
RML I 2143-45
^ ARW
10
Schriften I I (1924) 420; see also A. M. Biri,
Herakles," Riv. Stud. Fen. 8 (1980) 15-42.
Boardman, Pre-Classical: From Crete to Archaic Greece
a n
(1907) 325 = Kleine
"Da Bes a
28. J.
(1967) 106, wrote: "In the art of the 'orientalizing' period we look
in vain for anything which we might call religious art"; this statement overlooks the Ida tympanon (Chapter 1, "Oriental Products
in Greece," note 13; see Figure 1), and of course there were votive
offerings and also divine images; but it captures a characteristic of
the epoch.
29. See Faraone (1987) on Od. 7.91-94.
3 . "Or Also a Godly
Singer"
FROM ATRAHASIS TO THE " D E C E P T I O N OF Z E U S "
i . "The Gilgamesh Epic . . . may well be called the Odyssey

of the Babylonians"; A. Heidel, The Gilgamesh Epic and Old Testament Parallels (1949 ) 1. A catalogue of parallels in Auffahrt (1991)
136-139; see also Gresseth (1975); Wilson (1986); Burkert (1991).
Jensen (1902), (1912/13), (1924) and Ungnad (1923) called attention
esp. to Kalypso and Siduri the ale wife, Alkinoos, and Utnapishtim. Utnapishtim's ferryman quits his service after the transport of
Gilgamesh (XI 234-236), just as the transport of Odysseus is the
last ever done by the Phaeacians (Od. 13.125-187). See also G.
Crane, "Circe and the Near East," in Calypso. Backgrounds and Conventions of the Odyssey (1988) 61-85. Fries (1910) reached an extreme
position; more solid is Wirth (1921). Most specific is Enkidu coming up from the dead to meet his friend (Gilgamesh XII), just as
Patroklus' soul meets Achilles (//. 23.65-107): "The comparison
. . . is, indeed, almost irresistible"; G. S. Kirk, Myth (1970) 108;
cf. idem, The Nature of Greek Myths (1974) 260 f.; see also Chapter
2, "Spirits of the Dead and Black Magic," at note 4. There are also
connections with Od. 11, the Nekyia; cf. C. F. Lehmann-Haupt,
RE XI 433; G. Germain, Gense de l'Odysse (1954) 3 4 ~ 3 4 6 ; Dirlmeier (1955) 30-35; "A faintly possible model": G. S. Kirk, The
Songs of Homer (1962) 107. For the beginning of the Odyssey and of
Gilgamesh see Chapter 3, "Common Style and Stance in Oriental
and Greek Epic," at note 17.
2. Atrahasis ed. Lambert and Millard (1969), with von Soden
(1978); Bottro and Kramer (1989); Dalley (1989).
2
200
N O T E S
T O P A G E S
8 9 - 9 2
3. See Atrahasis ed. Lambert and Millard (1969) 11-13.

4. Atrahasis I 7-10 = Gilgamesh XI 15-18 (the word translated
"sheriff" in line 10 by Lambert and Millard is problematic; see their

note p. 147; "contre-matre": Bottro and Kramer 530: "canalcontroller": Dalley 9); Atrahasis I 11-17; the translation by Lambert
and Millard has been modified here, following von Soden and Dalley.
5. II v 16-19, 3 0 - 3 ' PP- 8 0 - 8 3 ; tablet X rev. I 4-7; II 2.5, pp.
116-119; cf. the commentary by Lambert and Millard p. 166.
6. II. 15.187-193. The three divine brothers are illustrated on
a black-figure vase by the Xenokles painter (ca. 540-530 B . C . ) , BM
B 425, ABV 184; A. B. Cook, Zeus II (1925) 745. The drawing of
lots (klroi) was said to have happened at the site of Apollo's sanctuary at Klaros, Schol. Apoll.Rhod. 1.308. Further from Homer
and Atrahasis is a Hittite text: "When they had created heaven and
earth, they divided. The upper gods took heaven, the lower gods
took earth and the lower countries for themselves"; H. Otten and
J. Siegelov, AfO 23 (1970) 32 f. This lacks the tripartite structure
and the drawing of lots.
7. Hes. Theog. 883.
8. Heaven-earth-underworld: the oath: 17. 15.36 f.; cf. 3.277279; Od. 5.184 f. Earth-heaven-sea: //. 18.483 (description of the
shield of Achilles); Od. 1.52 f.; Hes. Theog. 847; Hymn. Dem. 33 f.
Heaven-underworld-earth-sea: Hes. Theog. 736 f. Cf. already
Wirth (1921) 132; E. G. Schmidt, "Himmel-Erde-Meer im
frhgriechischen Epos und im alten Orient," Philologus 125 (1981)
1-24 (still without knowledge of Atrahasis).
9. Cf. already Gruppe (1887) 612-618; U. von WilamowitzMoellendorff, Kleine Schriften V 2 (1937) 167 and Der Glaube der
Hellenen I (1931) 341: "die fremde Genealogie"; W. Theiler, Untersuchungen zur antiken Literatur (1970) 24-26; A. Dihle, HomerProbleme (1970) 8 3 - 9 2 . For the function of the scene in the Iliad see
H. Erbse, A&A 16 (1970) 93-112. See now R. Janko, The Iliad: A
Commentary
IV (1992) [ 6 8 - 2 0 7 .
10. Plat. Krat. 402ab; Tht. 152e, i8oc-d; cf. Tim. 40e; Arist.
Met. 983b27; Aet. 1.3.2; Plut. Is. 3640-d referred to Egypt for comparison. Cf. J. Mansfeld, Mnemosyne 38 (1985) 123-129.
11. ' Q x e a v v T E OEJV yvEaiv x c i i n t g a TnSiJv: //.
14.201 = 302; ' Q x e a v o , JIEQ YVEOT JtdvxEaor x x u x x a i : 246.
201
NOTES
TO PAGES
9 2 - 9 3
Oceanus and Tethys also appear in Hes. Theog. 133-136 and in the
genealogy of Phoroneus Apollod. Bib. 2.1; both are represented on
the dinos of Sophilos (about 570 B . C . ) , BM 1971.11-1.1; cf. A.
Birchall, Brit. Mus. Quart. 36 (1971/72) pi. 37; G. Bakir, Sophilos
(1981) 64 fig. 3; D. Williams in Greek Vases in the J. Paul Getty
Museum I (1983) 9 - 3 4 ; Tethys is spelt 0E0YE by Sophilos.
12. U. Hlscher, "Anaximander und der Anfang der Philosophie," Hermes 81 (1953) 257-277, 385-418, revised in Anfngliches
Fragen (1968) 9 - 8 9 , esp. 4 0 - 4 3 ; cf. G. S. Kirk, J. E. Raven, and
M. Schofield, The Presocratic Philosophers (1983 ) 10-17; W. K. C.
Guthrie, A Flistory of Greek Philosophy I (1962) 5 8 - 6 1 ; Walcot
(1966) 34; West (1966) 204. The relevance of Enuma Elish for Hesiod was established by F. M. Cornford, "A Ritual Basis for Hesiod's Theogony," in The Unwritten Philosophy (1950) 95-116.
2
13. Enuma Elish I 1-5.

14. AHw 1353 f; ta-a-wa-ti (genitive): Enuma Elish IV 65 p. 23
Lambert and Parker; ti--wa-ti: II 8 1 , p. 12 Lambert and Parker; tama-tu: I 33, p. 2 Lambert and Parker. The sign wa can also be read
aw. For the change m/w see W. von Soden, Grundriss der Akkadischen
Grammatik (1952) 2 i d , 31a. The first to see the connection between Enuma Elish and Homer, Tiamat and Tethys was W. E. Gladstone, Landmarks of Homeric Study (1890), appendix; then F. Lukas,
Die Grundbegriffe in den Kosmogonien der alten Vlker (1893) ! 5 4 - ;
cf. also Duchemin (1980a) 851, 858 f, 864, 868; Szemerenyi (1974)
150.
n
15. For Sophilos see note 11, above; Eudemos fr. 150
Wehrli = Damask. Princ. I 322.1 f.; for theta reproducing Semitic
taw see also E. Schwyzer, Griechische Grammatik I (1939) 154.
16. R. Gusmani in Studies in Greek, Italian and Indoeuropean
Linguistics Presented to L. R. Palmer (1976) 7 7 - 8 2 , against E. Laroche, Melanges P. Chantraine (1972) 8 3 - 9 1 .
17. On the date of Enuma Elish see Walcot (1966) 33; Reiner
(1978) 175; Dalley (1989) 229 f.; "neo-oriental": West (1971) 205.
18. On the kestos II. 14.214 see C. Bonner, AJP 70 (1949) 1-6;
F. E. Brenk, Class. Bull. 54 (1977) 17-19; C. A. Faraone, Phoenix
44 (1990) 219-243. Zeus's catalogue, II. 14.315-328; cf. Gilgamesh
VI 4 2 - 7 8 , but also Kalypso's catalogue of goddesses who have
loved mortals, Od. 5.118-128. For the oriental background of
Aphrodite see Chapter 3, "Complaint in Heaven."
202
NOTES
TO PAGE
94
19. IL 15.36-38 = Od. 5.184-186. Inscriptions from Sfire (see

above, Chapter 2, "Spirits of the Dead and Black Magic," note 28):
I A 11 f., ANET 6$9, Fitzmyer (1967) 12 f. "Oath of Heaven and
Earth" also in the Sumerian Descent oflshtar 241; Bottero and Kramer (1989) 285; in Tukulti Ninurta III (IV) 40, Annals of Archaeology
and Anthropology 20 (1933) 121, 126; even Jahwe takes his oath "by
heaven and earth," Deut. 4:26but also Mongols and Manchus in

A . D . 1628, R. Merkelbach, Mithras (1984) 5 f. n.7. The oriental
background of state treaties was already stressed by Schwahn RE
IV A 1107 f; see now M. Weinfeld, "The Common Heritage of
Covenantal Traditions in the Ancient World," in I trattati nel mondo
antico, ed. L. Canfora, M. Liverani, and C. Zaccagnini (1990) 175191.
20. Cf. E. D. van Buren, "The Rain-Goddess as Represented

in Early Mesopotamia," Analecta Biblica 12 (1959) 343-355, esp. 350
f., pi. XXVI 9 (Syria, second millennium); R. M. Boemer, Die
Entwicklung der Glyptik whrend der Akkad-Zeit
(1965) 6 2 - 6 4 with
figs- 333, 364, 367, 368, 371, 373, etc. (third millennium); U. Winter (1983) 276 withfig.273. Lugal-e 26: "Ami fecundated earth";
Ena I 28 f.: "Ami, king of the gods, mated with earth: seven gods
she bore to him"; incantation text Ebeling (1918/19) II 45: "As
heaven mated with earth, and plants grew abundant . . ."
21. Niemeyer (1984) 68 f.; the statuette also in Schefold (1964)
pi. 39; LIMC Hera no. 202.
22. II. 14.274, 279; 15.225; 8.478 f.; 5.848 (ovocxvixuVEg); cf.
West (1966) 200 f.; Burkert (1985) 174; F. Solmsen, "The Two Near
Eastern Sources of Hesiod," Hermes 117 (1989) 413-422.
23. On karuiles siunes see H. Often, ZA 54 (1961) 135--141,
157; E. Reiner and H. G. Gterbock, JCS 21 (1967) 265 f.; V. Haas
and G. Wilhelm, Hurritische und luwische Riten aus Kizzuwatna
( i 9 7 4 ) 5 5 3 ; Gurney (1977) 15; V Haas, Hethitische Berggtter und
0 _
Hurritische
Steindmonen
(1982) 32-34, 133.
Ebeling (1931) 38 no. 8.5 (the "seven gods" who have been
vanquished/bound by Anu the god of heaven); Enuma Elish 4.127;
cf. 7.27. AHw 433 translates kam 'to bind,' but CAD VII (K) 127
f. insists on the meaning "to vanquish." Cf. B. Landsberger and
J. V. Kinnier Wilson, JNES 20 (1961) 178 f.; J. S. Cooper, Analecta
Orientalia 52 (1978) 141-154; Van Dijk (1983) 10 f.; Haas (1986) 45
24.
f-, 91-93-
203
NOTES
TO
PAGES
94-97
25. Orph. fr. 114.

26. See above, Chapter 1, "The Problem of Loan-Words," note
22; and Chapter 3, "Common Style and Stance in Oriental and
Greek Epic."
27. Eustath. 332.24-28; A. Dieterich, RhM
48 (1893)
280 = Kleine Schriften (1911) 121; J. E. Harrison, Prolegomena to the
Study of Greek Religion (1922 ) 491-493; L. R. Farnell, The Cults of
3
the Greek
States V (1909)
172.
28. Cf. already E. Assmann, "Titaia, Titanen und der Tartaros," Babyloniaca 6 (1912) 2 3 6 - 2 3 9 ; Astour (1965) 196 n.3. But for
striking assonances note also that the mythical ancestor of the kings
of Ugarit, in the assembly of the netherworld, is Ditanu; O. Loretz,
Ugarit und die Bibel (1990) 69.
29. Ebeling (1931) 76 no. 20.4; 138 no. 30 C 4; E. D. Van

Buren, Orientalia 10 (1942) 69 f.; titu in particular is the material
from which man has been created: Zimmern (1901) 158 f. no. 48.1;
Atrahasis
I 203.
Reiner (1978) 157.

31. See Chapter 1, "Writing and Literature in the Eighth Century."
32. Cf. West (1988) 169. There will not easily be agreement on
the process of composition and the date of our text of the Iliad.
Suffice it to refer to A. Lesky, RE Suppl. XI 6 8 7 - 8 4 6 s.v. Elomeros
(1968); A. Heubeck, Die Homerische Frage (1988 ); J. Latacz, Homer
(1989 ). I, for one, am inclined to think that our text is a wellplanned composition from beginning to end, to be dated in the first
half of the seventh century, though relying on generations of earlier
oral singers (cf. WSt 89 [1976] 5-21).
30.
COMPLAINT IN HEAVEN
See, e.g., P. Von der Mhll, Kritisches Flypomnema zur Ilias

who assigns practically all the divine scenes to his "Bearbeiter B"; cf. 96 f. on II. 5.353-431.
2. Esp. L. A. Stella, II poema di Ulisse (1955) 188-205; Stella
1.
(1952),
(1978) 73-1233. Gilgamesh
Soden.
VI
1-91;
4. //. 5 . 3 3 0 - 4 3 1 .
5. This was noticed
ANET
83
f., modified according to von
by Gresseth (1975)
204
14,
who also compares
NOTES
TO PAGES
9 7 - I O O
the threat of Ishtar to release the dead from the underworld, if Anu
does not grant her wish (Gilgamesh VI 9 6 - 1 0 0 ) , with the reverse
threat of Helios in the Odyssey to go down to the underworld, if
Zeus does not grant his wish (12.382 f ) . See also Burkert in Eranos
Jahrbuch
(1982) 335-367.
6. i7. 21.505-513.
7. Cf. Burkert (1985) 152-156; for Anchises and Aphrodite see

L. H. Lentz, Der Homerische Aphroditehymmis
und die Aristie des
Aineias in der llias (1975), esp. 104-107, 144-152. Helck (1979) 2 4 3 249 holds that practically the whole Homeric pantheon reproduces
North Syrian/Late Hittite gods.
8. Dione is mentioned Hes. Tbeog. 17 in a catalogue which is
close to Homer (cf. West [1968] 156) and in Theog. 353 among the
daughters of Oceanus; for Dodona, see Strab. 7 p. 392, who says
that Dione has been secondarily introduced there; cf. Escher, RE V
8 7 8 - 8 8 0 . G. Murray, Five Stages of Greek Religion (1925) 77, argued
that Dione had preceded Hera as Zeus's wife; this is refuted by
Linear B, where Hera is the wife of Zeus. For Diwija see M. Grard-Rousseau, Ees mentions religieuses dans les tablettes mycniennes
(1968) 6 7 - 7 0 . The suffix -)VT| remained productive in the Greek
language, so that female names could always be formed with it; cf.
Danae Akrisione, //. 14.319; Helena Argeione, Hes. fr. 2 3 3 2 0 .
9. Callim. Hymn.
5, esp. 5.35 with schol.; see W. Burkert,
Zeitschrift fur Religions- und Geistesgeschichte 22 (1970) 361 f. ; see also
the Catalogue of Ships, //. 2 . 5 5 9 - 5 6 8 ; 0 . Andersen, "Die Diomedesgestalt in der llias," Symb. Oslo, suppl. 25 (1978). Note that
Diomedes is immortal (Thebais fr. 5 Davies).
10. Porph. Abst. 2.54 f; this section is not taken from Theophrastus, but no further details can be made out; neither "King
Diphilos of Cyprus" nor "Seleukos the theologian" mentioned in
the text is known elsewhere. Cf. RE I A 1835 s.v. Salamis.
11. F. Schwenn, Die Menschenopfer bei den Griechen und Romern
i 9 S)
7 f- argues against this thesis.
12. See Chapter 1 "Historical Background," at note 19; and
below, "The Overpopulated Earth," note 12.
13. See Burkert (1983a) 60 f.
14. Gilgamesh VI 53-57; see above, "From Atrahasis to the 'Deception of Zeus,' " note 18.
i
15. Od. 4 . 7 5 9 - 7 6 7 .
205
NOTES
TO PAGES
I O O - I O 3
16. A kind of vegetable offering: L.

zur klassischen Altertumskunde
(1982) 625;
Deubner, Kleine Schriften

cf. Schob 761 and Eust.
Invented by the poet: S. West in A. Heubeck, S. West, and J. B.
Hainsworth, .4 Commentary on Homer's Odyssey I (1988) 240; "ohne
jede Analogie" according to K. Meuli, Ausgewhlte Schriften II
( i 9 7 5 ) 994 n . i .
17. Gilgamesh III ii 1-21; ANET
81; Dalley
mented according to von Soden (1982) 38.
18. //. 16.220-253.
19. Cf. Jeremiah 44:17-19 and the Greek
Ugaritic epic of Keret ii 7 3 - 8 0 , ANET 143.
(1989) 65;
supple-
Adonia; cf. also the
THE OVERPOPULATED EARTH

1. Atrahasis III vii 1-9, p. 102 f. Lambert and Millard. "Birth
control" is aladam pursi, line 9. Cf. A. D. Kilmer, "The Mesopotamian Concept of Overpopulation and Its Solution as Reflected in
the Mythology," Orientalia 41 (1972) 160-177. Studies on the motif
of overpopulation without knowledge of Atrahasis include H.
Schwarzbaum, "The Overcrowded Earth," Numen 4 (1957) 5 9 - 7 4 ;
G. Dumzil, Mythe et pope I (1974 ) 31-257; J. W. de Jong, "The
Overburdened Earth in India and Greece," J AOS' 105 (1985)
2
397-400.
2. Atrahasis
I 352-359 = II 1-8.
fr. 1 Allen = fr. 1 Davies = Schob AD II. 1.5.

AD //. 1.5; cf. Schob Eur. Or. 1641; E. Bethe, Homer
II
f.; 228. Cf. also Gilgamesh XI 182-185: the gods discuss whether mankind should be reduced by flood, man-eating
beasts, famine, or plague.
5. Prokl. Chrestom. p. 102.13 Allen = p. 31.5 Davies.
6. Hes. fr. 204.96 ff.; cf. M. L. West, CQ 11 (1961) 133-136;
K. Heilinger, MH 40 (1983) 23 f.
7. Enuma Elish 1 47; ANET
6 1 ; Dalley (1989) 234; in the transcription of Eudemos (see above, "From Atrahasis to the 'Deception
of Zeus,'" note 16) Murnmu is M C M J L U V .
8. Apollod. Bibl. 1.39-44; cf- Burkert (1979) 7 - 9 .
9. W. Kullmann had insisted on the pre-Homeric character of
the story; see "Ein vorhomerisches Motiv im Iliaspromium,"
Philologus 99 (1955) 167-192, referring to the Mahahharata, as
Schwarzbaum, Dumzil, and de Jong (see above, note 1) also did.
3. Kypria
4. Schob
(1929 ) 154
2
206
NOTES
TO PAGES
I 0 3 - I 06
And still the parallel with Atrahasis, very incompletely known to

him, had already been noticed by Wirth (1921) 132.
10. See Rzach, RE XI 2379 f.; H. Lloyd-Jones, "Stasinus and
the Cypria,"
in Stasinos. Syndesmos Hellenon Philologon Kyprou 4
(1968/72) 115-122, esp. 117 f. A direct link to Kypris = Aphrodite
can hardly be acceptedit should result in *Kypridia.

11.
Schefold (1964) pl. 2 9 b ; LIMC
Alexandras no.
5 = Aphrodite no. 1423 = Athena no. 405; II. 24.29 f.; cf. K.
Reinhardt, Das Parisurteil (1938); I. Raab, Zu den Darstellungen des
Parisurteils in der griechischen Kunst (1972).
12. See V. Karageorghis, "The Age of Exuberance," in Salamis.
Recent Discoveries in Cyprus (1969); for the "sword with silver nails"
see p. 70 pi. 25; for the role of Cyprus see above, "From Atrahasis
to the 'Deception of Zeus,' " note 19; and "Complaint in Heaven,"

note 12.
13. H. Bossert, Altsyrien (1951) no. 815; Markoe (1985) 2 7 8 283, E 2 and E 1; U. Gehring and FL G. Niemeyer, eds., Die Phnizier im Zeitalter
Homers (1990) 186 f. no. 139 fig. 23.
14. C. Clermont-Ganneau, L'imagerie

logie iconologique chez les grecs (r88o).
Phnicienne
et la mytho-
15. I owe this idea to C. Grottanelli and A. Hermary.
16. //. 5.311 f.; cf. 3.373 f., etc.

17. Atrahasis I 27-102, pp. 4 4 - 4 9 Lambert and Millard.
18. II. 1.396-406; cf. W. Kullmann, Das Wirken der Gtter in
der Ilias (1956) 14-17; Duchemin (1980a) 864; B. K. Braswell,
"Mythological Invention in the Iliad," CQ 21 (1971) 18 f.
19. Cf. J. Duchemin, Promthe. Histoire du mythe de ses origines

orientales ses incarnations modernes (1974). On trickster mythology
and Atrahasis see Burkert (1982b).
SEVEN AGAINST THEBES
F. H. Stubbings, CAH II 2 (1975) 168.

S. Symeonoglou, Kadmeia I (1973) 72-76; F. H. Stubbings,
CAH II 2 168 f; T. G. Spyropoulos, Minos suppl. 4 (1975) 5355;
5 8 - 7 1 . The problem of how to combine the results of excavation
with the mythical traditions is discussed in A. Schachter, "The
Theban Wars," Phoenix 21 (1967) 1-10; Edwards (1979), esp. 104 f.;
C. Brillante, "Le leggende Tebane e l'archeologia," SMEA 21
(1980) 309-340; "more than one hypothesis will fit": Edwards 189.
1.
2.
207
NOTES
TO
PAGES
I O7 - I O8
Biegen thought the destruction of Thebes (by the Epigoni) and of

Troy VII A were about contemporary, ca. 1250. M. I. Finley's denial of the historicity of the Trojan War, Proc. Brit. Ac. 60 (1974)
393-412, receives decisive support from the late date for the destruction of Troy VII A, ca. 1140, as established by E. F. Bloedow,
Prhistorische Zeitschrift 63 (1988) 23-52.
3. J/. 2.505 with Schol.B and Strab. 9 p. 412. For the late date
of the catalogue see A. Giovannini, Etude historique sur les origines du
catalogue des vaisseaux (1969); G. S. Kirk, The Iliad: A
Commentary
I (1985) 168-195. Note that the Iliad presumes the presence of Boio-
toi in Boeotia, who, according to local tradition, came there only

after the Trojan War.
4. For the history of Boeotia and Thebes in the early archaic
period see P. Cloch, Thbes de Botie (1952); M. Sordi, "Mitologia
e propaganda nella Beocia arcaica," Atene e Roma, n.s. 11 (1966)
15-24; Jeffery (1976) 77-79; R. J. Buck, A History of Boeotia (1979);
H. van Effenterre, Les Botiens (1989); bibliography inj. M. Fossey
and J. Morin, eds., Boeotia Antiqua I (1988).
5. Qfjric KTam3Xoio: //. 4.406; Od. 11.263. Fragments of the
Thebais: pp. 21-26 Davies. The most extensive study of the whole
Theban tradition is still C. Robert, dipus (1915). See also Burkert
(1981a) 2 9 - 3 4 .
6. Following Keramopoullos, see the map in R E V A 1425 f.;

cf. T. G. Spyropoulos, Minos suppl. 4 (1975) 62; K. Demakopoulou and D. Konsola, Archaeologisches Museum Theben: Fhrer (1981)
22; N. D. Papachatzis, Pausaniou Periegesis V (1981) 64 f.; S. Symeonoglou, The Topography of Thebes from the Bronze Age to Modern
Times (1985) 32-38. The existence of the seven gates was denied by
U. von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, "Die sieben Tore Thebens,"
Hermes 26 (1891) 191-242 = Kleine Schriften V 1 (1937) 2 6 - 7 7 ,
es
P-
62 f., followed by F. Schober, R E V A 1429, who states that only

three gates make topographical sense: "drei Tore . . . entsprechen
allein der Lage auch der heutigen Stadt, die auch nur drei Ausgnge
kennt"; Howald (1939) 3; P. J. Reimer, Zeven tegen Thebe, Diss.
Amsterdam (1953).
7. The oldest lists are in Aesch. Sept. 375-652 and from the
Argive dedication at Delphi, Paus. 10.10.4; cf. Apollod. Bibl. 3 [63]
6.3; Robert, dipus (1915) I 237-247.
8. Amphiaraos, originally probably *Amphiares (connected
208
N O T E S
T O
P A G E S
I O 8 -
I O
with Ares; see A. Heubeck, D i e Sprache 17 [1971] 8-22), called

Amphis in Aeschylus fr. 412 Radt, probably had some relation to
Amphion, whose tomb was prominent at Thebes. The names
Adrastos and Amphios are associated at II. 2.830, somehow reflecting the Thebais(?), cf. B. C. Dietrich, Historia 29 (1980) 499. On
Diomedes see above, "Complaint in Heaven," notes 9-10.
9. Howald (1939), criticized by A. Lesky, Die tragische Dichtung
der Hellenen (1972 ) 89 with n.25. Sikyon: Hdt. 5.67. On Arion see
Burkert (1979) 127.
10. Ed. R F. Gssmann (1956); Cagni (1969); Labat et al.
(1970) 114-137; Bottero and Kramer (1989) 6 8 0 - 7 2 7 ; Dalley (1989)
285-312; not in ANET;
cf. Reiner (1978) 166-168. Walcot (1966)
4 9 - 5 4 compares the way the poet introduces himself (Ena V 4 2 61) with the poem of Hesiod. It is strangely reminiscent of Erra the
god of war and plague that in Sophocles' O. T! Ares the god of war
is introduced as the god of plague (190).
11. See Cagni (1969) 44 f.: ninth century at the earliest; Bottero
and Kramer (1989) 720: about 850 B.c.; W. von Soden, UgaritForschungen 3 (1971) 255 f.: 765-703 B . C . ; cf. Dalley (1989) 2 8 2 3
284.
12. Reiner (1960b); cf. Reiner (1978) 167; Cagni (1969) 45; see
above, Chapter 2, "Hepatoscopy," note 7 on Tarsos.
13. Seejastrow (1905/12) I 173 f.; Meissner (1920/25) II 203;
D . O. Edzard in EI. W. Haussig, ed., Wrterbuch der Mythologie I
(1965) 124 f.; Gssmann (note 10 above) 7 0 - 7 2 . Wirth (1921) 157
already associated the demoniac "Seven" with the "Seven against
Thebes."
14. A collection of incantation texts, Asakki marsuti, Thompson (1903/04) II 28 f.; for etemnm, see above, Chapter 2, "Spirits of
the Dead and Black Magic," note 2; for gallu above, Chapter 2 "Lamashtu, Lamia, and Gorgo," note 6.
15. The collection utukki lemnuti XVI, Thompson (1903/04) I
88-103,
e context of the eclipses; cf. Tablet V of the same
series, Thompson I 50 f., 74 f.
16. Thompson (1903/04) I 184-201; cf. Meissner (1920/25) II
199 f.
17. Meier (1941/44); earlier treatment by Zimmern (1901) 168
f. n.54; cf. Castellino (1977) 716-725; see now F. A. M. Wiggermann, Babylonian Prophylactic Figures: The Ritual Texts (1986) 2 0 5 m
209
NOTES
TO
PAGES
I I O- I I 3
227. The "divine Seven" and "seven bearers of arms" also appear
in a text about the fabrication of magical figurines, Rittig (1977)
154 f., 164 f. (KAR 298).
18. Cf. C. L. Woolley, JRAS
(1926) 689-713; R. Borger, Bibl.
Or. 30 (1973) 176-183; Rittig (1977); see above, Chapter 2, "Purification," note 31; "Spirits of the Dead and Black Magic," notes 28,
34; and Chapter 3, "From Atrahasis to the 'Deception of Zeus,'"
note 29.
19. The form used, mundahse (Gt from mahasu; cf. Chapter 1,
"The Problem of Loan-Words," note 34), basically means "fighting
reciprocally" (Meier [1941/44] 151) but is also used in a more general sense for "fighter"; see AHw 581, 672.
20. M. von Oppenheim, Tell HalafUl:
Die Bildwerke,
ed. A.
Moortgat (1955) pi. 35b, A 3, 49, p. 54 states that the sculptor
obviously intended to render the figures in mirror symmetry: "Die
Absicht des Bildhauers war anscheinend, die Mnner spiegelbildgleich zu bilden"; H. T. Bossert, Altsyrien (1951) no. 472. See Figure
8. For Etruscan representations see I. Krauskopf, Der
Thebanische
Sagenkreis
(1974)-
und andere griechische
Sagen
in der etruskischen
Kunst
21. II Samuel 2:16; cf. C. Grottanelli, "Horatius, i Curiatii e II
Sam.
2,12-28," Annali
dell'lstituto
554-
Orientale di Napoli
35 (1975) 547-
22. Liv. 1.24 f.; see Grottanelli (above, note 21).

Pind. frs. 162-163; cf. Pyth. 4.88 with Schob; Diod. 5.50
f.; Apollod. Bibl. 1 [ 5 3 - 5 5 ] 7.4; Eust. 1687.36. The Aloadae are
mentioned in Ii. 5.385 f., Od. 11.305-320; and in Hesiod fr. 19.
24. See R. Hampe, Frhe griechische Sagenbilder in Botien
(1936); Schefold (1964) 6a, advocating a date in the eighth century;
but see K. Fittschen, Untersuchungen zum Beginn der Sagendarstellungen bei den Griechen (1969) 213-221. For the parallels, esp. the
seven-headed snake in oriental iconography, see Burkert (1979) 8 0 83; (1987b) 25-29. Boeotians, lawones, and Locrians are grouped
together, //. 13.685; see above, Chapter 1, "Historical Background," note 18.
25. See Chapter 2, "Flepatoscopy" and "Foundation Deposits."
26. J. McK. Camp, "A Drought in the Late Eighth Century
B.C.," Hesperia 48 (1979) 3 9 7 - 4 1 1 ; contra, see I. Morris, Burial and
23.
Ancient Society (1987) 158-167.
210
NOTES
TO
PAGES
I I 4 - I I 6
27. I. Krauskopf (see note 20, above) 86, 299, following E.

Simon; LIMC I 711 s.v, Amphiaraos.
28. G. Mylonas, Praktika (1953) 81-87, g i g
vague date
"late geometric"; cf. Paus. 1.39.2; Plut. Thes. 29.5; and Eur. Supy m
plices.
JHS
29. See J. N. Coldstream, "Hero-Cults in the Age of Homer,"

96 (1976) 8-17.
30. See above, "From Atrahasis
note 32.
AHw
JNES
to the 'Deception of Zeus,'"
31. For the "Seven Sages" of primordial times (apkalle) see

58 f; E. Reiner, Qrientalia, n.s. 30 (1961) 1-11;
R. Borger,
33 (1974) 183-19632. The Sibitti appear in the inscription of Sfire I A 11 (see
above, Chapter 2, "Spirits of the Dead and Black Magic," note 28),
ANET
659, Fitzmyer (1967) 12 f.
COMMON STYLE AND STANCE IN ORIENTAL AND GREEK EPIC
1. Stella (1978) 3 6 2 - 3 9 1 , with the cautionary statement that
direct influence should be excluded: "esclusa naturalmente ogni
eventualita di influssi diretti su Omero" (368). Comparisons of
Homer with Babylon began with Jensen and Fries and were carried
on by Wirth (1921) and Ungnad (1923); for the more recent developments see esp. Bowra (1952), Dirlmeier (1955), Gordon (1955)
Walcot (1966), Gresseth (1975), Helck (1979) 2 4 9 - 2 5 1 . See also
Burkert (1991).
2. See M. Parry, The Making of Homeric Verse (1971).
3. The bibliography has become abundant. Suffice it to mention R. Finnegan, Oral Poetry. Its Nature, Significance, and Social
Context (1977); J. M. Foley, Oral-Formulaic
Theory and Research. An
Introduction and Annotated Bibliography
(1985).
in Atrahasis 1.8 = Gilgamesh XI 16. See for this

and the following also Bowra (1952) 241.
5. Utnapistim ruqu in Gilgamesh X-XI passim.
6. qarrad la sanan in Erra passim.
7. rkb rpt in Baal passim, /)/// nt in Baal and Aqhat passim, dnl
rpe in Aqhat passim.
4. quradu Enlil
8. mudu tuquntu in Gilgamesh IV vi 30.

9. tabat rigma in Gilgamesh XI 117.
10. ersetim rapastim in Gilgamesh VIII
211
iii-iv
43, 46, 47,
p.
49
NOTES
TO PAGES
I I 6- I I8
Thompson; cf. evQela / C V . A S to "black earth" (youa [XEâtva),

Ottinger (1989/90) argues for Hurrite-Hittite provenience.
11.
Sumerian prayer to the moon god in SAHG
223 = Castellino (1977) 336 line 16. In Hittite Ullikummi is called
"father of the gods"; ANET 121 f., as El is ab adm, father of men,
in Ugarit.
12. pasu ippus-ma iquabbi, ana . . . (amatam) izakkar with slight
variations; see F. Sonnek, "Die Einfhrung der direkten Rede in
den epischen Texten," ZA 46 (1940) 225-235; the formula occurs
also in fables, e.g., Lambert ( i 9 6 0 ) 178.7.
13. Gilgamesh X i n f.; cf. X iv, 12-14; Elana II 99; J. V. KinThe Legend ofEtana (1985) 98; in Hittite: J. Siegelova,
Appu-Mdrchen
und Hedammu-Mythus
(1971) 48 f.; in the Old Testa-
nier Wilson,
ment, too, people "speak to their heart": Gen. 27:41 f., I Samuel
1:12 f.; cf. Stella (1978) 365; D. O. Edzard, "Selbstgesprch und
Monolog in der akkadischen Literatur," in Lingering over Words:
Studies in Ancient
Near Eastern
Literature
in Honor of W. L.
Moran,
ed. T. Abusch, J. Huehnergard, and R Steinkeller (1990) 149-162.

14. mimmu seri ina namari in Gilgamesh XI 48 = 96; cf. Ungnad
(1923) 30.
15. ANET
124: the weather god sends Tashmeshu as Zeus

sends Hermes in Od. 5. An important assembly of the gods also
takes place in Gilgamesh VII 1 3 ff., where the gods decide about
the death of Enkidu. The entrance of victorious Ninurta into this
assembly, who threatens to rouse panic but is appeased by his
mother, in the Sumerian poem ANGIM 71 ff. (Bottero and Kramer
[1989] 381 f.), has a marked resemblance to Horn. Hymn Apoll. 3 13 (I owe this observation to C. Penglase). For Ugarit, see E. T.
Mullen, The Assembly of the Gods: The Divine Council in Canaanite
and Early Hebrew
16.
gamesh.
Literature
See Bowra
(1980).
(1952) 266
f, who includes materials from
Gil-
17. See Wirth (1921) 112 f.; A. B. Lord in A. J. B. Wace and

F. H. Stubbings, A Companion to Homer (1967) 198.
18. Gilgamesh III iv 141-148 (in the reconstruction of von Soden), p. 27 Thompson; ANET 79; Dalley (1989) 145. simatu awilutim in the Babylonian version X ii 4 p. 53 Thompson. Cf. Gresseth (1975) 14; T. Bauer, JNES 16 (1957) 260, who also refers to
the expression "to set one's name for people of later times" (sakin
212
N O T E S
T O
P A G E S
I l 8 - I 2 0
in school texts; on Greek-Indo-European

Ct(j)0iTOV xA.EOg see R. Schmitt, Dichtung und Dichtersprache in indo-
sumim ina nisi uhhurati)
germanischer Zeit (1967) 6 1 - 6 9 .

19. II. 12.322-328, imitated by Stesichorus S 11 Page-Davies.
20. Gilgamesh VI 162 f., ANET8SBowra (1952) 63 translates
"member" of the bull, which might be misleading. For imittu, hind
leg, see AHw 377.
21. //. 22.20.
22. Od. 18.136 f., taken up by Archilochos 131-132 West, then
by Heraclitus B 17.
23. Ludlul bei nemeqi II 4 3 - 4 5 ; Lambert (i960) 40 f. translates

the text ki pite u katami, "like opening and shutting the legs," which
may be the original sense, but the commentary on the passage from
the library of Assurbanipal (Lambert 40; cf. 291) paraphrases "day
and night"; hence ANET 435; so this was the way the passage was
understood at the time of Archilochos.
24. See M. Lichtheim, Ancient Egyptian Literature II (1976) 5 7 72 on the various versions, the documentsinscriptions and a papyrus textand the earlier editions.
25. D. Luckenbill, The Annals of Sennacherib (1924) 43-47;
transcription in Borger (1979) I 83-85; translation in Luckenbill
(1926/27) II 252-254. //. 2 0 . 4 9 8 - 5 0 1 .
26. For mercenaries see Chapter 1, "Oriental Products in

Greece," at notes 6 3 - 6 8 . Cf. the conclusions drawn from the bowl
of Praeneste (Figure 7), Chapter 3, "The Overpopulated Earth," at
note 15 (which also has the chariot for the prince).
27. Judges 4.
28. For Ugarit see FI. Gese, Die Religionen Altsyriens (1970) 54;
Dirlmeier (1955) 25 f.; Jeremiah 2:27; //. 22.126; Od. 19.163; Hes.
Theog. 35.
29. Od. 19.107-114: otQETCai E Xaoi im' avrov
(114); Hes.
Erga 225-247; Assurbanipal in Streck (1916) II 6 f.; cf. Walcot
(1966) 92 f.;Jeffery (1976) 39; West (1978b) 213.
30. See above, Chapter 1, "Loan-Words," note 30.

FABLES
I.
See in general W. Wienert, Die

Meuli, Wesen
Label
(1925);
K.
(1954) = Gesammelte
Schriften
Typen der griechisch-rmischen

und Herkunft
der
Fabel
(1975) 731-756; M. Nojgaard, La
213
NOTES
TO
PAGES
I 2 I - I 2 2
fable antique I (1964); Rodriguez Adrados (1979); T. Karadagli, Fabel

und Ainos (1981); O. Reverdin, ed., La fable, Entretiens sur l'antiquit classique 30 (1984); for enormous materials on the influence
of ancient fables see Enzyklopdie des Mrchens (1977 ff.) s.v. Asopika, Babrios, Avianus, Fabel, etc.
2. E. Brunner-Traut, Altgyptische
Tiergeschichte und Fabel
(1970 ).
3. E. Ebeling, Die babylonische Fabel und ihre Bedeutung fr die
Literaturgeschichte (1931); see esp. Lambert ( i 9 6 0 ) ; RIA VII 46.
3
4. "The king of trees": Judges 9; "The thistle and the cedar

tree": II Kings 14:9.
5. H. Diels, "Orientalische Fabeln in griechischem Gewnde,"
Internationale Wochenschrift 4 (1910), on Callim. fr. 194 compared
with "the palm and the tamarisk," for which see now ANET
410
f., Lambert ( i 9 6 0 ) 151-164. See also A. La Penna, "Letteratura esopica e letteratura assiro-babilonese," RFIC 92 (1964) 24-39; Rodriguez Adrados (1979) 301-379.
6. Babrius 2.2 f.: ZDpcov Jtaaicov oxiv eupeu.' vOptimcov, oi
Jtpiv Jtot' fjoav m Nivou te xat Btfjôu. On the identity of "King
Alexandros" mentioned in the dedication of Babrius see B. E.
Perry, Babrius and Phaedrus, Loeb Classical Library (1965) xlvii-lii;
Inschriften
1537-
von Ephesus
V: Die Inschriften
Kleinasiens
15 (1980) no.
7. On Ahiqar see Chapter 1, "Writing and Literature in the

Eighth Century," at note 30; on Lydia, Chapter 1, "Historical
Background," notes 25-26. Parallels between Greek and Mesopotamian fables are collected in Rodriguez Adrados (1979) 3 7 6 378; Hellenistic parallels in West (1969); Aesop no. 137 Perry,
Babrius no. 84. "The fly and the elephant" seemed to be especially
close to "the bird and the elephant" (Lambert [ i 9 6 0 ] 217 f., 339),
but the little animal involved in the Akkadian version, niniqu, is not
identifiable, as Moran (1978) 18 n.7 has stressed.
8. Archilochus fr. 174-181 West; Aesop no. 5 Halm = 1
Perry; cf. Williams (1956); I. Trencsnyi-Waldapfel, Untersuchungen
zur Religionsgeschichte (1966) 186-191; H. Freydank, "Die Tierfabel
im Etana-Mythus," Mitteilungen des Instituts fr Orientforschung 17
(1971) 1-13; Rodriguez Adrados (1979) 3 1 9 - 3 2 1 . Further Greek archaic fables: Archilochus fr. 187 West = Aesop no. 81 Perry; Semonides fr. 13 West = Aesop no. 3 Perry.
214
NOTES
TO PAGES
1 2 2 - 1 2 5
9. ANET
114118, 517; Labat et al. (1970) 294-305; cf. E.
Ebeling, AOF 14 (1944) 298-303; W. von Soden, WZKM 55 (1959)
5 9 - 6 1 ; I. Levin, Fabula 8 (1966) 1-63.
10. See R. Wittkower, "Eagle and Serpent," Journal of the Warburg Institute 2 (1938/39) 293-325; C. Grottanelli, Riu. Stud. Fen. 5
(1977) 16-18; B. Garbe, "Vogel und Schlange," Zeitschrift fr Volkskunde 75 (1979) 52-56; Aesch. Cho. 246, etc.
11. Seal cylinders in W. H. Ward (1910) 144 nos. 391-394; Enciclopedia dell'arte antica s.v. Etana. But there is no direct iconographic link: In Greek art Ganymede and the eagle appear only after
the fourth century B.c.; see LIMC s.v. Ganymedes.
12. Archilochus fr. 196a West = ZPE 14 (1974) 97-112; the
proverb ojtetjouoa Karv TU<j>X.a T I X T E I in Aesop 223 Perry, Paroemiographi Graeci I 381, II 181 and 491, Schol. Aristoph. Pax 1078.
13. See W. H. Moran, HSCP
82 (1978) 17-19; J. Bremmer,
ZPE
39 (1980) 28.
14. See above, Chapter 1, "Writing and Literature in the

Eighth Century," note 25.
15. Gilgamesh
X I 2 66-2 8 9 .
16. Ibykos 342 Davies, together with Soph. fr. 362 Radt and
other quotations in Ael. Nat.An. 6.51; Aesch. fr. 45 Radt; Nik.
Ther. 343-358; cf. M. Davies, MH 44 (1987) 65-75, who speaks of
a folktale.
MAGIC AND COSMOGONY
1. See Chapter 2, "Lamashtu, Lamia, and Gorgo."

2. See Chapter 1, "Oriental Products in Greece," note 23;
Burkert (1987b).
3. See Chapter 2, "Lamashtu, Lamia, and Gorgo," at note 22.
4. Clay relief from Gortyn, Schefold (1964) pi. 33, LIMC
s.v.
Agamemnon no. 9 1 , Burkert (1987b) 28 f., 32.
5. See, e.g., G. van der Leeuw, "Die sogenannte epische Einleitung der Zauberformeln," Zeitschrift fr Religionspsychologie 6
(1933) 161-180; M. Eliade, "Kosmogonische Mythen und magische Heilungen," Paideuma 6 (1954/58) 194-204.
6. The Adapa versions are in ANET
102 f.; S. A. Pittioni, 17
poemetto di Adapa (1981); for Ena see Chapter 3, "Purification," at
note 16.
7. For Atrahasis see Chapter 3, "Craftsmen of the Sacred." The
215
NOTES
TO
PAGES
I 2 5 - I 2 6
passage on the creation of man, I 190-217, was understood as "part

of an incantation to facilitate childbirth" in ANET 99 (corrected in
ANET
513); an incantation text proper refers to this myth; J. Van
Dijk, "Une incantation accompagnant la naissance de l'homme,"
Orientalia 42 (1973) 505. Atrahasis and rain charm: Atrahasis 27 f.
8. The text is listed HKL ill 63, "Der Mondgott und die Kuh
Amat-Sn"; see W. G. Lambert, Iraq 31 (1969) 31 f; Labat et al.
(1970) 285 f.; connected with the myth of Io by Duchemin (1979),
(1980b).
9. "The Worm and the Toothache," ANET

100 f., Bottro and
Kramer (1989) 484; B. Landsberger and T. Jacobsen, "An Old Babylonian Charm against merhu," JNES 14 (1955) 14-21.
10. See C. J. Gadd in S. H. Hooke, Myth and Ritual (1933) 4 7 58; T. H. Gaster, Thespis (1961 ) 6 2 - 6 4 ; F. M. Cornford, "A Ritual
Basis for Hesiod's Theogony," in The Unwritten Philosophy (1950)
95-116; Dalley (1989) 231-232.
11. "House of the priest" in Ugarit, containing liver models
as well as literary texts: J. C. Courtois, Ugaritica 6 (1969) 91-119;
for various libraries at Emar see Arnaud (1985/87); a priest's library
at Sultantepe: W. G. Lambert, RA 53 (1959) 121 f.; cf. Walcot
2
(1966) 47 f.
12. For Orphism, suffice it to
(1983), Burkert (1985) 2 9 6 - 3 0 4 ; see
refer to Burkert (1982a), West

also above, Chapter 2, "Crafts-
men of the Sacred," note 2.

13. Cf. above, "Craftsmen of the Sacred," note 9.
14. Olympiodor. in Phaed. p. 41 f. Westerink = Orphicorum
Fragmenta 220; the "four monarchies" enumerated there seem to
match with the Derveni text (ZPE 47 [1982]) col. X 6: Uranos,
Son of Night, the first king; Burkert (1985) 297 f.
15. Eur. fr. 912, in the context of conjuring up the dead.
16. See Chapter 2, "Spirits of the Dead and Black Magic," at
note 19.
17. See Chapter 2, "Craftsmen of the Sacred," at note 15.
18. VI 1-34; text from Assur (KAR 4) in A. Heidel, The Babylonian Genesis (1942) 6 8 - 7 2 ; Berossos, FGrHist 680 F 1 p. 373 Jacoby. See V Maag, "Sumerische und Babylonische Mythen von
der Erschaffung des Menschen," Asiatische Studien 8 (1954) 8 5 106 = V. Maag, Kultur, Kulturkontakt und Religion (1980) 3 8 - 5 9 ; G.
216
N O T E S
T O
P A G E S
I 2 6 - 1
27
Pettinato, Das altorientalische Menschenbild und die sumerischen und akkadischen Schpfungsmythen,
Abh. Heidelberg 1971.1.
19. Atrahasis I 213 and 215-217 = 228-230 Lambert and Miliard; cf. Bottero and Kramer (1989) 537; Dalley (1989) 15 with nn.
I I - L 2 .
Interpretation has remained controversial. W. von Soden,
Symbolae biblicae et mesopotamicae F. M. T. de Liagre Bhl dedicatae

( 9 7 3 ) 3 4 9 3 5 8 (cf. idem, ZA 68 [1978] 80 f.), contested the reading etemmu and tried to construe a word edimmu, wild man; this has
not been followed by other specialists. Cf. W. L. Moran, BASOR
200 (1970) 4 8 - 5 6 ; L. Cagni in V. Vattioni, ed., Sangue e antropologia
biblica (1981) 7 9 - 8 1 ; J. Tropper, Ugarit-Forschungen
ig ( 1 9 8 1 ) 3 0 1 308; J. Bottero in Societies and Languages of the Ancient Near East.
Studies in Honour of I. M. Diakonojf (1984) 2 4 - 3 1 , whom I try to
T
follow.
20. See Chapter 2, "Spirits of the Dead and Black Magic," at
note 2.
21. The Derveni text (ZPE 47 [1982]) col. IX has Zeus swallowing the phallus of the first cosmic king (this at any rate is what
the commentator understood, who was in command of the full
text, pace West [1983] 85); this introduces the most startling motif
of the Kumarbi myth into Orphic literature.
217
INDEX
alabastron
OF GREEK
(vase for oil), 36
alala (a war
cry),
harpe
39
WORDS
(a kind of sword), 39, 85

(haunting spirit), 68-72
hikesios
(drug to stop hunger), 62

(up to, at), 38
apomattein
(to wipe off), 61
ara (curse), 64
arrabon (down payment), 37
axine (axe), 39
alimon
ana
bothros
byblos
(a kind of purple), 37
(measuring stick), 34, 38
karos (dizziness), 79
kathairein (to purify), 64
kaunakes (Persian garment), 37
kleos aphthiton
(imperishable
glory), 118
kyanos (a blue-coloured substance), 37
kalche
kanon
(pit), 55
(papyrus, book), 31
(to scratch), 38
(papyrus), 31
cheironax
(craftsman), 39
chiton (shirt), 36
chrysos (gold), 36
charassein
chartes
(writing tablet), 30, 34

(craftsmen), 23
diphthera,
diphtherion
(leather,
leather scroll), 31, 33
(bowl), 36, 53
(lion), 120
libanos (francincense), 20, 36
lipa (gleaming with oil), 36
lis (lion), 39, 120
lyma (dirt), 57, 62, 64
lekane
leon
deltos
demioergoi
epagoge
ephodoi
gypson
(sending magic), 69
(assaults), 59
(gypsum), 38
(to fight), 39
(market), 37
menima (wrath), 66
mna (mina), 34, 37
molibdion
(lead tablet), 31
myrrha (myrrh), 20, 36
machesthai
makellon
219
I N D E X
oinos
ololyge
O F
G R E E K
(wine), 174n2
(shrieking cry), 100
(stick), 31
(emerald), 37
solos (metal ingot), 39
sphen (wedge), 176n25
sphyrelaton
(fabricated by hammering), 22
sylan (to loot), 37
sky tale
smaragdos
(concubine), 40
(a kind of pot), 62
plinthos (brick), 38, 39
potamos (river), 183n21
propheresthai
(to pronounce), 71
prostropaios
(haunting demon), 72
pylai (gates), 183n21
pallake
pharmake
rhodon
(talent, unit of weight), 37

Wilms (bull), 39
techne (art, craft), 23, 41
telein (to perform), 70
teras (sign, prodigy), 51
thyoskoos (diviner at sacrifice), 49
titanos (lime), 38, 95
tdanton
(rose), 174n2
semidalis
skana/skene
W O R D S
(fine flour), 36
(booth), 39
220
GENERAL
Adapa, 124
Aeschylus, 65, 79, 108, 111
Aesop, 121
Ahiqar, 24, 32, 121
Aisehines, mother of, 44, 61
Aithiopis,
INDEX
Asclepius, 75-79
Ashurbanipal, 14, 56, 119
asphalt, 61, 187n17
assembly of the gods, 117
Astarte, 20
Athens, 12-13, 16, 17, 23, 26, 42,
43, 60, 162n4
Atrahasis, 88-91, 100-106, 115
116, 124-125, 204n29
augury, 49, 53
56
Alalakh, 48
Alasia, 42, 159nl4
Al Mina, 11, 13, 21
Aloadae, 111
alphabet, 26-29
Amarna, letters from, 42
Amphiaraos, 44, 108
Anaphe, 78
Andromeda, 85
antisemitism, 2-3, 34, 36
Aphrodite, 20, 97-99
Apollon, 63, 82, 185n9, 186n9
Apollon Asgelatas/Aiglatas, 75-79
Aramaeans, 9, 28, 114
Aramaic inscriptions, 16, 18, 26,
28, 67, 93-94, 170n6
Aramaic literature, 32, 121
Aramaic script, 11, 30-31
Archilochus, 31, 121-123, 213n22
Artemis of Ephesos, 20, 54
Artemis of Munichia, 73-75
Asclepiads, 44, 179n25
Babrius, 121
Babylon, Greeks in, 24
Babylonian Sibyl, 81
Bellerophontes, 30
Beloch, Julius, 3, 16, 21, 34
Bileam, 42, 64
Branchos, 61, 64
Bronze Age, 5-6. See also Hittites;
Ugarit
bronzeworking, 16, 22
By bios, 9, 31, 80
Calchas, 49, 52-53
Carchemish, 9, 13, 22, 25, 37, 8384, 165n25
Carians, 25
Carthage, 11, 21
221
G E N E R A L
Chaldaeans, 45
Chalkis, 12, 14, 159nl3
chimaera, 19
Cilicia, 11, 12, 13, 49, 52, 170n3.
See also Karatepe; Tarsos
Cimmerians, 14
clay molds, 22
Corfu, 84-85
Corinth, 14, 22, 23
craftsmen, 21-25, 27, 38, 39, 4142, 44-45, 55
Crete, 11, 16, 22, 25, 26-27, 54,
63. See also Epimenides; Gortyn;
Idaean cave; Knossos; Kommos
cult of the dead, 65-66
Cypna, 101-104
Cyprus, 11, 12, 13, 14, 16, 27, 48,
49, 54, 98, 103-104. See also Ration; Salamis
Cyrene, 68-73
defixions, 66-68, 70, 192n30
Delos, 15, 17, 54
Delphi, 16, 17, 56, 68, 79-82
Derveni papyrus, 41
Didyma, 61
Diels, Hermann, 121
Diomedes, 98-99
Dione, 97-98
Diotima, 43
divination, 41-53, 79-82
divine garments, 20
dogs, 75-79
DornseifF, Franz, 4
I N D E X
Enuma Elish,
92-95, 103, 125-126
Ephesos, 20, 21, 54
Epimenides, 42, 60, 62, 63, 66, 126
Ereshkigal, 68, 74
Eretria, 6, 12, 14, 15, 16, 17
erotic charms, 67
Erra, 109-110, 115, 124
Essarhaddon, 14, 68
Etana, 122-123
Etruscans, 12, 13, 16, 17, 46-53,
111-112, 114
Euboea, 7, 12, 13, 14, 26, 113. See
also Chalkis; Eretria; Lefkandi
Eumolpidae, 43
family, model of the, 25, 43-46,

48
Farnell, Lewis Richard, 56-57, 80
fish mask, 61
fish-tailed monster, 19
flood, 89, 101, 103, 117
foundation deposit, 22, 49, 53-55
frankincense, 20
Ganymede, 122
Gello, 82
Gilgamesh, 3, 32-33, 65, 81, 8890, 116-118; tablet \\\ ii 1-21:
100; III lv 141-148: 117-118; VI
1-91: 96-99; VI 16-17: 117-118;
X I 182-185: 206n4; X I 266-289:
123
Gordion, 161n26
Gorgon, 25, 83-85, 124
Gortyn, 22, 49, 54-55, 63, 82
griffins, 19, 165n24
Gula, 75-78
Gyges, 14
Egypt, 14, 31, 67, 68, 182nl6

Egyptian literature, 92, 121
Egyptian priests, 45
Eleusis, 43, 114
Emar, 125
Embaros, 73-75
Empedocles, 43, 92, 126
haruspices,
45,
50-51
Hazael, 16, 18, 159nl5

heaven and earth, 94, 109
222
G E N E R A L
hepatoscopy, 46-52, 82, 113

Herakles, 87, 113, 124
Hesiod, 5, 7, 90, 119, 121, 209nl0;
Erga,
102;
Catalogues,
102
Hippocrates, On the Sacred Disease,

41, 59, 62
Hippocratic Oath, 44
Hittites, 4, 5, 39, 42, 48, 52, 53,
68, 83, 94, 117. See also Illuyankas; Late Hittites
Homer, 5, 48-49, 56, 88-100,
114-120. See also Iliad; Odyssey
Hovvald, Ernst, 108-109
Humbaba, 100
Humbaba masks, 20, 49
ladnana, 13
lamani, 13
lamidae, 43
lapetos, 1-2, 177n37
lawones/Iawan/Ionians, 12-13, 14,
26, 31, 160nl8
Ibycus, 123-124
Idaean cave, 16, 22, 63, 167n42
Iliad, 49, 90-100, 114, 117-118,
208n3; 11, 1.5: 101; //. 1.314: 57,
62; //. 1.396-406: 207nl8; //.
5.330-431: 97; //. 6.119-211: 30,
172n20; //. 12.322-328: 118,
213nl9; //. 13.685: 13, 210n24;
//. 14.183: 15; //. 14.201, 246,
302: 90-92; //. 14.315-328: 99;
//. 15.187-193: 90; //. 21.505513: 97; II. 22.20: 118; //. 23.65107: 200nl
Iluyankas, 5, 7, 103
immortality lost, 123-124
Indo-European linguistics, 2, 5, 34
Io, 125
Ionia, 12, 170n3. See also lawones
Iranian influence, 178n3
Iranian magi, 45
223
I N D E X
Ischia/Pithekoussai, 6, 12, 15,

26, 33
Ishtar, 80, 96-99
ivory, 19, 22, 162n2
Kabeiroi, 153n3
Kadmos, 2, 154n2
Karatepe, 9, 33, 52
Karmanor, 64, 186n9
Kition, 11, 13, 21, 54
Knossos, 22, 27, 54, 158n3
Kommos, 20-21
Kumarbi, 5, 7, 94
Lamashtu, 82-87, 124
Lamia, 82-83
Late Hittites, 9, 11, 16, 39, 52
leather scrolls, 30-33, 123
lecanomancy, 53
Lefkandi, 6, 12, 15
libations, 54, 55, 65, 70, 71, 74
lions, 19, 120, 124, 163nll
liver divination. See hepatoscopy
Luwians, 9, 34, 52. See also Late
Hittites
Lydians, 14
magic, 41-46, 55-75, 82-87, 109,
124-125
Magnesia, 44
Mallos, 52
Man, 80
masks, 20
Melampus, 42
mercenaries, 25, 39, 49
Midas, 13
Mistress of the Animals, 19
Mopsos, 52
Munichia, 73-75
Naxos, 12, 13, 26, 160nl8
Nereus, 177n37
G E N E R A L
Nineveh, 24, 32, 121

Northern Syria, 9, 11-12, 16, 24,
28, 37, 61, 82. See also Late Hittites; Luwians
oath, 45, 67, 68, 93-94
Odyssey,
21,
49,
88,
117;
Od.
1.1-
4: 200nl, 117; Od. 1.184: 12; Od.

4.759-767: 99-100; Od. 5.396:
187nl9; Od. 7.321: 159nl0; Od.
12.382-383: 205n5; Od. 17.383385: 6, 23, 41; Od. 18.136-137:
118; Od. 19.107-114: 119,
213n29
Olbia, 31
Old Testament, 25, 30, 111, 119,
180n30, 188n20, 189n36, 214n4.
See also Bileam; flood
Olympia, 4, 15, 16, 17, 25
Olympiads, 81
omphalos bowl, 20
onions, 62
Orestes, 56-59
"Orient," concept of, 1
Orphism, 125-127
Ortheia, 20
Ovid, on striges, 58-59
pan-Babylonianists, 3
Paphos, 13, 49
papyrus books, 31
Patroclus, 200nl
Persepolis, 24, 31
Perseus, 85-87, 124
Petronius, 62
Philistines, 9, 25
PhilonofByblos, 5
Phoenicians, 2, 3-4, 11, 12, 1519, 20-21, 28-30, 83, 104, 128
Phoenician inscriptions, 16, 26, 27,
28, 45, 52, 83, 158n3, 168n62
Phoenician literature, 32, 92, 94
224
I N D E X
Phoenician script, 25-26, 28-30

Phrygia, 13, 27, 161n26, 169n3
physicians, 41, 44, 75-79
Piacenza, liver from, 46, 47
Pithekussa. See Ischia
Plato, 91; Phaedrus 244d, 66; Resp.
364L>-e, 42, 125; Laws, 66, 67
Plato comicus, 77, 194n6
Polemainetos, 43
Praeneste, 16, 19, 104-105
Proetids, 57-58
Prometheus, 106
Ptolemy Philopator, 44
Ptoon, 79
purification from blood guilt,
56-60
Pythia, 79-81
Qumran, 32, 3.3
Ramses II, 118
Rhakios, 64
Rhodes, 16-17, 21
Royal Road, 14
Salamis (Cyprus), 13, 98
Samos, 15, 16, 17, 18, 20, 55, 7577, 82
script, 5, 9, 11, 25-33
seers, 41-53, 55, 61, 75, 113,
191nl8
Sennacherib, 13-14, 32, 118-119
Seven Gods/Demons, 94, 108-114
Seven Sages, 114
shamanism, 56, 180n37
Sibyl, 79-81
Sidon, 9, 11, 14, 16, 21
silver bowls, 16, 168n62
Soloi, 12
Sparta, 42
sphinx, 19
G E N E R A L
spirits of the dead, 65-66, 126,

200nl
Stella, Luisa Achillea, 115
symposium, 19
Syria, Greeks in, 6, ll-12. See also
Northern Syria
Tamasos, 159nl4
Tamiradae, 49
Tarsos, 11, 13, 14, 23, 32, 48, 52,
56, 209nl2
Teiresias, 51, 52
Teisamenos, 42, 43
Tell Halaf-Guzana, 9, 32, 111-112
Tell Sukas, 12
Telmessos, 49
Temesa, 159nl4
Tethys, 91-93
Thaletas, 42, 63
Thebes, 44, 106-114
Theocritus, Pharmakeutria, 67
thunderbolts, 19-20
Tiamat, 92-93
Titans, 94-95, 125-127
trade in metal ores, 6, 11, 12
tripod cauldrons, 16
225
I N D E X
Triton, 19
Twelve Tables. Rome, 74
twins, 111-113
Tyre, 9, 11, 24
Ugarit, 5, 42, 48, 83, 89, 119, 125
Ugantic alphabet, 28
Ugaritic literature, 5, 116-117
Ulu Burun, wreck found at, 30
Urartu, 11, 23, 25
Veiovis, 74
voodoo dolls, 66-67
warrior god, 19
wax figures, 67-70
Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, Ulrich
von, 2, 107-108, 154n9, 155nl0,
155nl2
writing, 7, 9, 25-33
writing tablets, 30-33
Zeus Atabyrios, 34, 163nl5
Zeus Dipaltos, 165n30
Zmcirli, 9, 13, 37, 83, 165n25,
197n2

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THE

Copyright 1992 by the President and

First Harvard University Press paperback edition, 1995

Burkert, Walter, 1931The orientalizing revolution: Near Eastern influence on Greek

i . " W h o Are Public Workers": The M i g r a n t Craftsmen

Style and Stance in Oriental and Greek

Index o f Greek Words

T h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n a n d the N e a r East i n t h e early

N o r t h Syrian bronze plaque f r o m horse har-

ness, i n s c r i b e d ; c o u r t e s y o f the D e u t s c h e s A r c h o logisches I n s t i t u t , A u f n a h m e D A I A t h e n , N e g . N r .

Piacenza, I t a l y : B r i t i s h M u s e u m , L o n d o n , a n d M u seo A r c h e o l o g i c o , Florence; f r o m C . O . T h u l i n ,

B a b y l o n i a n bronze f i g u r i n e f o u n d i n the Hera

Seal i m p r e s s i o n f r o m N u z i and b r o n z e shield

i n g b y C o r n e l i u s B u r k e r t ; courtesy o f the Vorderasiatisches M u s e u m , B e r l i n

t o m b , Praeneste; c o u r t e s y o f the M u s e o d i V i l l a G i u lia, R o m e

T h e o r i g i n a l v e r s i o n o f this b o o k was p u b l i s h e d i n 1984 i n Sitzungsberichte

grateful to Glen Bowersock

" G o d ' s is t h e O r i e n t , G o d ' s is the O c c i d e n t " says the K o r a n .

plains w h y even t o d a y i t s h o u l d be d i f f i c u l t t o u n d e r t a k e u n prejudiced discussion

a n d t h e East. B u t w h o e v e r tries w i l l e n c o u n t e r e n t r e n c h e d p o s i t i o n s , uneasiness, a p o l o g y i f n o t r e s e n t m e n t . W h a t is f o r e i g n

converged w i t h ideological p r o t e c t i o n i s m , and b o t h constructed

w e r e i n t e r c h a n g e a b l e m o d e l s even i n t h e r e a l m o f opera; Iapetos

and H e r o d o t u s , "Phoenicians" were read-

i l y accepted as the l i n k b e t w e e n East a n d West.

c o n s i d e r a b l e i n f l u e n c e w i t h his idea o f " G r e e k t r i b a l c u l t u r e . "

" o r i e n t a l i s m " and

derivation o f most European

m a n i c and thus banished the Semitic t o another w o r l d .

O n l y outsiders w r o t e about " H o m e r

to the n e w dimensions o f w o r l d history.

tiquity i n 1884, a f u n d a m e n t a l a n d i n fact u n i q u e a c h i e v e m e n t .

T h e p u r s u i t o f this u n i v e r s a l a i m was c o n t i n u e d b y the c o l l e c t i v e

B y c o n t r a s t , t h e a n t i - o r i e n t a l reflex was t o p r e v a i l i n the f i e l d

the O r i e n t and Hellas. Julius

and overt anti-

n i c i a n " H e r a k l e s o f T h a s o s was n o less o f a fantasy t h a n the

e x p e r t a r c h a e o l o g i s t s , h o w e v e r , s o m e t i m e s appear t o feel u n c o m f o r t a b l e a b o u t t h i s fact a n d i n d e e d advise against u s i n g t h e

T h e foreign elements re-

m a i n subject t o a p o l i c y o f c o n t a i n m e n t : T h e r e is h a r d l y a s t a n d a r d t e x t b o o k that has o r i e n t a l a n d G r e e k objects d e p i c t e d side

z o l d i n t h e arcane field o f a s t r o l o g y r e m a i n e d a h a p p y b u t i s o lated p h e n o m e n o n . A n o t h e r specialty w h i c h failed t o a t t r a c t

s i o n o f the i m p a c t o f t h e N e a r East o n classical Greece, w h i c h

H o w e v e r , t h e first a n n o u n c e m e n t s a n d studies o f " I l l u -

yankas a n d T y p h o n " m e t w i t h o n l y a s l i g h t response. T h e b r e a k t h r o u g h came w i t h the t e x t o f Kingship

1946, t h e m y t h w h i c h has the c a s t r a t i o n o f the g o d o f heaven b y

a n d , l a r g e l y as a result o f t h e efforts o f A l b i n Lesky, Kumarbi

E u r o p e a n " p e o p l e h a d e m e r g e d t o represent t h e " O r i e n t . " B u t

Greek fragments o f P h i l o n o f B y b l o s dealing w i t h Phoenician

v i e w e d f r o m t h i s p e r s p e c t i v e . W h a t is m u c h less i n focus is the

750 a n d 650 B . C . t h a t is, the H o m e r i c e p o c h , w h e n , as w e l l as

t h e r e b y s h i e l d i n g H o m e r i c Greece f r o m the influence o f

the East w h i c h was so n o t a b l e i n m a t e r i a l c u l t u r e a r o u n d 700. I t

" d a r k ages" i n c r e a s i n g l y l e g i b l e a n d has cast t h e e i g h t h c e n t u r y

the discoveries o f G r e e k s e t t l e m e n t s i n S y r i a a n d o n Ischia i n

balanced p i c t u r e o f t h a t decisive e p o c h i n w h i c h , u n d e r t h e i n fluence

sacred," i t i n e r a n t seers a n d priests o f p u r i f i c a t i o n , t r a n s m i t t e d

enumerates various kinds o f m i -

g r a n t c r a f t s m e n " w h o are p u b l i c w o r k e r s " : f i r s t , "a seer o r a

W h i l e the second c h a p t e r tries t o f o l l o w t h e tracks o f

"seers" a n d " h e a l e r s , "

phase o f H o m e r i c epic, t h a t is, the b e g i n n i n g o f Greek l i t -

the perspectives u n d e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n , especially i n v i e w o f the

a n d perhaps i n s u p e r a b l e l i n e o f defense, the t e n d e n c y o f

m o d e r n c u l t u r a l t h e o r i e s t o a p p r o a c h c u l t u r e as a s y s t e m e v o l v i n g t h r o u g h its o w n processes o f i n t e r n a l e c o n o m i c a n d social