FOIVOS LORAND TUDOMANYEGYET Em NULCSESzeTTUDOMANY! KAR Andras Las Is Slephanidés Karolyné ANGOL LEIRG NYELVTAN IL RESZ pee : ‘ Alake 65 funkeiéian i (PANTS OF SPEECH: MORPHOLOGY AND SYNTAX) : i : | KEQNA : Pestateeite Fetes vetetay aaron gage unten sot pert iesaaté LABDREVIATIONS. 4. Pogo BXPLANATION ‘OF GTHDOLS AND. y 7 ee reTS 8 THTRODUCTIONscevee PARTS OF SPEBGU see eh ete ee obo VERDE cece eugtecees MORPHOLOGICAL CIASSES OF VERBS’ 10 ~ Irregular verbs 10 = THE SIMPLE AND COMPOSITE FORuS' /A Survey/ 27 = PINEEE AND HOR-FIUTPE FORMS /VERMALS/ 29 ~tlunbor abd Person 29 ~ Aspect 30 Tonsa 33°" Hood 34 ~ Yoteo 35 = TUB USE. OP TUE PINITE TENSES J5 = Present Tense 35 |. ~ Post Tonsa 37 “— Precen "Perfect, 39 ~ Fast Peis - fect 42 - Future Tense 44 ~ Puture Porfect Tenso-47 ~ Soquonco of Tonsea 48 - TUE PASSIVE VOICE 49 -.Pacaive Voice with Active Foun 51 ~ MOOD 52 ~ Inperative 52 = Subjunctive 53 ~ Optative 54 ~,Potential 56-.Condi~ tlonal Sentences .57 :~ Real Comiition 50 ~ Theoretical Condition 59 = Optativa 1'Conditions 61 ~ Inversion |. S AUNIBTARO YemS 61 = Snali-Should 62 ~ W121 Would 63 - Gan-Could 65 ~ May-Uight 67 *~ sual 69 ~~ lay, /got/ to 70 = Do to. 71 = Heod 72 = Qught to 74. *, ~ De 76 ~ Dare 77° = Uaod to 70 ~ THE NOR-PINITE YOAUS OF TI YERD /VERRALS/ 80 ~ Infinitive 80 ~ Ure of the Teosos of the Tacimivave 02 — Fiein Xnciniave OF = Infinitive with fo 03 °~ The Subject of the In Sinitive 05 ~ For + Accusntlye with Infinitive 06 ~ Anophoric to OT ~ Split Infinitive 97 '~ Gerund and | “3.Infinitive 90 | Pexticinle 93 Feolated Piurais 15 CASE XH tous 109 * he, FLextonel Gontttye 5 TIE Mam Porus 112 Bacouatables 113 ~ coune, Plural 118 ~ "Plureite Severe Nesntngs.171 Sabed Weantng 221 2 ane he Obnique x Peosontaat Perera oe ry #tben Parttesyty ag Yentua™ Lg vo Plorel Yom’ w 09 ~ ane UE The Vee ‘oe the abLea 115 292 the a, 352 ~ the Vartoen Neuter de a5he AND usuinxe op Slnguler 123 Me Une of the The Plural with Ath Dirterene te Claanitica TRIOS Gerry Ne Dettatte verbiad PD aay Here us ‘Woo of the Tasvead ot « IMTERNOOATIYE PHOHOUS ee ke Mrolol 179 ~ moss 179 ~ Wat 17) © tubes 374 2 tater Fogatives with vor 175, 7 REGIE MOWUIS eee eee eee ae u0/t/, shove 117 5 fae 170 = RoscPastonal Seat 378. Heh 160 - the Calsoton of Relatives 102 = what 109 - aletives ih -aren. 104, Au, > Men,’ mush 190 - Pew, M6819 191 ~ Soae, gay 192 ~ Sona 199'= . Unotrossed day 194 - Eaphatle Ane 1 1 907 and thely Cospounts 196 = To, nove 197 ~ > Hg ant ita Compounds 196 - One 199 ~ thimericad Ong 199 = AnaphorLe One 200 ~ Restrictions on the "Prop-¥ord" Ono 201 = Won-Anaplorle Oo» 202 - Ganorte Sus 20) = Otvoc, gnotner 20} = One anothes, ach otlier 20 ~ Hae 25+ Both 206 ~ Eleven, notthor 208 - ADIECRIVES « Parbleiplal Adjectives 209 ~ coupuntson 210 -, synthe Leal Cosparives 220 ~ Analytical Comparison 21] Varlations ia the Uns of tue Tro, aye of Comparigon 212 < ~ Trragularitien in the Comparivon of Adjectives {get stverve/2i4 = itz Use or ms Decne roses 210". Position, ani Stress and WordOndar of Adjectives 239 — Pogo 156 ar. its MUWERIUITE PIOWOURS oo ee ee ee ee 18S Fy gach 106 ~ All 106 ~ Bvery 100 = Fach 169 =~ = 95 = i oa neyo erent eeuwale B50" 261 cougoucTroms. ‘ KEERTECTIONS zx LINGUISTIC TERM S262 EXPLANATIONS; OF UIT SELECR BINLTOGRAPHT. cave ee LON OF srunoLs DoREYIatrous (Yor evorosittens ot confaLod tn thie Liat, seo ONEEOEA Pe 1D./ © 0b = Colloquiel language, Sec) EXPLANATION OF LINGUTETTe TERKS, olloring sections, parte, peces, tt Wh = Literary Languages ME = lddie Eogltehy /the Baglitoh language vetweon 1150 and 1500/. MBy = Modern Engltoh Unoge by FORTER. OF = Olt Brglish /the Eoglich Laaguage t122 about 1150/. parse paragraph, 305 = Prevant-day Eaglah /the Eoglish used todey/. Gover Eabin quod vide = wlileh a¢o./ag.v. tho cane in plurel/. Bae Ca atter # Abegonal /can ve aubstituted for the ozo po- fore St fo Bake enother exaaplo/ ta alao ned to aopazate alten nant Lingutatde roma,Ut nosverzoy Masulsttces Lingutstte“sctenes 48 4 salfcoitainea, “enbatned, autononoug + ana ond nethods, 29"8 Be205 tbat each Laopwage Desi plan, -« ce, 02 a1 ofner laapaseege STPFMB cut? sch enna, Besertpe to o ns Wngusstie solence 2! 3 a°Pled to one perticulan Clabes 6 toe Ueterences Morphoneg a > . Pires STR, tana ESP. fn ity Artistic niet ast Pate egy on ste scone oe TPN oe tus hargee, amd soe 2 aro tho frat castivat ually wlth Of theve oils worp poonis shape as'mellas ata eine» Moguistie deveription™ secordiogly falle into. three fleldo of inuirys yhooeales, morphea lca -and Br anear proc, Gronnas prover, Gresiasr-peoper 18 thot braxch of Lingulatie study whieh dealo nth the oreanisation 6f-norphosen ince satan LogCut conbioatioae larger thea wordy, In tluae nobus we deal with the forme, Jue. words? onder certata elocses called parts ef apeosd foce 2.7, she vastus form they assusé 4p their various Tunetlong and taeir ato eyatoctte. etrueturose + LLL conatitute tins pare ne/" Sn whlch we ohelT cent witli ser noe of auras orgentzetton 4 Syntax. Syotex, or larger syntax Af our grapmie nates. four uext-volun the ease pbenometa and:questions, oly from th but thet of compute utterarces, Although Lilt treataeat of imglish granmer snvolves covering very auch the gam: yrownd ‘éwlce, Lain grammar, Lt 49 hoped, 11) be-elve idetod the probloss of Sng fron tyo diftervat and vertu polats of vi dosertptive Fores approach. ‘The principal sethod for ti ty forma), that 13, Lt olay at dete: approach Lo prapanderet ing oing ench distinct unit of Language by applying the tost whetber 1t Astoone! es sows other Cora or ‘different! fron oll other The Cechnsques uses fox thie kind cf test ave Knomn us oot oubstitutlon. Three exagplen Of thls tev procedure mune suCtics here. Iu the lwo nontences of {isntieal fora! atructure tile wos pleased" and ‘lo wad noted Whe Fncttonn] equivolonce asy he tested by trying to add to then watts, troneforantion Aled often loosely called "grannar’, ineenash, tg, rt of cur notes covers worphentes but on Egagmugh os 18 vas thought nececssry foe tee mace tue Nky iced Tenguege teacn toneuch 22. esieonslon a3. leith evectbaiy? i€ tie thks ihe cicoé nee EB te nk We and _[aEtG! mish therefore be di ttarent, 15 seus, [BS Ae sbteeous, th requited ante any bu astiveg we tying 0 Insert the berore, for Instance, ay its t tbs scatence aust be coken as a ceanua jh so) They sueceste onder’ ihe Lunetione norphemic anslreie. Seenig. In analysiog lancuage tnto clotioct wilte and vicin Auncttons tha recognition of aeaaing is excluded ee wush os {2 aint 18 cosauntcates v7 fora; conceguently the aatine spenkerte Jrtuktion of aeaning must ct be introduced nto the Torey enalysia, (im The slaple case of "They opt Wonday? the native speenes sane ing Of the utterance but actentific pineuatic Geasription asks the question Lepitinately shy. oud how te Koons, thee thie Monday! In dteferent from the wane tom to Rey susseoted Uooday!/. Such a consistent and sigsroussy Sciemt{le ptoseduce no doube toads at tines to tortuowe rormulee syatenaeseantss In theae notes, sbich ata a auch at ¢ actentitie Ssstensttzation of tho data of Presentodey faglion aa op seoting Feecticat weadsy such aa extrene forveliatie aetiod wear have been out of place, Sromastlen) rules, te, tdscover hor « given Language Mrorks', ioe ea formulate tle eppreach to grasnar co ra fat a¥euctures, IY 43 no longer procceupied nice what Je 57,08 Pronounced ‘correct? and tropes; it does noe pres the peevvoca eg e 2ather content with desert ges & hor sesueiay auahy sdzeumerived class of users of the hoawuars Hage these notee whieh are hs English longuogo 12 used by © i distance ord cubturnd ots Ls prknas ly ae at “Seoktleh Engl Leh; i eecilaceny wetteret te vey ley eith a munktents Jeaclé a yeriiaa Lee es ara sat aod Lateral Ui gpetistia) /Jousontons}/'e oo these atpton dled Ee rin greater or smaller mv thon tpn fa nn ang enothor Io ernie ov araiat ms Cosebuesy/ Detvaghfopenl ltleg ond Safomsa) =p : ce tothe fore co difareats te of geet laporar veden of aelicila constantly referrud to in the sense muh an 16 aeceynceovary ov vas peslble LEO COT tetas ao sh ae 16 Semel other varieties Z oedieated Engl tah unite, s Andebteduons to the Ao wish In thle place to acknowledge our sndevt 3 vaage 1isteu feeling with Eaglish gesaasr on eth ntsloseaply on treape-Gs and alae te. tho atondord tn the ULdLLog raphy on e+ 27 pase obs gente) Glethouacies of Taglish from wnicu xe coup) veasdotvbove reget Ir they meee tetie ta eltanate #32 cc i Li f freateent ond terainology, Minor. Jit 1 pecan 0 botween ths chapter on of thts Lind tay be especially notScogblo bot verbo ond the rest of the notes, -ueCsiectiten: CS I, Peepoattlona Maco guscested to ten classes, 1.0. H the conjunctions ail Hho words, in contrat to. ore called ful 1 words. * Function xords gq division of words have. tayortant characte Fistles In common, Pirebly, they are not copable of boing referred to octual experiences to which we apply such words, Lor-Instance, as horse, run, softly, winder ete. In other words, Steee ao vill, things ond experiences In the he yronouns, the prepositions, nterjoctious are functlon words 1a the fLrat uet of clnanes that the says of words of ela2500, the nusber Zere AWeludtos spoken as ve) units aad cot words Pecailed parts og the, hg ete, do noe denote Sane way es full words, although of course they have nesnlng, sortie HL whieh Ie vory oftes aore diversified thon that of full words. Secondiz," Function words dn thouselves can only constitute respouse COS Of Fogle seepholog teat rose These eae TEES OF0 accordingly descripay’_wetATeNGER, whoreae full words con wake up any Tied of uCeeraice © e1asses ore sade up or Je.g. Mohn writes nico pooas!~ 'h, dons he?! or "Yes, he does! Yairdly, the number of function xords or "50 dues George’ ebes/. ia Fuglish 1s small as opposed to full words, end ors iaportent than that, tholy number does not Lacrease; they canaot be "colned™ fas can be ull words, Fourthly, funetlon words gust be learned os Separate Itens with their seanings in order to be able to identify thete steuctural meaning, In’ this they Gifrer fron full words. For fe, proposed pur marta ettste OP non PZ TEIES an Me rotor / Sheetes, po iderotion of Zive “PTH cue, theougn aeytogl sede Ng, ere eintahtheoee the lutte, position in tho Seiitenca and certain foreai clues #121 oath» 2095 Sent Eaan he Garlyatatetee Fevenl their function: Ye Jo act have to knoy Ue “ecawing” of o0t iaecatete, O88 capeblfity Let ote anotion galls tettzee the words Ln the aonsense utterohee ‘ha uggle woggleit diggiea! 4 2 8 Ualeea ayer of feOsLsty et xargs ne ete A Se nce a uggle voggled diggiea! ga ’ Rg Hextcat stems eatnes fttl0R tale order ta Identity then os « noun in tho slagular, a verb In the The s08 seb Post aad gnothex youn tn the plurad, guar because this sequence (18359 1,81 Fenenn rnizerne seis tn RdSETIEY eae: ones E20", Hoag ouch, gea/“ist dec) alee belong co facction bosds. SUbis"ots Great ieee troupe ee fusceioy wens te nD Structure of Env tsh. ~ Re Be“ae comisned. by tne set name ‘ila ehononou Le nore a [ineatlan /oid no00 otras highly Tete Lagi. eee ene St Be ages/. -B. " hilt work ete, noniey dota CEE cto sastonne pen ress eel hablte, avdown trata, tow, Wndow-shoppiag 1a se att 62008 aluo79 be esolcoed tee given Also peediestivelys he Le swald : "ord clase dnca and fer al), PEsoe ether wecne tan an used eb edjoctives but they 7 Stray of Laflexlove to signal steuetures Seaning, Fox tsh can “Ge these exdsyles Ube nouns are us behave as veh only partially aa they eansot ordiaorily be compared wave a: y parttelly a: y adding ~er, ~sak, oven Af they are noneay}lable. by adding -er, ~20t, : fate, Balle ote, as toth verte and sabe Suet, ebtety general ote, ae ieee oUns and adjectives; Sot) Pound as adjectives, adverta sain” ott tes Long deen oxploited by the cone of the Lane centnce ae 9 SeeetOuslT aad dodiverasely. the deligece ee brane sarees ce & Ford from one.claga to another tat eae of functional snige aod aay be tereed conver eiey {ikt! he workers dovaeé tools adr, sy Verb/. We hod a try /verd racete/But me a0 buts Jeans. co een ane WOua/. le eti2) has Jena of #2 30 bin /ga = anerey, verb te Roun. He's deen Xarayed, {agua to verb/. he plane erased ater take-ece /verd to nouns, se ean ME MaED Veta so tag eee eee adjective . | wT RIUERi WTE oa drs Lee faiaty oy ytd i vrta enngy tetton te costeutiy gee ee one of | ran ee Ae MS OF Lest the ut ae? oe ie | 2006 taken soot ta tne ee gosto mu Sonvaeted™ fron one ctnee tu mueinnr, i ta Eooitpae-mare-lecctalioattansatae aa-bonviatidutarsoss igEeion, | We TAIDVOURT, A fandveok of Eaclish Grasmer’, pps otter case Js catiedlo FORK verbs com foe! Accor Ling, AOD E eope wr (or, © dscoraing tot © 6 ne nay elascity tue verbo an MeL ED Le verbs: be, have, cone, co, toxe, put, walt, fete. = Certain verbs are today Sndistloguishetle to fece tee jeune! eves sleep, work. /ta OF they vere of the vane roos bac ppilaeersbed by endings, e.g. mlaapen /¥./ sheep /aoin/, lution (ef Wika Jooua/t, dot Lo Mod, 2. ex alesse unt lelted nod te aa eens may be weed o2 verbs without any charge of Corey thle Zf sorealled sonverstou. Lae. Uottle /= put ine vettie/, ang Jeg ten SIO aEH/, ex8 Feobsceve/, 0411, haamer, tren, weeds 2 Derivative vers, fomed by asco of utrixes Diackun, siden ene (pre~ of autttres/; undo, unitcess, rewrite as try scandalize. in S058 verbs we do not racogoize the root anyacre /tavent re rivatives: forgive, belleve, forget, fuitiir, 3.Coupound verds: tiptoe, whtvens overdo, undertine, upset /adv. + very, iste. ~ 49 aluost unlisited miner of Grou-Vorve ay v2 formed 22 te wae of tho ateeler verbs combined sith om nyt an Sher fhe aeOys Wack: ete. Kgs Bee In, go out, jon Up, take amar, cone back ete, + cold-shoulder, ai auattton Go theae, 18 tn often eonvestant to conden om» eroupavernsr jeioky make prope Pout/vreaktnat/lunchs s/hanter take care/part; Go for's walt, -e 921) nd) bE OL i clon tong vateat to oleple T fp and prevoolbion « ee oe ALES Pui nares, vores ralted; tea ings walihig, jlevie, rorklne. @© _oethoprapiteat ates: a Js Pina) z preceded by a vovel renaine snchang Ls " en preceded by a conso~ efle s ond /efds playn, played; but when preced fees attes, arled, ; mage te ace es inguier of the present Hicative Va to nerbe ending ano abate [2 fo of 03 ses > end cots (gour}, so age . fiaal nat £5 doubled before tie a a post and past participle, or the poelaaiae ae yroeeou jarticinte of eerind kn wonesyiiebte vor, receded by « ae a0 ayideble wo piece See ent pa stop, stopped, stopping: admits Bug. plan, planed, plonnin “sto vole: 8 admitted, admbuting: infer, Loferced (Tn'fo:d] , parrrat ie dosh even Son usatreaoedoyitebie in Belttoh Fino 2 1 dusbted even gz gd Lan /not 40 Avewtens fngLish/. Bg. teaved, Leavell i quae, quaevejzed, quarreling. ea "ova easing 4th site “2 dnp vn Bete Hh ve Slacted vetore. the nutfis cho i wards 1x0 sis] ta tuntinonton se Prom awa Te ta nina 1W'enuo dey Sis hag, phe’ ~ camo, Sei #86. 4 Wer ondg in Je gers Gop te g an change 2 fz then " de prevent two 114 {709 comkag 1 to y when adding -Lagy oo a0 de provent two 1 ce Beg. dio, dylugy Ue, tying. =e beiven 1 togetiieNoRPOLCGIONL Guanchs oF wets As past and past | dug otood focalte Yer . 2 stand, ~~ 1a SyhGintse Yerba /oteen locsety cali strony verbo, the etencvorel changes according to the fetiosing @. z conscrantar Yervs /ofton elles took. vervs/. ed becaute they £00 4 poet and rast parties Consoountel vorbis ase so called 8 dusk pare Acsble have 1fCerent vowel fom thot-of the ast -part. with the deats] suffix ~/e/d. Aaoag the verbs of thls BSE DoPEs Das nase) suctixs type @ graot nusber of incepilasities can bo found, the dente suffix belng present but iu som Leeegilar or disguise the pest acd fora, The detve dove drives ae wrote written following types occur: a ae pica 4s added to, the stem, and the Long voxel of the Rr SUSE And post part. ‘ave the sage vowel, saat difterent vowel, atlas Fert, has oasal eurtix: feet aie at fee tow Geen oe a ee : shake shook shaken - faa ce cre oat ate 7 eaten baal os et = or = no sutfix £0,addou, Bs te verbs originally omling in changed to a short vowel: 2 pest and arty ha PASE part, have the-sase vowel. Past port, nes ade eee the Long vowel of the stea ts outtix: broke broken vieod blog vied pore spoken fea feu fod bat Uitten hide bua ad /usdsen/ - oe -9-£68 mt 18 added’ and the von s) # Rene vowel (93) on foul © Delos brought ‘ tougit tM a “Hekes the place of fine) 3 wid tnd tha vowex re aad deat e an sand Lent lait bud | butt wine send aeat gent wf takes the place of another cons onmnt the ctenwitte ste Vowel remains, unchanged: ; eee ake ande edo! a baa aa! no ousber of verbs nding dn -l on iit added /the letter especially in Anorica/: 7 =o een Jenene euros Bent /Leernid/ ”——narnt /leasna spats foslt Jesentear’’ —— apeit! Ganermady vion | Means aktaeay’ SEER /epeea © & wnsrengee verbs 1 these the past and # partioipla form dre tdentics! with cut : cost | coat. ; mee | pe = dee | lee : dure aa ace contracted trom auto ~20- ia regular past tenes and vocalle zone /mowed/ ates showed auowa /showed/ sen soned sewo /sened/ 208 soned oun /ao0d/ 7303087 ew hewed new /: swell enelied svolien /svelled/ raven /eraved/ rave graves 8 peor sheared sheen /sheared/ pelt poited + "= olten /aolted/ sasien concoaunbel type, while the es the port tence La a dives © iqat pacticiple:te of tha veealle type eo ald done In mono eases thore Joe fluctu fontionod alxed verbs have « past participle of an older patters. tho pact tenga and tho pact participle of jabton In wooge., Tha above Som verbs have botit the old typos borenve bereaved beroaved /tho, older for: ; bereft, dorert/ kent kaltted knitted /takiug the place : roe oder: : kee Seni kote Bight Ldnesd /ie7, lighted /st/ cee orld ridded /etd/” ridded. “/rke/ ‘ -a-ANO%HOE Erouy oC vo2bs pave A : ae foe 0k /aunkesy a SEER AG faassen a ae struck /stricken/ woven /roves GD tes = she te oust saststote tan an ettovuany te fitness Tee dea slight tference 1a seaning Bi fe Ly bas adjectired funccon, white ta nee eee ‘@ clearly verbal. This rule io not EEE of ope, of Per erairten Jot taster tla, Ssesaved ber of her children, 4 bereaved aotree eee vant natticlols elotes seess to ve ore conson thar eens, ee att perp iBone the one ox the otter form has becoas sings gore cots teint patee on fiseds w shoves acvileted aad, ta "gone!, “advanced eae 2426H0Ee, In the Old Intrensies Ot: T vag atetenan ve moon steleken An years Bitteken wlth feer, grist s Chey ane Jats: Bleevbers the past parties ne eee E88 stock with terror, Dat tn py Tie AE now abcuek Devore a nouns the weecgeue, Af BME® sidgectve Cunetione use the word is 7 ‘The ship bos ‘the cloth wae Oo» fetal, nblch wor gree used sneransitively in the sense of 4. Detective Yerba ‘these hove fewer foros than other ¥: the folloelug have no LaCinitive, tuey haye only two forms, ont that ty formully & of, been! foedng/* bs. a fe 1 pest perbhelple er wing form present and one that is forsally a postr could; nays abgats.cbally should; mill, would. dered /a5 0% ancaalous verb ¥bew At has no -2 in the dare, Jed person alngular procent indiestive/ the following Mave only ose For ust, ought /to/, used /to/, need /= have to/ xben St hea no inflected form for the 3rd jorson singular present tonso, gs bexare /be + ware © warz/ Ls used ouly'where bo Le the varbat wT part required either aa Larinitive or tayerative. He Tvdll borare Ubat be should not ace ao, Leware of pickpockets!” quot (4roUl0) 1s an obsolete past tense form used todoy with EE 3rd persow in orchale lunguora. @ recording to thete syntacticat chorecter or sole ne may olessi= trenedtivesy 2. fotransttives, . copulee and fy the verbs az 4, quxiiarles, in 1A brea obiect— noun, pronoun, or eleuse- to complete ite meaning. F. Nie struck ne. I-hope yeu are feeling well. Ltd ve, verb dea verb that requires en ; be, being, been cont 2. ube ied deFe cone from| | u Salles usually polities By aa’ adjective, Big. ie dled & Ytelont dase, ilo is living ¢ a6 ond Lonoly Lite, @ ot ceases thuze ure ether Insseradeive veo Ubst con Yecoso nsitive when thay take an object. E.G. fe wont the shortéct way. ilo tas walking the etrecta, Sho evLed grceit 10 8200p, G@ Sonwtizen intsannitaie verve becore transttlve La « Causative function, exes The’ horse oven accoze the elves. “ite snon his hosve aerosa the iver. Tha chile otood by tho mall. Stand it against the wall! Plenty of wheat grown tu our country. = he Caraers gros / cultivete/ wheat. ‘ghere dea Little group of causativer forsed fron intrensitivea, Aistingulshed from thea by a change of vowel, ur by a change of vowel xd consooant, a8 « aurvival of a ouco mich wider uaoge: » fol ~ £611, Ble drink = drone + se = 2a ‘The tree falls - The woodaan fella’ /litera}ly ankes f011/ the tree, lle aits by tho window, ~ lle sets the pot on the stove, ~ ‘The book lied on the table. ~ lle lays his book:on' the table. tle Grank deeply, The otora drenched our clothes /asde our clotlies artok/. Ta moet cases, nowaver, the cousative Ldea 1 exproased by placing on euxillary ~ couse Daye, cat, or Jot - Vefore the dnfinitive or thé past participle of the verb to be cuployods ‘Te choles of tha verb expressing the causative’ {des depands on slothor the perforecr af the section 1s Induced to perform tho ace, fg. 0 the caus of @ request the verb bo have ia uacd followed by the past perticiple. of the main verbs Big. me tao maya. Ovo by Ghaphy the action t0:pecfoemed T havo (set. thke ask done by John. Lovet bave /eat/ ay-lnke fg uso a Uifferent coustructLon formed ith Tne other way 13 the vacb to have Follozed by the plain present infLuteive of tho pain vorb, Ege lis hed Dido aacentery post the Teter. Pease have ble Being tne lugeoge to ay #eea. TFLL have ian Drown tyye the letter for you. be you lave likeo Brown trpe your work? /Thio 19 su accusative with lutinttive construction/. ‘The verb fo get folloved by the peasant Infinitive w}th toy {ives the conarructson a, soncwhat éifferent avaning: vo get soncbody ty de soaethiing ~ means to persuado bie /"isbeoxélnL", ‘ravount"/, f.g. You should got your friend to holy you. te succeeded In getblag hin to come with us. b. Ifthe perforaer of the action 1s vot asked to yerforn the 7 6 another bo pet fora Lt, the ection, but 1a-compelled in sons vorb fo veke Le used bo exprace the causative, Colloved by the plein present nfloitive. 3.8. Ne wade me laugh, Woot eakes you think so? tla made Uo, obudento work harder, I can't make this sachin go. /This Ls ngeia-an accusative Fith iaflaitve constructiou/, ake leo to-tausn {¢ goes ines ves, Jn . Sonstlaes with the auxilinry Jet. Beg. ~25~Fnglial doing an anelyelent Langu: @ by wutuoetea. ees faten Sak vee Te tee eee ip at arles lag at dnpnctant sol0 ln eaprezeie IntLnLttve, «.g. ls soon Let his powoe be fete. ile tet Le be ee kava to his frienda. : Ori pe tense susi tole GD 2. ha datransitive very denotes a etate, or action without us eneterees te Wi BREE Be pape soy eeference to uo objects Tage * Audlary of aapect iil volte, evg. Tan reading: 7 = SOT Ducasse be range The class beetas aig oteleck, AON TT ace A0,90,95,08,69,7500 late, ~ A large number of introncitives weee once etqneteise Je mea) ourdi tered are can/eould,,any/migit, eas pe modal saxtitarian aye can/soutd, with « refleatve object. Bug. : 8 cuphit, ghell, witly dare, 20 Meh vos 6121 T curne ae7 /itht/ /the reflexive pronoun te in,” Suis he BLUE Fae tee ine Palane, | Ue odes) ahster fase / te tonne of ruin the reignve "the Se camiatien t+ wad Oy ereerione a Jas : Noruby. /encvaloua = Lieqsar : osoun thera the seaniog Ia clear without 4, started very varity = . gan. Tunge verbs congbibute a spectel i inthe © racked. fair aevelopnene ie oeant gine eran Te en crete Commverrat saerilar attcapecas and sad shaved quickly. ite washed before dined, geounsieut cota eve coonot eat. shee dreseed end shaved quickly, tle veshed before al functione 1a congo, According to Pol bn @ 2 Sommer ceeves to Lunt tne oubjoct te the nosinal pare of lienioe Decouse ese, be, have, mood and éero are not always conta’ the predicate, therafora aleo celled I i a k verbs, They exuread riidiehies: wee connct call then defective verbs, because bs, do Ap cine, Pith wilt Jie wodlo. ALEe ginwetieal eategori Sof the Calta vee, Tce, fetean, a fume 2004, e996, tance and volee. Te oldest eal-mant coasen pe LL hes ae tnete cegiler Ie BEE. Te wi kb Pha”. concrete cronsoe, Fog. ly daa boy. ilaa TS "wortal, Thi Su pvagtt tore are seven, He prcchiciitg, Tere aro at prenont @ large nuaver of coplas Ln Engl ahy eee Werbs in various stages of development toxard the copula state, ol? AE Sontaining acre or loss. of their originel concrete @.andog. ‘Thevgth DS they ave all copies, they are all sore or less differentiated in 1) Aecirtyy. meaning ros one anothar and fron tlie copula ta he. & mater of out have ace not defective. beok te wi 7a Garvey) » Simple Fore @ te staple soras of vervs have the fothortng funet ton art thes serve aot only a3 copulas, but alaa a4 Ail) verbs, preseryiog L, The stea form 10 usod Jn the funstion of “RAGUCK) ty cortain meanings these originel concrete forces ace, tent "AL fploia/ Auf inigiver. fade hin-yor Vo{RSL Gph Mowe at ten, ~ ie dreams cous true, /2 becone/ lle ran alten ' "hia fore nor'usually"oceure with to eo a eign of the Ke | ‘vey £0 school, ~ Our provieions ran short. /« vecoso sconty/ Antinitive Zunetion: I wanted bi-to work/leare. Vee Taare ce aboue sixty copulas tn gost conaon ares Vf Uresent tense 1ndivetive /except 3rd person elugulor/: opens, acosa, break, Durst out, ceteh, chance, cone, eoaaenes, T/reu/we/they vosh/daoen, eee Ebeeeeet eee eee eee AF Tajexatives Fa with the albilant ouftix ~/2/e f-2 /-2/ Ez]. ‘son clnevler recent tense indicative: ore diligently! Be a good voy! Sag in A Feel cad, Tt eaelle ved, Tt tastes sour, it founds uuteve, LEG iis sors rang true, He grey teed, Lue Looted pate, ie keate has Une function of 3rd ; he/sh/At. 2 Loose, 26 - i -2-2 the etow fora with the dental surtiz LaJbas tho funettons of £/ Past tenses T/pov/ete, worked YY Mast pastdctpla: a learned[ry Ixvegulac verbs aay have two ‘The sten Form with tbe A/ Veasent participle: ite eae varkin b/ Gerunds lle started rorktan, yorktng, | Zc “Anu auerix hae the functions of Compound Fores Sy cosblning ths incualtivad Forms of aottozal verbs with Fort verba, ¥e get compound focus ox 09 auxiliaries, see 109-159 4 compound form way consist of two staple Loree an auxiliary, the otver 4 notlonad verb: work; I” ought /used/om to have + beeo + told; you are truly Gi zed; i fact ome vetig buLte, 9 then are hand} Farely hoard or seen tn peint, than tn the spoken leagunge, Xe has been boing butt; tt ‘Thoee cosbinations cam ~ ae sald) son; be As gubte worked out spast portiesvle and tne 8 of otcucturel ot quxl Llery coopler.veebed pheacea, Towa i/cen/may are, + ete. + to work; I have/had + worked, A Gonpound verbal. form auy sis0 constet of conatituente that are theaselven cowposed of ouallar unica I aay 4 bave + to sore; Lb oT hava + been + workings is + belong + rotutit; he should + have + coes ‘The podssnittetes of coabsoing a1 eves Lf-not ali poasitinities are equally Utiiie Y ever callow for and therefore More forms nee found tn the hed Ween belng bulit; Lt aLtt ve ound very cluasy in apereh/, FUIITE AUD HOMPINTPE-FOUS /WaRDALG/ of the verb cau indicate ube follorlng @ m finiee faoulyticol fora: Tom working, 1 have vorked, I chuit work, te et, Bogue, su0d ond véleer may fo, be alght go ete. : ‘the #yston of alt the szuthetical and anelytiesl Fores, whieh ty Gense, mood sod volee, are uaed lo Jadseate person, oumber, aspect, 1} mood apd ji a. wavech /verbale/:_the G@ Mm non-tinies & rere pst rv lisitre sn Loner scape tbe Tafiudeive and tne gervady.. eyo. As they have no Laflectionel soGings, $be7 counak tadscate Ter bove fines tanane then the tinbto-vorba, the tise rotations falriz agli, The-yartieapiean weraon and nv P vid can exe rs erund cainol exyrese: noodot—aLloné con expcens.pronroualy ores « Muaving been taxing/. The knClnd= ace. va : jacks foras Foxmpod but bax foraeforthetnaaspac, 7 T expect the engine to be working br thte ive tencrvoes ge Z4nuie forse are t16ber i expression and go cnn oxrese finer shades of thought than t faucflalt+ ores, bat the oon-tlolte forus ee often sore coneioe ‘and _convenTeuts In the next sectLono the entegories exproused by 2 finite verb fore will be discussed. 1. tusber and Person G0 295 we can atstingwish veewsen sLugulur and plured ody eative, where the oibhlane suze lx wees ("1 ay wa) bo aoved vo tue verb orca: he Feaue/erites/ Passer. person slngular ued to have # ocparate fore Bete 1. Second for suxiliaries, with the suCfix -e2t for ful) verbs and =st ~ 29ae een Listes aapece Ly prego ste Lish also used the old These old Com a thou zorkest, thou canst. carly to aot he_sorueehs Yrd person elaculur ening nor used ooly in poetry. le verb ke be haa retained tha dietlnetion of elnirilae and Indientive present and page: plural in the First end ehtrd pari Lam, be ia, we ere, they are. Tomas, le wax, were, they were ote 2, - In poetic aad archele atyle for 2nd peraon elngulae thou ert, thou vert/nast/. In all other eoses only the combination of the verb with the ules jie (aea Sf uabur and parson clear. The absence of ao endieg in the Jrd person eloguler of ty pre~ 1 he cupes /Indl~ sent tevae fore usually aarks tt as © subjunctive catlve/, Lf he come-/subjunctive/. a Ay gw verbs have here @ special cuajunctive fora:| if he bey 2e danect It de a marked cherectentatic of the English language eMae The a2 pect of an oct is usuelly indicated Jc. as to whether the oct La thought of as a thole, a fect, or, on the other ‘hus there are to hand, az golnz on, Sn progress, as continuing. 2h sod 2, the pre ~ Tah aspect hes oix conse WUIEH pees Mus in English tenoe aspects: reagive es dndicate the Else relatloas of the aspect. As subordinated to aspect, L Te Common aspect whole: lle wrote a letter, lle Rakes up early every sorelng. poot the letter on ls way Home, In tis aspect the action 45 always thought of ay coapleted, now oF 6 the past or ta the future, Although tne camann Fors abessu Tiiave my breakfast ne T know where KL be representa the act aaa Me win The cun elses In the Za4t /coneval Cact/ Woteluck MsbLtual Lact. 1 see bbe com fysrtieuler fuct/, Hq ~30- | an so BA Ih) Rec oe a fechise ) fe cis : bhiny the at a sive form Ane AST ot aeke Ae elear Soaetinee the sitvation doe: Jee particular ane, Th thee cnae we aaie was to brday out Undé 1ve9: You are tying! = /*Yen Ile? mishe be wis= ent, not 9 reference Ea a ynrtleulne waderstuod as. general state 21on. The situation ov contaxt alone aerka this provre: fo ® action a2 prosresoing, proceeding, 0 terminates. tue progrezeive nes tne ae pect rapres AS gol ended, accordiiy, to ee senvinz of thm vert Lt may express duration, repotttion, vaginning |g or cad of ou ack, 1.2, verb muy beg. duratlve, 7 sive ogoltec- bo iterative, g teeres eve du aaqeet. @ te procensnive form dors not alwars exyrees duration, £8 th verbs shoce seenlng 13 duretive, Such Me ete. uy. ‘le bupresses duration only Bure tive vers ar, eg, Au a garden every dez* denotes the cetlon os a whole, habitual, Yo express procreasiow ve use The 8 frevent siffecent tise bye tie work, read, work as @ fact, os semethiny iy Ls working in the gordon? the expandow fom? tenses of the expanded fom are used to Srulle Ln io garden wien f drove relations: ‘ile roy vorkiny: bio deen working Le bis arden all day! /the action 15 representa ed a8 st112 golug on./ 'T shall probably be stil] working when you @ wth Leer avi ve verte whlch exjrese rejetition, tte ation, the proveeseive fore conveys the oeaning bots of curation tnd rojetition aa these Adeor aca closely roloted Lo each other. Bue, Bho flse a0 crockling sn che Leaves are dropping from the trees. stove, Tho glrls are Giggiiuy during the Lesson. ‘Tho common Cora of such verbs hos, of course, teralnate force: "Tus clock 4s tleking! /pvagrecsive sterative/ buts ‘A eleck Eleks Louder Unon a watch? /taninate sueratives. ‘ To express repetitien the verbs used aud would are exployed hey used te greet eech ether shen they MLUN the concn Gi. “Wenn etn bene etn AtLed, uct Uo an uct a A whods, but to ely one polnly el thse the speelally to hegliwing ov the ond, “he verb thot catia abtesitsen ingrescs ho davelel stoge of the aceles or state Foe getting thre uei* while thers bave om ote, If re wiab to call 1g and of progeoosive acttol attention to tho boginosus | a exprossed by a duretive *E fan ingransive or on of fectLve approsshio; Bag. Tt Je conalng to snunt aaploy the progreasive £01 sere and place 1 Defore the dure tive, fe ta beginnlog ¢0 1a3%~ “otien the sngracaiva oF eCfecbive £0 op a prefixt oo roe akes wot in the verbs ut in an adver pecs a ar Baby 1¢-anakeaisy mecnagive: Baby 18 vaxi05 SP pee P x ce pgrensuye profiz, He ts dosing off Jed a Log ere nits lag to bloow/. ‘ee aes are conlog gut, /+ veetaning te suaend The Mertegak is giving ents oe, Iake 12 27106 40 yo ough most Baglin verds have o ‘complete conjugation 10 the Farrer i tn the comnon forn, the rato of frequency erefen mits the cottering they denote verb prograsaive az well Betwees the two 19 yards are rarely foul qeiions or otates in progress at th by no meana the 260 ad ia the progressives even * ¢ moanat of uprakingt | notien, rocogstse: know, uoderstand, denoclag. Fercepeiont thiek, forget, remember rocall,. recollect. gee, hear, sel) phovghtt suppose, ova, belLevo, | deoire, refuse, Foret Jove, Like, be Lond of, stor HL Lat wont, wish fae ymovton: cer, angry, be annoyed, be pleared WaaceLianeou st geen, appear contain, hold, matter, consist of possess: woiiged?, Ge Zexcopt in tho pesaive wrogresalve/: chore usually agnify, voloag toy have Z possess, Tipe heard hie speaks £14k6 to Fond » good vook. Ir eheae verbs are used $0, the progressive nssects ‘cr the abutence Mas some enotionol Ny soe biw cone’ but '{ an seeing bin off.? "wnat do you think of hia? /hat Lo your opinton?/ but 'E wae thinking of you aii the tino," Whey have © very ulce Asbrary' but *They 2 Jpcogeavntve fore te micgene repetieaan/. ‘ane toe aiiiy ete [iri" vue show pou ave Jase boing aiity" /eejroaeh/- MLM jfyoee . dep eeaypak baron having a yood theo. excoud.ouy net Bey pet ech) Fool putich sh techy rool phorpcl wee eusles Memes PES) Fao word thee stonks for a concept Lndepoadent of Langusce. word tease stonds for o verb fora or series of verb Cores tudin dont fy ULee aod tonse, future thee of the peaseat jueres, Three of ee tense a cotieg a tier relation. #e aust not We cou £tod posttenses referciog to tense referring to 912 ture thee Airscens, past nad future/ ore used efter the Liae-sphoroe iodL~ Gated by thee. Besides those prigary teuset the Engila tense oystea hos thees ee cond ary toosess the present ft, the past jecfect ond the future perfect, The pervect eh pert tenses Indicate thet tho action Se drought Into relation « tone other action or situation ia the present, past or fuvure,, relative tenses. ate, ~ Englioh originally hed enly tro tonaess the yoaeed and the paot = and Te o0111 has omy these tvo siaple tonges, all the others have been formed by cowblaing bhe LaClaltive, past ore afven replaced by aaultaiont cepounl tenses nade up of the eustitery de and the Inflastive, Gan tonees are exprocsed tn typ anject fares: the connca aod. two staple tenses theasely: The prosrescive asyect. We cane at four ovelock. Pant Progreasive: lle wav coulag to see aa when we not, ’ Pubure Simple: 1 chal work all afteriooa. ~~ peek RAL =nelikve noes4 i On te jujure Progressive: I’aball Ve working when you return, ecaont Yarteet Slaplaz f have written o lever te a7 Friend peasant partect Fregressiver I have bees writing wy Nomexork Sioce 3 ofelock. jose nectect Sippiee 1 had written ay Leéter whe your Lvrdeatien inusiesant two hues shen pase perfect Peogeeseivar T had been writing for ay pen broke. Future Perfect Step) nave learat aay oe" words. fubuse Perfect Progressive: By the ent have bea learnlug English Eranaac for 2 70ers sy you have finished tis book you shold Ws of this tera you shall 4, Hood ges in form of the verb to show the ougint of by the che woe de ave the chan © oe gers ta sich the action of wate 18 tr vartous Nijane are ences sowds 20 Englihs the tndieoti SEE ve den the sangonetive e003. cee at Lite, aood, Tula form reyreseats soneth log as a fact, or aa in close reletion with reolity, or in inter= ter a feck. "ile goes hous in the eventos, rogative Fora inquires af! ‘thea does be go None?” 2eTeperacive requests, eatreaty, warning, ood. TULs mood expresses commands, prohibition, "Go hone! be quiet! sie dozal? Be subjanctive wood. in to represent aomethiag oot as an actual reality, in the aiod of the speaker aoa desire, wish, volition, plan ste. hope of reollzation of, 1n the case le fonetton of the subjunctive but as forned sonnticas wich wore or 1229 subjunctive /bardiy ever used ia modern cotteau lot Zngitel parely in aoers writen €oglish/ ead b. the neaer forms consiet- Ang of a vdal usiilery and a depend ie taCiuitive of ene very to be used. =e a E desire that he go at, ence. lg should goat on Be Hot Voice de the fore of the verb which shows the relalton Detween the subject and the predicate verb ta the sentence, Thare are tro, voles, the active and the passive, The ae tive voice indlcetes that the subject doos someting, 1a, or As becoming soaethlos. £5. The sun shines, I om hapty. Spring ts cosiag. volee rupresente the subject of seted the’ passive upon. Bees The letter will be sent by airmail. The house 4s being DutLE. ne TENG ES HE USE OF THE ‘(Connon kapect/ ste @ te ctapse Peoseur tense 18 used Le exprees: Lo dothons permanently chetvsterssing the mbsech exes le writes peautifully. 1le Loves his aoUuer tenderiy. 2, fiabLtvel or Pecurrent actions: ¢.g. 1 get up early. You lave 1essons everr day. le spends bis holidays Ln ue woweales lis often sakes aletakec. ~ In these seatnces repetition $0 usually denoted by a frequency adverb /often, sonetines, every ‘ day cte./ Ji Caneeat teether ecg, elee te Le fours the aun be He ih certain vervs nevsOE ne progressive fore on action colng ow at Ue Boaeut of speaking: e.g. J know xhat 300 mean AL inst we umlerntand each other. What do you sev? :“Ta the narrative and so bring pest tha soncobled “BL st T to give a certain dronable vivideess wouts nearer to the hearet'. je Past events thie 4 1s use! pice Sen Ee mnich ed of-yo-Proseat Prvheetibo- 298A “Sigue in whe pact, with such vorb2 98 18 Seat tarneary te ronget; ee, 7 Ssete/eeae Wat Yes Tee Tat ie had TefEs a forget wat ne S050. “ oes faluhe Eine men-kt-te-used-bo-deocrLbe a predeteraiacd action, ¢5| echally with some advert ‘of time ¢: 1s Beeetsracuro te, 76. The Alp 20s ia a ck next Me % in leaves et muta chaiees,Joyend aie phe tien. TC 1388.11 74 present tense \. [ megeessve tstet/| @ tats eanae ts used bo expenmes provent, soucthing taking place of the Lege oe tue “tue apunat of bpong Sbe-o-Te-wieag Che genders The Week PP elplag-on-thewtobte de $2 relates. vonb of tae thé expanded fers exprecsea vee without ny ad tnat the acthon Le going on ab prevents javerdiel eeeresotons exe used: non, ab pragenty Chc+, 6-6: Jona i studying for Us examination now ‘2. Sonetines the Freseat Progressive 1s weed for gore go we rel present, eg Maat ore you reading? F aR Feeding « hovel by Grahas Groene /Thio 1adicotes that at preseat I se readiog thls pook, bub not that Tox doing so at this aoment/. fo kt meacang snot 2 vita tian starbod 1 but aa mcs auverb9 or mone delat 307. [CURSTANSET Til nto Phinosophy of Grommac avggoste that to SRSPESDE ceiiea TuhesvaueUe present", Bag. And thee he Guwps on his horse and avoy be goes. < 36 - J. Gouetines tho Hreaent Progressive Indicates siiat the state rtieular case, ent 49 aot general, but refers toa | . T genovally have breakfast at 7 o'clock, but this week Tas having t at &, becouse I om on a holiday, /different from tho usuals a, i eay have ager itonsd sorrow, pleasure, praise, eencure, esp Fino work at school. /fact/ Soko is dolag fine rork at echoc) /spoken Ana tone of praise/, Nhat ere you doing cluLldrent Jeurlosity/ Children wat gre you dolog? /ddepleasure/ Are you feeling better Unis sorntog? /nzaphaty, concern/. You are holwine ue darling, Tou ave beng ov anges! /enphasia, Leeling/ Adverbs Lfkor always, constantly, continually, for ever etc. soy te found 40 such sentences atrassing the repeeted or rersancnt He 42 eontinustly vorsying about character, expeezeing $67 eter ergs Sol does character of the ection. 2: hia wLfete health. tou exe’ always Leaving the door open! le ts for ever conplalalng. With reference to an action 4a the near future, e.g. Ne ore 6 having a few gueots tondent. The train 1s ovartiag Jn a few tauteo, Re ere coning soon. Vast tense L [eon agnor] The Pest Tonve {2 used: To exprves actions associated wLth a polnt or pertod of is the congon teuve of rucrative, where In connection wit onaeher. &.g. lyFon wa? dara so Zonden tn ~* 2700 and case into the ELtls vhea he mag ten zenze old. Ie =a9 educated ul Marrow and Trinity College, Casbriuge. : 2p Ba-napeesenton_opt ax regularly. hebituallz dona: °. 6 JsMo replocs tha Treneat ta tadlccct apanche Boss e mas a student,as Ta subordinate clauses to express conettig desirable or Th le conatioes called the Wares! Pasty becelse sts a express 0 contrast betwen post and resent eracelveble: puyposktiens Tt 35) function Js not t tioe, but between realsey: en ety weed afeert T,whshy 3f6 red pabher. ies Tig rather you dldn't co. If T wore \a dertrebthicy 0 asst, Tetan 1 xoew i gee. TE you, 1 deta gntgh/ times ime we weat hones suould stay at hoot. Knother use is to aake suggestions you nou)’ not be 50 tired in the nom!ocs. you would cot the Dook you want. ie you ene to bed eariiery If you nent to ble tore aibrerr, Post Tans sprogreasive Asjoct/ edsive is used ou begun before and conpleved & sending 8 book shew ep /nere the @_ the Hast tree He 1, to Saéieate an acti es the paste T was 2 living xhen the war broke, 00! ea defined by another action 3a er eetod 10 given monent oF F ‘there were you 1 enrered Jct Yon in progress time of the a: the compon. o5yects Ae that toe he # at ten ofelock ig the oraing 1 tbe action 1s defined by an adver! 2, To indicate that two or wore.nctly. ec cece tine tue Post Progressive 45 used for bot oF @)? the ene sinless e.g. Father nas reading # book white T wae SFLTARS & nd Lory wos playing with her doll. ag earalng ie newspapers+ his Loving by selbin vas still raining. /The thee of Jy or adverbial oxpresston./ {ties were coatLaulng oF letter an cera, = the progressive fore 19 not usually catered efter fire tng a series of succesuive fa serics of verbs describ! ne eeet in pate tioc, EnG, Ehat were rou doine yeuter the ¢irer 0 we he/ weve Le often used Tip these coses fastead of #48 he suv souetive (To ‘The vendeney seens Tad were in ooce ferual syeect:. ae Ff onty, unleus, sushOse, eoot laity and nob the period oF point of yn Irogressive muy be ead: e.g. Twas vorking all day ye nut were you dedng al2 sorming? Z wow eakiny cukes. ih, Por repeated acthoor in the past often with a suecestion te wax oleara tediing ae to do usnes Tou Lstion/ lle 93 abyss! beeeny of deedeationy enue want te do, /Zeathonsi colouring, ir: Bitly questions. /énnoyance/ /#¥ Bhat tiae/ she vas Leaving bw Be house every moming defore seve and nceting me by the bs Mabst at tone farticuler period of Reegent rergece* yoowaen Aspeet/ within the taensp 1. Te aay denste-on a and continuing wy to the eoaent of speaking: eu Jo Mudapest for tea yours, lle has been 111 since lect aonth VMnis faaction 4s knowa as the Ferfect.’ Te curvespanls co the iresent in Mungarien/. 2. Tt denotes a past action the reautt, consequence of which Lo T have opened the window. /Tb is Conriuuatlye felt at the present goment: e.g. open / 411 the students have arrived. /ihey are here/ She hos torn hov dress. /IE te tora/ In this function 1b may be called the Resultative Perfect. sow Jtmere 15 a use dolereediate between the continuntive esd the resultutive when the reference is too period of time that s¢ Gzt 1 /this, week, Coday, this south ete./ It has been very bot 5 wack. yet ovel this suaser, T jiave worked very hard Tine nresent verect tas covelozee out of tne present terse, of EATERS Eases teMtseeuamteten the Seabees Torigiveiiy ive the letter evitten', Te, ina written state. As liaving bie tezter n'a weatten jsalz’tnplies previo eciton, hun ritten eralvally aequicsd verbal force, psiutiny, to che pase i into relation with the {reseat. =| ] | eto Ladies! presantPorsect june ieee. 1 bave Just fi the Taay.Teage.te ved Glee 2Z0, "5. Phe Porrece oF happened ouce 9 1 have kaown ‘su tine past. Evert sorry for having sald Lb (6. hen the verbs way be us been to England nade. pions f0F ge Te cay re eepondent on!a thea ma have Fe sone coffee. T you shat bave 1B, The Pree Sng of the p Trve got a foustatonpea. Th - Ine sed instead of haven of plece or condition, &++ we way only use be when we feed thal our friend 4s departed /L.e+ o stave. to discuss # & ALL adverbs and odverbLals, S exception of {ust, Ladicate points or periods extend, to the present ‘L, Phrases or clauses > soen tise stoce r becinning with £95, denoting # pected of | fee Begs Z havent? seen hav for ‘see continues up to che prec tt been to a theatre for ntae ganths. E.ge lave you nade plans re even tlougltt about thes yous years, T haven J, The advorde zek and slrendy ‘suawer boliday: Yoo. te completed octiv with, the adverb Just ch cases, -y tine T put T haven't ant tes, ef the action eos eng. Mave you read LT have never heard euch ay de used. Dols ‘tiniohed the book. /ich. [use wor, He eft Juot noe/, thea dn the Lamdiate past the Ue tao. uitee ferrcenses what hes ceoen within the speaker's exe whet tye said a thing Like hsty ‘any foe 9 Lone rive been fgedndeftuite /trequency #6 *apity Fai a thing. 7" tle-has often, 1 have already fay suaner holidays to oubordinats clauses place the Future Perfect ein clause fachied the end of thia loi fhe rotura your bi nay pudding until you have at Perfect of bbe verb get arhier-Wadecu bog2t ag used with veri s£ricult question. ‘The ost importent chetetaas. 5 yet? Woy I haven = 10 = expressing o€ implying future son xe ace going to have yook ns $000 & sina, e6s eT hove read is” as the corce and aean~ hat have you 6 ave got a bad coldy oh tho auxilLacy ys is Tag this dastant orrived ‘e the pagt pncticlple expresses dead/.We are assed) weed wht the’ Peeeent egioning with 31 Thaven't seeo her siuce’ sie was a {nave elready wade pleas to epeni ay: hols tn your band? ne was often dleating & cheese here.Today eg hore Perfect with of tine thet fags I haven't for the nyo 1a Bogland. maton 4h, Bvet dad gover lea Wey eoaat at” any no tee up to the resent, Suge love you ever been to Scotland? Ho, 1 have never deen euere, een frequency edverbst ofteny sosstlena, slmaye, eeldea rarciy eve. She ha? often been late, Ihave eeiden seen 2 vaveer fo pler With the. adverbs and adverblais: now, today, this week/aontiy year, up £0 nom, to far, Lately, recently ete. Fig. tae you done ‘nach wore Loday? So far we have had no trouble. T haven?’ acen hip lately. Present Perfect Jrrogeessive Asyoct/ @® tus teove to used to express 1. 'sn ection of state that bezoo Ju Ue past, contsaves yaFt) the preseat ond my continue in the Cutace. £.g. 1 hove been leoruing Eogiiat for ehree. yeare /ond an obLLl Lecssny/| been wetting book for the leet four aoslhe /Tt ss wot finds yit/. Thave been waiting for two hours, but she Ins not coae 8 yele Ie nay Aodicate an action begua in the past, continued up to the presevt, but net continuir i ntinuing cow, There 4s enphesis on tho fact that the action has been uninterrupted, of an explanaticd 1 ee cold because I've been of or excuse for sonethsag, ef, swlesing for an hovr. I dostt foe Ike coving ve beee marking in he garden vl) day, Please use we dirty wee, Ive been eleaning out the cellar. /Wien the result of on activity 49 thought of, Ube Biaye Preseut Menfect Ls preferred: 3ve cleaned out the colder, Kow it 1s fb to store things in./ There Ls no clear division betweta the uso of the Siaple Preseat Perfect aud the Present ‘Stas teseent Werteee tesgrectics aur we umed © out thie evening:ast perfect {Connon Aspect / GD tnis tense vopreseatos ction en atete ‘ac coupléted ab or vesore 9 certesy rows wal ek past cae nena ne bad ftedahed reading the Books He cesergt ony ile went to’ bed. aftervherned finished Yeading Me ‘phe sun had sev before book, fie thanked ae for what I had done. 1y reuehed the house. ‘Sore tines the past Hine fron xbLch viewed 15 not expressed by a ves Se ‘on adverbial expression: by that eg By tha Felock we had finisied ou was in separate Sen wee for atl ‘then he weak the secouphished actiow Ss oe yiast Lense, bur UY ee, by six otelocky fe thar ue enbidren had ork. che: by the-end of rhe week eters piready gone to school. Dy six 0} evye can deseribe bo or more actLor suse the Simple Post Ten: ot) tenes, Jn thet case we cas Drom finished xeading hie docks of thea, 0-6 to beds If the’ ver’ | two actions closely follow eae! that somebody past Tense 1s used e.g, then T catered But +p has point-action force Ehe ty other, 3 eitting at the toble. noticed that soacboly pats ke exon when the room) T nobles de want to stress the thas relation: T * de only when I had entered: ts be heard thot, the use of te Pest Perfect would be ow the other Senediately. ‘e-The Pest Perfect 1 fore a given past nozent and tilt goieG 0 fn the tova for yeare when T first m 5 when we Learat about 1b. uf tie past tense or the present fe said he had been 11D ‘he sold sitting ot te tabi be, tured pale. Her tvot place, “because ove ect folio" 5 also used to denote an action begum be~ inet that past wowenty ese. Thad Lived et ber. She had been 111 for two day J. In indirect speech instead hy was {11 Last week. he said: "E have wrsteon the tetter" perfect: le saser Me aut condition or Supporttion with an smuated we had worked hand, he would have jasced Whe ad Lert the y. Bo azpre negovtre, e.g. If Toi ‘yout Tom did not wor's hurd. / 3f taey We 12 could have enueht the trait exeeinat ion. house flve pinutes earlier, sh = 42 | t | Jost lacy 81d not do s9,/ TF 1 bed been born four huadeed yours Lungs did nab age, T aight have met Shokespeare, = All tives happen. ‘fu The Paot Vorfect ia used with? such, ¥ think, intend, wean /2 intend/, suppose, want to Ladicate rhat » oct ho, ansecta on. nbantian. dasite ste. vas oot egelletle peaat to,call oa.you, bik was prevented froa doing so. to cp to gngland this suawer. in alternative construction for unrealized bopes ete./, /aien the main verb is used wlth o tomlufinLsive/ ts te Shople Vast and a perfect Lefiokcive, 0g. I soant to hove eattod fon you but.esitg Lnbeaged to have gone to England... Of ry twa coustcuctlons the fist 12 te be preferred. GD ths emjunctions used to goin tee aeaten tho past events, oe sbich peaceded the other, are: heey ecoriling the 2 att hope, expect, Kote: In when we Lodi~ beCore, after, until, once, nox that, as soon as. are altcanative constructions. b/ then we gor to the hall te concert nag already stortes. b/ Me got to the hall efter the coucert/iad/started. e/ Fe didn't get to the hall, until after the concert h A/ Tho concert/iad/etarted before we gor to the halk stead nf the Bae Torfeet started. ‘tho Past Tense 15 soeetines used ii Jo clauses introduced by after or follued/preceded/ by befor Past Penfee Progressive Aojoct/ @ We ts esed to express A. dn action begun before 6 given noment in the past ‘and cnt th ae shag i ty Folna"she housel Load pose Living in the tow fot several years when I ect bore 2. In Indirect Speech to express t Progressive or the Past Progressive, e.g. lle sald: Ihave been resent Perfect Seagalj aking for an hour. T wae vorking hard 2) 9: My te express on ection begun before & pus ge iseger going on atthe tike of the Pe Is Live the Present Pes tect Pragrezaly T zag cold because, had > ng out to the evening decaus .rtecnooa, I sald tke gous aay. fig sald he had been ealtig T hed been, work Ing jeon emloming Cor on HOW T.ned becit working bard 01) vey E ouidt elven aonent in tho past Je shifted Deck? ev6s . Tdidere feel jetisnt aac ‘this fora £2 aad: find th siqple /platn/ ietin 1 shall ge for a wal seventy in June. ‘Tur use ofvghgil in the st persoe Wlesied of ove of tte oval mesali serait of ciscunstances, GUt7s ‘Ghali Jo the Ist person /siegulac ond yh bough not unlforaly observed tz the sore coaasa fore x Lf tbe went ge I oe opiigatio tn Foglaad, and the U.S. A GD to-cane of o conpound aupsects ees iy e.pronous tet person, 7i2) Js used fer the pare future, ae galls diary and TL2i¥be glad to coaes ‘ghe use of #iJ Jo the 2nd and.jrd Teveloped out of 188 faturity 42 often Saplied in the idee of le 2ad end 3d persone by &i ‘2nd person, or by 0 0 shadowed 1n th read during your hnoltsaya. shat to us GO te tehgendent queations a in the Sed, tut 10 She 2nd pesson th Hnieh 1s expected fa the answer, $0 thol gust corefully distinguish between tense 1a up of the present of the suxiliary ¢ sinpla Laftoitive in the First 1ersor itive in the second and thicd ts fine. By fathe weackng of wish, desire, Wants enala yond will + the will ve aaa pure future has dé to, indicating a conf ay of the 122 of anothers col/ is the standard usage . fin Seotland, #relard For #12 gersont./ when Zo we i preceded foun ov prenoua ia the 3rd tou ond 1 abii@her cersons'o# a pure future the dea of doaire which “as, over~ fe conception of p od Li be Le persoo ont fat avxtiiery to used nige iu questions we iad codal auxiliaries, eats Susi} you have Wee to do this for we? /expected on: shall hove thine you do thie for ae? /exyeeted engwer. daw wUDLing to/ do Ee far yous/ te dndirect speech usually sualL 18 eaployed in the tet 1 eons, without regard to the Tanai) do (e foe rexidd Senora g121 Ln the 2nd ond 3ed & fostiory wed tn the Wirect stavewsnt, ¢+c. jou /Ulzeel spoech/. lie says ho will do it for ae “indirect spenciy You will set hie at the perty /Jirect/ tle says I aua}l eect Mw at the party /Audivect/, honever, a tendency, especially de the rd parson, There 42 to retain the auxiliary voed 1a direct speceh, eu, 1 shalt come ts see you, /direct/ Ye seys he simi come to seo ee, /inuivent/ ‘Uheo future events ote., ore not influenced by willingnest, Sntention, Likelihood, we my speak of “pare future”, the ost Guvlova exnaples of # "pure future” ere those In wich there 13 How Leng no personal elenent, e.g. Tho tolidaya will soon be hore. WiL1 the work toke? Io ohope rL11 be open Saturday afternoon, theré ill be Eloe bo tuy the tickets before the performance ‘then the subject 42 a pereon, but the furure activity te affected by soue cxteroal elzeunstances, we olso ge ensos of rat TE the roin does noe stop before hott tet tet on tbe way howe, If mo pet Yee7 wel een cold, Tn ture heri] help you Af 704 auk He. If you do nt erTcnseniy betore Jou ezese the street, yoU wil be kiockel soon tp a nateccear. = in all thoge exaaples the fULue cuteose dees uot depend on the aubject?e will, Anteotion ete. GP tree teesntin to the int perven, 14 19 not « futuce tones Tocillacy but a aodal euxilacy Indicating desire, satentton, Geteratootlon etc. e.g. I will dy it for you /wiL= ever de Lt again /resolution/: Can you Satan, ine, Me shi) pee mLLLingnest Angness, proulse/ I wilt en! me thia book? T will being it back toaorres /ywoni tond. Vico" gata te employed 42 the, 203 ond 3a parson! Sunt guatliary. Te indicates the"wili of seweone ounesehan f Subject. It poy express a cousaod, proaise:threat ote. on the You shall have ithe, dress by ond rere of the apoaker, 9.¢. feo wnise/ You sal] cay for that! /threat/ ‘how shalt no kill /eoa fosndesnt/for nore detolls ace ouxiliaries 120, 112 ay represent reductsoes of ‘the contracted foras SO eructione of stotl, The nogative fovn mL aot anzenrs often 7 ghelt cat te, ghon"t. i ceaaes t ae von!=> The contracted Fora of ‘oecia or ee futuce tunse tos expanded fomm of o2! KOE ES O ereiney yensoas 1¢ dapliss the econing of Jatention, certell~ fey or ieeyleavitsey, ones fen going &© | “neeneton/y le 1s 50176 € ‘nvanetoe/ 1 eniok 1 98 £04N6 te rain, Eeen 406 the ty, with vinings probabil apeud ay holidays in the sounbatos see bis dentlet tonorror afternoon to have a cold /probavility/. It 48 eolng clouds gathering /cortainty/+ von che vac of the Present Tease to indicote future thee,See 47,00 jauses inteoduced br Lf e.g. If the weather Ls 1 ha eases howe. phe Future ‘Tenee {9 net used in 6! whenever, Defore, after te when, untlly ong wali, E711 welt nts Fine, I sual! go for verti oo that when I have thee. lietLL Light the fise Nefors ef Loaves. [progressive Aspect/ @ te bs vsees L, To express aa at a elven polut or persed of ruture tine, ev. T hope the teain vI1l arrive on tine actkon that wELL begin before and continue cag. Then I get deck, they wil be having supe! as uy folend will de waiting: for-nescat-the.statlon, ‘To indicate an cetioa that will extend over a future period Jon wilt he daing hie @ilitery service next year. Lye represents an older variant form of will, sowely dott hee Seeoning won't. = 46 = or pro~ Je To show that ve avent will occur as part of © plan 0 talk proane, e.g. I ghald be seeing you tosorror fed then re the eatter over./ ¥e soll be spending the sunaer holiday with sey Lt abel) be waiting For .yaycehedpectaneln ts 2e. = In sony cares Upere ie Little or no Uifference Yetween the Pretest Hrogresaive and tha Foture Progressive: votit are used for future evente thut ure planued, but the Future Hrogeossive ‘aay look Veyond the event to something aade possible or Likely vy veot the event. Foture: Perfect tense 7coumeu Aapeet/ @® Mate tense Se weed exjress thot an sethon wil) be completed ot or before a he faturo,' eg. Me ¥11L have enaptebed. the work ties next yoar George wlll have taken hiv Lo eertuia thee i by eveoings By bhi univereity decree, In 2 few weeks you will hiove completely recovered fron yosr S119058. YhLle the Future Teose pole este the Eat of the activity, the Foture Perfect Tense puts aore eaphasio on the ccapletion of the activity ond the consequence of this. 2. To exyrecs probability, exsuaptlon Ln the 2nd and 3rd person, sats You will Nove heard the aews /= You have probably heued the news/. ile Will have dined op the train, but de aubt be hungry by news You'll have niothced from ay lecture how compli~ cated this subject really ds /I tmglne you hove notleed.../. After tesporal conjunctions the Present Perfect {9 vsed jastead of the Future Perfect, See 51/7- ~a7- aFuture Perfect pecograseive Asyect/ ‘thio teooe eased: one a lon végia before « ekven manent So the | 4, to express an actos von sont 20 8 eetnued up to thst furure wowents Fb: faroiag baghlsh erent future and €0) * tite scodeaie year you shat have Beso E tee eno yours. Ben George gts bie decree h tng at tne Univeredty for FIVE Tears fe mill have been study sequence of Tanses predicote ver in the prion sy enghich the thancepere of ee cin A a" ca detereines tne tine-ephere of the verb/uf in the sub: anne Louse has a presents yrosent perfect OF cipal © ¢ in Cae ee ee aan ey be used in the subordinste c)00K2 fe noose, Eee as weiteen/ ALD 1 shall yo future tenes, f0r0 807 thet is required by tb le says he Le, «rLtSN6 been told that she in/mas 312+ sieht. hen thie Fors usually. £ollors ¥ neq the action o auberdtnate clause ako P hye says he 1s leaving. €22) was leaving early in the morning, are re agtion of the cubordinate clause precedes chat of used weite 0 Lovuer. 3 have we you that he 13/not anes a past tense form, & past Conde fe te suitable to the oeeasion oF nebe muse and cnot of the te the past. F 030 to peineipel claus lechor ff tne prinespad ©) joce at the cone thet Ty fo ene aosning ~ vecones = HES » 7 Ln Ub subordinate the prinespal ©2avee, An the subs clause. F. omgat with regard to the pase s009H post {9 used in Ut srning ~ vecons: the past perfect to foubordinate close, 66+ 2 — Me oald louse, Futurein~#0er (ye he will Leave early in the 20 ie 0 nthe gormtog. he would eave early {i = 10 = 4g. If the action of the subordinate clause refers te a future ent not only #lth regard to the post moment indicated in the but Lf ib 4s 0 future setion indeed, olso with wynee Le weed. Foes 08 peluespot clause, regard to the noneae of speaklog, the Putuze Teeaia be would 1eave next days /B9th actions are in the past at ME tthe pane ave ade 9¢ action of the primsiyel claves Le tn tho 1 speaking, the action of the subordinate clause atli? refers te the future. ‘this f4xed sequence Yooired to represcut soaething a2 custooary, babituel Be. | however, be often not obsarvad: if 1koLe a ) oharacten istic, or es untvercelly tru te asted. the guord wot ties the trein-usually starts. tle Gold ae thot Mary 1s quite diligent and works berd, I reaesbered that boys will be boys. tle didn’t seen to iunown Bhot netties oting. Co- lunbus proved Hat the earth Ls round. For the non-observance of the sequence of tenses rules WLEh aux! Ligeies, Gee 115,125,121)233+ pacs1Va VOICE AD TTS USE 1 ‘the Yassive Yolce represents the subject as ected upon. The Passive is an analyticol fora sade by cowbining en arpeopeiate tense of the ouxitiary be with the past partieisle of a transitive verb. ths vausive Volew fe a cramubieel device for /q./ velnging wee by waking iO the the object of a trensitive verb date proali subject of the sentence, aml /y./ getting rid of Ue necessity of a woutive ve hominy tur subject of o te ‘The subject of the Active YoSee Is converted, Sf veceaeary, Into the proposttional Udjeet of the Massive Voice with she prepo~ Bitkens wroee Oliver Tekst Dowevr, Now iver tom Gramm awe |ckatck Zeyers were publish fen society that La building. The TH ating. The plans are Working The ‘A voluse that 13 now repeds Ang’ Ln parts. out successfully. (pris TuPBRATEVE AID TUE SUBSUTICELVE/ to to a definition of the category of socd, 300 "5. AS C2 cea there, there ase three aoals Ln finglish: 1. the Lae tn the Following GMestive, 3. and the Amperacive, 3. subjunctive. act bo. paragraphs ve shall deal only with the Joperetive, so express the loperative the ates fore 1s Ustly TE say hove een ee oom iouicated Lt refere to 200 yoreen ei9GU14F or plural &, Ele dove, Come da, Murey up! 3 Gi) whee cosmands-are given to core then 00 way be expressed, ether preceding the verb or placed at Ue end or the aeutenee. Eg- You carry tho table into the gardens Ghaira, Come on everybody! Cal] a porter seaebody? ase of the quiet fe ferson, the subject tow, ond you Peter take “out au) person “tne subject aay be expressed loo to the 52 anncyance, Unpationce, or soe ollier to add eaphasis oF bo x52 tntotSo0. 58s Joe pind yous ove Wistness! Hind your own business, you! @ heyative consande, Ave prohibitions are formed wth dant Ge och witiall verbo Joven vith So Ue/- Bets GD “va Sy “cecestonnaty Tout you dare Go that again! and dente yo forget ttt the wie of please or will yoy with the imperstive softens 9 conmand to a request. E.g. 1 Ue door, please, ileip ae-with Unis, will you? ‘The'addblton of won't you changes tlio inperstive tuto nc in~ witatlens Sue Gove ia, ron" you? Have. cuy of tea, woatt your uae Verore an imperative alae antuans te Bees “ne nlneing at vleev wll gat fe bles save bo He dust cone fore a sine, eill yout @®_ teotiogeiar serie tee tmpeouive ss efton wsed to ennieas 2 rlsh Held, have @ good Lise! Sujoy yourselves! Miay you lave a Good thea! "ay you enjey rourseives!* wound soued very foveal. Subduretive @ ‘tw tuncéton of tne subjunctive 4s bo state sossthing net at 8 Fock, ag setuet reolsty /as the Indleative/, te a2 9 colceptson Go ie expresses wish, seman, domant, covdltiar, of the alra. He supposition, doubt, ate Th nedero English there ace two entirely different kinds of Subjunc tive form ~ the old slaple subjunctive, also called 8 ¥ bhetical subjunctive, and the newer form coosist= Sng of 9 poUal auxLliary and a dependent infiultive of the verb to be uted, aleo called analytical subjunctive, ‘The eimpde. subuuctive foras connut oleays be eistingulohed from Andicetive foras, Yocause in the course of 9 ong phonetic develop- sent they lout thelr diatiactive endlors ‘he Present hlofaezive of oll verbs exzept to be fe nutes Eeenons, Jn '3ed pecnon ssapetoe Looe T tale, you take, he take ete. GD, se Beasent subjunctive of ba us 12 ue foe ott ytesonss vey he Lu ever ao huabie, there 12 0 pleco LiKe howe. Ee GD. me tase suyjunctive of gobs" Le wera for all persons, Tvish he xerp beretj i i | 1 { i i t fe Tor the Past Subjune~ Ail other verbs have an Adeoties] fora go for the Past Perfect Vive'and the Past Teuse Ind subjunctive and the Post Pec: ley) leaned? If he had upoken Louder, Houle you cou Lf LE 3 eve voderatood Bin betters iress mors obades 0! nut to exp! clearly wodal suxiliaries are u ‘the various eeanings way 0! desandad or 10 Opbetsve Sudjunsctive, tive, The optative subjunctive repre quired /oy 2 pertion of eLrcuustenss/+ te the Loperative. Eats .f aeontnr ood ve el 2P 0 eats cometiiing a dest entive, as well ‘fect Indiestive: I-took, 1 hed token we chants ‘and to expeaea thinn sore ‘Gee chapter on ouxiliacy verbs: qaaifled under two general heals: beat be 1 Subsui ted, Ik 4s ofton closely related in meaning T desire that ho go at once. Hay he retura soap /xish/. ‘the po of che’alod, but at the cone th say yrebebly or hand as sowething contrary to facts Te moy rajs today. lle hed better 69» apes opeattve Subpinett ve ‘the old simple subjunctive ta from some survived expre God plecs you. Fintinet2y Literary apart sto express wie bt Live the Queen! The Lord have macey upen Happiness attend: 70u! Osten 4n imprecatior Confeund you /or 14/1 ‘go convey the {dea of unreality, to Ladie possibly be or become & tential, subjunctive marks soretht Eee pe ns: Hage God damn you! fag ns a wove couceptlon es Lt ef sometiiing that other reality, of on the whe no were here, I auld Led pod clusses ia selon. eee col save tho King! Long St ifeaven Corbid: AT ‘the devil tote Mia. ate that fulftleent he not expected, the post tense 1s veel: E.G. ° Bight I aee ner Juot ence ae: For reference to past tise we employ th or in the case of ouxitiaries, the preaeut inf. Dog. were he only bere! Oh, nd T wings! reat and uncesl, ehe forms with soéal he poet oH ha pak perfect Joubd-/ ret sufunstive Instead of Oh, Wad he only besa here! Oh, Bight I have kioxo It in tise! 0h, could 1 have understood his better! wL21 /eolitive suvjunetive/ tue old stepte 1b. bo express subjonctive 12 rarely used, Tt aay be used with a nubject of ernerel or indefinive seonlegs Zee: Everybooy stand up! Hover ilenlet /stage-directioo/, pereitive genlelve of 4 prsonel pronoun: F ore fone of you go aud feten it, ‘Today the fora# with modal auiiliaries are used Instead, Bete Me have to go, /fo salicate the constraint Lat vo part! Wo oust go! pf eireunstances/ ¥o have gotta go /tore eaphatic and rath colloquiel/ You are te come at ton. /Often used nstead of east of havet to, usually with a piléer force,/ ‘Yo expreao tus idea of duty, constraint oust, gust and sb ace often uaeds fogs fe really eaght 10 /ee aust; anould/ help ners @ te suber diol e Classes, the optotive ounsunccive TS uses 0 kh. couceseive clauses. Ec. hough he xoke every effort, he eosaot succeed. Or aare consenh ‘nyough he shall /ot eay/ make’ every effort, bo coast succeed. However herd 1 ras /shaLl raiay eoy rein/ we atalt have to 60. hough he ehould for wight/ noke every effort, he could ack succeed /Jnprobabllity/. ‘wlth reference to the past, might o feck Aaflaltive. £6. Bven Lf lig should have aade- every effort, he eovid pot have ~~ succeeded, itu snverted word order: Be that as it gar, she Gow ahoy)d Is used ith @ per~ veronent had finslly asserted, Ltselr. b. object clauses after verbs of wishing, praylog, éenond lng ote. Bog. Wray Col that Lt last not long! I inakst that he de st ‘at once. /also: I insist of bim/ile doing ste../ I require that you be here by olght. he present subjuactive after these verbs {3 comsos so American Lueoraey mm /aleo Sngiinu/ fosrnalese style Bee Tnjia requires nor that the weiter paxe e)i bis sentences snot or that be avoid all dotalt and troat nis subjects only In outline, bat thet every word tell, If the Jewellexy haz great cenbiecntel value, I unggest she wear Lt under the sweater.ge in subject clauses: Ie Te bose that be go at once. Th i Lessons over only ues: vd. in purpose closes, introduced by thet, mare be useful, 18 us To order phat this exaa\ Aewind hie lest he Forget. Hore coanon: s outfielent hot lie read his bey de orden tue put inte Fores that he should ab once, pot aight not forget. Potential subjunctive us potentiel subjuective 1s aleost cielusively expreated eee sey eusiiierien coy/aiht, sgLi/shoud, sucks gust aan ani tuaction is to colour the ezaterant, 96h TOYING « sesseeny pce, They are osed with an Lefn4eive which knteates Sha werbel seaoing ond the thae celationg. They indicate prescut Md with a present tnficttive, DUE oe future tics whee associate pint te tbe pase when essocioted with « portect inl Initive. E.G ‘phe potential subjunctive ts used in ch we hE S 1 clauses. Seong sain today. Tt eight rate boday. far expresser @ Ere sree of probability thao wieht./ ite may ios the trate /future possiDi2ity/. * ig aight aiss the trode /faint future posalbilita/. Ite may have aissed che train /past posssbility/. Ile'eight hovetaisseé the train /feint past possibility/. Sewid 42 oftea used in all three peraons so express modestly strong probaDilitys BeG- fae whould be thore within an hove vee ie should for ought to/ succeed this eime. Auwet and ought, though usually used Leh ae hava potential force. Bab. SET GEes Gonsibility due to extouds cance: ot capable of Lodicating past tier when used Ln the past tenae volteive force, may as ‘feo express possivility/, BB+ Te cannot be true, Can it be true? Could 1b be true? could ean be a past indicative, raferrsog to the past, only whew xt indicates 15. BB+ Lcouldo't flud-his yesterday. In Subordinate 12 used fa fb. subject clause: Te eteae qulve srobeble use 1 aay rain covar. eiplace the Jae sali yey Wie yeuatty /stalt 1s employed Lo Lndl= eate future’ contingency/. be object clauses /Sowetluea 1a chutce prose aud yoctry ties s/t e Clauses, the poteutiv subjunctive sigple subjunctive iz used 1a indirect quastio I'LL 08k har Af the Love oa, /4n plalu poose: / oly he can tell you whetiwer this be Lees. /plaia posse: @ ttheo te twee of douse or vncertalnty 12 eEromy Ehe » With auxlliarics are used in all kinds of object clwwses I fear thet he may not recover, Ihave Heard Unt he may retuen iss g. abtedbutive elauce Noce {4 4 book that-may Jor more modestly: mignt/ inter ahd sholl give ae the deviead Lnforsati you. offer a reward bo anyon Jehall 1s used to express a future contingency/ ‘the poteatlel, and eceacioanlly tho volltive, subjunctive. ts furthernore uced extensively in soar types of conditional seuterees, dn both prinespul and subordinate elourea. In Lue ext geeticn condLtional sentences wilt be treated a2 9 whole. Goad teloual Gentenens XE Js aecessery to lstingstah three type8 of eonsttLonol cen ences, according to whether they expreaa: ; een /fuctul/ Goalicion /eazus t0319/ fencuz Teeeeaiay. ©| Rea]_/Fetual/ Condition fot of facts nis cabegory has bo 0 Seas ene fanenenty ark goeseton OF ELYt es Sy tune nooidty te by a statenens 19 ae atte ruc of mhich we are aot certoln- meee ener olterrative Bekng e2*eeete uscatiss open cond tt S004 ee celigeh einvsea, the’ sordieate in ening conjusct dons: AG, 2228 ‘fonah/, sinyaslug, /eink/y goovtsel sn ete fe suborddnnte ‘re adaht ctewe mn ene possi tnis construction sas DE ‘the indicative £3 €8p being Lutroduced by one of thi ie, ifenly/, ynless, susnose Jennt/, 32 2008 BE ruse pay be used in osther elause nay tedieative te son’ vekng that no future tense wih ER ont Ted do che supordinate /11/ clause, The ESt8s® of ti nee jou -depentent on ove anouners llxed LOFeS 9° coaean. the Pee edjeuaes is soneterial, but those BSELnINS so, lor pieced fests ‘phat Ja shy , the onhy AML aay be ie two clouses rder of with aspen, sueResings oF fs are generally sein more eaphatie. Poa Tete TP tuntened, being 22 neve. 1f zou don's cot vefore ety Te iat nave gove out. TE 8t aia, he wil) 998 58 It be ene ntsc, Supponing he arrived yesterday, we sas e217 thats hia today. eS xa anokce Language, instead ef the inticotiter tne atgple aupgonetive aay be sosetines used) Toos 1p be good. 1721 tea j large $f the weathe ton he return /vetu rus/ Lt Lonorrow. If 8 general priuckple/- If Uie plavet ‘the gathering will > hnkie the book on condlt straight Ding, be bisected.» /@ qedhose to the sun, Sts speed Increases nee. 2. ~ ¥LL1 sey be vsed in the subordl bine but wLLLognens. E6+ see oe wee tace requests If you will De so Kin and help J shall ve very grateful. ate clouse after 16 ‘theoretleal Condttton bj asssuted condition GS reer eng greseut on corare, eceepelre BUS peoseste sned in the cubordinete clause. TALS vecepred condi t son nfinitive ore voed 1 She ordinate certoke conditions conte construction aay be also colted , gould, might, ought te + ual of post perfect subjunctive 4a the sub would, choudd, ‘nain clause clause. Bog aight cose Af he tnd tine. He vould coms’ if he lad wore tine, Me wouldn't do tt unless he lig vouldu?t do Lt uoless be had to. le nig een told to /lbred tines/. If he left early tonorrov hs Te ste knee Froneh better, sie ought to get there before Bark. could rend tat vou. to Apukeate a supposition re lp the eubordinote clauee abyel voll aggeuticn ip we woe fevetng speetfieely NWthe fucure whould or sere to are used eo of yeobability. G11 three peesoas to cxpress se iutuingness, past patencia should in deb person sould tn 26 land Jed persons to indicate a future recwlt.” Bal te ie should gain tonorvo, 1 wouln't cé /veLitive/. Tf he siguld fo away without speaking te ne, T shovid ve grieved /potentsol/- If 1 shoold go axay without hie, he ould be grieved Jpatentini/. If you sliould be yascing ay House you wight return the hook /yatbte remuest/. raat pol to tndicate different grad tive aubjonezive gould tn speaking be Lot use of should and wanté ed ply foe the soe TET had the choice of Life, 1 should ve able co, £1) 6 LSE Take Mate Ming anenta eetylaby Shai neesees, TEMse ko reeehtmenet i would celieve every distress, a9¢ Suid” doy" the Pepedteetone of gentioutes, Feu choose ay. reuld a naeng the wise, ane ny wife aeons tbe Virtuous; and Friends 97g ee bi’ne danger fran treschary and unieladness.." <9 +If ve missed the trein, we should hove to walt an hour at the sta tion. tc ve should sise-the trainees /unlikely,- hough osstble/ © Jeven less yrokable/ neti If ve were to ales the teelo.. Post cubjune tive covld aad alpht are. often used ta the poreiviilty, could, che yoxslbKiey ) the yoselbaliey “ean sien fo express the ‘dea of thet Lies fe the ab{lity of 2 person, al Lies de sirevertances. Dies He could do it Af he tried, We aight aiss the train if we walked slower. b/ Rejected /Ynrest/ Condition In conditions contrary to feet, else called SZ att Loe decause the basic idea is a negative, the siazle e cabjuretive 1# used in the subordinate louse /conditi vad should oF would rusion/. dt he ware were, c would speak C0 MiG. Tf ne had no uabrelia rejected in the naio clause /co If} ware you, ve should get wets 2 used instead of 1 would not go euch a tELng Ta colloquial speech the past indicative xat f ere, after the azelecy of olter verbs in vinicn the past cubjunen Five ig identicol da fora with the indleatives Sc Teg eas'you, 7 woulda do such a toLog. If ib wns /were/ ot #0 cold, be would go out. In older English Uhls wa9ge was Then the reference is to post SiZetive 1s used 4a the subordinate clause, ond i fories os used for present time /ehavlu, would, souidy ect tense Jim liseh wore common than ross time, the past peefect sub n the eoin elavce the sane auxilis aesght/, bub the dependent Intlnstive 12 Jn the pert stead of the prosent. Z.c. Tr it hed valued, I would not have gooe. If he tad cone aver elthout speaking to me, Y should have been crieved, If I had gone avay without speaklog te be, he would have been grieved, lle could uve vont 4c Lf he had Cried. Ye wight hove al ~ 60- optative in Conditions It should be ncted Ulat Ia rejected ce Wase forec are often optative, not poteatil. fc. ve all that T have Had ae ow y~been Lions Une past re he unty have, 1 would hore, 2 vould teve given ott Uhat t t iejunetive of wish. Shie ie the wea Anversion Instead of introducing Ue cuburdinate clause with con Jwetion, inversion of verb ond subject may be used in the seurid, algo Gould hea occuring of the auxiliaries sore, lad with the. perfect infinitive, This form, hucever, is felt to be Lictic literary ané stizted, ane Le aot cfler. ved coldequially execpt with should, The lnwerted Form is centvaliy yteced fe Euge Had hi wsced ae, 1 ahould have bold ibn. Tere che Tnre she could give ut au exwlagation. fhovrd you nerive Firat, wale for boule ta have se0n Wime3E, he would kaye Devsnad. ages it may be eosededed that, for free the eferegolng ps SYf practiest yorjosce, che old siaple subj} | eith the exception of pare. Dut ere lite torn ts veins For peobline aricing ~ even tive ia ne Le: ante aoa for tative #nghish speakers and x see 708 fed Su colloguis) cpeceh by vas ters = shew ws Kosono Por lick Uso, J wheter bo use the ciaple subsuncvive, AUCILIANY YEU ides helplog to Fore tense, aspect, mood, voice, the CixLHaries elso kelp to express various finer clades of seaning ue cusi2iory, $a fae, any nave ond» sumbsr of eubtietier. Te Tova, cuts S4}L ws austiinetes of conse, be es an euxtitary of aspect ent volce have been treated in the preceding chapters. Iu the following ve shall doul with sholl, will, can, sox, wust, need, dare, guche 9, used ta, in these various fue te, w Functions. -oregnaii - Should hie enya he wont G9) ONE E S87 WE Ehdius uneever conaits rovuery mali De puniched wy depen 70507 ees} /eonsandaent/ you shall bave ig shatl est & GD sn ‘connand fia and expreneing the persons: shin, intention of hs tipaoker oF WFLtEr/ on the part of ‘thou salt Te you are 6000, 2 yreiet, e pron OF fbn 2a and 3rd tome choco, ee yok pore tw sal ent l/s SNOT = Tf you don't eot your spinacby ee you shoa't have ny cake! He shall ever cose 1er8 052i! racdnge etateneat ge rial anies Me sbabL Live to see 1a fathor eee’ tent tS Sorwnrded? 4g. asking for « commends ave your eteers jien, direction /10 ni persons/ ; hel] we start tonerrow! : a jatte start tosorrowy shall we? should ile prontaed that if she nas p2ed wid bave soae chocolate, 1d vave the Ty supstitutiag she seantngs of noéel sha} Ln indirect speech efter a past tence she sh Ite Anquired Lf he, shout Letters forwarded. traint of duty, oF ye should hurry. This epprication ‘fore should be Cil2ed do and sent 2. const Anstructions cirevestancess Joilser tna shall’ bores Vie thould be Ener Lnkely thats ef If the weather Were Co ‘gnovld go oats I shiculd Lake te weet Ie. de Sevens propabibesy nh, theoretical condittoo Ase person! -e- S. eonthngent future Ln If clauses @ ar 7 to Indicate WitLingnes, peeolze /Ict percon only/ 2, deteraination /Isl person/ Jp obstinate determination Jatt 2d and 3ed yerson6/ . velitely asking Yor the Iwaces'e AntantLon {200 reres/ polite nazwa, thon 2 Liked Lheod Aaylying happening fro tis: to riee/ ae ie. Qe Lopatienes amd annoyance Spe vatuge te do polite sequest /zad porsge/ hhnbdt, tendeuey, Snclination I he should coue first, ak hie to watts YuLIL /EML/ Lead you tie books thank you, I1L1 being St back tonorrow. we T mill do oe J lke. Twiil go nt all costs. He will go out without an everecat. Ite WLLL drink wisky though the doctor told Ie lie should noe, ALL you pose the sell, plenze? LD you? shut the dee Mont you sit down? mati you have tea or corres You e121 hove hward /oveely you hove. beae/. You wilt ve hungry after your long jouruey /suvely you ore hungry/- this will be the hovse Fe are Looking for. That ¥LEL be the yostomn, I expect. John ¥LIL often sit alone for hours) lie will talk for hours on end. SLL) you stop aaking ioe noise! ‘The mindow won't opeite Tus aschine woe!t work. fig won't Listen tom. ~~i \ | @. wus Post nea inst evsupseizutiog the secant Se nodal ail after e pact Cease in Lodirect speech 2 dency would tell Ul ite, said he ‘ould Lent’ ae th? baoke 7 wna T would coms ne uses togetine T stories. please? Would you-core for soz? s ‘asking about the hearer's inteatios very politely Joore povite then Bil1/ ‘ska broke the cup. ch, she would, sarcastic to! Yo That se gust ke heet/ Present mssnlases ge Aeprobability ile: wouldn't know enyors Like that Jolt Ss Loprobable that he knows 1 pia he ge to see He woulda't Wiiox 7+ Hounan bud Jont Fogeluaa sincs/. Te he didnt cone, ne would tele Jane ond 3cd persons, some- phone. tlees 1st person to Andieste will/ L wouldn't go Lf you didn't come with oe. coe to.be confused with will a5 an ordinary verb. ~ oe Ox fg. requlting fron ¢lr~ cunstances (Gikataaianypesksbstion Tinea 3, 38 fobtenutal syeech/ am 3, Goostbiity) Le 1tbood faainly tu intercogative J negative ctateseats/ in quostions beginning with an interrogative pronoun suggesting pussle~ ment or Ampationce /ena is stressed/ 4. with verbs of rerception as a substitute for the progreasive tenses @ cons 1 GbLity kn pect thee contexts /ehen there 10 nother verb dn the sea tence which indicates that the time 13 pase/ 2, Govssbiase> foore coutlous than can/ = could con you 1ift tnis vox? Yes, I cnn. Teannst weed without elnntar She cou opeok Freneh. As 1 oa free this aftemoon, T con com: earlier than usual. Can you Lend we ten chilLngs? You ean cose if you want to. Gan I leave these books lisre? res, you can /= aay/; to, you can't Stop! you'can't vo that! You can walk for alles without ecting anyoue. Com St be L Jo T believe 16 12 Amo What can be sean by that? Teants be true bie/. Muere can be lave pul 47 T can see Iiim quite well. 1 ean sueli cosething wrning. Ile could read ond write when he was five. ‘The box wes covheavy thet J eoulde't Lire st, Could the news be true, she wondered.J have your yen for a owen’? 3 (qucnanindy ponte, incor con pernisle) Pe gaboguiey © ould pou Send at asi Suc Howth tye oa wnat on earth could he mean by tn questions succestins puselewent of inpathone: gemitn verbs of pereeptio 2 subsestuce for ene progressive begsee 4, An tneorétteat © “pith reference to" Pre bent or future thee @ canes (Gossie i8 the past the paste E ben there 41 aabiguous because 1 help yout is « cond ty told hie I could help fe, tbe reference way © ee poe the Jadicabive aesning 13 go help nist AS can hos no partie: Yahan't be able to finisl "eben able to 5p 1 havea! ‘To express the idea of nasttons: = oth enn and could no indication of way be t \itional refering tothe Pr fe that? w'leuaa geokl conetinng burnsne should be very glad glad if 7 could Help you. Uf you could /= were wble te/ cone ‘wo could /= chould be earlier, fore able to/ go for a walk 08 wach. ‘p perfect infindtive fla have done 18 Ite ‘can/eoul tins done jo Tt 45 possible thet I ate ite gourd have done $ AF ie had tried barders quid point to the present or, the fut vf tive in the sentence, could 18 aken as a conditioial. Bag. 't could feaent or future. 10 in verb is dn the feture. Mere hia’ eithough the =) EL12 be to tite presant oF tatended it is eofer vo use "Iwas able pies of sntinitive, the tdee of a Bt tinelable in the perfost and fubure Jy ny week tole evening yeak to him this week. ehieveae nt, Ee pmmase Borer ~ 66 ~ te suconed in doing culty 1s daplic John ‘panoes @m pyepisaibsaity that orices naturally /no oleneat ot uncertointy/ ef negative: cannot 2Geralenion) request reploceable ba gan Ja the CL/ anawer in the segativo with strooger force: punt not /see there/ J. in coneessive clauses feblefly in Literary style: An colloquial style th AnéLeative 1s used/ Ae Moopeful/ wish /inverted word-order/ I+ An suveruinaie/oigees/ fone hog, wish, truay, Zin collonio) 5; for present indicative/ nay be used, especially wben effort J to avs /succgeued in passing/ huis exaalu: - utgne or alee ation. Te aay vain tonight /Perhaps St wani/- Iie may cone: yet, hie. let us walt for You say be right. Thia book sey be atte publisher. You say go by plase, or you 037 0 by plane, but you cannot go by ship. You can't. be right /e,+ abave/ May /eaa/ 1 con , you way not /eon't/. fou say riot take out of Us pore thon two books at a time. ined from the Bed exaoet sh? Yes, yan saz, we Libeary, batever you may sayy he wil do it. I on't chang: ay plang, whatever ry pay happen. /ahatever’ happenc/ May you be happy! May she Live Long! lay you enjoy yourzolves 7+ Enjoy yourselves/. Jaacbceda/ eich. fae ngee 097 prove uatruo. or{am going early so that T may, Jsboll should get a good seat. ‘50 thal ¥e in clauses of purpose ay /should/" see how baby 188 | | | i * She sent me a picture | a 1 7 ee 5 iment eens (aaassy) Hate sa fa cnnce tn Me Teanher Jo obeer®posetble/- Expressed gore nodestly 7 you alght try 1¢ you Like. tho DookT | 2. Geraissiam / peolite reauest instr f have 2 200k 0 | Yes, you may. 8 b/ tavorsed request You might post this letter for ae g nh, wish /codestly hopeful/ © might I see her just once more! i neon Jediareclmens = ae de took Cnt UME Sere EI frore acdest oF ‘doubt ful/ yous You abe ight do somsning 91L- im pastetime contexts 12 Twas sfraid Lt might rain. 2 condition qe theoretten bbe raiuing tonorroy, @ sny/asgne + perfect satinative coy have vee mict /= Feraps He ‘te do not yet kaow/, fossibllity) te the rast he was-hurt. that still exist in the present’ /aight fointer then lle say have ind 2m accident Ja Perhaps he has had an eccident ‘max/ He do aot know vet/- sight have lind an aceddenty tente here et. OF te height heve mt Tin prosentotine contexts iaplying yreater reserve on the park ef the speaker than fy. : : - 6 aight kav tow'te very lucky, had an deeldent delving 20 fi ou mlghl have overrun sonebody. Tou might hve, helped twee Auk jt agente 7 fie eight have come Lf ve tind asked ie fast we siddnte aux iia te enn ls tenia if + non=fu)fleent peith eoproacitul tone/ rejeated Jonrand/ Condition She aight shave cought th ‘she had tazen # tax fob sie ayantt/. ote, = 48 may hay no particlples or Infinitive, the idee o: cetatenton Is uxpressed by Ube passive of to allow or fo zermit Sao wasn't allowed /peraitted/ to zo out alone a night ever Gisit we'be pereitted to ctay up Tate on jew Year’ © dust Crees) fone mut ent Lo Ive you artive. You aust do 29 you ure tolily must wash your hands before Qe obligation /azount ing bo coneund/ ew reals; 4s eophatic You aust coms and see us Soe thee, a eral i. perverso,(Lronie tecessisy) whenever 1 drvp off to alecy & door must bang. Just as I was jetting better, clint ust I do-but break wy leg? You must be hungry after your Long walk. You must be ovare of th. lig oiist. be mad! /+ lle evidently asdumtion, Logical conclusion t refers to the present or future, Ln past=tine co ‘hows ft may also rater to the pasks® texts, salnly 1m indirect. speech, sald they sust do as they were told. T knew he must be sowewley‘cospelled Reuen A. to todieate ascuaption 2 conshuaten mitt ogee) reference to the aiogt » perfect Lnginlbive tou must nave hears about it. wave shezed bbe rato. ie aust avers of thie You auat hove EO ote, « Wek noe exane(feabieition) not sb5eace contigs seee late Far Alanee, vou guatott tell Mery YFon.g+ You suatn dete a cecrot. athe negative 0 Eig. Mast you 0,60 0007 Moy he wissing Fores of BSE express necessitT, cope compel Y spadd be oblt &. oHave |e external obligation ouligetion that anpites Eo regular activities, Enske |b. to supply the sbesing ten geo of aust wat ore’ cupplied 07 ‘when bhe idea of compult! ed eay be Used. FG to be obliged, jged to punish ble for by (iisess to glve UP to Mdow't nave bo/> c qius 18 need not, hare ce! Toned aot go yet. nnvefpety to to lon i¢ proaloeat als disobedience. lle has eee suoxing. seats #0 os or Tchoil be Lover T have to 69m Iie had to stay ae hone because He hind gaught © bed colds have to buery Lf he won! He 22 eateh tue tral. wave bo get up early every day. zh je a child T o3wass had to rake 8Y own bed. fig bad to fLalsh Is work vy ale otelock. to walt for Iie enswer Seelde what to dow dyoe to shire fox we shabl have before we caa nave alway? TED hau nas to-do 46, ¥ shove neve done it. -m- “ae tore ace txo ways of forming the Lnterrogative onl nogathve: habitund actions 1 don't have to vet-up early every any Bo you wave co yet up easty.=-7 fy pavttevior eeraoton Znaventt (oot? be et up early Hove you /got/ to cet up carly inte. - In Anerican Engligh tie restriction of using we fox habitual setions only, does not apply. The dowforaa are comsonly used. fave get tol.» 18 mainly used.to tbe Che He uaso't got to do st = tle noeda't do tt. Ite hasnt to do Lt x lle austn’s do Sty ote the dL¢ference betmeen the constructions: Haye + Object + YatinLtive and ave + Tuftobtive + degect. Ee Je wines beaniveléa, avokda/ end 'T hove to Hr have /got/ a Lot 50 de! soket kell YT have nothing to éo? do nothing? /e nea kell Eennoe eenost/. tok a dolcae/ aud "I sve /get/ tes daa let! tenoea, eLinedanea/. @ de te + anttttie! You are ta be here at eight sharps consand he doors are to be shut after aidnight. 2p tn questions asking for © Mant are wo to do? Are we to wait? Instructions /equlvazent to chal, shoulé/ Js plac, orrengeoont Aa I to cous tomorrow? unere om I to write ay nei Tam to leave next neck, Jeccording te plen/ Yue present ond past tante of fo be are only used hece.jequivayent to. Tov are’ not to snake 48 the reeding Foam. ‘nue parcel is not to be fore christmas. te wesatt to go mith theme heron was never to sez Saghend opened be 5, destiny ogain. aas/tare + perfect inflostive @ J. oernagezent, plan that rat sot carried out he were to have dined together ost 1 was prevented from colne/ Teovae to have been our Last meeting fut 19 wat agalD/. eed @ pede are two verbs ngad, One of ec anieh mazes’ its diterrogative and azgazive with ‘Te ig followed by the infinitive ¥1th f lig should need sose role. bo you need this dock fur tovorrou? nog 498 fubh very with ott the fo: ay /doee) did/. 1, require, wane io, T don't need Lb. ALL he needed ¥aa © good root He doesnt oad to be told. fue alrendy knoss it/ Tt needs ta ve done carefully Jit is secessary that Ss should 2 be necessary be done carefutly/ fhonw ho nwo Lo tet tad alana 187 gue other! verd Le the euxillory need, 18 hag neither soctat~ Vive, portiéiples, nor post, nor suffix fer 3rd Ths negative 1s formed with pot, its tote le used An Anterrogative ond acgetlve sentences, lerson s4nguler, sgative nibh, present. Anveraton. Tt -R- well as Lo setences which contain semi-negative words Ike banl)y, scarcely ote, A, negative of aust Ypavolled with navent ak to, don't have 80..0/ (it 4s not facessarr/ It's very Yow nowdu't gu yet, early, You needa't worry, everything mill turn oul all rights He weedn't vo thal, neod ha? Jip needn't be told foes Kell sieg tudnio/. Myst 1 go now? tio, you needn't. Toneed hardly tel} you how hoger I oras with your letter, heed Z cone teaorror? /T hone 2, Lnterrogative Jit As eacessary thate../ nots used wbeve there Ls a strong Huot I come tonvrven? /le en olesont of negation oF ‘open question/ doubt, or whea the cpeaker expects or excks a negative answer. you needu'¢ go a0 early, weed you? Heed gagbedy knoe 602 lived not + perfect infinitive @ Lt masn'? necessary but was done nevertheless Tou needn*t have zone 20 early ‘uu you sents. To needn't have said anything Poot aie. hey needa’t lave Laughed 6 09 becouse J made sone alstaxed Auk they Od/- Tou lun"e need W© gu a0 eavly te uidare need te aay aHirthinge [it wos not necezeary ecauze they Hones aD about LL with neyntion oF -B- 4se Summary of Maat, Have /eot/ 20, Beto, Need poh da tha ‘sense of obligation ‘Aennoe of Obisgation) | Negative Obligation aot Teceansty, Prokabittes Zien eal Aisa ouabat, thie Be dovante ave to ge | He musts?’ 6o a hasn't got 0 g2 He woa't have to go | Be"tantt to 6» . Towet weeks ia weit be wouido's | Ha eakd he wesste dave to 60 be diate nave to go | He mummty 20 59 Re hedatt got to e0 Ha d4dntt need to 40 ia needa" bave gaoe 7 Pot be e008 _} Gagne tot Hy ought to work harder. Wo! ought to help bin, ou oughta't to Listen to gosmip. Bho Looks very yale, bs ought to rest wore. Tou ought to a excelent... fo ought to start at once if we want to cateh the ‘train. ‘that play, Tea Qephictasion’ old: protuntte torn cf. the. ver to ons, to be, 40 iscaieiiar in-noaning to auoald Dut Rore-eaplatic, Ie, 19 faivayayfolioved by ant infinitive with £0" Aen 3d Af thay started at four, they:; ought to be here any ain Considering bis‘ intelligenc Se eo = . Sea eae aio e ee Tae. Tou ought to have helped bie. J+ past obligation that not fulfilled or carried bat you didutt/ ext He ought to hav: fal, fout be waan’t/ You oughtn't to have laughed at @isapproval, reprosch (tor somthing done in Be Pot 300 0107 mi the peat Tou ought not to have stayed 29 long. ee. fn rejected /unront/ con IE aie bad waked for 48, 750), 24 ition cught to have given t,o BaD, Te pou hadn't brought ma’ book T ought to have fetohea xe myaeit ii. for I should have had to fetch a have fetohed would ‘not: be .eatia- fadtory, because in the Int per~ fou it would meas! Telhoxten vol” sa'.and the required. waning is A Kellett volna hosnon™. Hotes ~ Ought to points to the: pres fies the rule of the sequ shen oblis jon, duty te Anvolved. =~‘verbo in the present as past when there 1s no Vas the nogetive of the Msuperative. ae of a/ experience, enjoy, ~ utter ate. rED/ conse /causative BS tunetion/ Ce/ have + nown /4a place of the pimple vorb/ Y with reference to regular activities or permanent atates /rith reference to something specitic do is not used/ An the negative po Tdoa’t understand hin. He doen't epeak French. I aide'e £00 well. They didn't say anything. Don! worry. Doatt leave the door opsnt Did you have any difficulty in ‘finding your way? Did you bave a good tine? Yuen ia you have your hair cut? DAd you have 4¢ sent nome? Did you ave a good owia? Wo dida’t have a loog talk. Do you have much work to do? fasualiy/ Butz Hlave you acy work to do? sa0w/ Do you often have headaches? Hotes - In dnerican Bugiish there is 9 tendency to ues do ‘hie tendency seems to be apreading to Rngland. with to be in the imperative Don't be late! Don’t be angry. Don't let us forget to post the etter ar It ua not forget. T do hope you will come, Bren if he fatled, be dtd try. Do be carefull Do sit dom. treated pere. Gy Sto avoid repetition Af tn short anowere Who broke the window? Tox aid, Shall I open the doar? Yea, do ph Ho eft yosterday, chan't De? questions /"ugy-e?"/ He knows Englinh, doemn’t he? $/ "ith #0, nor, peither He knows it and so do Ty 3a", "s0n"/ She doeua't cone and neither aor He didn’t go, nor aia we. Wo know 1¢ and #0 dove everybody. 4 An agroenont with I hear you went to a party last statenent for to put night. So I did, /That¥e right, emphasis on & statenont/ I went/ (7 hoar/ she loarne Fag1ieh acd 2/ to Atejunetive or tag ‘tae repented mudject 39 omphatic/ omphatic/ + French. So she does. 9/ to correct a previous I haar you failed 4m your exani~ antion. Ko, I aida'tt . Yay didn't you help the old man? put 5 asat Z, 12 cane of inverted word Never did I see such a sight, order Xarely ever does she come to (Aa proseat and 56 8 tonses/ Aigte, ~ Boe. & and 2. apply to all auxtitersi @ Ter Bare, a an auxiliary, is defective, It hes neither infint~ tive nar participles, nor suffix for 3rd perton minguler. It 40 followed by the infinitive without to. It 18 eepectally used in Amterzogative, negative and conditional sentences 2, to venture} have the courege I dare not /daren't/ tell hin Finogarian'zex) Dare ns do 17 Dare we tol) him what hee happened? -7-Komet bin bat I darent’ far fared not/ talk to him, How dare you talk to m0 Like that? How dare he say nich rude things! ‘Fpgre oan ve a full verb with ali the fores, making tte FE stersogative and angative with do /da0e, aid/. Tt ie fo2lored tke: speiaitive with ke, or the plein infinitive, It has tne ansi weaning ao tha @uziliery, perhsps somewuat nore strossed, ch other and ere bardly Fie dosn't dare to npeak. she hae never dared /to/ ak Sim. Sein the interrogative there Do you dure tovcall mo nanos? ‘4a sonotines @ Aifference fave you the inpudence to call ma nanee?/ Me Dare you oall no nanen? HLL you Fisk, Yesture to onl] sme nanest/ Be rsacty?. Bs. Gia dared me to do 46, They dared hin to anim acrone tho river, ‘Mle.auggest LixeLibood dare ear 29 weeds /rare except Sn te fipt! yereon/. 2-6. ridare vay he'll come lator, You're tired, I daresay. Tota, ~ In tha past the 01d form durst ie nometines ue veed to {gust ta]? T used to Live in that house. 0 contrast past and He une to go to that school. nat to express sone done tn te pant, Pangarian “aneitcen) for repeated or continued He used to come every Saturday. sotton in the pest. He ured to sucks 30 cigarettes /ep. would 3, above; used 4 day. fo generalines, while would le often used to say"s0, speoltion, takes one action as typlonl/ (Bre tarorrogative and negative Se tomnkd with ov without do. Bia 12, sop. formal stzpa, prefers the forne without doy wher the Oh'unen the do-toran, Bue. Weed ne to live in London? oF DAd he use to live in London? He unedart? to Live to London oF He didn't use to live in Lonton. Didn't he vise to live in Lontont In tas: posaibilities: ions and short-form anawera thare are again tvo He used to Live 4 London, ‘usean’ be7 OF He used to Live in London, didn’t he? You used te apyeak French rather well. Roy I weedatt or No, I didn't, Uaee IT or Did 17 Hote, ~ In negative sontances the difficulty say be avoided Dy using paver instead of not: He never used to live in London. 'not in maid to apply to the infinitive, not to ased, -1-‘HR NOG-PENITE FORMS OF THE VERB, (WaRBAL/ ‘of then. Thla means of expression bas becone an outstanding feature Jot Raglioh, Tt Lo « pert of Buglish grammar that io even at the peenent time developing vigorously. Intinstave? lke. the finite verb, the infinitive hen two voices ~ active ‘ive, bat only two tenses - present and perfect ~ in both active Fasoive Voice 08 to be taken Present vo take : |Perfect to have teken to have been taxen Present Progressive | to be taking Penfect Progressive | to have been taking | ae een aeeetSyauslog wore aad: ore TREE fosces’ inex the insintive wes sti intlectee f jsative writen, and coy‘ ag a noun. It bad e nominative and accusatis ae _PIRREL BLL ai gg a 2 Sm 8 yok a dative object. In the couras a eort oe SEE ae SS ee how oe, 2 Eris alo Biri (tect Ea te faa the eign of the infinitive abd no Youger ans preposition. : Parenough the infinitive wav originally noun, 18 bas So the couree of tine acquired the properties o oles, tue approcching the nature of a verb. -80- Yee of tho Ponses of the Infinitive te seen of a6 satsit09 oe of thy principal vars te sown thine relatively to tense tndicates timo of the principal verb. Bg. 4 want to see bin. I managed vo do it without bis help. i He Sa happy to be with us. He was happy to be with ua, 4 Lgemeabered to lock the door: 3. The portest tense of the infinitive indicates time DE 02 to thab of the principal verb, og. He didnt ceneuber “Zo TSTE Seay him before. I an happy to have wet him, tle wae proud ‘sp have ‘been able to help. ’ Tho present and past subjunctive fome of the model, ittltartes are used to” give different éhades of thought and feeling, Fatuer than conveying a1fferent tim relations. Whiii used in « conoection Eth a present infinitive: thay indicate prasent or fubare tine, Zor reference to the pest, tho ponfect tptinibien ust be used. Big, Ho aay como apaia, He algut case again. ~ sho say have deen 421. He may have gone. Re night have gone. ia uch dott. He suet pave dono it. With qudLiarioe that polit to the future the perfect tatt- "tive representa the action aa conploted at a point ot thse tn ‘ the future. Bee . E shall have completed tt Yefore you xeturn, If thinge go right, ther will lore arrived by tosorzen event. ARter should, cowl2, seed net, ought to, tne pertect Situnitive ohoes thet! the actiéa wan oot. carried alt, not reelised | 2 Beg, You could have caught the tain 4f you had hnicried, He ahosld ——~ have finiehed Mia wore this evening. fg gight to have cour eecviee, Te wae to have been our holiday. They wese to bave Gised bere Yo Aodteate that a past intention, Hope, expectation has sob bean realised, the past perfect of man, this, haps, intend ste, an be used in connection with a geasent infinitive, Fev Thad seat to write « lise to you, - a=ei lela Ieftoitive, ae ‘he tafinttive may occur elther with or without the L"PRoelitde particie to/ [ti] before a vowel [te] before « consonant/. (Bas stntinttive without fo ie kncan aa the plain infinitive. HE glee plein tatinstive de only used An verbal, oaver 4 noslael 1S paootton. Te ia used either by iteeit, or in combination wlth ther verb. the latter use is the consoner. the plain infinitive is useds 1d conntruction, Like to hear, feel, make ote. Bag. a He was seen to leave the howwe 4m the morning, He was aade to 4 withdraw his clate. ra he Subject of the infinstsve The subject of the infinitive te often not expressed ia the CTause, but ia some noun or pronoun perforating some function in the main clause end at the sane tine serving as oubject of the Anfinitive, This may ber A. the subject of the principal verbs he promiead to write every day, T went there to see hia. . 2, the ebjeck of the principal verbs I told hix to cone early. i 4 She gaw bin open tne oor 2 tie mubject ie often inplied in a preceding possessive adjeom tives TE in my enraest denize to do it. 7 ‘b. Provided the context maces the referenoe olear, the intint= tive can be omployed even though there is no word in the main 3 clmie that can aorve an iba aubject. Babe Moe aitsiculty /for ws/ now 48 how to get to the station. = 85 =with’ Tortates If thave 49 no word in tho main clause that con eerve as the Bibieot of the iaftnttive, the tafiaitive oan have a oubject ot ‘Ste om which te tajroduced by fore Bese = (/Dign anxious £6 return, 4 I ax enxious for him to return. ‘his conatmustion eceuba mostly “is after adjectives used predicatively. 8.6, ngald ‘be sorry for you think that. He was eager for ao to oats ae ‘Mne tea 19 too ot tor me to Orinks The kitchen ‘just bg joagh for you to have your male in. Biiz\ ‘after nouns of indefinite pronouns. 3-6. Pesto vrouglit some books for you to reads There's no noed for {fo mention this to you, 1°¢ give anything for this not to have appeued. el 3, after verbs that normally téke the preposition for. 5.6~ ‘Thay were. waiting for the dinner to be ready. What be told har was Yt tntended for soneone elee to hear. ‘Vote, - There 18 a tendency, especially in Americon Faglish, the for-construction after verbs end adjectives that do ‘pot ‘normally take that preposition. I.g- Eajcoulm’t pear for us not to be frtenda. Yo s0n arrange for the i goads to be dispatched to you. We'd be proad for you to dine with Frou the point of view of ite syntactical Aumctiona the for Iccusative with infinitive? construction can be used instead of UE 1. a qubject cluuser Por me to back out now would be cowardice. E/at Ldacked out now 4 would, dé corardice/. Or With anticipatory "Yer Te {0 Ampousible for me to cons a0 eafly’ /It $8 Amposeible that ‘ahould cone 0 early/. 2. Object clauses I planned for hin to go, /I panned that he “Thould go/. I hope for the book to have success. /I hope that the book will have success/. Smeg, Clause of purpote: I stood aside for ber to onter. /I stood eer /on/, eantt help, it's na.cood, ees Est» ae troiy repainted. ‘They /the Trve enjoyed talking about old tieen, Ifyou want to stop smokin, pore's a tested sclentifie discovery to help yeuy.te- rent on tes /the house/ veing ent Joathe being asked every = ‘yeen/ punished, fp inelsts 00 e hey've been * young yeople/ Anute ehere 1 he was sent to ‘petites. 1 coulda’t help laughing: tg now Fete readLng. % ‘hy After Lika, North and the phrase the FoUne veetthe after being /20¥3N bed. = " 5 cia, rnc efoonnriane asina sloth EURO" ree Airs gelng out toontght. lieve 19 « aubject marth Taree eres oat the eee tS Sema 4 tygeer a munber_o(_cuner verbs and verb phrases elster {3 verbo} chavasterioieeT peaning, hes elsolveruel fupsthe™: ‘The verbal (Ceerolyor oe otisitive aay ose azit tact, contdnue, 20082) 5 wen ft al ult Sgn a ete eat oe Cn oe alias Soesies tere Ie noun takes ¢ EF ie pet object ond te azniisied DY en Tight difference in meaning. Este Cee Sa aarrere weed aver parkn # datiutvats net-io.womnts fa qherens the cerund bake! began talking, paver’. Cp iden 06 0! ats forbidden, ~ Shooting vires 12 forbidden. sme shooting of birds Ms. Tory Naequire a good pranuciattons — Otherwiee an infdsstive iv weeds Guddenly 1b Bert to.rain “Fler the verbs hata,opike, dislike, prefer the Gn ines¥e ts the gern’ Tor | Careful Listening helps 7° jyeeinl occasions by Listeolng carefsll7 You reference bo 8 5 rotecent: T ike dancing, sere Foot ponenelaton ‘i mostly used witl iseentok crete /aoe vesbul/.wesoiad HH 007" gay, becore one Scan be vue in tee piaeels #8 UPR OC ihe aE] oun saga, wns are sicoody rowng #4 EE S'S: sey stopped tai mney stopped to talk /e legilltak Gerund ond Tncsnittve ; ‘ter sean: She meant, to stay for a week /= ; sot naradni/, This seont getting hone tate / incinitive, but in the hogy Késia fog hoxalrnl/. (ci). the gerund, Tike the infinitive, can Sree of an adverbiol clause. . Giavse of Thess Z aure do my shoyi'int vefers oo: office, on reading the letter, be et last underutogd the situation 2, Clause of Manner: lie spends Mis spare thee io reading. a gore general ste LT thowld Like sto dance with yous after stop the’ a2 Hing /= kbvahagytak a beszélgetest/. , hogy besxélgcesenck/s ‘Egy het ig sssindtko- ast jolentette, ning of the sentence is eriticely changeut a ane gerund often_conpetes with the SoD cing cases the Geruniuas te be usclt : Ee ae 1 sorje object after a1 Lee see a ee eee rening vars of sajecttve/. closely sesoeleted te. That prevented you ftom contig? T oe te ie T apologize for beles lates . dattag tocrard sto teeing oH) Hatse CORR feading, He 16.used to staylog-up lates ‘the Fight begat: by John's collinc Milam asses. 0, stayhog uP : ‘J. Clause of Cause: 1 can?t cope on sccount of having ten nec) ; to do; He was angry with her for being Joke. -o-ane for the purpose of Balciag chouse of Purpose: lie ¢ ing the cattle from sbraylns, speech. We planted a hedge for preven inet of ene Coruna que’ aovsect’ ofthe finite verb.can serve af the subject of the gerund. F fo was poaished for driving too fast. wine gesund ees havea subjost of TUS dent Hike coming lates fown, whieh cae be a genitive, or @ possessive procul, 6+ bo you mind ey opening the yye vinile trying bo jrevent that tbe young: 1auy sieht precedicg noun in the [dent Like John's /bie coming Late. was ebot enrovgn the left 6% viet peciag tie ease, T's afretd ee ENTE esasnigts ot Yokes Gar ats le te cnn hems rome vy thieseh position. See 2 garter? STsgran/, deat 1ike dot onli te peu tn oblique orn of te ert $6, gate. J cred to people bese ongry it! Cee doe anne Shab nave 2 sre povng ov ole fen 2iog 182 Pees aangect bot an sitet Bl Bie spoon of ean of goed #6080 me reteset oer 9 Pt chote! geltive form, love wit her prs refustog auch an offer? that heve no inflected Bee ged av these being 6? ye Fy ucue denoting 1ifetess wiacs. Boge Me shepe of che train arriving before ten. txes it is hard to decide whstiier on seat participle. \e hes to do GR fete. - Some: 2 ce Qyoy a cerusd. or 0 fre eege’T as wor Sur-~ Lodon't Like inte coaing-boss Tete. ~ Here 1 cow bie coning hon. Tsay that he ws: the meaning 1s cloar, The first exonple seen! Conlin, tlie uecond: I don't 1Lke, bie coming hose late. ity spends 9 Jot Of his Elae /lo/ writing /MLe ts 9 ue npent ths afternoon westing"Iottere /Yhts cou be rexerded a6, a fron toetr sand totion are pocsible.” eee Tbe first senber of 0 netning is License fore furees 15 on the first oylieble Jer. 8 compound Aoun ean de Feqnnded as a verbal Lying ron, “seiling-boot. “the 9 boot for walling ete. The soiling boat + 2 bout that is antling/. rrengut Porbtelple of seadgactive and vi an ndjective eLther predigntivel oN Gp) que yoreheiple hoe the charocverteties Duviy there of a-verb, ee, it eas bo used putributively: uhe rising funy 9 dancing doll or ft anuting oF vervslly /urgdieotively/: be ess rising ‘free hue chair, they were dancing.’ (7) In attrivbubive u 2 before Wie noua: e+e Uie present jarticiple the following day, our greatest vinolLy stan Living post, 9 running dog. fn}, 1 may otend after the a G7 it is distinctly vorbal ‘In mesuing, ¢.6+ jund ¢ couple of boys fightin oun of pronoun it qunlifies whoo no mou 24viny, There /Seui-predicative wes a croind rugetion/ sia shee erence ses PMGIY eY Peo a numuer of gases me audes tena poets - ipescusetah co oriole APE oie (plane aeeersdielad'iy Wage" fre iterating se Such adjectives are uot called present participles, DUC i pareiedjdal adjectives. -B-4 standing by the window. ‘these coustructsoes aro | toe trata which 4s Leavsizs acter Introductory Hece, cry there hie as DooKtee sioere v2 often th 8 prose fed there i yous ave wot vo do wt If ae noun 12 vs for his frtend. ‘phe present partichpl® Tet sone totrane e ley lookkenzaal 3 arated shen it is modified, tage tl pee ite break befor? Stive verve: come, 20, St conga inane came ‘const ructioa tothe 3 ‘ne train leaving ot ten, the irl cot to an ablribubive clause: 4 who Sp standing. @ vee bey eee. Fao door ovened eee Tum, wottine For the jurtlelple, 26 = quiver che Gis) salve fore/- FP awerston, espe lore wins beter walbdng ively ssused predtee® a a. 29) stand meusaviva with inClaitive 49 the Present 2 ccusative with Bre cape after Eonean, Seb f8ehy BBishe 6 hove a wake). Esbs Go aateta aylng under 6 tees. 1 boord Wile coats une stairs. : short ti! T won’t have you talking ie had us o11 Lavzhing 1 © about her Like hob Tn.ehe above €xéay as naving dur iafiastive construction th T heerd bie cost w es th he he present ports vation, a2 being, £0, BTC yy the ceates a fey ait ciple refer’s to an ection Tn the corvesyondine a feet, BB Le referred te 95 jules 06» petxees, euapletion ond Lr action Soastines the distin coupletion. =-g. 1 sem or the ect of croseiney coed /act completed’. iueter the verbs keeps Jeavey Doart keep ne wastios- phevagehina golnd: ile ALi these verbs 887 PUSt bet pte gelling wien Lars Lteraative infinsth Jebion 58 ‘pio walking ecross te eve/; T saw bin eshk ‘road /in the middle Ancor across the ety send, gate stark /there Is "ye eonstruction/. 246! Mer left the vater Suliel feat thes all pecking fags tle cet/started | Ei¢ovta cket/- the yagsive constructed with, present shee atand ny Tee Ewan kept mattEnes 2 one teigis Contruetion a2 Adverbiny wedi tier GD tee protest yarvtetpLe say be eqlvetent to an everbiod seeeeey ln the deatmee ean be copsidered 112 aubjact participle. Ue pine # Lt vavaliy 2tonds STooee. fe ina aocnlted-te La ted Bite the min elmuaes Rees dhe seme Jn eathing; hayptlys the ebitdeen rr down to. the ehvery laughing and. talking. 2, an adverbial audition of “Pime.o Cause Soden the main luce bub may alse Follow... FG nd, itot having enough moneyy he couldn’t usually pre~ coping hove I net a Cesc uy the book. The present pa eed by a conjunction to Aeiple say be yee ove the reletion clearer. BC+ Sho elwaya. cinge shen deingsher wor'ks Da Ges), if the partieiyle dees cot refer,to sny particuler word fn Sr sentence thet car be considered its subject, it is called ae vereleted Martie gles Fb ail things Ante consideration, his 1ife 1¢ a hopry one yen @ success. petong to this types EeB+ Generatly speaking, in! tread while eabine, ‘ale Gudging fron her Lever, her holida ‘these ove sows ct expressions which Geonealiy speating, strictly speaking tes Pre boys are a nuisam Goa) Gos present participles function a9 rer: SHreviens: concerning, regarding, considers criine, supposing ets rks Considering” his age, he looks very young. Supposing 1¢ rained, would you como? ‘the porticlple ean have its em subject.witliout Grassotical DVlotlens to the prinedpal clouse, This ia called the 4 b= polute Partieipie construction, This, ds woobly ad in Literary style. Eg, lle, being absent; nothing eoild be onennteniuegage -bavangnareivad,,.J "as dresaed 1o 2 fer ainvtes (ay qe eciloquial style the absolute jartleipie construction cae (e emlaucea by with, ects Thy wood La very Lovaty wach She sun Sntning through the Eeeeas S80 cousen"e eajoy bee wend wath Me osltions or con exeuptiog, Le olng bunger.soo jedeal parbbeniae 2 vas! ides alee fare of Us @ ae eormdecoa the basis of foretion ——. Be ae uttveloed Zo fem Hage fue AFA) ’ vy ie unvatty rausivey tots 2 Wor a transitive verb 1s ust pete clr. of 3 Ooty ane wou tos wma endargans is 6 7 d by the garsicdple, ste the deserted TALL, a broken ae at a given sulate Tn canbina tio: enaire oh an aaverd) mous gan, a 7H e) Fron ore place of steeibutl donated dy the now parttehple, © 6 newly archived Twat (@). te say stoco after th gf tb As verbal tn weaningy €+E> pase participle state go aaoeh fain se active, erforavd the i a faded colour, pos recvistets unopened Leber, e.g 0 eh aozetiees the a! [Leressed woman /= *bo 5 of tatrans! thet wen 1 bos a aiaktors. these exa weve abdageere deunis y when tt 4g nod fied, vmod eo 216 $n the covatry. ——— used forei: Bub ike tbe present. part be pure eujectiv gner, They Bay Yi Ro looked very P of tha past cerelesple lar verbs 1s identical #20 Detween, the present particly) veandng ear b¢ 20872" arerses ECL1/+ ‘9 full-blown rest ea the partici?! ne noun 1b se tp of ad the” ¢a e-aad gerund ative verbs wer /aytatins action ne -yree' ‘jaa iy acopred a novel wrbeeen by taeda, 2 630 e; Home PASE je qualified by wey ease df= glad) = 96 ev-bualt, now regal ¥ jet nonse, ond 50, Just tye Ulvtinecion as Bigs 3 teil ‘dears the are expreused by the des Use nous ex when ne a msn shots articiples cay ve Vfook, a distingulsh ‘ike adjectives. ad pausing ayy soy v2 used fon ot thins, a maith nenefallen 300s wey anot heae constrvctione are equivalent. to an ottributive cious! acnovel spleb-is written... a gen who 4s not accuatoned. G6). the post yar tieiple of a tranottive verb may exizese the Slate or coalition reoultlog fron the-actlos indicated by the verbs fatbie peedtooet ive use the porticdple 19 connected ‘itn ito Subject noetiy vy go-v9, but also by aocear, gees, Looky Dies Fe ooked. She vee vob married” whon I knaw ber. Thoy Fee She door soloed seated. Sho £e1t diseppetated, = 'cortela participles ean be ued with to otapls I stand 1 atond corrected proparad to dispuce 4t /= Tan ready tove./ jo Beliton thvadbsonot/, be tana convirted of theft /= he hew oon found guilty of... native with Patt Pertic an dee couatruction may bs used after. tho vorbo ¢: wet, nate! o-g. I have often Y’veat the work done"by Cipie o bee, honey ely 1k mibh, order; fled, focn it done, I've oaver hoard it 6aid, five, Can you got tbis text typed? dalite. the ‘eccusative with LofinitLre’ sud the Teceunative vith poonent participle? the accusative "ith pont participle hao no poeoive counterpart. he accuse svo with post participle expreases of the aetion 14 not expressed Sn the After fo hav! crvoation, the yerforne: sentence. Figs Wo shall nave the book brovg repaired. ‘to exprose the peeforaor of the actiou! so adjusct with by to You ought to have him examined by « doctor. ht froa Londen. 1 hind ay wobeh added: After hnve thks came conseruction 16 used sn the couse Te oxparsence, bo suffer: eg. I had ay leg broken. of pont Nartieipie Construction af Adverblal Uoditter CT, ane the prowent participie, the past participie’ of traneisive Bad c few Latronaitive verde /autative verbe/-may be used to Related Pertieip le. .coostructlosa, 6. Dora io better tiuza, he would have become » great poot /Conditions) ~~wad been borisri/ Pelebteved te: teeth, ‘ho cov}da! fo he rau SeLghbencdeee/ ed thene con 1f.te- 2 Jo Clause of Cause: -Decaua: ine JG, gg QhouR may pres bey ‘doth etood ae A tucnes Fe? claus Te naked nevwound nave to2d bhems oro subject withoug gfanmatical Such’ 9 participle 10 colted ax pes Be 8 thatthe party wes 'a 9uccest ithe javttekple cen bave ite Yelavion to the principal eleuae, Absolute Partietp Jay thioge considered, we. s0Y S07 Granted that he bad the voot Latent Lon. Go} the absolute participle construcrses SrZp used with the pact participle. #6. fe en wan a aenely wien hee ILE Bh ee if the poet participle with to be to ip taveedueed by mith Le For the predieative 80 0 tara the Pagstve Voice, 200 75 . tere eae eye bed vebarscter of tne pareiiale if snore 18 ‘ oth active aad poeeive, and Fenneet thet it pee voice, tranaLtive Verbo active ____—. _ Pregent taktog bbetag taken perfect having taken | havihg Deen takes Past --- boxer qnteenaitive Yerba having coos Poctect vast tee tances of ‘the rartictploa Use of tu CD, though’ tue participle nav fervz concen than the Falke vérb nite verb, Beg. Hearing yolcsa 1 stopped and Listenad. /Mhs. whole exntence rete to the past/. #e shall arrive too tato to catch the-traln Leaving /= which will leave/ ab olght. The largs bulléing belng constructat Jubsch Se belbg conatructed/ in that street ia the new school, ‘The perfect participle dadseates thet the action of the qartt te verb, Ib serves beth for beg Ciple precedes the action ofthe tio} the progant perfect aad post porfect in» clause. hloving been 111 /a2 T have been 121/ 0 auch, T have Ieartind to od core of wy. health. laving flatstied fotter T hed Finishes axe 20 surort, I went to bed. Od) to denote thot the action af the. fLaite'verd clovsly £oltoms Biv action of the participle the. present participle Lo used in stead of the povtect with verbs as co enter, arrive, Jesk ote, pea. Bnterliy Ue room, bn 7 wlador, he sat a Arriving hose, ie found the door wid dew thet he tiad been robbed. Looking out of U ng Tsaving the hevoe. Go} the past participle expresses either that the action of the Derelelple precedes or 4é oiniltancous with the action of the finite ver, cepending on the charactor of the vorb, With tem!~ hotLve verbs the past participle expresses on action already coaptet= ed, Le. an netion that precedes the action expressed by the finite verb: #.g. lle Bow the bridge destcoyed by the eneny /thab had deen dostroyed/. le 12 a pan broken dy misfortune, /rho' has deen brokea/.” on). With durative verbs the past portictple bes no perfective SGonsog ana denotes en action simuitensous te the action of the fain feapeceea by everyoody /a+ #9 33 respected/.Hours. iy enesstrhed ehere are certoln ckoree ) affizes aa welt as the 2 ajo/-T2) 1 eats; dogs/sen's) vor ve carted, 5 nouns by "detereins tne, sof svet%, $0r hi ¥ tnja/these, ,thet/ebenes Shi) Ter ote.) Beeides novas oF aod Tasty, poune Are gords tradtt ten propery anehous! teriatic ctoralng derivations, fa} sibilant surthe (+ purtheraores Jace 290+/ such 08 ite, yout, thebe weed posttsoae in ene fen deituvable by words beLone Gad Tecoraing to sornense beac! Ang’ to the, le! homes hove, sheers yesiepie contcally Totent deri cacy and the ayichr dea /maid + dipiautive #0 tix 20 chy gz, S88 ceupy certate owas have no dieeinctive Jpreefold 1nflexton~ ives het svb- 58 of PROHOWS. jeture ‘oouns con de hoes) eed atives and conpounds fend born JOE DOFE SF ine eal pega 2 parley ball, nouse/, onan mits ¥ nan/s see a pound noune,” such ast Hoseree ty boathouse, powgsbouty Diackbird) acarceron) teoeneleky godsend; chairenn overwork, postaan, eraresuan™ /229+/ afterthought, off9pF06, glass: veeak-throurh welfare: Look!n5~ : must be nous /eD: x ne ‘Ghie ts way the walk/3/, # dese} ho walks, eMey ae pls open /voth om o1/ approach the rizea®Se Showa by the face tant 9.6+ Nadim Chaireai! Zero ~zan 0nd derivative se erie appiied to & WORRAE = 100 = Twat turd of chalneea, lusoy syntactical groups, byphesated of without hyplien, ove wade oF hardly dlgtinguldhable free eeeuar coepovn ivelawt genitive phreses“such 081, 680"S [o¥ ceria error / 210. /, runner-uny fathe: 7 geraon vend e2 0 Look by anethen/s Pi Glrgteayenvien, bird's nent. /og Dirdenest/. Be Det LYS Edt of $24 the Lolloving subeclesges eecur o/ derivotiona) affixes settins, reader, teaclor, onllor, trainee, employee /tie taek two ov the anulogy of Frened past portielple Mike réfugié «Bogs refugee/, ogrecaent, julg/s/eent, arrival, departure, disco very, appearence, urgency, disebility, decision, leakage, Defence, saetotant:, uae {jute}, op. the vers uae [fuse], dev Ther: devise [dt'vaid]/, sungect [laabdsent), ep, verb subsect [enurdgeke]; bullding, walking. ote also the misce2longous: contrasts: complaint /to cowplela/, Daquest, cif /to etrel/, blond (v0 bieed/, bebaviour, knowledge ete. by eontrasting “1th adjectives: greatiena, up-rordoreness, poculerity, Ervth, groxth, Length, bebght, real ssa Hote alvo the following cantraats: justice /guet/, vielence Juiolent/, veavery /ocave/, elarity /elear’ ¢5c- ef the affix Ls added to other novus: Kingdoe”, chidhood Tetandsudpy dooklet, Los0le, Katie, Kitty, duekliny, baller, Kitchanente, hostess, tigress, patriotisa; aledeod, untruth, fa}, Conpoaitioa combined with derivation /perasyotnebhe SLyounda/ are quite frequent: housekeeper Zhovse + keop + harrowmindedness /onrror + sind.+ -ed + ~usea/, aattor-of-fach~ up contraats with verbs dscelt /to deceives, eels ness etc Igoue of thene affixes are ver bneely Living. * 2gom ts also added to odgectives t+ -y productive today, others ore freedom and’ wizdow. = ot ~s Converted fros Adjectives ‘Sabetantivized Adjectives"/ GO). “Aajectaves fond partiospien/ say fenen in the: ele26 of L aa eherecteriatien that astadlish jus, sub-claasee hore: 2. erkyioa)addes ‘all the characteristics of ‘pot nuabera, eay be prem een gneve are veri Lives sod participles that shore dines novos, teas they say indicate canes by ove of the extdonen or bY Geteralauslyes 7205. 2ud perl coe ae gene the 3 gwostive softexton when ened Ssooee aiviog peingey Ze sogectives and participles EME #8 ‘estuer plural oe cingular io reference: 3, adseetives. ent porbiedples thet te artlele they dare preceded by the defio! tural meaniog /a,/ 98 sipeulaly and hove cai siueliz) svstrects collective. pl al nel yy ve aagectivos tat ore vaed OF) with the plural aos be wagectiven and gartieaplee Hak 16 used without the articles 10 the singular Lo certain Ydionatic set pirasess greased in the section The Une and jos these cases are fUPEbeE Groning of the Humber Fosads yvavehe | Felative, relative! ®, nent Cileloaty female, Baropean.. so 868, £1 peoples, sueh oie fungarian, Musshan, Greck ebe> Ops O120 O00 of colourat chades of beon/y e/tye mite, Bieck fine teonsterred piace aan ete./. Cp» algo: Tou afe such & ears Daeenea/ Boss ‘eo peamy/eons relatives: #¢ peoms aanse=e vnitey auliy /feniiiar otyhe/s 2, the gecused, the deceneed., Feb, Jo to sore than one/ stood Ups = Kiso aanea of peoples 10 a/the Srisa, three Sries. tne oid, the deaf and dus, the for hava, the accused hao /* At the raference ‘one deceaned’s 1 always’ been reals two Chineno: che unemployed, heart al ang: afte Chines®s ye gf he poor doa, tne wounded. Sy bie be tetac tae beast st he dares repay. pronnthe wholes tue fe piso somes of people in thy freaeots ie vaysen tothe: epen s comparatives and supectets efor the betters. ~ aqa’the walivete. uote ves also delang ever to.¢ct the bouter of ayz to chang! pis post Jo this novel. 1'#.n0t interested 1a the Leact, we worst come to the worst. tle wos. fie 15 a She sailed her-sacstest. Tf tls the moat generous of wen. Goenonn, /secial/ an novus, vocstovice, moomblece eweets: Mea veiner neciveweds, young martieds /beth julat on conacresat atyie/, eps 6100! ; bo take for cranted, b good Eoghish/Gorens- ote thot mubstentivized adje he deflate article in enumrative 1: to leave for good! he opeaks vers tives belonging te tyre 2. tea: Me wae suepeene ut TREE Crono end end ovnes ty 4 ones tn yor ape pended ish 2eceniona for sone rata) anes ano B/ case (ihe geceseveseation/ A pms. oF 0s {sr ne cng rag ui oe tent ee ne 2 TO eo Telia neunfureton words fs, the embed guttix [-a/-2/-2) added fo the singuler sts! hots [haeto], heads (hedz], horees frnorats). ‘On pronunciation see THOWETICS Tot» Z3.5-/ Eras (ip Feta tga, =a tre ti eet os Oana aeey bores. Th Jonge avflz, wich 48 «l2her fay 2s Be o/ 062 eapurate oyiioie GEE) /2-/y Be atsed tn She foloriaglnstocees een areas An consort /ehch changes te! a S7Thon the etea enda to L's £ /atsen cbarges.te xfs 508 zio,/: "Sc Tahen tho ten onU6 1A e6neoaat™+ oy tof Neco = MAPEEO; Of siscin eer Long sed in-the pluret: negro, ne /are$ and A008/» ypotate; tomato, veto ete ~ 10) = ar Ee4; conto-cantosi yong jo ode sonserve jer wore) omever, oul hots, planes s0n0s emeeee OS: naoe, to austienun 16 1508 acoat/ The “a and vawe) +82 TEE iiandas, Yemveey ‘to poms oth! no aide dzonse, octavs sve, noirado—balt Ye poids for alt 0ves studio = 9budsems gaze 1 SEITE) pallos radio @be+ ad jine of denarestion Detre paghiat 4a the plored aad Woe srfgradly uncertele, 0 ENE 8 good dee) frectuaruont bs Toul fj = eareng oF Soreess Jee wuftaio, nansesto /02"875 “SFP tn USt/ B08 rien Gener lous Zonunter words, WOO tn doubt, eerste p the stan code $8 6" Sonient® congosent and Ht a tong wsed 10 1 agweoners 38 fen these 90¥0s that are etl 2 af orthugraniie 20 alf0 yore atid coo! eves cHre mast, 4, ha arteveates Ef 45+ 6-8 ‘puneh ~ bunches: 0.928? ish, see meany aves = the DOviesEs 96) Beaten ce oe she Rhea meses the soa ends 1° © vowel eonsonsit oF Mute ae coke, cord, nrrans: EBs fenver: dogs, DLELASS pekdges tee Tp betters, ecetly with. an epontrorte’ re enres Tts'40 the Mens poekebsea/. Whe 7 plural suffix, ay your Etat cue Une jour 142 and oro! fin the 19600 OF cpybenent/ 38 Bales wenber of tara’ agsee /nbacter gn the. plural! apprevarion: pes. /= postsertnt ares: /= nanuseesptuass ye unels-plurel 4 of batin words Le ua/ pe d= pages Ma ppnw vy doubling the Zseeone/ Letters UES) YeSBee PMs Proper nouns texe ~3 $0 TN yaucad and resiet mall 607 Nerysy lcnrra, shes porre OV" OF course te Nevenvor's none 12 doves $# Oe paucall/+ Litery coason noun fly /* ont [vote evotusion with fibe Ys @i) orthestal eonmon noun from the kote étsa'that the £6 te figs tn the paral FO phic change? m1 oe Comnnvad ts fe way! 18 6). there are ture! tue pluroriemtlen of swberanesye ether that 18.o Soapounds: nis sale opplics {i only the 1998 edener for sone other Ps tLe pluralized, noun /’. st of apesch Aud ee -yorse earriege/ ~ ‘loo to auch. compounds os are composed: of non-subutanthval elenoate /e./s EB ‘af vedrooe jsf, tableedord ‘nlooker/s/ 1 eyntnctical:conpounds: nd Jolt MTN yar) Semnaby oe Pe haan oLiowed by dotersslns of-poease, altsibu "7 essunes hist, feblow-braveller /3/ , powtaas stey-at=lione /3I 5 py toothpick fat. gods y growaeup /al Te compounda composed 0 pdverb, preposittouel phrase, jene *dovereinabun’ eleneate /an in opposition e&e./. only the pour tne plural form. Bees pede a con, paaser 2 bry nether # ~iactow /and 7 cAoclew fend ali compounds seater e cpendnder 4 tonebter, cultor # cineentety fan (08 eee aon a) .ef-orees, point lef of itm, couré 8 aArtins jerol, porte loureates “vtoapovods both elenente are. plucelized: ft elegent 19 one of the Sexzindeat it aseuie,dzipa 2.13 40 te Leheee EAP se ioral of the goultlyes yonmester ® 6 a tn soe tonne vind sopnena ren she nougs /anfoe aclaceily none afte a Fe servant = som SP ssyatncner/eh doctor — wowonadoctor’. debtor's or dabtors* = nents e1ubes io; printer’: enroe ~ prauter F woun's colieses ter b/ aan's prison ~ debtors’ prison wosoa's oF woweats collet ut: pirdianeys-view /3/- ‘mye Plurel of Titles ‘yes, Misa, “Doster, Profecsory Madan, sed of tv htles auch aa: Wey siater and brother when v! Captain ete. and the words: or adre pera 1, ur Brown = ouperne; fen otgnbo Soates creen ~ tours Greene: fon ks fons con hiave thelr plural Fores. fe (taes0x) /= wessieure/ Drowns C5888 and ‘iossrs 'G, Thonaa and Co. Jof the sane ceeloaea) Yavin and * fo sigmbonrd/+ Nesoane! Bo.a, Mise nosten = the Hass fussendy very foraally ond 00% ortiz, ene stesea! avetens /or abe f2rent ianoa/: one 19208 hosten & Cree. pr (postor!, frat. feaneel peofeczors/captalns UA22 end 1236, 6. The, Brant Torealiy the sisters orontl: prathers ot “pte steer feats ete ie to be avoideds/ thy bhezes Lord 6 pords Justices ta the 1 of Lord vsrer. ‘santal ete. HELL = Dee /D9eters/7 2 clstere.or more ‘the’! othe prachers. hea aa ores. 0°" ‘the title fe Lord 1g tedy venave Tike WH plural but observ" jor dustice 1 toyors ag the plural 9._the Isolated Plurals @ prose: prurad fares that do 65% Confers 16 the now only GF og ravvero are fosesnized Fee! carded 10m Ste Ta goradicns eaceasatesd OF So oun. trereer Gedzing the force ce s8eh0ey OFS 304 pouss- rour classes of BEB es of Lone ati mndse “Dast hace oF tne voscetent voteine Plurels teed pair before regularity here coe yar stea is char! the 1 grag the stee 007s SHicieive or the singel fed to Ate ve! geix ~s/-08 Cele the plurel 6 lent = loowes, colt = there are thse sub-Er we eoaes ~v verore -g8 > (=) thst; halt, e2f, ~ SeLe fn bine ves; 30 0ico oat, sbealy selves etee/ OF Teva): unite ~ wabves 49-4120 © wifes ee ete noe wade tn a fer oathye 2000 ScTCAMNGS, caees ond nouns an EE 08 SOE our peeetce losncwords were aneo wne’tectt cuiet - chief, cree prooka, sagen, sertan, ee» Sees OTEYEE to becves U5 beet sh tne sense "oxen" or tRELE caTeeeies: qn soue ceraante couna Useét yaeiilates betw cage sent, tarts also hoof xhicth f, wolf. ~~ ~fe becenes ~¥e DeFOre awset — dunresy en ~fz and ts te oaly noun ess moors = 106 = with (ug thet 12 found on tefl soo 210+ (-9] becoaes -t five in ware datas, £0F Pu. polnt Bef (naa) -povses ['haUeTe) cbives ore often éistingulsted fror = Verbs and 0650) related founs by th pelieve, prove; minchlevour vole! bed Pura tere the plurod 1s dl sten-vowe! tie ebanze of th side 3 puns and their sonnet pon = aan; wore = woven tooth ~ tech: mouse - mice An tho plural t# us biee = fer oléer 183) ones 9 Plurals, ow only one Single gantie c03: chs Prbeusive pared ‘the plural af ehL1e: 7 2n0./ ere Histo! beethren roves 1 added to old) plucot otnfvected” Pima} s ence folely eonon, Sestrioted toe few mount oF ven fewos dere: fa/ eee SE OTED other eases of 1 deaugroy/ oteces tn occestonelly with oxcenbions and rarying USAES Fo ting (=n) beconen -2a2 \e to French ua Jey P00f8/- [ena}e ath Crease) ~ pnts [pete pow2zc Cera tn om Gr final sten consonant: Live, Nake? ete. etingwisbed from the edngular form Uy 2 foutotion/. Shere ure seven Suen eft stuere were rar wtaini) ¢ foot ~ fects rooee = bere sea ours ~ )ice, Tw ewe Tank the, SE apciliag for # fens 166, oH6% y more tn O51/) ‘ees etee/ joons oi = oxen sepronents Ens once 13 of nouns. Taren sid one pluca) furs of broker! rigalty deuble plureis, ebe ~ea SIME yelidrs aad bvettow respectively. wese vninflected qQuenls are 90% Tevinly nance of agents? 00s fifa handeed/ sheen ond svine /6uly Yeo eine 7oUl/; Gn aise onbeony Lane aninnis, ove aise Zone tte These nouns wey ee Eake he pry = 107 -4, Foreiga Plurals fen retain the ir wea fron oeher Languages of ies my be etver Sone represeneavive exer! ee eho souree Languans + M teerion ~ eritertat prenoacnon ~ phene= pases; thests = the Foreign plural foras. here grouped eccordt | peek plurals ee ote. ene; veisis ~ crises; beate” ae wads tonne pacJaios = bacitiis tance = eevee) S268 = 7 7; data ~ ante; wedlue ~ ren frow the 59st specter - specie: nd sees sgt siehe wise sertea ~ serie’ appendle ~ #P! pedie oat plure) forae 0-0 ee en goveloped regular Bagl ish pave especially fh are gaining Eround jgenoranduess formula - foreuloe/ sea/sadexes 1240 pois of Latin origha soes/ whiel oranda = cenoronde/' 5 ~ foei/focuses; Andex ~ inde’ vereinus ~ In the Che terainl/eerasauses; Soxu 2 = fengi/fungusess foreulass fast ‘eee further 200+ au = benux CboUe) ¢ choteae 3, Frenehplurats: de Mtonix (lactodz], core Ce? = 7 : nese have also English plurals in corps (2 4 2) etes Hang .of 6 7s erox) coc. bureeu,~ bureaue/bureaus ¢0e> eins dijateante ~ dklebeantt /uouh pronounced ‘ey dganien sir yietueso ~ virtuost of reels ante i abeem pluralss cherub ~ ebervDis 9d sereph = 5e°0 pote chose nouns have aaverored plurats. in 8 S18 asfterentiates ings, whieh see 49 GOD. iy virtuasea ote phtes 1B. CARE BI HOW js a geaanatical category: e denotes sof a noun /or ounes parts of Ga), reopecly 088 So org set’ of Loflextonal fore seth ase mar ee vegme had a avaber of snfiextonnl foras. tn the °° te enstonary to distinguish four cectenesene! ihigivartygy, sonitive, Doyle? pasber eles and 1e novnt Tigadmativey cat cases of tbe OF fos fe aodern dersoa//. = 100 = 1 only two contrasting fovea Left to the thee are toie3 restricted to certain the poaseasive coso /now betng Me neular' 1. pouna/: boy's, end 20 common form wpatl the once osstingutehable eases! uz; 4m she plural, aUare Efaren fore (uote) for bath bors an Te Ln ¢ fortustoss colneidence th [-s/-t/ ~12] oproar tn the sinzuler possesoies cate 02 the commen plural form, ace = the “acetdenta’ eee sone eibilank suttixes want as i Aveide thot linipen Go nouns xhem Latteet = nas beceon vastly ofaplified. Sy deorder o:d function wordy such 0) ‘the peoblen will be Sure ntectical relations are DW 2 pespoaitions eve shox by ort ind atch lea Sy cose -Loflextoas. ceeaved An SYETAr ‘me vopeensive Gaoe: The Plaxional Seultive atlexioant (reses) ve » gsnttive/, the Ai fihen the modern noun auefta of am 2 ‘Srhe Boglish none for the Labie *entéivus connie used An one of the threefold Snflexsone (-2/-2/- sees Denota), Day's (bale) , Geargets [dy 2dste]- fon pronunciation, see TUOUETZCS. nad nony sor ceastive Latkex vam, the apceator of our aogern ending, ‘the compound expressions day but Kenn gorphenes An the various parodies, Volag usod only in some of thes. indy ey, mother tongue, Sunday 70! smpuradey't/,,St. Janeo Bsr /eD. Sn soma cages the modern angenktive by ‘The singular genitive Uiflexton 2 or to the Lost sember in a syntactic 5r0u ot faa/. In wetting at suman xe = ow ‘St. Joues’s Palnee/ shows thet as not taken root. te now added to the word p of words Bien /a-/1 tat way er aay not-be a forma} coapou' Bes. vig ahiidren, tho poet Jaureate’s works; te Glibert and CoLlivan’s operas, £ the connlttee’ nyentrophha precedes the at D/ bbw siater-tomla fugu do the stroetts attitude, saey/'s/ and John's house, 10 the cholracn of 1ot, the Duches of Kent?s weddSor;, HS oplnion, seagene else's be = 109+ that does tie doty. Junale /219-220./, there Ke only ont— 7up oreen fnox Fork Bonded /'s fret jesterday"6 Arr & ke wpald be na: speach the man we sony din the CL, ar tount sueot Renvedy’ pres omnis Ue wife. Hote alee vopeeruer tea got at ott uncoanen viuees a The construction an Bt CJeatenliy xnova ae the GF OUP cee of solnt omnership oF partner any Jeimre tne. [fourth and TLC exERreY fenaviour of genitival 8 Teven)? phot its status vere of derivation Zep. ¢ 896 10 the sends see igeat asffin/ we canno® gare “HH? Gemhetyes mene Galy tne Laat persenal ase 045) /, Tue peoutler fe nearer 692 ook? thna to and WEEE, on tnt: gnglish"!d+ ots or Orbosrey hte — persona sees enusng 1m 6 Of Tenn consocumt tbe “rele” 206s 10 be that on apostrophe 4S Treeoaed to be pronounced (-71)/ Jan provevly Tosa style b pievenis's (ealkonaTe] 1468: pieed corengs aeseas cosxe tes’ /*/ praatant clester® fee in the easter ae to ve arietes with Znglis naest yer Livers? oF seenate] 700841 seb cieaste fpurnebas? Day oacts* plezs- E158 eee gyol aeyiea the # now 82" rents? [etsted in che hid) pacosts © 2, optionally * ees! lems, Ste death, & she, bonever, evetded? collequial oF £0 yoputary Ter nae siting 94 well ## pronunesstlez eetee, swans! (evant) S06080 61S sie 43 uned in certain 2et 4 emaetines a0 apostt6l Tor goodness! /2 seats/ #2kt he ontsston. 16..€UnNOUrE g fos of classifyine cenit i the apostrophes ro 8 084 rer conventence? Swraces with saber sexe. The reason fort God), There are a few exanrl fra. / 40 mich the s-gentthy? appears withou v2 ronan, Sraugntenan, unksanas StALSEO?A trodesman prigesmat Ave compounds ote alge fra), The hua £28 pactropho 15 adied atte LRT an fern ato: too, eres ma coneticolly vb in opel Line the pledst roreatay reive 45 uanaeked ip fe whe luca) fom) ‘hoy ewe re ingen, footw vpneara te. che plural HN ivertosy semen children arene wee conte with Wee Prerosh 10. fy ow Gender. {Foperty so-celedy igomdors 13 chore ax well as more petneen non potion dents Heenan, deste ti plellarity of endl bily eure ex88E scender” 18 Sea , that mscuthon", the: sano of Lnsoina ng, /. The coun itself L when we fav? ¥or anlante sexe: oe 2. the noun 19 nom of eosmon gendec"/s 5 fo aan = vacant uncle ~ eeats queso: cow ~ bULT: 2. cook, dancer, dvctery ‘ease the situation in fiungar: Jey. Ln each soaetiaes v2 have @ gener! to denote the ta sexes: nonareh /xiag ~ queen/, 86> e ceage no resort to 3. suCixoe utah fowale fron malo 2x. In son penns vp dlatiogy suffix -g52 {it coolescos Late in the atew!/ 49 Ehe comaoreut om pscolote endinns, ban. Yueer brides he-ele;hant ~ sheebepbants monmaervant ~ raid by he-goat ~ she gf cock-sparren it gy vetiy-goat = nanny theo s conden meaos to indice pais or-fenale, e.g. sole/fensie ronders: ‘tas "gender of the English noun ranicests £ ane naie is referred to DF one of the 3ed person osncel™ or possessive pronouns, e.g Where ts An Bis rooms Gnotts Janes doieg with thar flower? ~ Voie gender Le catled see Personal Yrengunn, 299 ff. font; she-voll: se pearcockemspeashent Tomcat .~ thy-eats Jaciiasd: caer 4s tevenpent the add hencaparso) goat: otiveat 1 only when persons) hp faunert = Me’ ‘gneve yubting £2 in a ort ender of pronowinal on ber table. refnrence"/ (fg USE aND MEQIING OF TZ MOUDSI FOR Geoeratiy speaking, the two quaber forma ore used In a iuen the baste ideo that the plural Nine‘ aguns shile Ue 1 may consistent Yogten neat of the deen or elngular fora Is used sho chase of beings or things /tue noun fr denoeed by the 1ouy we apeek, of only ove of 8 denotes thingy or Yelnes =e - “countable nvr or wien tie noun ‘noun déiiates @ thing "vucountadlct that ean be counted: Agothnonans of-anrinlistelble obit That ‘can oly Me measured ur aot eounbedt own, 94 tho noun 12 9 proper name. iis clear division te, however, often cut through by waege fora a an gonfiice with meaning ena function, The ourvey will Ve restricted in tie asin to bese speckal howe Anstevees Jn wiked che English ure of and Latent soloing coors. and alse to U the nusber forna te at varlence with ‘luagarinn vsoRe. Yous tne of the Su the stem form, Let, © form without ery plural aarkers, Yooed when the noun in question denotes sonethlog “uncountable”; the cto form 12 120 used wLth “eountables", Ahather the stew plural foree of whether 1¢ soy have hier force of fomat ie uenge sich must be form tae 610 oth, ia Largely 0 moster of 108 with the uous becouse the syntactical veheviour of fos of veoge. Thene WLLL bo the rearne! noun Le Getersined by the peeullartth treated Inthe fo!lowing seetions. Uneoun tables ‘mis lorge class can be divided into the felleving eroupe bY when the noun denotes an abstract igen: couragt, lek, Life, Literature; aubstentlvixed adjectives: ce, abratery: vine, the JepossibLe ts the none of o moterial: air, barley, coke, p the Ys rhea the nove eerth /2 s0L1/; fruit, slaty ¢/ the noun denotes a unkque Ubing: tis earth /= this rorld/, he eons AU the vous Lon praia anor Shakesyeare, Lowon, Scotian, ihe Atrenttee f/ the qoun baa mare or leso collective senge /the Huagari or uncountabtes", sone Goulvalents are nowetiage collective Limes bhey are "eountable” clase nounsi/: furniture /*butorzat'y - b=