Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
Hermann Riedel
Fracture
at High Temperatures
With 109 Figures
Springer-Verlag
Berlin Heidelberg GmbH
ISBN 978-3-642-82963-5
ISBN 978-3-642-82961-1 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-82961-1
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data.
Riedel, Hermann
Fracture at high temperatures.
(Materials research and engineering)
Bibliography: p.
Includes index.
1. Fracture mechanics. 2. Materials at high temperatures. 3. Materials--Creep.
I. Title. D. Series.
TA409.R54 1987 620.1'126 86-31444
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Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 1987
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2161/3020-543210
Editors' Preface
B.
Iischner
Author's Preface
Within the framework of fracture research, this book covers the area
temperature
fracture
with
of
high-
book is intended to evaluate the state of the art critically, primarily from
scientific
point
of
view.
should
example,
procedures in
plants
or
high-temperature
applications
such
as
electricity-generating
gas turbines. To some extent, the book also aims at the improvement
microstructural
features
which
influence the fracture properties beneficially or adversely. Thus, the book has
been written mainly for researchers in material science, metallurgy and
nical
engineering,
but
mecha-
com-
courses.
On
the
under-
to
the
final
difficult
growth
and
nucleation
part
to
coalescence
process
write
of
was
grain
withstood
stress-directed
diffusion.
boundary
cavities.
In
particular,
the
the observed behavior. I have tried to fill gaps in the existing knowledge
to
utilize
information
from
neighboring
relief
subject
cracking,
areas
hydrogen
such
attack
as
or
and
brittle
helium
The
stage.
Fortunately,
cavity
growth
empirical
description
of
the
VII
identified
as
materials,
could
then
be
explained
quantitatively.
The following example represents a possible, though somewhat ambitious application
of
cavitation
models.
Many
poten-
etched
and
At
present,
however,
there
is
no
common
agreement
as
repli-
to what the
occurrence of cavities means for the remaining life of the part. With a
understanding
of
cavity
better
the degree of damage more quantitatively and to make more accurate estimates of
the remaining lifetime.
In Part III, theories and
fatigue
crack
growth
experimen~s
lengths
of the material such as the grain size. Cracks may be present in an engineering
structure from the beginning in the form of fabrication defects,
or
they
may
develop during service as a consequence of fatigue loading, thermoshock, corrosion or some other problem. Depending on the circumstances, a crack may
the
load-carrying
cracks
in
risk
of
reduce
brittle
materials,
the
stress
intensity
characterizes the behavior of cracks within the limits laid down in the
ASTM-E 399 rule of the American Society for Testing and Materials. Under a wide
range
of
of
ductile
the
J-integral
in
fracture
Boiler
and
Pressure
Vessel
Code
fact,
operating
of
VIII
methods
to
fracture-mech-
of
cavitation.
here
than
in
the
macroscopic
description
of
creep crack growth. The presentation in Part III is grouped around" the C*-integral. Its meaning and its practical use are described and its
discussed
thoroughly.
Its
range
limitations
are
fraction
of
my
the
book
in
form
which
Contents
1.6
2
3
4
6
7
8
8
10
11
14
2.1
2.2
14
15
16
18
18
21
21
22
23
23
23
24
24
26
2.3
3.5
4
27
27
28
29
33
33
33
34
36
39
40
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
40
41
43
45
46
x
Part II. CREEP CAVITIES
5
INTRODUCTION TO PART II
51
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
52
53
55
56
56
56
57
57
57
59
59
61
62
62
65
66
5.5
5.6
5.7
5.8
6
67
6.1
6.2
67
69
69
70
72
75
77
78
80
6.3
Experimental Techniques
Materials which Exhibit Intergranular Cavitation
Diffusion as the General Cause for Intergranular Cavitation
The Role of Grain Boundary Sliding
5.4.1 Experiments on bicrystals
5.4.2 The orientation of cavitating boundaries in poly crystals
Cavity Nucleation Sites
5.5.1 Slip bands
5.5.2 Grain-boundary ledges
5.5.3 Triple grain junctions
5.5.4 Grain boundary particles
Wedge Cra.cks
Some Observations on the Kinetics of Cavity Nucleation
5.7.1 The observed nucleation kinetics
5.7.2 Is there a critical stress for cavity nucleation?
Pre-Existing Cavities
82
83
83
84
85
7.1
86
86
89
90
7.2
91
92
93
94
96
98
99
99
XI
7.3
7.4
7.5
8
8.2
Stress
7.3.1
7.3.2
7.3.3
7.3.4
11
108
110
112
113
114
115
i
16
Qualitative Observations
116
8.1.1 Grain-boundary brittleness at room temperature
116
(temper embrittlement)
8.1.2 Embrittlement by impurity segregation under creep conditions 117
8.1.3 Stress relief cracking or reheat cracking
119
Theories Related to Segregation and Cohesion
121
8.2.1 Segregation equilibria
121
8.2.2 Segregation kinetics
123
8.2.3 Calculation of interface energies from adsorption data
124
8.2.4 The relevance of segregation for decohesion
127
8.2.5 The effect of segregation on cavity nucleation by
129
vacancy condensation
131
9.1
131
132
135
136
138
139
9.2
9.3
9.4
10
102
102
103
105
107
140
10.1
10.2
10.3
10.4
10.5
10.6
140
142
144
145
146
147
148
11.1
149
150
XII
11.1.2
11.2
12
154
155
156
158
159
160
161
161
163
164
165
167
169
170
172
12.1
173
12.2
12.3
12.4
12.5
12.6
12.7
12.8
173
175
179
181
181
182
182
183
184
185
185
186
187
188
188
190
191
193
193
194
196
197
XIII
13
13.1
13.2
14
14.2
201
202
204
206
209
210
212
215
15.1
215
215
218
220
220
221
225
16.1
16.2
225
16.3
16.4
17
15.2
16
198
200
CAVITY GROWTH BY CREEP FLOW OF THE GRAINS OR BY GRAIN BOUNDARY SLIDING 201
14.1
15
198
227
228
231
231
233
233
234
234
237
239
240
242
17.1
17.2
242
243
17.3
Nucleation
Cavity Growth Rates and Rupture Lifetimes for Instantaneous
Nucleation
Rupture Lifetimes for Continuous Nucleation
246
XIV
18
247
18.1
18.2
2"47
248
249
251
252
253
254
254
255
256
257
258
259
20
21
22
263
19.1
19.2
19.3
263
264
265
265
266
267
20.1
20.2
267
268
269
271
272
21.1
21.2
21.3
21.4
21.5
273
277
279
280
281
281
283
285
286
288
289
xv
22.2.2
22.2.3
22.2.4
22.2.5
22.2.6
22.2.7
22.2.8
22.2.9
23
292
293
295
296
297
298
301
23.1
301
302
23.3
23.4
25
290
290
23.2
24
304
305
306
308
309
311
312
312
314
315
316
317
319
319
321
324
324
324
325
INSTANTANEOUS PLASTICITY
327
24.1
24.2
24.3
24.4
328
329
330
331
PRIMARY-CREEP EFFECTS
25.1
332
332
333
334
XVI
25.1.3
25.2
25.3
26
336
338
338
340
341
342
346
26.1
26.2
346
346
Constitutive Law
The Effect of Diffusion Creep on the Deformation
Fields in Cracked Bodies
Crack Growth Rates Assuming a Critical-Strain Criterion
21.2
21.3
21.4
21.5
21.6
21.1
28
335
DIFFUSION CREEP
26.3
21
Introduction
21.1.1 The constitutive model
21.1.2 The relation between fracture mechanics and damage
mechanics
Small-Scale Damage in Extensively Creeping Specimens
21.2.1 Similarity solutions
21.2.2 Crack growth rates
21.2.3 Approximate and numerical methods in small-scale damage
21.2.4 The process zoq~
The Range of Validity of the Small-Scale Damage Approximation
in Extensively Creeping Specimens
The Evolution of Damage and Crack Growth for Small-Scale Creep
21.4.1 Crack grows faster than creep zone
21.4.2 Creep zone grows faster than process zone
Primary-Creep Effects
21.5.1 Small-scale damage in a specimen which creeps in the
primary stage
21.5.2 The transient from elasticity over primary to secondary
creep
The Evolution of the Crack Length and the Lifetime
Discussion
348
349
349
349
350
352
352
352
353
354
355
356
351
358
359
359
359
359
362
364
28.1
365
365
28.2
28.3
28.4
361
368
310
310
310
311
312
312
312
313
313
XVII
28.4.2
28.5
28.6
28.7
374
376
377
378
379
379
380
381
384
385
APPENDICES
APPENDIX A: MATERIAL PARAMETERS
389
391
B.l
B.2
392
392
393
395
396
REFERENCES
401
INDEX
417
Part I
Introductory Chapters
on Deformation and Fail
Under Creep Conditions
are
time-dependent
condit-
idealizat-
time. Many technical applications, however, require temperatures far beyond the
time-independent
regime,
which
ends
at
load,
monograph
is
creep
fracture
rather
than
creep
of
the
deformation
Ilschner
those
test.
t.
failure
is
the
uniaxial
and
Figure
1.1
schematically
E)
shows
is measured as a
function
of
around half the melting temperature and at stress levels which are typical
creep
tests
the
for
1.
Creep Deformation
t
tertiary
secondary
time - -
stage of the creep curve, the creep strain rate (that is the slope of the creep
curve)
is
initially
large
stage,
the
and
decreases
alternatively
creep
until
called
steady-state
creep.
In
the
Pure
metals
often
have a pronounced primary stage, whereas in many structural alloys the tertiary
stage predominates. Several phenomenological descriptions of
the
creep
curve
action
of
strain
hardening
by
the
creep
curve
formation
Orowan,
of
1946).
balance
between
~train
requires
determined
by
the
In
the
primary
stage,
are
is
characterized
by
hardening
climb
edge
of
dislocations
over
obstacles.
This
idea
of
climb-
1.2
controlled dislocation motion have been proposed by Weertman (1955) and Friedel
(1967). Their common result is a power-law dependence of the strain rate
on
B an ,
( 1.1)
values
of
the
models
n,
lines
(pipe
diffusion)
rather
than
5 or
diffusion-con-
trolled creep predict that the coefficient B should scale in the following way:
B ~ A*G 1- n (bD IkT),
(1.2)
where G is
constant,
the
elastic
shear
modulus,
k ~ 1.38.10- 23 J/K
is
Boltzmann's
(1.3)
is
the
bulk
diffusion
coefficient
(or
the
pipe
coefficient,
diffusion
respectively) with the pre-exponential factor Dvo and the activation energy Qv;
R ~ 8.315 J/(molK) iA the gas constant. Numerical values for the parameters
have been reported by Frost and Ashby (1977, 1982) for a number of materials. A
selection of material parameters is also compiled in Table A.1 in Appendix A.
Several other relationships between strain rate and stress have
in
the
literature.
by
stress
in
eq.
(1.1)
is
proposed
been
1984).
It
is
not
is
em-
ployed also in the description of primary creep by Robinson (1978) and Pugh and
Robinson (1978) (Section 25.2), and in the constitutive model of Hart (1976).
1.
are
generally
Creep Deformation
curve
and
final
the material during creep. Several possible mechanisms are briefly described in
Chapter 2, while the special mechanism of grain boundary cavitation is examined
in greater detail in Part II.
Creep
are
under
tension.
This
are
under
stress-directed
compression
flow
of
to
diffusion
creep
parts
latt-
such
high
energies
the
are
the
only
possible
sources
and
sinks
for
atomic
the
driving
the
force.
grain
size
d,
while
the
applied
stress
Nabarro
(1948)
is
size
(Coble, 1963). The factor ~ has a value of around 50, and 6Db is the grain
boundary diffusion coefficient, which has the physical dimension m3 /s and has
the
usual
temperature
dependence
of
thermally
activated
process,
1.3
Diffusion Creep
6Db = 6Dboexp(-Qb/RT). Numerical values for the activation energy and the
pre-exponential factor are given in Appendix A for a few materials.
As eqs. (1.4) and (1.5) show, diffusion creep
relationship
between
strain
rate
and
is
characterized
stress.
Coble
by
linear
creep predominates at
at
higher
on
the
rates
(1.5)
for
the
diffusional
have been confirmed for a great number of metals and other mater-
be
threshold
behavior
such that a in eqs. (1.4) and (1.5) must be replaced by O-Oth where 0th is a
threshold stress. In pure metals at around half the melting temperature, the
threshold
0th
role
stress
is
generally
well
below
1 MPa
except
for
silver where
1.25 MPa (Towle and Jones, 1976). These small threshold stresses play
in
no
stress
may
be
larger
and
the
grain
boundaries,
been
reviewed
by
the
subject
Ashby and Verrall (1983). Sritharan and Jones (1980) and several other
authors
observe an increase in threshold stress in commercial stainless steels as carbide precipitation on grain boundaries progresses. However, the threshold stress
never
exceeds
2.6 MPa.
(The
the
paper by Evans and Knowles, 1980, which Arzt et al refer to). For oxide-dispersion strengthened superalloys, Arzt et al report values up to 0th
,The inhibition
of
difficulty
accommodate
to
diffusion
creep
atoms
has
been
ascribed
to
1976).
Each
of
52 MPa.
conjectured
the
(Burton,
1973,
1.
Creep Deformation
model,
Section
7.3.6.
The
subject
of
creep
cavities.
If
the
particle/matrix
interface
accommodate atoms, high stresses on the particles may result, which can
On
the
other
hand,
the
inhibition
of
temperatures
is
boundary
elevated
resist-
materials,
which
models',
in
the
same
terminology,
are
and
Vastava,
those
1982).
'Ex-
in which sliding of
surrounding
polycryst-
of
comparatively
easily
by
the
order
to
avoid
separation
accommodation
process
which
is
where
material
to overlap, and atoms are deposited where the motion of the grains tends
or
particles
atoms
around
1.5
is
related
to
the
applied
or
of
the
part-
with wave-length A and amplitude h/2, for example, n takes the form
(1.7)
where
(a)
/ r?
Tb. Ub
along
the
particle/matrix
interface,
(b)
diffusive flux
(d) /
~
A
Tb b
shear crack
in an infinite body
10
Creep Deformation
1.
dependence
follows
sliding
will
from
be
of
the
sliding
diffusive
(1984)
indicate
accommodation.
Nevertheless,
grain
boundary
grain
boundaries
need
not
be
in great detail, since most frequently the limiting case of free slid-
modeled
sliding
for Nabarro-Herring creep and Coble creep (Raj and Ashby, 1971).
The situation is more complex if grain
power-law
creep
of
the
grains.
The
boundary
sliding
is
accommodated
by
the boundaries behave comparatively rigidly. At low stresses, however, the rate
of
sliding
is
controlled
effectively freely.
The weakening effect of grain boundary sliding on
creeping
polycrystal
is
boundaries,
the same material with freely sliding grain boundaries creeps at a greater rate
( 1 .9)
Crossmann and Ashby (1975) and Gharemani (1980) analyze a two-dimensional array
of
hexagonal grains as in Fig. 1.2c using the finite element method. Gharemani
finds that the stress-enhancement factor, f, ranges from 1.16 to 1.19 for n = 1
to
4. Later in this book, a shear-crack model for grain boundary sliding (Fig.
1.5
11
[1 + (n/8)(n/3)1/2]1/n
or
(1.10)
[1 - (n/8)(n/3)1/2]-1/n.
The first form is obtained if the material surrounding the shear crack has
creep
E=
of
the
material
is
given
the
effective
the
element
results
of
Gharemani
1 to
values,
namely,
1.33
to
factor
is
m.
For three-dimensional
arrays
of
grains,
the
stress-enhancement
8 sin(2a)
)-l/n
3n (1+3/n)1/2
'
(1.11)
where a is the angle of the grain boundary defined in Fig. 1.2c. For n = 1
a
30 0 ,
eq.
(1.11)
yields
= 1.58,
and
1.67,
while
Anderson
Rice (1985) find.f = 1.63 and 2.9 for two different geometrical grain con-
behave
slide effectively
effectively
fre~ly
grain
is given by
=
(B
n d)-l/(n-l),
(1. 12)
are
indicated
where
the
mechanisms
operate
independently
and
the
1.
12
fastest
one
determines
the
are
Creep Deformation
between
the
different
rate equations for the different mechanism. Figure 1.3 schematically shows such
a
deformation
map.
The
boundary
calculated by equating the creep rates given in eqs. (1.4) and (1.5) for
these
eq.
at
two
diffusional
creep
the
higher
activation
temperatures.
energy,
i.e.,
Similarly,
creep
Nabarro-Herring
creep,
the
dislocation-climb
(JIG
Since now the temperature dependencies of both mechanisms are the same (that of
lattice
self-diffusion),
eq.
(1.14)
is
represented
by
a horizontal line.
Finally, Coble creep is separated from the dislocation-climb regime by the line
yield
stress
elastic strain
predominates
dynamic
recrystallisation
NabarroHerring
~-....,...--t creep
0.5
1.6
13
Deformation-Mechanism Maps
runs
more
or
strain
rate,
dashed
lines.
The
one
two
from
the
rigid.
sliding
high-stress
The
vertical
contributes
markedly
to
the
line
separates
vacancy
diffusion along dislocation lines (low temperatures) from diffusion through the
lattice (high temperatures).
Towards high stresses, the range of validity of the creep mechanisms is cut off
by
the onset of extensive dislocation glide. The plastic strain in this regime
is attained
very
quickly
after
load
application
and
can
practically
be
which
they
provide
in
in
the
tests in the laboratory are done within a year or less, sometimes within a
few
the in-service conditions with some confidence only if both lie in the same
regime of the deformation map. The maps also are useful tools for the
designer
to choose the proper ,constitutive law for the stress analysis of a given part.
The most comprehensive collection of material data that are
construction
relevant
the
(1982). They give deformation maps for over 40 materials covering pure
commercial
for
alloys
and
metals,
(1980)
and
Swinkels
and
by
the
formation
and
creep
curve
is
often
Creep fracture is therefore generally intergranular. The cavities may be nucleated early in the creep life, possibly even during the primary stage. Initially
their effect on the creep rate is negligible but, as their number and size
crease,
in-
they weaken the material progressively and finally induce failure. The
Part
II
of
this
of
which serve as obstacles against dislocation motion and therefore provide creep
strength
to
the
material.
In
larger of these particles and the disappearance of the smaller ones leads to
gradual loss of
cr~ep
is
not the subject of this book, only a few pertinent references are given
are
ob-
served in creep-resistant CrMo steels (Williams and Wilshire, 1977, 1981; Williams and Cane, 1979; Pizzo and Mandurrago, 1981), in
many
Y'-hardened
nickel
base superalloys (Burt, Dennison and Wilshire, 1979; Stevens and Flewitt, 1981;
Dyson and McLean, 1983), and in aluminum alloys (Claeys and Jones, 1984). Dyson
and
McLean (1983), point out that the pronounced tertiary stage of superalloys
that
McLean
(1984,
1985)
2.1
15
tertiary
stage
is
by
boundaries,
and
subsequent
crack
formation.
Crack
by
the
growth
of
oxidized surface cracks (Burt, Elliott and Wilshire, 1981). The role of chemical environment in high temperature fracture is an important subject area
cannot
be
which
of
this
of
several
mechanisms.
regime they
predomina~e.
Ashby,
1977).
In
analogy
to
in
which
stress
fracture-mechanism
map
and
(Wray,
diagrams with tensile stress on one axis and temperature on the other.
stress-temperature
the
Although
In
the
between the different mechanisms depends on the material, its heat treat-
besides
the
have
been
put
together by Ashby et al (1979) and by Gandhi and Ashby (1979a) for face-centered cubic metals and alloys using observations of the fracture modes reported in
the literature. Gandhi and Ashby (1979b) give maps for a great number of materials which are capable of cleavage, i.e.,
metals
body-cenetred
cubic
and
hexagonal
rock salt. Fracture maps have been constructed for iron and steels by Fields et
al
2.
16
slip - induced
'0-2 cleavage
"
orB/F
Tt
insittntaneous fracture
....
T
cleavage or
10-3
BIFfrom
largest crack
lJ..J
intergranular
creep fracture
10-'
no fracture
10- 5
0
--
0.5
TITm
2.2.1
as
most
ceramics
the
hexagonal
metals,
as
manner at low temperatures and high stresses. Brittle fracture in this range is
brought
about
by
fracture
An
example
centered cubic metals do not cleave, for reasons which are plausible from
siderations
con-
(see Chapter 7 of Knott's textbook, 1973; for a more recent paper, see
formed,
cracks
are
al-
usually
cleavage
occurs
only
after
general
yielding of the whole polycrystal. This means that the strain to fail-
2.2
Fracture-Mechanism Maps
17
ductilities
of
the
relatively
microcracks before the stress for plastic yielding is attained. The almost
of
structural parts.
Instead of fracturing by transgranular cleavage, many metals and ceramics
by
fail
een these two modes seems to be a delicate one, so that both can occur simultaneously
in
the same specimen. Small impurity additions may shift the fracture
known
at
phenomenon
this
high
temperatures
sometimes
exhibit
18
2.
2.2.2
from
tran~ition
temperature, Tt , the fracture mode
cleavage, or brittle intergranular fracture, to a ductile trans-
the
growth and coalescence of holes, which are nucleated at second phase particles,
such as MnS-particles in steels, and which grow by plastic flow of
ial.
This
fracture
mode
is
alloys
the
mater-
Fig.
2.3.
At
room
temperature,
most
and
Brown
(1979)
or
applied
stress
is
enough,
or
slowly
by
creep
flow
if
the
creep
flow
is
gener-
high. Theoretically, strains of well above 100% are expected (cf. Chapter
2.2
Fracture-Mechanism Maps
19
QJ
bJ
Fig. 2.4. (a) Partial and (b) complete necking of a round bar
in a tensile test.
ity which may develop at smaller strains and which may terminate the test prior
to void coalescence in the uniformly strained parts of the specimen (Fig. 2.4).
Necking is not a microscopic fracture mechanism like the
the
fracture
map.
mechanisms
shown
on
which may intervene, whenever the microscopic mechanism allows for sufficiently
high
strains.
This
is
observed
when
instability
is
essentially
rate-independent,
e.g.
at
room
as
nonlinear
viscous
creep,
as
time-dependent,
and
can
be
the
necking
instability should commence directly at the start of the test if the stress
exponent is n > 1. In reality, however, one does not observe necking at small
strains
under
this comes from; the time constant for the neck to develop
is
so
large
that
strains of the order 100% can be achieved before necking leads to failure.
If the stress exponent n is not very much larger
than
unity
(practically
it
20
2.
suffices
that
2),
the
temperature,
elongations
of
several
per cent can be reached without necking. The vast literature on super-
plasticity has been reviewed, for example, by Padmanabhan and Davies (1980) and
by Gittus (1982). If a viscous material having a stress exponent n
develop voids, it can still sustain strains of more than 100%
2 tends to
(Langdon,
1982;
after
which
calculate
damage
such
develop
to
no
from the ideal cylindrical shape being admitted if they have a long
compared
the
wavelength
from the start of the test or may develop during straining. As long as the nonuniformities
have
It
is
clear,
then,
that
rupture
occurs when the minimum initial cross section has been strained to zero area.
If A(t) is the current cross sectional area of the
specimen
at
its
thinnest
location, and if P is the applied load, the stress in the minimum cross section
is
0 =
(2.1)
In the second form, the initial minimum area, Ao' and the- initial strain
ES =
B (P/Ao)n,
area
rate,
marked.
rate
before
the
reduction
E is
of
cross
obtained
- AlA.
(2.2)
differential
equation
for
A(t)
0, i.e. when
2.2
Fracture-Mechanism Maps
21
(2.4)
lin,
where t f is the time to rupture, and Estf is called the Monkman-Grant product
(see Section 2.3.1). The strain to failure at the minimum cross section is
infinite
in
elongation
the
of
no-damage
the
material
considered
here,
while
overall
the
section.
2.2.4
by
creep
flow
plastic
straining
described
will
in
which
no
fracture occurs within any practically interesting time. This may be so because
cavity growth, which is often diffusion-controlled, becomes exceedingly slow at
lower temperatures, or because no cavities are nucleated at very low stresses.
2.2.5
recrystallization
commences.
In
at
high
stresses,
rather
than
deformed
Since grain boundaries can now migrate, cavities, if they are nucleated at all,
are
continuously
and
depends
de-
stress
cavitation
by
ductility-dips.
or
several
2.
22
the
grain
boundaries
thus
near
1000 0 C
inhibiting
brittleness.
possible
and
may
play
cause
for
role
is
called
hot
casting.
As the solidus temperature of the alloy
is
approached,
grain
boundaries
or
interdentritic material start to melt. This bounds the region of recrystallization rupture towards high temperatures. Welding defects may sometimes
liquidation
be
such
effects
in
Fig.
2.1
does
temperature
not
intermed-
temperatures. Further, Fig. 2.1 is valid for static load. Cyclic loading
leads
to new failure modes. In the following, interest will be focussed on the regime
of intergranular creep fracture with a few excursions to environmental
effects
2.3 Empirical Formulas for the Rupture Time in the Creep Regime
There are several empirical formulas in
sophistication,
describe
the
use
which,
on
different
levels
of
temperature.
2.3.1
the
steady-state
creep
rate, ~s' and the rupture time, t f , is approximately independent of the applied
stress and of temperature:
(2.5)
Later work has confirmed that the
Monkman-Grant
'constant'
is
indeed
inde-
2.3
23
pendent
~OOoC and
of data by Evans
750 0 C
constancy
for
copper
simple
surpris-
rule
is
that
the
steady-state
rate can be measured early in the creep life. Provided that the value of
CMG has been determined in relatively short-term tests, the lifetime in a longterm test can be predicted from t f = CMG/ES once the steady-state creep rate
has been established. This means a substantial reduction of testing time. Of
course, to utilize this possibility, the range of validity of the Monkman-Grant
rule must be known. The modeling of the mechanisms should
contribute
to
that
knowledge.
The Monkman-Grant rule is closely
r~lated
the
during
the whole creep life, while the total strain to failure also in-
cludes primary creep and tertiary creep, as well as the effect of necking if it
OQcurs.
In
engineering
alloys
the
greatest
that
also
failure
by
complete necking leads to a constant Monkman-Grant product having the value lin
[eq.
(2.~)J.
internal
parison of observed values of CMG and lin (Evans, 198~) shows that in materials
developing cavities is indeed CMG < lin, whereas in others is CMG = lin.
2.3.2
time
tf,
stress
-Q/RT
a(a) ~ t f e
,
where Q is a fittable activation energy, R is the. gas constant and the
a and
(2.6)
Sherby-
24
2.
Dorn
parameter,
ure. Once 9(0) and Q have been determined, eq. (2.6) can be used to interpolate
and extrapolate to other stresses and temperatures.
2.3.3
and
Miller
the
approach
of
log t f ) T/1000.
(2.7)
empirically,
determ-
data
in
concise
form.
easy
to
imagine
examples
represent
where
questionable.
It
to
Kachanov (1960) and Rabotnov (1969). Here, the evolution of a damage parameter,
w, is conSidered, which is not meant to be a physically identifyable
although
it
is
somehow
related
to
the
cavitated
at
failure.
area
the
quantity,
fraction of grain
virgin
material
to
D aX
(2.8)
(l+~)(l-w)~ ,
measurable
quantities
stress
and
2.3
25
parameters
which
depend
are
ad-
(2.8)
can
readily
be
integrated.
If
the
w is inserted into eq. (2.9), the strain rate can also be integrated
to
failure
and
the
strain
to
with
the
rupture
time
from
Ban, since
at
O.
product
(2.13)
o.
0.5
t/t, --Fig. 2.5. Normalized creep curves from Kachanov model, eq. (2.10).
26
X and
Band
D have
Monkman-Grant product is
the
the
constant
same
Monkman-Grant
product
only
if
following
stress-independent
fraction
of
the
strain to failure
(2.14)
This fraction, as well as the shape of the normalized creep curve shown in Fig.
2.5,
depend
only
creep
is
not
described.
In Chapter 27, a generalization of the Kachanov equations to
states
of
stress
will
be
described.
Together
with
three-dimensional
the
equilibrium
and
compatibility conditions they form a basis for what is called damage mechanics.
These equations will be applied to model creep crack growth.
2.3.5
creep
curves
mathematically
functions
over
an
which
contains
rupture,
another
four
parameters
are
it
is
four
described using four fit table parameters (Evans, Beden and Wilshire, 1984).
incorporate
to
required.
described
To
With these 20
accurately,
claimed that the range of validity includes very long times, where
mechanics
equations
of
equation,
the
concepts
solid
for
to
mechanics.
compatibility
the
be
creep
presented
These
condition
equations
and
failure
mechanisms
and
the
equilibrium
concise,
and
the
reader
1966)
or
will
the
the
subject
(e.g.
Landau
and
mass
inertia
can
generally
be
tenso~
(i,j
1 to 3),
in
Cartesian
of
infinitesimally
small
linear relationship between the strain Eij and the displacement field uj ' viz.,
3.
28
(3.2)
A strain field that is derivable from a displacement
field
according
the
displacement
to
eq.
and
rate,
uj .
forms
will
be
considered
with
by
the
material
law.
strain rate is a sum of the elastic strain rate and the nonelastic strain rate
+
(ne)
ij .
(3.4)
is
related
to the stress by Hooke's law, which, for isotropic material, takes the form
(3.5)
range
temperature
where climb-controlled
is
considered.
dislocation motion
description
form, i(ne)
Under
predominates,
creep
the
conditions,
simplest,
commonly
of
used
stress
to
and
constitutive
multi-axial states of stress using von Mises' J 2 -flOW theory. To account for
the incompressibility of creep flow, this theory assumes the strain rate to be
proportional to the deviator of the stress tensor, ij = ij - ijOkk /3 , and to
depend otherwise only on the second invariant of the
stress
tensor,
3.3
29
Ge = (3GljGlj/2)1/2,
which is
Norton's law takes the form:
called
the
equivalent
tensile
stress. Then
e: (ne)
(3.6)
ij
This is a special case of nonlinear viscous material laws, which are characterized
by
the
stress tensor.
More complex material laws will be introduced and applied
including
the
effects
in
later
introduced
chapters,
empirically
as,
for
example,
can
either
for
cavity
nucleation
and
book
Constitutive
Git~ys),
(1978), Schmidt and Miller (1981), and Estrin and Mecking (1984).
3.3 The Equations for Antiplane Shear, Plane Stress and Plane Strain
The constitutive equations presented in the
partial
(even
differential
numerically)
specialize
the
equations
for
general
preceding
are
nonlinear
three-dimensional
problems.
Therefore
we
section
characterized
by
vanishing
derivatives
two-dimensional
of
stress
and
problems
strain
are
in the
aspects
in
u3 '
G13 ,
and
strain
G23 ,
the
body
must
equilibrium,
be
infinite
compatibility
in the
and
the
3.
30
Fig. 3.1. Mode I and Mode II can occur in plane strain and plane stress.
Mode III corresponds to antiplane shear.
(3.7)
(3.8)
2 )(n-1 )/2
0 23
has
been
body is ann!
0 23 = O.
B = /3 n + 1
(3.9)
1,2)
i3'
the
traction-free
crack
faces
this
specializes
to
single
is defined such that the stress components are given by the derivatives
(3.10)
Inserting eq; (3.10) into eq. (3.7) shows that
stress
components
derived
in
this way from a stress function automatically satisfy the equilibrium equation.
If now the material law, eq. (3.9), is inserted into the compatibility
condition
for
the strain rate, eq. (3.8), and stress components are expressed
(3.10),
the
resulting
equation
for
the
o.
(3.11)
3.3
31
13 = 23 = O.
Such
stress
and
and
specimen that is infinitely thin in x3 -direction and is loaded only in the x1and x2 -directions, i.e. T3 = O. The compatibility relation is then Simpler than
in the general three-dimensional case, viz.,
(3.12)
The equilibrium condition retains its general form,
indices
i,j
take
eq.
(3.1),
however,
the
stress and strain components can be deleted. The equivalent tensile stess is
(3.13)
As in Mode III, the equilibrium equation can be satisfied identically,
if
the
1,2).
(3.14 )
material
law,
eqs.
to (3.6), into the compatibility condition, eq. (3.12), using the stress
employed
for
neglected
in
32
3.
Solutions for both, linear elastic and nonlinear problems will be developed
in
later chapters.
c) A plane deformation field with 3i = 0 and 0'3 = 023 = 0 is called a plane
strain field. Such a field prevails in a specimen which is very thick in the
x 3-direction and which is subjected to boundary tractions (T"
T2 ), which are
of x3 The compatibility and equilibrium equations are the same as
those for plane stress. The equivalent tensile stress now takes the form
independent
= (
M) [(
'IY2
2 J' 12 .
0,,-022 ) 2 + ( 0"-033 ) 2 + ( 022-033 ) 2 + 6 '2
derivatives
of
Airy stress function according to eq. (3.'4). If again the material law is
inserted
into
representation
~
second
(3.'8)
the
compatibility
condition
using
the
stress
function
equation
is
obtained
by
one
obtains
(3.' gal
(3.,gb)
where
(3.20)
v4~
O.
Hence,
same
equation
as
in
plane
same for plane stress and plane strain if the boundary tractions are the same.
The situation where 33 is independent of all co-ordinates Xi but
called generalized plane strain.
non-zero
and
loading
plane
(Fig.
(X 2
= 0)
3.').
If
and
the
the
strain,
we
distinguish
Mode-I
is
Mode-II
boundary
tractions
obey
the
symmetry
relations
3.3
33
shear)
is
characterized
by
symmetric
T2
and
a12 , and
antisymmetric all' a22 , a33 and T1 A linear superposition of Mode-I, Mode-II,
and Mode-III fields is only possible for linear material.
be
materials
the
must be the same if the applied loading is the same. Strain and
their
time
rates
in
viscous
material.
3.4.2
function
of
stress,
Ban,
the
specimen
dimensions,
represents
the
of the specimen size holds for all material laws which contain no
characteristic length, but the independence of the load is unique for power-law
materials.
To prove the validity of eq. (3.21), insert it into the equilibrium
condition,
3.
34
and into the boundary condition for the tractions. Obviously, P/W 2
(3.1),
eq.
2 n the strain rate field, Eij = B (P/W) Eij(r/W), which follows from eq. (3.21),
is inserted into the compatibility condition, the common factor B (P/W 2 )n can
be deleted. There remains a system of equations for 0ij and Eij which is indeed
independent of the load and of the absolute specimen size.
The scaling properties defined by eq. (3.21)
elastic
power-law
and
viscous
are
materials.
not
confined
Rather,
they
unloading
(i.e.,
the
applied
loads
increase
the
hysteresis
loops
obey
as
measured
from
the
upper
also
apply
proportional
properties
to
with
hold
provided
power-law relation, OE
B(oo)n,
power-law
in proportion to a scalar
scaling
unique
to
or
are
lower
strain
reversal
and
stress
pOints of the
scaling
is
materials
the
same
having
as
that
these
in
scaling
properties,
the
stress
governing equations reduce to the same form. Advantage can then be taken of all
the
favorable
problems
properties
there
are
of
path-independent
integrals,
the
crack-tip
fields
are
elastic
materials)
obey
necessarily
linear
or
two-dimensional crack problems (Fig. 3.2), the most important of these laws can
be expressed as follows. The contour integral defined by
(3.22)
crack
In
on
the
enclosed
r,
(Rice,
1968a,
r, n i is the out-
3.4
35
p
Xl
J=jF((J.E,U)ds
C=jF(o,iiJ)ds
1-----
W -----to!
(3.23)
is the strain energy density, and
fields
around
the
crack
0 ..
lJ
stress
and
displacement
~f
pair of specimens which have incrementally different crack lengths, a and a+da,
but are otherwise identical. If P1 denotes the load per
ness, J is given by
unit
specimen
thick-
(3.24)
where d is the load line deflection.
As a consequence of the elastic-viscous analogy, the
repeated
for
above
viscous
arguments
can
analogue
their
time
Some
pOints
At
the
the
load
authors
of
the severity of the crack tip fields as will be shown explicitly for
materials
rates,
(Landes and Begley, 1976; Ohji et aI, 1976; Nikbin et aI, 1976).
use the notations J', j or J* instead of C*.
specimen.
be
power-law
C*
plays
central
3.
36
role
in
the
fracture
mechanics
of
creeping
bodies
and
it
will be used
HRR)
have
analyzed
the
referred
to
Here, the analogous power-law viscous results will be presented. The derivation
starts
from
shear,
eq.
Considering
the
equation
(3.15)
for
plane
stress
and
eq.
(3.19)
plane
strain].
for
negligible
asymptotically
the crack tip if they were taken into account). Now it can be verified by
insertion that the equation for the stress function has solutions of
(power
the
form
the crack tip as in Fig. 3.2. Working out these factorized solutions
leads
the following so-called HRR fields, which are valid near a crack tip as r
C*
n
B r
)1/(n+1)
aij (6)
dimensionless
factor
parameter
same and
0:
(3.25)
to
= Ban,
C* is replaced by
o
a..
complicated
In
~(n+1)/n.
and
will
not
be
and
reported
plane
here,
stress,
while
alJ..(6)
in Mode III
numerical
solutions
are
available from the papers of HRR, and Shih (1974, 1983). Table 3.1 and Fig. 3.3
contain a few examples.
The HRR-field was originally derived for Mode-I loading, but the Mode-II fields
have the same general form with different values for In and
and Fig. 3.3 show results which were taken from Shih (1974).
aij (6).
Table 3.1
3.4
37
Values of I n for:
n =
Plane strain,
Mode I
Plane stress,
Mode I
Plane strain,
Mode II
Plane stress,
Mode II
I In
5.94
5.51
5.02
4.71
4.19
3.77
==
4.77
10
...
4.54
3.72
3.46
3.14
......
ct>
......
,ti:::0
t 05
......
ct>
......
.ti:::-
-05
l5
......
120
180
8 in degrees __
n=3
t 05
ct>
......
60
- 1
60
120
60
120
180
8 in degrees - - 8 in degrees - Fig. 3.3. Dimensionless functions characterizing the angular distribution
of stress in the HRR-field.
3.
38
elastic
crack-tip
field
with
the
well-known
singularity:
KI
0iJ.
(3.26)
= - - f .. (8).
/211l'
IJ
Note that the stress fields for plane strain and plane stress are identical
in
the linear elastic case. The angular distribution of stress is expressed by the
function f ij (8), which is conventionally not normalized in the linear elastic
case, and which is given in Appendix B in closed analytic form for Mode I and
Mode II. For linear elastic material, the asymptotic crack-tip stress field
usually
expressed
in
terms
of
the
For
stress
intensity
Mode-II
and
is
Mode-III
respective stress intensity factors are KII and KIll' In linear elastic material, the stress intensity factor is related to the J-integral through
for plane strain; for plane stress, the factor (1-v2 ) is deleted.
The stress intensity factor can be measured, in principle, by measuring J using
eqs. (3.24) and (3.27). In
tabulated handbook solutions
Cartwright,
1974 r.
applied
stress
and
;mao
(3.28)
in
crack
0,
of
length
is g(a/W) = 1.
plane-strain
or
3.5
Numerical Techniques
39
such
specific
in
two
and three dimensions is the finite element method. There are numerous textbooks
available, for example those by Zienkiewicz
Wilson
(1976),
(1971),
Oden
(1972),
differential
of
Owen
(1984).
equations
the
discretization
body
is
In
the
finite
conferences
on
of
element
method,
the
partial
preceded
finite
by
elements.
In
nonlinear
problems
the
the
by Luxmoore and
ization
and
Bathe
or
incrementally
by
solving
at
problems
is
the
element method. However, the method is less well established than the
substantial
linear
a
elastic
problem
Banthia
probably
contribution
and
confined
to
to
problems
Mukherjee
(1985)
have
recently
the
Rayleigh-Ritz
respect
to
finite set of parameters. This method is best suited for simple geometries such
as spherical holes or cracks in infinite bodies (see,
e.g.
Budiansky
et
aI,
finite
element
method but seem to be less flexible, and the boundary collocation method, which
is confined to linear elastic problems, should be mentioned.
Stress-directed diffusion of
atoms
is
the
relevant
process
not
only
for
diffusional creep and grain boundary sliding, which have already been described
in Chapter 1, but also for various aspects of void nucleation and growth.
is
usually
the
in
the
grains,
but
also
only
for
coefficients
radioactive
tracer
for
the
grain
interior,
into the substrate (Peterson, 1980). Measured values are given in Appendix A.
There is a remarkable difference between diffusion in these tracer
experiments
atoms
specimen.
however,
During
regions on grain
vacancies
stress-directed
boundaries
preferentially
diffusion,
which
leave
are
these
experiencing
regions.
This
into
any
part
of
the
stress,
possibly
leads
diffusivity
of
while
to
atoms,
unless new vacancies are generated fast enough thermally or by other processes.
Now it is often claimed that grain boundaries contain effective vacancy sources
such
as
jogs
in
circumstances
these
sources
are
effective
4.1
41
enough
compared
to
the
observed threshold stress for diffusional creep, for example, (Section 1.3)
a
strong
indication
that
is
is
the
inhibition
of
sintering
by
thermally
per
unit
area
of
grain
\Ill. e
-Q/kT
( 4.0
example,
in
the
perfect
lattice,
Q is
For
6 eV).
interstitial
which
has
high
formation
energy
might become as low as the format i orr energy of a vacancy (typically 1 to 1.5 eV
in the lattice and less in the grain boundary). For quantitative estimates, eq.
(4.1) is only of limited value because of the uncertainty in Q.
Therefore the procedure in this book will be to
assumption
that
start
from
the
conventional
cavity
nucleation
and
growth
easily.
Inhibited
vacancy
production and its effect on cavity growth will be considered in Chapter 13.
assuming
granted by
their
transport
along
which
govern
stress-directed
grain
rapid
boundaries
is
thermal
generation.
considered.
In
First,
fact,
diffusive
grain boundary
conditions
which
II.
112
Diffusion
flux
density
in
the grain boundary, j. (in atoms per unit time and unit length) is equal to the
1
negative gradient of the chemical potential times the atomic mobility. Thus, in
the
absence
by
(11.3)
denotes
the
vector
component
and
the
first
factor
the
normal
displacement
rate
of
the
adjacent
grains
- - - Va
(11.11)
is
boundaries,
which
relates
acting
on
the
boundary.
along
Un
deform-
4.3
43
complicated
to
describe
than grain boundary diffusion. The thermal equilibrium concentration of vacancies in the immediate neighborhood of a stressed grain boundary (which is
again
exponential
normal
stresses,
(4.6)
The diffusion coefficient
for
vacancies,
Dvac'
is
related
to
the
volume
self-diffusion coefficient by Dvac = Dv/(cvfc)' where the dimensionless correlation factor fc has values around 0.5, the precise value depending on the type
of
the
crystal
lattice.
The
(4.7)
IJn
Here, n i is the unit normal vector on the boundary pointing into the upper
grain, Vic~ is the concentration gradient above the boundary and Vic~ is the
gradient taken from below the boundary. (In
symmetric
situations
is
+
Vic v = -ViCv )
Equation (4.7) couples the diffusion problem with
grain
deformation.
It
the
sets
the
problem
of
mechanical
boundary
conditions
effectively
rigid,
eq.
of
this
diffusion
4.
44
problem
acv/at
Diffusion
is still not simple (Herring, 1950), but in the steady state, i.e. for
0, the displacement rate must take the form
(4.8)
the
characteristic
geometrical
length over which diffusion takes place (for example the grain size in NabarroHerring creep), and av is a factor which depends on the geometrical details
the diffusion problem (for example the grain shape).
of
diffusion
grain-bo~~dary
diffusion to hold
equation,
only,
we
in
assume
other
the
cases
additivity
as
well.
of
volume
Then
the
and
basic
(4.10)
correction
and
Ashby
(1971 )
approximate
values for the ratio av/ab in the range 0.2 to 0.3 for a few
configurations including diffusional creep of a polycrystal as well as sliding
of a grain boundary containing hard particles. For a ferritic steel, Frost and
Ashby (1977) repor.t measured values of Dv/6Db ~ 2.10 8 m- 1 exp(-8,OOO KIT). This
implies that the contribution of volume diffusion to eq. (4.10) reaches that of
boundary diffusion not before the a-Y
L > 70 ~m. For T = 5300 C and L
transition
temperature
(723 0 C)
unless
4.
Surface Diffusion
45
of
growing
cavities
and,
sometimes,
energy.
minimize
the
free
surface
is given by
(4.11)
is the chemical
~o
potential
of
an
atom
on
flat
surface, Ys is the specific surface energy and K1 and K2 are the principal
curvatures of the surface measured positive for the surface of a round cavity.
The
atomic
current
density (in atoms per unit arc length of free surface and
times
the
atomic
mobility,
i.e. ,
( 4.12)
rate
of
the
with Vn being
positive
(4.13)
for
growing
void.
Combining
the
preceding
two
(4.14)
2)
eq.
(4.4).
Solutions
for
4.
46
Diffusion
in
Ban
be
which
reduces
to
for
constant
external
load since both, the strain rate in the grains and the displacement rate across
the boundaries are functions of the current stress only.
However,
the
Simple
scaling properties of the stress fields in power-law materials are not preserved in the presence of grain boundary
diffusion.
This
is
because
creep
and
becomes
distribution,
while
at
low
stresses
diffusive
~,
to be introduced next.
The governing equations, eqs. (.1.6) and (4.4), can be written in the dimensionless form
(3/2) l:n-1
(4.15)
l:!.
IJ
(4.16)
with the characteristic diffusion length,
kT
Un
e:i/(Ba )
(4.18)
un/(Ban L)
(4.19)
l: ..
IJ
is
(4.17)
E
n
EIJ
..
{l6D b a )1/3
Here,
~,
characteristic
a . ./a
IJ
(4.20)
x/L.
(4.21)
geometrical
length
of
the
problem
under
4.5
47
consideration
(for
example,
grain
size
scale
strain
the
rate.
parameters,
The
~/L
equations
for
or
cavity
and
Ban
is
the
corresponding
~/L.
grains
except
possibly
near
particular
boundaries. At such
singularities,
grain
boundary
diffusion
smoothens
out
stress concentrations.
Numerical values for
Inspection
stresses,
of
~
a = 6 MPa),
their
have
been
tabulated
by
Needleman
and
Rice
(1980).
that
diffusion
is
the
dominant
34
(~=
~m
for
a-iron
lengths as large as typical grain sizes. For ten times greater stresses at
same
temperature,
(~ =
0.4
~m
have
typically
if
for a-iron)
particles
well as higher stress reduce the effect of grain boundary diffusion compared to
dislocation
creep.
The
temperature
dependence
occurs
energy for grain boundary diffusion is usually smaller than that for
creep.
power-law
Part II
Creep Cavities
5 Introduction to Part II
It has long been known that at elevated temperatures metals and alloys fracture
with
relatively
low
longed times. The strain to failure drops from typically 50% to 10% or less
the
test
as
var i ous
intergranular
cavitation .
Figure
5.1
tected in the secondary stage of the creep curve, sometimes even in the primary
stage . Theoretically, the cavity size at nucleation should range from less than
10 to 100 nm (Section 6.2). Figure 5.1a shows a later stage, in which
start
cavities
(These
two
micro-
graphs were taken from areas near a macroscopic crack, but in uniaxial tension,
creep damage exhibits a similar appearance). Finally, coalescence of the cavities leads to a dimpled, intergranular fracture surface as shown in Fig . 5.1c.
5.
52
Introduction to Part II
the
on
nucleation
are
sense.
The
continuously. Therefore a theory for the evolution of the cavity size distribution function is developed in Chapter 16. Section 16.3 contains a detailed comparison of calculated and measured rupture lifetimes. Chapter 17 summarizes the
results
of
the
preceding
Accurate
density
employed
measurements
allow
Johannesson
to
study
Boettner
total
cavity
boundary
and
Robertson,
and Tholen, 1969; Dunlop, Twigg and Taplin, 1978; Hanna and
grain
volume
and,
under
favorable
means
to
measure
distribution (e.g., Saegusa et aI, 1978; Nilsson and Roth, 1981; Page, Weertman
and
Roth,
1982;
but the signal arising from precipitates, which usually also grow during
of
structural
materials,
other
the
to
distinguish
Further, high voltage electron microscopy has been used to study the
and
application
size
creep
from
the
location,
shape of very small cavities (e.g., Fleck, Taplin and Beevers, 1975;
aI,
1979).
Also
the
scanning electron microscope is a widely used tool to observe cavities and, together with energy dispersion analysis, to identify particles at which cavities
5.1
53
Experimental Techniques
may have nucleated. Chen and Argon (1981a) combine scanning electron microscopy
with a two stage creep technique; by a
strain
after
polishing
small
additional
increment
by
ion
beam
small
the
polished
cavities
creep
of
take
replicas
bends and to inspect the replicas for creep damage in the optical
or
scanning
fracturing the crept specimens in a brittle manner along the grain bounda-
ries, so that the cavities are exposed and can be observed. Brittle intergranular
fracture
1967;
Cane
and
Greenwood,
low
temperatures
(Taplin
and
1981; Chen and Argon, 1981 a). Other mater ials can be made to cleave along their
grain
boundaries
by
liquid
metal
Hanson
usually
of the relatively cheap ferritic steels. Around the turn of the century,
steam engines operated at steam temperatures of 200 0 C. The turbines of the late
1920's
used
superheated
beyond
400 0 C required new concepts in alloy design. This led to the development of the
bainitic low-alloy chromium-molybdenum steels in the 1930's, in particular
applications
low-alloy
for
565 0
temperatures
for
microstruct-
5.
54
Introduction to Part II
cavities
intergranular
and
Tholen
(1969),
the
papers
of
1981), Lonsdale and Flewitt (1981), Sklenicka et al (1981), Needham and Gladman
(1982,
1984),
and
Needham
pure a-iron has been studied by Taplin and Wingrove (1967), Cane and
(1975)
Greenwood
and Player and Brinson (1975). For an evaluation of creep rupture tests
to
800 0
some
c,
ferritic
cavitate
steels,
heats
Twigg and Taplin, 1978; Needham and Gladman, 1980; Chen and Argon, 1981;
deman
et
do
Swin-
aI, 1981; Gandhi and Raj, 1982). The pronounced heat-to-heat variat-
(and
also
in
copper and a-brass). They were among the fjrst who clearly
established that the loss of ductility at elevated temperatures and slow strain
rates was a consequence of grain boundary cavitation. Subsequent work on magnesium and its alloys was reviewed by Perry (1974).
More recently, the development of nickel-base superalloys added
of
commercial
conditions.
materials
Superalloys
applications
and
for
which
are
jet
may
used
another
class
gas
turbines,
both
for
stationary
cavitation
of
superalloys.
work
Tests
on
nickel
and its alloys are evaluated in Sections 12.4.2, 12.4.3 and 16.3.3.
Copper and its alloys have been convenient materials to study
cavitation
the
physics
of
in
Sections
11.1.2,
5.2
55
silver
(Price,
tungsten (Stiegler et al, 1967) and zirconium (Snowden et aI, 1981) are
not,
unless
inter granular
cavitation
at
high temperatures are the ordered intermetallic compounds like C0 3Ti (Takasugi
and Izumi, 1985) and the structural ceramics (Davidge, 1979; Porter et aI,
1981; Hsueh and Evans, 1981; Evans, 1982).
Although cavitation is a widespread failure mechanism, it is by no
means
uni-
versal. Pure aluminum (Chang and Grant, 1953), lead and titanium do not exhibit
cavitation nor do some of the low-alloy creep-resistant steels nor some austenitic
steels.
et
The
(Burt,
Elliott
and
Wilshi~,
temper-
depends on details of the heat treatment (as in ferritic and austenitic steels)
and
on
minor
changes
in
aI,
1983)
to
inter-
granular cavitation is that atomic vacancies become mobile at elevated temperatures. At typical service temperatures
along
of
creep-resistant
alloys,
diffusion
enhance
cavity
nucleation.
At
This
5.
56
Introduction to Part II
Experiments on bicrystals
been
convincingly
demonstrated
by
metal
creep
rupture
tests
on
copper bicrystals and found that no cavitation takes place when the grain boundary is subjected to normal tension only, but that cavitation
if
becomes
profuse
the other hand, Raj (1975) obtained cavitation of bicrystal grain boundaries in
copper
material
tested
by
and Machlin. Gandhi and Raj (1982) observed cavitation in stainless steel
seems
to
play
grain
boundary
in
cavitation
is also demonstrated by the common observation that in polycrystals grain boundaries which are oriented normal to the applied tensile stress,
slide
the
least,
and
therefore
and
Tholen
(1969),
by
Chen
and
Argon
(1981a) and by Chen and Weertman (1984). In some cases, the orientation distribution of cavitated boundaries depends on the testing
(1973),
for
conditions.
Rao
et
al
boundaries
seems
Gittins
and Williams, 1967, on copper). However, this dependence on strain rate was not
observed by Davies, Williams and Wilshire (1968) for pure copper. In summary,
cavitation
to
faster
cavity
growth
rather
than
to
5.5
51
arbitrary
location
in a grain boundary. In pure metals, cavities are often initiated at the intersection of a slip band with a grain boundary or
at
ledges
in
the
boundary.
are
prone to nucleate cavities, and in this respect they effect the mechanical properties of materials adversely.
5.5.1
Slip bands
slip
bands
within
the
or
less
Watanabe
where slip bands intersect the grain boundary in a copper bicrystal. Similarly,
Nieh and Nix (1980b) find that in copper polycrystals the cavity spacing is
equal to the slip band spacing. Both-vary in proportion to 1/0 in the stress
range 10 to 100 MPa at 500 oC. Sklenicka et al (1981a,b), on the other hand,
deny such a correlation, although their
testing
conditions
were
similar
to
coarse
intense
bands. Cavities are often found at places where a slip band hits a grain-
with
spacing
equal
to
the
slip
slip
in
the
neighboring
slip
band
can
boundary
sliding
con-
Grain-boundary ledges
of
cavity
initiation
Gifkins
(1956),
the
(1963) supported the idea on theoretical grounds, but Harris (1965) showed that
5.
58
Introduction to Part II
aJ
compressive
cavities
ledge
tensile ledge
compressive ledge
McLean's conclusion would have been different, had he used a correct value
for
can
result
from
in the adjacent grains, which intersects the boundary (Fig. 5.2). Depend-
ing on the orientation of the ledge with respect to the sliding direction,
ledge
the
the compressiye type, for geometrical reasons, which are apparent from Fig.
however,
leads
to
ledges
which experience tensile stresses in a subsequent tensile creep test. In agreement with this expectation, Davies, Williams and Wilshire (1968) found a higher
incidence
were compressed before the tensile creep test. Watanabe and Davies
port
(1978)
re-
but these cavities may have been nucleated already by the slip band rather than
by grain boundary sliding focussing stress on the ledge.
Further experimental evidence for cavity nucleation at ledges was presented
Watanabe
(1983)
by
grain
boundary
5.5
59
high
percentage
seems
nucleation
at
nucleation
at
particles
predominates.
in Section 7.4.
5.5.3
triple
grain
stress
been
ob-
the
form
of
wedge
cracks (Section 5.6) as distinct from the usual, rounded cavity shapes.
5.5.4
sites
are
second-
alloy steels, cavities are often associated with carbide particles (Johannesson
and
1969;
Thole~,
Cane,
1976;
Miller
and
Pilkington,
Flewitt, 1979). In a detailed study, Needham (1983) observes cavities at grainboundary carbides, preferably of the type Mo 2C, in two low-alloy bainitic Cr-Mo
steels. In vanadium-bearing steels, VC-particles are known to nucleate cavities.
Besides the carbides, there are other inclusions at which cavities can be
and
oxide
zone
of
weld,
they
the
Middleton, 1981; Cane and Middleton, 1981; Needham, 1983). This may give rise
to stress relief cracking (Section 8.1.3) and to poor creep rupture properties.
In a-iron, cavity formation was found to occur at sulfides, but not at carbides
(George,
1985). Oxides decohere from the iron matrix only if sulfur is present
in the particle/matrix interface. Older papers simply state that oxides act
cavity
nucleation
sites
as
grove, 1967) or 2.8 ppm oxygen (Player and Brinson, 1975) with no reference
to
5.
60
Introduction to Part II
Lau,
1981;
Swindeman,
Farrell
Chen
aI,
1979; see also Section 9.3). After long-time exposure to high temperature, when
sigma phase has been prectpitated, cracks sometimes nucleate at the sigma-austenite
interface (Williams, Harries and Furnival, 1972; Lai and Wickens, 1979).
to
be
responsible
by
Chasterl
and
Flewitt
Pandey
(1973)
observed cracking along the interface between the matrix and Cr 2N-precipitates
within the grains of a manganese-nitrogen austenitic steel.
In nickel-base superalloys, coarse M23 c6 -carbides have been identified as cavity nucleation sites (Law and Blackburn, 1980), often in conjunction with a slip
band impinging on the particle from the grain interior (Shiozawa and
Weertman,
1983).
In copper, there are often small oxide particles (Si0 2 or CuO) which nucleate
cavities (Raj, 1975; Pavinich and Raj, 1977; Chen and Weertman, 1984). By highvoltage electron microscopy, Fleck, Taplin and Beevers
(1975)
observe
cavity
in
the
magnesium
Magnox AL80, cavities nucleate at particles, the nature of which was not
identified.
There are several possible reasons why grain-boundary particles act as preferred cavity nucleations sites. First, because they resist grain boundary sliding,
they experience stress concentrations, which will be calculated in Section 7.3.
Second, they may be weakly bonded to the matrix. While this is conceivable for
sulfide and oxide particles, carbides are generally assumed to be well bonded,
since they do not easily decohere during room temperature straining. Therefore,
a third possibility may be important, namely, that cavity nucleation
icle/matrix
at
part-
5.6
61
Wedge Cracks
in
from
grain-boundary
triple
junctions
as
Fig. 5.3. Their wedge-type shape suggests that they are opened up by
the sliding of inclined grain boundaries. These wedge cracks are preferentially
observed
example, McLean (1956/7) finds that wedge cracks predominate at stresses above
150 MPa in the temperature range 700 0 C to 950 oC. Lai and Wickens (1979) observe
wedge cracking in austenitic steel above 200 to 250 MPa at temperatures between
500 0 C and
675 0 C.
The
transition
Stroh
(1957)
has
con-
rather
than
coalesc-
from their serrated edges (Chen, 1956; Chen and Argon, 1981a).
Experimentally,
the distinction between brittle decohesion and cavity coalescence is not simple
as exemplified by the study of Mullendore and Grant (1961) (quoted by Grant,
1971) on an AI-5%Mg alloy. After a certain preparation of the polished sections
of crept specimens, wedge cracks were observed which appeared
to
have
smooth
edges. A further light etching, however, revealed numerous small rounded cavities on boundaries which had not yet cracked. Most probably the
have
cavities
a)
would
A possible
5.
62
stress
relief
cracking
Introduction to Part II
boundaries
as
was
already
sulfur
reduce
cess would then be determined by the nucleation and growth of cavities, and the
difference
to
homogeneous
will
obey
different kinetic laws. Attempts to model wedge-crack growth have been based on
Stroh's (1957) and Cottrell's (1958) elastic analysis of a wedge
and
Williams,
1970,
1971;
Burton
for
crack
(Heald
theoretical
with the nucleating slip band is not a mechanically stable configuration, i.e.,
the
and
the
microcrack
plane
which
the
sliding
grain
in
angle
of
135
between
the
and the sliding boundaries. This model gives a very limited range
the
stable
growth
of
wedge cracks over appreciable fractions of a grain facet. Thus the relevance of
existing models (most of which have
fracture)
is
questionable
in
originally
relation
to
been
developed
wedge-crack
for
growth
cleavage
under creep
continues
early
Quantitative measurements of the cavity nucleation rate have been made by counting
the
number
~m,
whereas
5.7
Observations on
cavity
nuclei
Nu~leation
63
Kinetics
points
out
that small cavities tend to grow rapidly and therefore the counting of cavities
having a size of 0.5
that
the
number
of
cavities,
experimental
studies
factor
of
proportionality
or
(5.1)
J*
a'
E,
where J* is the cavity nucleation rate per unit grain boundary area, a'
empirical
factor
is
an
only
whose
normals
modifications)
by
Greenwood
on
(1969)
strain
has
been
found
(with
and
for
superalloys.
selection of measured data for the material parameter a' is shown in Table 5.1,
the values for which are partly taken from a diagram compiled by Dyson
The
table
material.
shows
There
1/2Cr-1/2Mo-1/4V
that
is
and
(1983).
difference
even
between
the
steels
higher
on
grain
boundaries,
content in trace impurities (Cu, As, Sb, S, 0 and N), Tipler and Hopkins (1976)
optained very low cavity densities as shown by the data for high purity steels.
Nickel-based alloys exhibit a similar sensitivity to trace impurities,
observed, for example, by Thomas and Gibbons (1984).
as
was
5.
64
Introduction to Part II
Material
Source
a' in m- 2
21/~Cr-1Mo
steel
(austenized at' 1300 0 C)
Cane (1979)
Dyson (1983)
4.10 12
2.7
lCr-1Mo-1/4V steel
(austenized at 1300 0 C)
Tipler and
Hopkins (1976)
1.4.1012
0.2-1
Tipler and
Hopkins (1976)
1.5.1012
2.2
lCr-1Mo-1/4V steel
Tipler and
Hopkins (1976)
4.10 10
Tipler and
Hopkins (1976)
Dyson (1983)
Needham and
Gladman (1980)
8.10 11
Dyson (1983)
4.10 10
25
Ef
(2-10) .10 9
in %
6-19
Table 5.1. Cavity nucleation rate (per unit strain) and strain-to-fracture.
ductilities.
For
the
materials
Ef
densities
exhibit
the
1250 a,-0.4
(5.2)
the
effect
stress state on the nUCleation rate in two Cr-Mo steels. He found that
which
controls
the
nucleation
rate
finds
oi
also found by Dyson and McLean (1977) who carried out tests on Nimonic
80A
in
very
5.7
close
65
to final failure (see, e.g., Dyson and McLean, 1972). In other cases, in
particular in the overheated Cr-Mo steels studied by Cane (1979, 1981), by Cane
and
Middleton
some fraction of the lifetime with a saturation value, which increases with
stress as Nsat 0 1 3 Apparently, the sulfide particles which are the primary
nucleation sites in the overheated condition tend to nucleate cavities early in
creep
life.
In
Type
304
stainless
stress
be
addit-
critical
cavity
80A.
Especially,
there
kinetic behavior than eq. (5.1) the difference being possibly due to
inaccuracies in the measurements. They found that the inverse spacings of cavities,
A,
squared.
in
proportion
to
observed
In copper, Fleck, Taplin and Beevers (1975) observed cavities at stresses down
to 8 MPa, but none below 8 MPa. In a-iron at 700 oC, the lowest stress applied
by Cane and Greenwood (1975) was 9 MPa
Dyson
and
McLean
and
they
stresses between 92 and 385 MPa. It is possible, however, that cavitation would
have
these
are
developed
5.
66
by
intergranular
Introduction to Part II
absence
of
the
550 0 C
In summary, cavities
metals
are
nucleated
in
pure
to 76 MPa at
below
(1980)
and
700 0 C.
10 MPa,
whereas
tbe
suppression
example,
matrix
to
These
appropriate
gas
atmo-
which in this case reflect the growth kinetics exclusively. Pertinent references are given in Sections 9, 11.2.7 and 12.4.3.
Further, the nucleation stage has been bypassed by prestraining at room temperature,
interactions,
which
and
slip-band/grain
1976;
Parker
and
Wilshire,
1980;
and Weertman, 1981, 1983; Burt, Elliott and Wilshire, 1981; Nazmyand
Duerig, 1982; Loveday and Dyson, 1983; and Pandey, Mukherjee and Taplin, 1984).
The results of some of these tests are evaluated in Section 12.4.
below,
namely,
especia~ly
first
the
this
relationship the force per unit area between two atomic planes
is assumed to vary as
(6.1)
when the planes are pulled apart. Here, u is the relative displacement
planes
of
the
atomic spacing,
the
atomic
F(O) = 1. The form of eq. (6.1) has been chosen such that it gives
elastic
behavior
the
linear
a = EE). Further, the integral over a(u) is the mechanical work expended during
the
separation
of
energy, since two new surfaces are created. This requirement determines
Uo
once
J a(u) du
o
where x
(E/b) u 2 J xF(x) dx
o 0
(6.2)
u/u o ' The ideal strength is the maximum of a(u) which is found to be
6.
68
Nucleation of Cavities
01
~
b
as to
u/b
with uo/b
0.316.
as
(6.4)
m = 0.52,
0.86
and
0.65,
Ys = 1.5 J/m 2 and b = 2 10- 10m, eq. (6.3) gives the ideal strength in the order
of magnitude of E/l0 in accord with results of Orowan (1948) and Kelly (1966).
0
Thus the ideal strength is of the order of 10,000 MPa, whereas typical stresses
applied
under
creep
that the rupturing of atomic bonds in the perfect crystal lattice cannot be expected to occur unless very high stress concentrations are built up locally.
Usually cavities are nucleated at interfaces, which are weaker than the lattice
and,
possibly,
have
other
properties
= Ys/3,
this
substitution
im-
6.1
69
that
they
do
not
combined
the
so
1,500 MPa. In
creep
temperat-
boundary
sliding
are
possibly
of
inter-
be
that
impurity
segregation
can
par-
ticles or by stress concentrations which are probably not achievable under lowstress creep conditions as we shall see. An alternative
me"chanism
for
cavity
of
atomic
the
athermal
rupturing
which
that
voids
could
be
nucleated by the condensation of atomic vacancies. The idea was first dismissed
since theoretical arguments seemed to indicate that vacancy precipitation
voids
into
1958). Therefore, for about 15 years, void nucleation by the rupturing of atom-
70
ic
6.
Nucleation of Cavities
has been revived successfully by Raj and Ashby (1975) and Raj (1978b). In their
analysis,
caused
of
rather
general
Weber (1926), Becker and Doring (1935) and Zeldovich (1943). It has been adopted
for
the
book, by Fisher (1948), by Turnbull and Fisher (1949) and by Turnbull (1956). A
more
recent
of
droplets
in
vapours
(Feder et aI, 1966), to the precipitation of second phases in solids and to the
cavitation of fluids under negative pressure (Volmer, 1939, Fisher,
has
1948),
it
also been applied to cavity formation in solids. Resnick and Seigle (1957)
couples
(Kirkendall
effect)
at
surface to form a Cr203-scale, while Ni, being a slower diffuser, cannot fill
the vacant lattide sites fast enough, so that the supersaturation of vacancies
may lead to cavity nucleation on grain boundaries near the oxidized surface.
Another example where cavity nucleation
vacancies
is
the
phenomenon
of
is
driven
by
cavitational
supersaturation
swelling
during
or
of
after
irradiation with fast neutrons. Brailsford and Bullough (1972) have developed a
comprehensive
theory
for
the
concentrations
Russell
(1971,
considers
the
thermally
Cavity shapes
the
nucleation
sites
nucleation
barrier,
as
we
6.2
71
A cavity on a grain boundary, tends to assume the lenticular form shown in Fig.
6.2a. The angle ~ at the tip of the void is dictated by equilibrium between
surface tension forces, in this case by the balance of
the
specific
energies
per unit area of the free cavity surface, Ys ' and of the grain boundary, Yb
This balance leads to an angle of
70 0
surface
area for a given volume, the cavity surface consists of spherical caps provided
that the anisotropy of the surface energy can be neglected.
Similarly, the void shape at a second-phase particle in a grain boundary
(Fig.
cos cp
(6.7)
where Yp is the energy of the free surface of the particle and Yi is the energy
of the particle-matrix interface (always per unit area).
For self-similar cavit,y shapes, the cavity volume V, its surface S, the
of
length
its perimeter in the grain boundary, P, and the grain-boundary area that is
curvat-
(~),
(6.8)
...-/cav~fy~
...-/
grain
-----boUndary
21/1
2J.L
6.
72
Nucleation of Cavities
the
dimens-
cos 3 w)
4n (1 - COSw)
(6.9)
2n sinw
on
the
angles $ and
W'
with
be
(W
+ $ -
~)/2.
the
dimensionless
functions
(4n/3) (2 - 3cosw'
function
fv
cos 3 w')
W'
which
cannot
that
void
This
be
(6.10)
can
would
be
called
non-wetting.
Raj and Ashby (1975) find that the curvature of a cavity surface at
vanishes,
i.e.
the
volumetric
W= 30 0 or 36 0 , respect-
ively. This means, as we shall see, that for sufficiently small void tip angles
no
barrier
exists
for
cannot be the usual situation, since otherwise real polycrystals would spontaneously disintegrate or even could not be produced at all. However, this extreme
case illustrates the importance of the wetting angles for cavity nucleation.
6.2.3
thermal
cavity
of
cavity
is
formed,
the
the surfaces which are freshly exposed must be expended while the
energies of the grain boundary and of the particle-matrix interface are gained.
6.2
73
~G,
is given by
where fi is the geometrical function for the newly exposed area of the inclusion, analogous to eq. (6.8). However, this form of the surface-related free
energy can be replaced by a much simpler one. For
clear
in
the
reasons
which
will
become
prove
this
The volume term of the free energy is either given by the (negative) work
done
by
the applied stress during void enlargement or it can arise from a supersat-
boundary
and
let
the
equilibrium
the
solid increases by the atomic volume 0, and the applied stress does the work an
for each vacancy absorbed, i.e., the stress-related part of the free energy
a
cavity
with
volume
of
~G
the
specimen
upon
cavity formation contributes to the free energy (Brinkmann, 1955; McLean, 1958;
Hirth and Nix, 1985). However, the elastic
work
can
generally
be
neglected
(subcritical
~G(p)
it
is
clear
that
small
to
a~G/ap =
macroscopic
size.
D, which leads to
( 6.12)
74
6.
Nucleation of Cavities
<.!)
~
........
<.!)
0.5
1.5
0.5
Fig. 6.3. Free energy vs. radius of curvature of the cavity nucleus.
(6.13)
L'.G*
This equation shows that the nucleation barrier decreases with stress
1/02
as
and
increases
with
Now the reason is given why the surface-related terms of the free
the
energy
have
simple form Used in eq. (6.11). If the dependences of the surface term and
the volume term on the wetting angles differed from one another, the result for
the
critical
radius,
p*,
thermal
wetting
angles,
since
in
the
the
].I
-an
cavity surface, ].I = -ys n(K1+K 2 ) = -2Ys n/p [see eq. (4.11)]. I f the
chemical potential were not continuous at the transition from the grain bound-
spherical
ary to the cavity surface, an infinite diffusive flux of matter to or from the
cavity would result. Equating the two chemical potentials gives eq. (6.12),
which
proves
that
assumed.
We now turn to the case that a supersaturation of vacancies provides the
ing
force
for
vacancy
Cv
precipitation.
The
driv-
equi-
6.2
librium
value,
force if
an
75
from
super-
increase the volume of the specimen and is therefore not associated with mechanical
work,
unless
new
vacancies
does
not
demand
the
across
the
nucleation
determine
the
frequency
factor
will
be
presented
Ashby
first
(1975)
because
its
analysis
of
density
= (c max - c) exp(-AG*/kT).
(6.14)
of
equi-
ies. Further, Raj and Ashby (1975) assume that the nucleation rate
(number
of
cavities generated per unit time and area) is given by the product
J*
B*N~,
(6.15)
16
6.
Nucleation of Cavities
where 6* is the rate (per unit time) at which single vacancies are absorbed
a
by
subject
6*
is
the edge of the cavity at their equilibrium concentration, i.e., that effective
vacancy
sources
the vacancies approach the void through the grain boundary only. Then 6*
takes
the form
(6.16)
The first bracketed term is the number of atomic sites along the
the void in the grain boundary where f
perimeter
of
atomic
distance
vacancies
within
one
from the void perimeter. The third term is the jump frequency
(in m Is), using the Einstein relation for two-dimensional diffusion. The
vac
factor 1/4 accounts for the fact that only one out of four in-plane jumps leads
from
the edge into the cavity. The vacancy diffusion coefficient is related to
the grain boundary diffusion coefficient through oD b = Co oD vac ' In most cases
is 00 kT so that the exponential function in the expression for ~* can be
expanded in a power series. Eventually, the final
result
for
the
nucleation
J*
2 f p (1jJ') Ys
04/3
(1
00 ) oD b (c
-c) exp[kT
max
4 y3 f
(1jJ')
J.
(6.11)
kT
The most important part of this result is the exponential factor. It makes
nucleation
rate
the
so that at
low stresses, cavity nucleation occurs at a few random nucleation sites whereas
at
high
stresses
all
evaluation is deferred until a better model has been discussed in the following
subsections.
The
dominant
influence
6.2
6.2.5
77
leads
to
deeper insight and to modified and extended results compared to the formulation
of Raj and Ashby (1975).
We
denote
the
area
density
of
vacancy
clusters
as
the
radius
of
curvature,
which
previously
the
sub-
max
(6.19)
- c) exp(-AG(n)/kT),
where cmax - c is the area density of nucleation sites available for the subcritical clusters and the free energy of a cluster, AG, is given by eq. (6.11).
InCidentally, Raj and Ashby
assumption is now dropped.
(1975)
tacitly
assume
that
N(n)
N (n).
o
This
The net flux of clusters in size space, I n , from the size class containing n
vacancies to the class containing n+1 vacancies is given by the difference in
number density
betwee~
those
of
n,
(6.20)
Here 8(n) and 8 ' (n) are the rates (in number per unit time and
which
cluster
unit
area)
at
n.
The
emission
rates
8 ' (n)
can
be
between
size
78
6.
Nucleation of Cavities
(6.22)
Using this expression
in
eq.
(6.20)
and
replacing
finite
differences
by
aN(n)
(6.24)
at
This equation is
governing
sometimes
differential
called
the
Fokker-Planck
equation.
It
is
the
vacancies. The equilibrium density No(n) and the absorption rate S(n) are known
from eqs. (6.19) and (6.21). The partial differential equation is linear and
resembles the diffusion equation in one-dimensional space.
6.2.6
n,
and that constant flux defines the cavity nucleation rate, J*. With I n = J*,
eq. (6.23) can be integrated by separation of the variables, Nand n. The integral extends from the smallest clusters(n
= ~):
- Jd[N(n)/N (n)]
1
(6.25)
The lower limit of integration on the right-hand side is unity since the number
of
'clusters'
containing one
upper limit on the right is zero since, for large n, No goes to infinity
while
N remains finite. The value of the integral on the right is simply 1. The integral on the left-hand side is conventionally evaluated in an approximate way by
arguing that the greatest contribution to the integral comes from the region
where No has a minimum. The minimum of No exp(-~G/kT) occurs where ~G has a
maximum, i.e. at n = n*. Hence ~G is expanded in a power series up to quadratic
terms in n-n* at the maximum,
~G*;
slowly
varying
function with a value S* at the critical point. Then eq. (6.25) gives
J*
Z S*
N~
(6.26)
6.2
79
form
of
eq.
(6.15).
In
the
2
Ys = 1.5 JIm,
T = 850K and
fv(~')
100 MPa,
~
= 10 ,the Zeldovich factor is Z = 4.10- 4
Inserting eqs. (6.14), (6.21) and (6.27) for N~, B* and Z into eq. (6.25) leads
to the final form of the steady-state nucleation rate:
J*
fp(~')
0 /jD b (cmax - c)
exp(- 4 Y; fv(~') ).
1/3
2 0
[3w kT Ys fv(~,)]1/2
02 kT
(6.28)
appears
in the exponent, this result is so strongly stress dependent that one can reasonably, albeit not in a .strict sense, speak of a
critical
stress
for
cavity
nucleation, 0nuc
This nucleation stress can be calculated by the following
argument. Practically all nucleation sites are activated within a given testing
time,
t,
if J*
o
nuc
(6.29)
values
between 30 and 40 for times between a day and a few years, for
temperatures around half the melting temperature, for 0 between 10 and 1000 MPa
and for material parameters of a-iron. Taking the long-time value, 40, gives
(6.30)
In the second form, Ys = 1.5 J/m 2 and T = 850 K were inserted as representative
numerical values. At an arbitrary location in the grain boundary, the volumetric function of a lenticular cavity is f (70 0 ) = 2.1. Cavity nucleation by vacancy
condensation
80
6.
(below
Nucleation of Cavities
100 MPa in engineering alloys and below 10 MPa in pure metals). This is
are
as
follows.
First
it
eqs.
(6.29)
and
From
the
critical
radius
of
p* = 2Ys /o, and from eq. (6.18), the number of vacancies follows to
be n* = f (2Y 10)3 /U The uncertain value of f is eliminated using eq. (6.29).
v
s
v
If the logarithm in eq. (6.29) is again chosen as 40, there results
curvature,
n*
Since generally kT
80 kT/(oU).
(6.31 )
few
6.2.7
s v
still
have
the
size
stressed state. Not before the new equilibrium state is reached, nucleat-
Fokker-
eq. (6.24). No exact closed-form solutions are available, but upper and
eq~
bound
aN
at
and the second term on the right-hand side is neglected.
(6.32)
Since
this
term
is
positive in the interesting range of nand t, the first term alone under-estimates the time rate aN/at of approach to the steady state. The
is
incubation
time
therefore obtained too large. With this approximation made, eq. (6.32) is a
Sen).
With Sen) ~ n 1/3 as in eq. (6.21), the diffusion equation has similarity solut-
6.2
81
ions of the form N(n,t)/No(n) = f(n/t 3/5 ), where the function f is obtained by
substitution into eq. (6.32) truncated after the first term on the right-hand
side. The resulting ordinary differential equation for f can be solved by separation of the variables. The cluster current, from eq. (6.23), is found to be
(6.33)
The numerical factor
truncating
eq.
(6.32),
one looses the boundary condition that I n must approach J* for l0ng times.
Since the value of ~ is of no interest here, it is arbitrarily set equal to 1.
Back-substitution
of
eq.
the first and the second terms on the right-hand side varies as 1/t,
first
term
is
i.e.
the
much larger than the second for short times. Hence, eq. (6.33)
n* and B
plotted
(6.34)
which appears in the exponential of eq. (6.33) and which is our upper bound for
the
.n*
incubation
=
n* gives
t(Ub)
(6.35)
A lower-bound estimate was derived by Trinkaus and Yoo (1986), who solved the
full eq. (6.32) making the approximations to expand ~G(n) at the critical point
up to quadratic terms in (n-n*) and to consider the reaction rate as a constant, B(n) = B*. Since B(n) is actually smaller than B* for subcritical
clusters, this approximation overestimates the nucleation rate, particularly at
short times. The non-steady nucleation rate is then obtained as
J*(t)/J*(m) ~ (1 - e)-1/2 expf(1-1/e)-1~G*/(3kT)},
where J*(m) is the steady-state nucleation
abbreviation defined for local use only, and
t (R.b)
i
3 kT n*/(o 0 B*)
rate,
(6.36)
(R.b) )
e = exp(-2t/t i
is
an
(6.37)
6.
82
Nucleation of Cavities
is the lower-bound estimate for the incubation time. It differs from the upperbound estimate given in eqs. (6.34) and (6.35) by a factor 4.2 kT/AG*, which is
typically 0.1. Figure 6.4b shows the nucleation rate given by eq. (6.36).
Interestingly, the characteristic time given in eq. (6.37) was also obtained by
Binder
and Stauffer (1976) who analyzed the asymptotic approach of the cluster
estimate
of ti refers to the long-time behavior, while the upper bound was obtained from
a short-time analysis. Less accurate upper and lower-bound estimates than those
given here were reported by Raj (1978b).
Numerically, incubation times are generally short compared to the duration of a
creep test. For Y = 1.5 J/m 2 , a = 100 MPa, f2 If = 10-4 and for the grain
v p
s
boundary diffusion coefficient of ferritic steel given in Appendix A, the upper
1 sec at T = 850K and ti = 20sec at T = 750K,
1
while the lower bound gives ten times smaller values.
eq.
bound,
(6.35),
yields t.
the
nucleation
behavior
stress is substantially higher than observed ones. Second, theory predicts that
0.1,
t a3
0.75
.....8
-...
.8
f;-
~ a2
.....
....
:::f;-
f;""")
b)
0)
a5
""")
0.1
025
o
,
tlt.(ub)
6.3
83
nucleation
stress
is
applied (apart from the incubation time which was found, however, to be small),
whereas actually nucleation occurs continuously throughout the creep life,
and
the nucleation rate is controlled by the strain rate rather than by stress.
6.3.1
A theoretical remark
The classical nucleation theory described above has been criticized for several
reasons,
in
face energy on an almost atomistic scale. More advanced models have been worked
out
(for example, Feder et aI, 1966; Binder and Stauffer, 1976) the outcome of
which has been that classical nucleation theory cannot predict absolute nucleation
rates
driving force (in our case: stress) is predicted well. Indeed, some
phenomena,
creep
cavities,
however,
On possible causes for the discrepancy between theoretical and experimental nucleation stresses
the
fv 1/2
nucleus
could
unity. If nucleation is to occur at a stress level of 10 MPa, eq. (6.30) requires f = 3'10-6 , which means practically non-wetting particles. It is difficult
v
in
materials
which cavitate, even if impurity segregation is taken into account (Chapter 8).
Second, the theoretical nucleation stress calculated above is
local
stress
by
slip
are
certainly
special
situations
nucleation.
84
6.
Nucleation of Cavities
role, but in other cases it cannot be of great importance (Chapter 9). Finally,
stresses around growing precipitates will be considered in Chapter 10.
6.3.3
6.2.7,
can be excluded that the incubation time, together with its possible varia-
continuously
over
explain
why
cavity
process
nucleation
which
stress
con-
evid-
ence what this triggering event might be. Shiozawa and Weertman (1983) found an
almost perfect one-to-one correlation between the cavity spacing and the
ing
spac-
between coarse slip bands, which are typical for these alloys. The density
Thus,
in
these
materials,
nucleation is continuous since the slip bands which initiate the cavit-
events
for
continuous
nucleation come from the spasmodic nature of grain boundary sliding ob-
the
lack
of
Apart
alloys as well, this suggestion does not explain how cavities are nucleated
on
number
might
be
an
artefact the real situation being as follows. All cavities are nucleated virtually instantaneously and grow by a mechanism of grain boundary
the
rate
sliding.
Since
reach
the
detectability
to
situations
in
apply
can
on
transverse
boundaries
is
more
The analysis of cavity nucleation in the preceding chapter indicates that local
stress
concentrations
by
however,
the
be-
stress
with
are
described.
Each
boundary
example
theory
of
cleavage crack initiation at low temperatures. At elevated temperatures, however, diffusion and dislocation creep tend to relax stress concentrations. Nevertheless,
the
elastic
approach
reasons but also because elastic stress concentrations are generally the severest and, in this sense, represent a limiting case. Furthermore, elastic material behavior cannot
a~ways
occurs spasmodically, as observed by Chang and Grant (1953) and by Intrater and
Machlin (1959/60), the elastic response of the material determines
field
at
short
times
the
stress
critical
stress
is
reached,
can
7. Stress Concentrations
86
of
length
d.
Depending
sliding
factor near unity from the grain size. Nevertheless, the same
for
both
quantities.
Due
grain
boundary
is
used
the
sliding
boundary
conditions
uniform resolved shear stress Tm is applied. Tensile stresses do not affect the
analysis in linear material. The problem is identical with a dislocation
pile-up problem (Bilby and Eshelby, 1968) or with a Mode-II crack,
ions
the
solut-
for which are well known (see, e.g. Rice, 1968a, or Appendix B). If rand
e are polar coordinates centered at the end of the sliding boundary segment,
~ress
aeo
0)
/reo
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
(if uniaxial
tension)
b)
taco
8/tT,,;,
7.1
87
Kn
Y'21Tr
(7.1)
f. J.(6).
1
The dimensionless angular functions f .. (6) are independent of the outer speclJ
imen geometry, and they are given in Appendix B. The stress intensity factor
KII depends on the specimen geometry and on the load.
In
particular,
for
an
isolated crack (or sliding boundar'y segment) in plane strain or plane stress in
an infinite body is
(7.2)
For a penny-shaped crack (or boundary facet) of diameter d in an infinite body,
KII has the maximum value
The maximum of KII occurs at the pOints where the crack front is normal to
shear direction (Rooke and Cartwright, 1974).
For later use, the shear displacement across the penny-shaped crack
is
the
quoted
Here, p is the distance from the center of the circular crack measured
in
the
Tm'
(1/2)
am
am'
through
sin2a.
(7.5)
The tensor transformations for general loading are not needed here.
In relation to cavity nucleation, the tensile stress occurring locally near the
end
of
the
sliding
boundary
is
7.
88
Stress Concentrations
1.322
(7.6)
121fT'
2.!.....
stress
concentration
suffices
to
rupturing of atomic bonds. This requires that the maximum tensile stress
exceeds the ideal strength of the material over one atomic spacing, b.
Setting
analysis gives an upper bound for the stress concentration and, hence, a
bound
for
the
applied
lower
sliding
boundary
facet
is
not
viable mechanism for cavity nucleation, unless the cohesive strength is reduced
substantially, say, by the presence of a weakly bonded particle.
Smith (1966) using an energy balance argument derived a result which is equivalent
to eq. (7.7) apart from a numerical factor. This coincidence is not fort-
uitous since the energy balance argument and the cohesive strength argument adopted
can
be
expressed
by
the
but
over a greater region having the size of the cavity nucleus. Taking
~m
en-
hanced by a factor 13.5 compared to the applied tensile stress. In the light of
eq. (6.30), this is hardly sufficient to cause nucleation at
applied
stresses
around and below 100 MPa, unless the volumetric function fv is very small.
7.1
7.1.2
89
which
(3.6),
reduces
to
E =
Ban
One
nonlinear
materials
viscous
have
been
of
eq.
law,
viscous
nonlinear
integral as a function of the applied stresses a~. and of Lb. Due to the nonlJ
linearity of the equations, the components of the applied stress can enter into
the problem in a complicated
resolved
shear
stress
plays
manner,
a
whereas
in
linear
material
only
the
approximate
method,
which
has
turned
out
to
be
sufficiently accurate. Riedel (1984b) has applied the idea to a shear crack.
The idea is based on a linearization of the nonlinear viscous material law. The
linearization procedure conveniently starts from an initial state of stress for
which the stress analysis is trivial. Such a starting solution is obtained, for
example,
if only a shear stress is applied, and this shear stress is just bal-
stress
field.
LOO. The linearization around the initial state for small (Loo-Lb)la: leads to
problem of linear, anisotropic elasticity, which can be solved.
For plane
strain~ th~
the
sliding
rate
averaged
C*
(7.10)
Here a
(/3/2) [(a;2-o~1)2 + 4L:]1/2 is the equivalent applied tensile stress
e
in plane strain and 00 = B(ooo)n. This linearized solution is exact for n = 1
e
e
and asymptotically exact for small (Loo-Lb)/o:. He (1983) has performed
numerical calculations for the shear crack with Lb
up to n
0 [i.e. (Loo-Lb)la:
of
eqs.
1//3]
(7.9)
and (7.10) due to the linearized treatment of the problem is never greater than
3%. For Lb > 0, the situation should
Lb
become
even
more
favorable
since
for
7.
90
Stress Concentrations
is
the
problem
can
which
is
em-
anisotropic
elastic
material,
transversely
iso-
materials, which would be directly useful for our problem. However, his
solved
be
correctly.
Since
does
not
reproduce
the
isotropic
time-consuming, the author proceeds by assuming that only the quantity S given
in Hoenig's eq. (17) is incorrect, whereas the general form of the solutions is
accepted. Now a supposedly correct value of S is obtained by adjusting Hoenig's
results
to
He
and
loading
system,
the
same
value is used for the shear crack. In this way, one obtains the average sliding
rate across a circular, isolated grain boundary facet:
(7.11)
In the linear case, n
for
exact
result
the limit of incompressible material [cf. eq. (7.4) with v=1/2J. It should
be noted that this result for the penny-shaped crack differs from that for
the
For
example,
under
the
7.1.3
pre-
the
which,
in
characterized
E=
olE
by
eqs.
represents
the
long-time
limit.
The
transient
cracks
to
(3.4)
in
the
viscous
behavior
will be
fracture
mechanics
7.1
(Chapter
91
23). Without deriving the results here we use the characteristic time
for the transition from the initial, elastic behavior to the long-time limit:
2
(7.12)
(n+1) C*
Inserting the expressions for KII and C* given
leads to
in
the
preceding
subsections
the
above
'"
If ae/E
10 -3 and CMG = 0.03, this ratio is t1/tf = 11332. Thus the elastic
stress concentration is relaxed within a small fraction of the lifetime.
7.1.4
On
the
other
hand,
it
requires
stress
concentration
but
even
was
is
boundary against sliding implies a finite rise time for the elastic stress concentration. For an isolated grain boundary facet this is modeled in the following, approximate manner. The grain boundary is assumed to
slide
according
to
The
consists
in
employing
eq.
facet,
the
92
7.
~b
Stress Concentrations
on the facet.
This
reduces
the
a:/E:
in eq. (7.10) must be identified with Young's modulus. There results the
with
t
= (3w/8)
d n/E.
(7.17)
concentrations
grain-boundary
particles.
stress-directed
diffusion
the material parameters involved, the rise time, tv' for the elastic stress
concentration may be shorter or longer than the relaxation time, t 1 If tv is
found to be larger than tl' the elastic stress concentrations are
up.
The
same
is
true
if
diffusive
stress
never
built
con-
sidered more accurately than in the preceding section. This has two effects.
First, the stress singularities at triple junctions of sliding grain boundarief
are different from those at the end of an isolated sliding boundary facet. Second, grain boundary diffusion, which plays no role if an isolated grain
ary
facet
bound'
grain
~,
7.2.2
thl
7.2
limit
93
~/d +
will
be
considered
while
the
from
the
consideration
of
possibility
contiguous
of
grain
networks,
boundary
instead
however,
diffusion,
of
isolated
the
grain boundary
at
triple junction. Since the author does not know of a published solution for the
stress near a triple junction, the problem is worked out for
Appendix
B.
plane
strain
in
Starting from the equation for the Airy stress function, V4~ = 0,
one obtains the stress field near the junction in the form
(7.19)
Here gij(S) are dimensionless angular functions normalized such that gss(O) =
1. The dimensionless factor K is undetermined by the asymptotic analysis and
will be estimated from other arguments later. The exponent s is calculated
for
+ S
cos[s(n-2a)]
2 cosns.
(7.20)
94
7.
2a
s
180
160
0.191
120
0.449
109.5
0.500
Stress Concentrations
20
0.832
60
0.689
a.
< 109.5, the stress field has a stronger singularity than the
whereas for 2a > 109.5, the singularity is
This
2a > 109.5,
angles,
1976).
initiate an unstable crack Since, once the crack nucleus is formed, the
singularity
rises.
For
2a
For
stress
the
applied
stress is increased.
The factor K can be estimated from a finite element analysis of
grid
of
grains (a
their
the
results,
to
elastic
material
60 0
Unpublished
calculations
of
the
of
length
that
0.29
behavior.
hexagonal
intersecting
slip
dll2,
those
at
the
end
of
10 nm
cavity
similar
stress
(8
= 0).
At
distance
nucleus
size,
088(8=0)/o~ = 9.2
was taken as d
7.2.2
are
if
= 30~m
the
applied
stress
is
concentrated
by
factor
grains
deformed
in plane strain shown in Fig. 7.2. The grain boundaries slide freely, while the
7.2
95
E = Ban
eq. (3.6),
simplifies
to
in uniaxial tension.
which
governing
junction
starts
from
with the elastic terms deleted. This problem has factorized solutions of the
form ~ r 2 - s f(6). The angular distribution f(a) and the exponent s have been
determined numerically by Lau and Argon (1977). Their
results
will
be
shown
shortly. Because of the scaling properties of stress fields in power-law material (cf. Section 3.4.2), the asymptotic stress field must have the same form as
in
linear
elastic
material, eq. (7.19), but with sand gij(S) taken from the
are
shown
in
(1977).
Their
results
for
the
angular
numerical
analysis
the whole arl'ay of grains, rather than an asymptotic analysis only. Several
authors (Crossman
McClintock,
1983),
and
Ashby,
1975,
Gharemani,
1978,
and
Lau,
Argon
and
(1983)
lay
particular
emphasis
on
the
behavior near the triple points. They give the following interpolation formula,
which is based on finite element calculations for n
= 3 and n = 5:
7.
96
Stress Concentrations
(7.21)
eq.
(1.9).
According
to
6 = O.
If
(=
concentration factors are obtained as a66(6=0)la~ = 9.2, 2.8 and 1.8 for n = 1,
3 and 5, respectively, if d = 30 ~. Thus, for power-law creeping material with
n
triple
points
is
moderate.
It
is
of
deformation
on
an
Ashby
other
words,
the deformation by creep of the grains can be neglected compared to the deformation by grain boundary diffusion. This limiting case
mathematically.
is
particularly
simple
solved is the equation for grain boundary diffusion, eq. (4.4). For
two-dimen-
sional problems involving plane boundaries, this equation takes the form
(7.22)
where x is the co-ordinate along the
boundary
and
un
is
constant
(in
the
7.2
geometrical
rigid-body
and 7.4 for plane strain. If ~ denotes the extensional strain rate,
compatibility
displacement
and
rates
the
of
conservation
of
mass
demand
that
the
in
-E
for
incom-
on horizontal boundaries
n
n
(7.23)
-Ed/2
on inclined boundaries.
7.2
97
slide
at
rate
Ed/l3.
inclined
boundaries
cannot progress without grain boundary sliding (Raj and Ashby, 1972).
For the constant values of
eq. (7.22)
is
un
on each of the
boundaries,
the
integration
be~ow.
about
the
from
the
symmetry
of
triple
an
of
points
dan/dx
on
at
dan/dx on the inclined boundary. The normal stress must be continuous at the
triple points since discontinuities would cause infinite fluxes. Finally the
equilibrium
x2 J
[x 2 /2 - d 2 /72J
on horizontal boundaries
(7.24)
on inclined boundaries
an
7.
98
on
horizontal
boundary
is
equal
to
am d1312
Stress Concentrations
(the
average on inclined
boundaries has already been made equal to zero), a condition which connects the
strain rate and the applied stress
(7.25)
e:
When
the
diffusional
creep
of
polycrystal,
eq.
for
example,
use
the
shear strain and the shear stress, which implies a 3 times greater
eq.
(7.25)
into
eq.
(7.24)
are
creep
are
the
stress
singularities
which
occur
during
stresses.
Argon,
Chen
and
Lau
(1981) estimate the length, A~, over which diffusion relieves the stress
concentrations caused by power-law creep. They find:
A~ ~ d (~/d)1/[1-s(n-1)/3J
where
the
(7.27)
exponent
of
is
pm~
diffusion over distances of at least 60 nm. This means that the already
ate
stress
concentration
factors
expected
for
moder-
5.
7.2
7.2.5
99
concentrations
at
triple
junctions
by
power-law
shear cracks (Section 7.1.3) or at tensile cracks (Chapter 23). The details
the
of
creep
can
have
the
same form as in eq. (7.13) apart from possibly n-dependent numerical factors.
7.2.6 Relaxation of elastic stress concentrations at triple points by diffusion
At triple junctions, stress relaxation additionally
diffusion.
The
occurs
by
grain-boundary
slide
freely
with
the
normal
(except
for
material
para-
Poisson's ratio) nor the applied load nor the grain size.
Therefore the normalized stress and strain fields cannot depend on these
para-
meters, while stress and strain themselves can depend on them only by virtue of
the normalization. Hence, the normal stress on
the
horizontal
boundary
must
For time t
elastic
field,
must
be
compatible
with
the
parabolic behavior of eq. (7.24). The natural time scale for this transition is
defined by the second argument of the function Ln' More specifically, Raj
(1975) models diffusive stress relaxation in a regular polycrystal subject to
shear.
From
his
numerical
7.
100
Stress Concentrations
(7.29)
Taking
material
a-iron
~m,
parameters
for
gives td = 70 h at
however,
it
is
the
the
relaxation
of
the
overall
field.
calculation
of
the
elastic
field
still
persists.
This
Near
allows
the
remote
for
short-time problem: the remote loading and the grain geometry can
the
cavity
by
to
boundary
condition
be
replaced
(7.30)
which is valid for times short compared to td as defined in eq. (7.29) and
for
distances from the triple point small compared to the grain size.
In order to determine the as yet
imately,
which
2a
it
is
occurs
109.5 0
convenient
if
the
The
unknown
included
factor
dimensionless
function
angle
between
K appearing
in
was
the
sliding
along
1/2,
boundaries
is
inverse
w rather
point
than
by
along
planar
=
configuration;
in
Fig.
7.5;
at
diffusion
square-root
approx-
Fn
result
is
occurs slightly ahead of the triple junction and exceeds Fn(O) by 19%.
Now the time can be calculated which elapses until the
junction
has
stress
at
the
triple
20 m, S
1/2
7.2
0.1.
101
stress
concentration
near
the
(7.31 )
This is 2000 times smaller than the global relaxation time given in eq. (7.29).
For
a-iron
at
time
compared
to
Although this is a
during the elastic transient. Recall that the incubation time for cavity nucleation
given in eqs. (6.34), (6.35) and (6.37) is numerically of the same order
as td. Of course, elastic transients can only playa role if the piling
slip
against
up
of
the triple junction occurs faster than diffusion and creep relax
up
against
the
junction
is
sliding
is
provided that the applied load rises fast enough or internal slip instabilities
cause
rapid
loading
events
locally.
The
characteristic
the
friction
time
for viscous
coefficient
of
grain boundary, n, from eq. (1.8) and td from eq. (7.31) gives
(7.32)
7.
102
Stress Concentrations
Thus, the ratio td/tv depends only on grain size, particle size and particle
spacing. For large, closely spaced grain boundary particles, this ratio is
smaller than unity, i.e., elastic stress concentrations are relaxed before they
are built up.
are
grain
boundary
stress
concentrations
in
the
nucleation
process
is
possible
role
described in this
section.
7.3.1
particles,
Smith
materials
having
the
same
elastic
moduli.
Between
the
particles, the grain boundary is assumed to slide freely. In other words, Smith
and Barnby solve the elastic problem of an infinite periodic array of
coplanar
approximation
valid
Ap.
factor
satis-
fies the energy criterion, eq. (7.8). Combining eqs. (7.33) and (7.8) gives the
applied shear stress which is necessary to nucleate cavities
the rupturing of atomic bonds:
at
particles
by
7.3
103
(7.34)
oo
that
for
widely
spaced
Ap.
particles,
the
cavity
E
p
~,
together with
part
polycrystal
is
junctions, so that the stresses on the particles are reduced. To a first approximation, the importance of the finiteness of the sliding facet can be assessed
by considering a finite number of
for
coplan~~r
shear
cracks.
Numerical
solutions
this problem are shown by Rooke and Cartwright (1974). Their Fig. 93 shows
intensity
factor.
For large particles (p ~ Ap)' the difference in KII between infinitely many and
a finite number of cracks vanishes. Even for relatively small particles,
= 0.1
.piA p
array
of
infinitely
difference becomes
many
greater
diverges
logarithmically
as
A Ip
goes
to
do~inant
three-dimens-
boundaries
in
polycrystals
equi-axed
particles
on
finite
by
Riedel
(1984b)
and
penny-
shaped shear cracks of diameter d, i.e. we apply the shear crack model of grain
7.
104
Stress Concentrations
model
does
describe the conditions near triple junctions accurately, but the -stresses
obtained
approxim-
ately correctly. The stress transmitted by the facet, 'b' whose origin was not
specified in Section 7.1.1, is now ascribed to the presence of hard particles,
each
of
2
which carries a shear force 'bAp'
If the particles are well separated
Westmann
(1965),
the shear force transmitted by the junction, 'bA~' is related to the relative
shear displacement across the boundary by
A~
particles
continuously
(7.35)
(p E).
the
forces
transmitted
by
the
implies
an
inconsistency,
since
the
displacement calculated from eq. (7.35) with a uniform 'b is also uniform,
whereas eq. (7.4) gives a p-dependent, i.e. non-uniform, displacement. Therefore
compatibility
the
averages
of
ub
must
be
'b
= '",
shear
,p
2
311 (2-v)
[ 1 + -6
1
1-v
stress
"10.
(7.36)
p ]-1
-pd
transmitted
by
particle,
can
be
(7.38)
Along the circumference of the particle the stress intensity factor varies and,
according
7.3
105
circular junction is
(7.39)
Assuming that
cavity
nucleation
occurs
once
the
stress
intensity
factor
satisfies the energy criterion, eq. (7.8), one obtains a critical applied shear
stress for cavity nucleation
C7.40)
t~
second
term
in
brackets
accounts for the finiteness of the grain boundary and, correspondingly, vanishes for d
well
~ ~.
as
as
150 GPa,
As
p = 0.5
numerical
~m,
Ap = 3
example,
and
~m
assume
d = 30
~m.
Ys = 1.5 N/m, E =
Then the stress for
and
if
the
particles
are
As in the linear
calculated
ela~tic
depend
on
described
following
work
of
an
infinite
grain
boundary
is
McClintock (1983).
These authors consider an infinite
particles
on
an
otherwise
periodic
freely
array
sliding
of
grain
rigid,
boundary
diamond-shaped
subjected
to
plane-strain shear. Toe geometry is the same as that shown earlier in Fig. 6.2.
The
particle/matrix
interface
E=
Ban in
description
of
the
material
on
7.
106
particles (typically 1
ions
~m)
Stress Concentrations
on
the
sliding
grain
particles
equation
for
the
Airy
stress
function
Ceq.
(3.19a)
with the elastic terms deleted]. They obtain factorized solutions having the form 0ij r- s gij(B). For the exponent, they give s = 0.192 and
s = 0.101 for n = 3 and 7, respectively, for a particle angle of ~ = 60 0 . Lau,
Argon and McClintock (1983) report values of s = 0.225 and 0.152 for n = 3
and
remains
unde-
This factor was calculated by Lau, Argon and McClintock (1983) using
1/3, n = 3
and 5 they infer the following formul~ for the normal stress, 0p' acting on the
particle/matrix interface near the apex of the particle:
material
the
grain
boundary.
Although
Using
in
the
special
values
5 and ~
inClined
from
the
apex
must
be
the
condensation
of
vacancies,
the
nucleus size. For r = 20nm and p = 1~, eq. (7.42) becomes op /0 m = 0.65 Ap /p.
It is interesting to compare this stress concentration occurring in the
Singular field with the average shear stress transmitted by
two-dimensional
(12%
in
the
present
example).
This
means
that
the
local
stress
7.3
concentration in the
singular
field
107
is
numerically
moderate
in
power-law
material
piA
[in
the
two-dim-
analysis
represent
the
hard
particles
between
the
forces
stress,
~b'
slides
freely
which
they
transmit
are
analysis,
the
junctions
the
junctions
the
boundary
material,
we
re-
set v
1/2, and replace Young's modulus by ae/~e. This provides the linear
viscous solution. Finally, the generalization to arbitrary stress exponents,
n > 1, is aChieved by using the
Hutchinson
linearization
method
introduced
by
He
and
(1981). For the shear crack as a whole this has been carried out in
Section 7.1.2. The analogous calculation for a circular junction connecting two
power-law creeping half-spaces has not yet been worked out. Instead of performing such a calculation, it is assumed that the displacement rate of the
ion
has
the same n-dependence as the circular shear crack. For n = 1, the ex-
way
junct-
(7.35).
In
~bAp:
boundary;
for
As in the elastic case, global compatibility demands that the average displacement
rate
from
eq.
(7.43)
7.
108
Stress Concentrations
Lm 1 [1
+ (27n/32)
A~
1 (pd)].
(7.44)
Here it was assumed that the equivalent stress near the sliding facet is
to
the
remotely
applied
a:.
equal
either Lb + Lm or Lm
Equation (7.44) is independent of n [since in eq.
(7.43) the same n-dependence was assumed as in eq. (7.11) l, and is therefore
identical with the linear elastic result given in eq. (7.37) for-v
The two-dimensional analysis showed that in
n
power-law
viscous
= 1/2.
material
with
> 3 the local stress concentration beyond the average shear stress acting on
the
maximum
the particle:
(7.45)
lead
to
case,
small
small
stress
grains
and
concentrations
coarse
and
and
should
closely
spaced
therefore
be
concentrations
by
is
usually
power-law
creep
and
grain-boundary
diffusion,
take
place
in
is
expressed
the
by
the
grains,
taken
7.3
109
creep
diffusive
particles
[eqs.
(1.6)
and
(1.8)]. Such an additive superposition can be only an approximation, but it reproduces the limiting cases of creep-controlled or diffusion-controlled sliding
if
is
the
limiting
cases.
Equating the sliding rate obtained in this way to the sliding rate of the grain
facet
as
whole,
eq.
(7.11),
particle:
(7.46)
co-
in
last
(the
low.
In
this
case,
the
stress
is
the
stress
singularity
at
the
apex
of
the
good
approximation
for
approximations
and
had
to
be
complex
that
numerous
limiting
case
(the
linearization
method
7.
110
applied
Tb
Stress Concentrations
~ T~)'
particles
as
flat,
were
of
1 and for
checked
the
approximations
in
creeping
polycrystal
having
linearly
viscous grain boundaries. The closed-form results of the model agreed well with
finite element results of Gharemani (1980).
7.3.6
enough,
the
is
low
neg-
that
the
stresses
at
particles
is
particle size can easily keep pace with diffusion over the whole
grain,
which
controls the rate of Coble creep. If, however, diffusion in the particle/matrix
interface is much slower than in the grain boundary, oDi oD b , interface
diffusion may become rate controlling, the whole shear force being focussed on
2
the particles. The stress on the particles is then of the order crp/a~ = (Ap/P)
simply because the area fraction of the particles is of the order (A /p)2. This
limit is approached when oD./oD b
1
detailed
discussion
The inhibition of diffusion creep at low stresses is often ascribed to the fact
that
parts
the grain boundary (i.e. diffusion creep) can only continue if the thicken-
other
mechanism,
the
inhibiting
particles
normal
to
an
accommodation
similar
problems.
a~.
Consider
grain
7.3
11 1
mitted by a particle is denoted by ap ' whereas outside the particles, the average stress is abo There are two requirements that determine these two stresses.
First, the displacement rate by the diffusive plating of atoms during Coble
creep,
(7.48)
must be compatible with the displacement rate by creep near the particles:
(7.49 )
Equation (7.49) must have the form shown due to the scaling properties of
er-law
viscous
pow-
icle as a circular junction connecting the grains, just as in the case of rigid
particles
in
otherwise
freely
tension
(Rooke
and
Cartwright,
1974) is extrapolated to power-law viscous material by assuming the same dependence on the stress exponent n which holds for the penny-shaped crack (He and
Hutchinson, 1983). This results in a = (3~/4)'(1+3/n)-1/2. (Recently, Cocks,
1985, has proposed an alternative model in which he models the
particle
as
cases.
small
For
and
small
all
applied
stress
is
resolved
stresses,
for
We
consider
two
concentrated
on
the
particles,
i.e. ,
then
(4/~)(J..lp),
follows
as
power
function of stress,
creep.
The
inhibiting
effect
of
the
free
7.
112
Stress Concentrations
Figure 7.6 shows the behavior of the strain rate as calculated from eq. (7.50).
(The strain rate follows from ap by = a p B ~ / d). Apparently, there is no
real threshold to diffusion creep in this model, but the steep decrease of at
low
stresses,
if
observed
experimentally,
might
well
be interpreted as a
threshold. This quasi-threshold occurs approximately where the two terms on the
left-hand side of eq. (7.50) are equal. This gives a 'threshold stress' of
n-1
aeD
As an example, eq. (7.51) is
if p2 is neglected compared to A2.
p
evaluated
for
at
half
Section 1.4).
7.3.7
7.1.3 and Chapter 23). In particular, the relaxation time must be of the order
n-1 -1
t1 '" (E B 't p )
eq.(7.51)
(7.52)
7.3
113
it
are
neglected.
From
eq.
the higher the average stress on the particle, ~p' is. Numerically, t1 is
usually only a minute fraction of the lifetime, and it is questionable whether
elastic stress concentrations can be built up
fast
enough
compared
to
this
relaxation time.
7.3.8
In addition to
concentrations.
creep,
As
also
one
diffusion
reduces
the
initial
elastic
stress
by
an
expression
analogous
to
eq.
(7.29), which was derived for stress relaxation on the scale of the grains. Now
the grain size, d, must be replaced by p and, as Koeller and Raj (1978) show in
detail, the numerical factor in the denominator is 37 instead of 130.
As in the case of the triple junction, however, it is not the global relaxation
time, but rather the relaxation time at a small distance from the stress Singularity, which is of primary interest for the cavity nucleation process. Diffusive
stress
relaxation
near
the
triple
junction.
Again,
the
stress field has similarity solutions, eq. (7.30) with d replaced by p and with
Fn having a different functional form. Other than at the triple
junction,
the
normal stress on the interface, and therefore Fn' must now be zero at any time
t > 0 directly at th~ intersection because of the symmetry of the problem.
Figure
7.7
grain
boundary,
the
form
intersection
with
which
cannot
be
determined
from
~p.
has
dropped
to,
say,
the
7.
114
Stress Concentrations
~---------r---------'
diffusive flux
OL---------~--------~
p/1I2
r-
Fig. 7.7. Normal stress, an' on particle/matrix interface vs. distance from
apex, r. Diffusive relaxation of an elastic stress singularity (schematic).
is
second if
extremely
20 nm, this
relaxation
to
be
is
cD i
the
unknown
oD b , and p
unlikely
that
~m
interface
and a
diffusion
coefficient
is
relaxed
assumed
1.
by
creep
concentrations
very rapidly, say by some sliding instability in an adjacent grain, the time to
pile
up
sliding
against
the
particles
of
the
grain
boundary
the particles which is, however, rarely known. For details, see Argon,
proposed
to
use the results derived in the preceding section for two-dimensional particles.
7.5
Summary
115
at
particles
due
to
grain
the
stress
concentrations
which
in the steady state after elastic stress concentrations have been relax-
The
stress
concentration factor at the particles is then given by eq. (7.45). For somewhat
lower stresses, the particles start to be circumvented
that
by
diffusion
provided
the size scale of the grains, the stress concentration factor is then given
eq.
(7.46).
At
by
rises
to
values of the order (A /p)2 during Coble creep. On the other hand, the stresses
p
fact-
ors in the power-law creep regime of engineering alloys, are moderate. Only for
widely spaced, small particles and large grains can
factor
the
stress
concentration
ion may be larger on a small scale due to the relatively severe elastic
stress
singularities.
diffusion
eq. (7.50)
_ad
n
eq. (7.45\
-----~------''-f
-- eq. (7.46)
power-law
creep
Coble creep
Ga>
(log scale)
tends
elements
segregate
to
grain
boundaries,
the
to
presence
of
impurities
is
developed in Section 8.2.4. Impurities also influence the ductility under creep
conditions.
If
embrittlement.
they
do
so
in
an
adverse
manner
this
is
called
creep
the precipitation
of
(Section
Not
8.1.2).
nonadherent
all
particles
elements
which
also
are
plays
present
or
an
important
in
alloys in small
zirconium
are
role
added
creep-resistant
steels)
are
(e.g.
range where segregation occurs (350 0 -600 0 C in steels), a drastic loss of ductility is observed in impact testing at room temperature. The phenomenon has long
been known as temper embrittlement. The subject has been
for
reviewed
repeatedly,
of
grain
by
Liu
8.1
Qualitative Observations
117
et al (1983) on the intermetallic compound Ni 3Al. Such ordered alloys have good
high-temperature mechanical properties but at room temperature they usually
fail
intergranularly
in
an
extremely
ppm
fashion.
and
By controlling the
increasing
the
Ni-content
brittle
boron
due
to
the
segregation
is
ascribed
to
improved
grain
boundary
found that the boron-doped material exhibits brittle inter granular fracture
temperatures between 600 and
800 0
at
and Lee, 1985). This effect is probably not related to segregation and
can
be
should
be
It
plays
knowledge.
by
atomic
hydrogen
does
not
occur
to
the
Apart from affecting the room temperature ductility, impurities can also impair
the
creep
the role of different impurities has been made in the past few years by examining
freshly exposed cavity surfaces and grain boundaries employing Auger spec-
experimental
techni-
and not
Sn
been
reported
by
Bieber
and
and
have
and
given by Holt and Wallace (1976). Schneibel et al (1983) show that small additions of Zr restore the creep ductility of a Ni-20%Cr alloy, which was previously embrittled by trace levels of sulfur. They suspect a twofold effect, namely,
part of the zirconium preCipitates as sulfides in the matrix thereby preventing
118
8.
in
reduction
of
stress
the
Zr
segregates
on
the
cavity
retarded in proportion to 6Db . In any case, the beneficial effect of small additions of Zr and B on the creep rupture properties of nickel-base superalloys
has long been known and utilized. Oxygen has an
boundaries
in
nickel
and
embrittling
effect
on
grain
some
formation
will
steels
properties
of
austenitic
influence
on
the
carbide
morphology
such
as
cavity
nucleation
rate
is
purity steels (see Table 5.1 in Section 5.7.1 and Hopkins, Tipler
and
Branch,
1971; and Tipler and Hopkins, 1976). However, the mechanism by which impurities
be easily identified in later
(e.g.
Tipler, 1980; Needham and Orr, 1980; Yu and Grabke, 1983; Jager
temper
addea
impurities
lead
which
(Takasugi
had
and
to
Pope,
embrittled
1982,
1983),
by
sulfur,
although
an
known
to
cause
temper
influence
creep ductility. First, they can reduce the cohesive strength of interfac-
es. Although this is probably not a generally dominant factor in creep embrittlement,
it
plays
that oxide particles decohere from the iron matrix only if sulfur
is
present.
8.1
119
Qualitative Observations
This
observation
suggests
that
sulfur
As
grain
boundary
be
discussed
serve
as
heat
boundaries,
in
11.1.5. The third effect is often the most important one; sulfur tends
diffusion
treatment
depends
strongly
on
complicated behavior observed. Since this effect has been investigated primarily
in
connection
with
stress
relief
following section.
8.1.3
which
is
often
heat
treat-
al,
1980,
Gooch, 1981; McMahon, 1984). In the part of the heat affected zone which
say, 1100 oC, sulfides, which are normally
precipitated as large MnS particles within the grains are dissolved. During the
rapid cooling after the welding pass, the sulfides are
preferentially
re-pre-
heat
treatment
after
welding.
test
or
even
during
the
the
heat
affected zone of the parent material. Therefore after welding, the structure is
reheated to some 700 0 C in order to remove the internal stresses by creep relaxation. Materials Which are susceptible to stress relief cracking cannot sustain
these strains. This susceptibility often arises from cavity
formation
at
the
finely dispersed sulfides. The coarse grain structure, which is also obtained
in that part of the heat affected zone and Which is known to lead to a reduced
ductility
ment and for stress relief cracking. As for the effect of other impurities,
is
observed
that
it
the sulfide distribution adversely thus aggravating the problem. Cerium, on the
other
hand,
seems
to
retain
sulfides,
the
absence
of
grain-
8.
120
cracking
which
has
been
on
by
high-tempera-
may
be
the
characteristic
dimples
down
of
to
scale
of
10 nm.
In
Hippsley et al (1980, 1982) show that the occurrence of this brittle mode in
21/~Cr-1Mo
steel
multiaxial
states
depends
of
stress
and
by
medium-temperature
conditions.
To
rationalize their observations they assume that the cohesive strength is reduced sufficiently by grain boundary segregation to allow for
brittle
separation
of the grains. Indeed, Hippsley, Rauh and Bullough (1984) show by high-resolution Auger spectroscopy that sulfur is enriched near
interfacial
the
tip
of
the
brittle
crack. McMahon (1984) and Shin and McMahon (1984) propose that the
sulfur enrichment stems from grain boundary sulfides which might release sulfur
atoms quickly to the newly created surfaces of the interfacial crack.
An alternative explanation would be that segregation reduces the dihedral
tip
angle
which
facilitates
cavity
nucleation
void
enhances the cavity growth rate. In fact, there is evidence in Hippsley et aI's
(1982)
paper
that this could be the case. Their Fig. 9b shows a cavity at the
carbide/matrix
interface
located
at
triple
grain
junction.
As
shown
schematically in Fig. 8.1, the cavity has a concave radius of curvature against
the matrix.
cavity with
negative
positive curvature
carbide - decorated
grain boundaries
8.1
Qualitative Observations
121
The
concave
without
an
applied
carbide
and
this
could
be
due
to
In
so that the material looses its creep resistance. Therefore, large deflections,
which
can
occur,
for
weak
zones.
The
material
then
Segregation eguilibria
The reason why substitutional impurity atoms are segregated to grain boundaries
is
that
sites
on
grain
boundaries
size
misfit
of
impurity
atoms which can be accommodated more easily in the grain boundary (Seah, 1975),
but the state of chemical bonding also plays a role (Wynblatt and Ku, 1980). At
high temperatures, entropy tends to favor a homogeneous distribution of impurity atoms with no enrichment on grain boundaries.
The first type of theory relevant for segregation effects deals with this thermodynamic
equilibrium
having a dilute molar fraction xi in the grains. The segregation free en-
i.e.,
there
is
no
have
already
atoms. However, there is site competition since only a limited number of sites
is available. The total coverage, Lei, cannot exceed unity, where e i is the
partial coverage of the available sites with atoms of species i, and
summation
sign.
Of
course,
it
is
the
8.
122
atoms segregate to different kinds of sites. This would complicate the formulation
slightly.
Similarly,
one
one
type
-I~
J
segregating
to
electron
studies.
For
lies
in
the
the
spe~ies
de-
sulfur
An
indirect
estimate
for
like
and
with
sulfur
(Grabke
et
aI,
covered
be
to
grain
admit
boundaries
energetic
no
such
interactions
steels
but does not occur in plain carbon steels even in the presence of high phosphorus levels. According to Guttmann,
phosphorus
due
elements
like
chromium
cosegregate
In
carbon
with
steels,
indirect
eq.
(8.1).
Addition
of
8.2
chromium,
molybdenum
or
vanadium
123
it
causes
embrittlement.
In
other
boundaries,
Segregation kinetics
This
is important in cases like the following example. The heat treatments of steels
are usually done at relatively high temperatures, at which impurity
dissolved
in
the
grains
due
the
new
equilibrium
associated
within
practically
are
grain
boundaries
interesting
tempering
above
in
order
to
atoms
times,
in
steels
segregation
350 0 C,
is
the
is
does
phenomenon
so
slow
not
occur.
of
temper
by
McLean
embrittlement observed.
Theoretically, diffusion-controlled segregation
has
been
modeled
(1957). He solved the diffusion equation for the impurity atoms, subject to the
boundary condition that the concentration at the
local
equilibrium
then found
with
the
grain
boundary
must
be
in
increase according to
~o
(8.2)
where
thickness,
D is
the
complementary
t
= O.
9~,
error
from
function.
4 Dt (x B I 9 0)2,
diffusion
the
grain
boundary
and
erfc
denotes
the
value
at
For short times, eq. (8.2) can be approximated by the leading term of a
4 (Dt/~)1/2 x B I (9_0)'
as
(8.3)
fixed
time
of
tempering,
9~.
At
high
temperatures,
the
8.
124
(I.,
e
s~
O'i
5
kinetic / ;
control
@
o
..Q
8<x.Vl5t'
O'i
o~--~~~~~~~~--~--~~
1,00
600
800
1000
area coverage is low since impurity atoms are dissolved in the lattice
at
whereas
kinetics
agreement
between
the
8.2.3
as
rule,
is
intuitively
clean
strongly.
Quantitatively,
the
decrease
in
grain boundary energy due to segregation, dYb , can be calculated from the Gibbs
adsorption equation
(8.4:
which, for Simplicity, is given here
pressure;
ri
for
constant
temperature
and
constant
(8.4)
includes
all
8.2
125
constituents
of
the
Its
meaning
is
that
if
the
(1975)
chemical
and
by Hirth
and
Rice
potential of an impurity is
decreases
coverage
the
given,
respectively, by
(8.5)
(8.6)
(apart from additive constants which play no role here).- The area coverages, r A
and r B, are related to the fraction of grain boundary sites occupied by host
and impurity atoms through
(8.7)
(8.8)
where Nb is the number of available sites per unit grain boundary area
is
given
a =
~aJ
and
aB
adsorption
equation
(8.4)
and
(8.9)
where Ybo is the grain boundary energy of the clean material and the abbreviation e = exp(6G b /RT) is defined for local use. For strong segregants, is usually
-6Gb RT so that e can be neglected compared to unity. In this case, eq.
(8.9) simplifies to
(8.10)
126
The last form involves the additional approximation of low grain-boundary coverage, i.e., the logarithm is expanded for arguments near 1. Seah (1980) obtains
a similar result except that he writes the gas constant, R, where k belongs.
Equations (8.9) and (8.10) were derived
surface
for
grain-boundary
segregation;
for
lies
in
for
the
the
free
fact
that
during
the
Also the structure of the adsorbed layers has been clarified so that the number
of adsorbtion sites, Nb , is known. The distance between adsorption sites is
often equal to the size of the unit cell of the host lattice (- 0.3 nm) so that
19 2
Nb = (0.3 nm) -2 ~ 101m.
Inserting this value together with 6Gb = -50 kJ/mol
(which is characteristic for grain-boundary segregation of phosphorus in iron
and steel at 500 0 C) and Ybo = 0.9 J/m 2 into eqs. (8.9) and (8.10), leads to the
grain boundary energy plotted in Fig. 8.3 as a function of the bulk phosphorus
content xp At xP = 0.4% the grain boundary energy is found to be reduced by
some 30% compared to pure iron.
1.0
'"E
"'.......
.~
.1G=-50 k)/mo/e
09
T=773K
0.8
07
~.Q
06
/inear approximation
0.5
0
01
02
0.3
04
impurity content x P in %
--0.5
0.6
127
and
tures
where
copper-bismuth
data
on
interface
energies
are
available.
The
B.2.4
surface
ener-
gies by segregation was calculated. Now the results are applied to the cohesive
strength of interfaces. The reduction of the cohesive strength is important for
temper embrittlement and sometimes also for creep embrittlement.
In order to separate a solid along an interface
bonds
mechanical
loading
by
the
wor~
rupturing
of
atomic
not
the impurity atoms have enough time to segregate to the free surface during the
process of separation. Two limiting cases will be considered. The
is
that
of
first
limit
which implies that each free surface just inherits half of the impurities,
which had been present on the interface before separation (constant coverage).
Hirth and Rice (19BO) analyze these limiting cases carefully. For the slow-separation limit the work of separation is
(B.ll )
where Ys is the energy of the free surface with equilibrium segregation and Yb
is the energy of the contaminated grain boundary. This is a result which one
would naively expect: the work of separation is twice the surface energy (since
two surfaces are created) minus the energy of the grain boundary which had been
present before separation occurred. Both, Ys and Yb can be calculated from eq.
(B.l0) with the mOdifJcations for Ys indicated. Insertion into eq. (B.ll) gives
128
8.
where rs = Ns 6s and rb = Nb6b are the numbers of impurity atoms per unit area
of surface and grain boundary, respectively. For strongly segregating impurities, the linear approximation, eq. (8.13), is usually not accurate enough.
The loss in cohesive strength by segregation,
sulfur
or 0.1 at% phosphorus are added (at 800 K). Clearly, sulfur
in
embrittling
grain
boundaries.
In
steels, however, the atomic fraction of sulfur in solid solution is limited due
to the presence of manganese, which precipitates together with sulfur
The
solubility
product
as
MnS.
(8.14)
where the brackets mean concentration in weight per cent. This formula is based
on
measurements
the
presence
of
1%
by
weight manganese. As the figure shows, the presence of 1% Mn limits the loss in
cohesive strength
by sulfur
segregation to at most
nearly
0
0) Sulphur
'"E
b) Phosphorus
-0.5
"'-,
.;
---
;0.,.
-1.0
850K
0
0.05
0.1
x S, at-ppm 5 -
0.15
0.1
0.5
xP,at-% P
8.2
129
independent of temperature.
The result in the fast separation (or constant coverage) limit is less
obvious
than eq. (8.11). It was given in eqs. (28) and (43) of Hirth and Rice (1980) in
general thermodynamic terms, and was evaluated for
(1980).
For
brevity,
ideal
solutions
by
Asaro
the
the
thermally
6.2. Now the interaction of impurities (or of deliberately added alloying elements)
with
the
stress, which was given in eq. (6.29), varies as 0nuc y~/2. Hence, an
impurity which segregates to the surface of a vacancy cluster and reduces the
surface energy is expected to reduce the nucleation stress correspondingly.
However, the problem is complicated by the fact that the surfaces of the vacancy clusters mayor may not be covered with impurity atoms, depending on whether
the impurity atoms diffuse fast enough to
This
problem
the
fluctuating
vacancy
has been examined by Trinkaus (1983) and by Chen and Yoo (1984),
clusters.
1976).
The
Binder
and
additional
variable
as'
the
area
coverage of the cluster surface with impurity atoms. Instead of one self-diffusion coefficient, oD b , there are now the diffusion coefficients of the host
A,
B
atoms, oDb , and of the impurity atoms, oDb The results are surprisingly
B
A
simple. Over a wide range of the ratio oDb/oDb , the free activation enthalpy
stays
within
1%
of
than
that
of
impurity
is
exp(-~G*/kT),
is
many
orders
of
magnitude
independent
of
factor
in
the
nucleation
The kinetic factor in the nucleation rate must be modified such that oDb
replaced by the geometric mean, [a b OD~ (l-a b ) oD~ll/2. The dependence of
~toms.
is
the Zeldovich factor on oDB/oDA given by Chen and Yoo (1984) is neglected here.
b
8.
130
Hence, in the presence of impurities, the cavity nucleation stress, eq. (6.29),
becomes
60 - (Q~
~)/(2RT)
A
B
Here, Qb and Qb are the activation energies for grain boundary diffusion of the
host and impurity atoms, respectively, and typical numerical values were
inserted in the argument of the logarithm appearing in eq. (6.29),
the
result
condensation
can
clearly
be
lowered to, say, 10% of the pure material, the nucleation stress drops
to
59%
of the original value since anuc y;/2. For a-iron at 850 K this means
a
= 3,160 f v1/2 MPa, using the same numerical values as in eq. (6.30). This
nuc
is still a. rather high numerical value for the nucleation stress. In the
section on stress concentrations it was found that the local stress at
particles may be at most 20 times higher than the applied shear stress. In many
cases
the
stress
concentration
concentration
factor
of
20
will
be
much
lower.
Taking
stress
= 0.025.
fv
~
+ ,
For
must
be
as
small
as
For the dihedral angles defined in Section 6.2.2, this means that
~ < 35 0 according to eq. (6.10). This does not appear to be impossible.
example,
the
combination
of
values
stress
concentration
factor
,= 30
10 0 ,
0 ,
10 0
gives
so
the
~
are
that
the
the
cavity nucleation
grain
stress.
boundary
However,
diffusion
a
coefficient
reduction
of the grain
and
may
Gases or solid phases which are precipitated in alloys may exert high pressures
on
the
surrounding
matrix.
pressure comes from the high chemical potential which the constituents
precipitate
of
the
may have in solid solution. If one assumes for the moment that the
established
within
the
subcritical
vacancy
of a tensile stress (Russell, 1978, Raj, 1982). This means that in the formulae
for
G +
ure
cavity
G,
must be replaced by
~quilibrium
gas
critical vacancy clusters. This kinetic aspect is addressed in Section 9.4. The
effect
of
for
this
the
possible
the
ally 0.5 mm thick surface layer, lead to rapid grain boundary cavitation and to
brittle failure.
A related effect is the formation of water vapor bubbles in silver or copper by
tempering in hydrogen and subsequently in oxygen. This phenomenon was exploited
132
9.
by Goods and Nix (1978), by Nieh and Nix (1979, 1980a) and by Stanzl, Argon and
Tschegg
(1983)
in
order
to
the
chemical
potentials
I1 g + kT In f
o
11
liS +
( 9.1)
kT In a.
(9.2)
0.1 MPa) ,
and 11~ is the uhemical potential of a gas atom in the pure gas at f
1 atm. In
general, eqs. (9.1) and (9.2) can be considered as mere definitions of a and f,
and
insofar they do not contain any information. For ideal gases, however, the
to
pressure,
and
this
11
liS
by
definition.
For
ideal
partial
its
have
equivalent
thermodynamic
functions
of
the
pure
(ormation
in
nickel
and
nickel
case
of
reaction to be studied is
(9.3)
For simpliCity, the possibility of CO-formation is disregarded. In
formation
is
fact,
CO 2 -
Woodford, 1982). The equilibrium condition for the chemical potential demands
(9.4)
9.1
133
to
CO 2-pressure)
is
assumed
to
be
low
defines
the
(9.5)
according
to
eq.
396
(9.7)
In order to obtain the gas pressure of CO 2 it remains to determine the pre-exponential factors in eq. (9.5), a(C), P(02) and r. The activity of carbon in
pure nickel is calculated by Dyson (1982) in the following way. According to
Hansen (1958), the solubility limit of carbon in pure nickel is
(9.8)
x~ = 0.5 exp[-39.6(kJ/mol)/RT].
the
solubility
limit
must
be
it
nickel
in
less
than
the
solubility
2 xC exp(4,762 KIT),
(9.9)
be
assumed
to
be
equal to the outer atmospheric oxygen pressure. This would only be so if oxygen
were an inert gas. In reality, however, Ni and O2 form an oxide
low oxygen pressures. Therefore the reaction
2NiO
even
at
very
(9.10)
134
9.
the
nickel-oxygen
(9.11)
exp(2~G/RT);
at
(9.12)
2.7.10- 9 Pa
700 K and
at
theoretically
and
on
some
additional
real
0.086 plpc
TlTc
(9.13)
respectively,
at
the
critical
point of the gas. For CO 2 is Pc = 7.3 MPa and Tc = 304 K according to textbooks
in physical chemistry. Raj
3.5 MPa, Tc
(1982)
CH~
(pc
additionally
=
4.6 MPa, Tc
gives
=
values
for
CO
(pc
191 K).
gas
can
approximately
be
to
the
(9.15)
With eqs. (9.7) to (9.13), the equilibrium pressure can be calculated from
(9.5).
eq.
The result cannot be resolved for p(C0 2 ) in closed form since r depends
this
way
9.1
the
result
shown
in
Fig.
9.1
was
135
obtained.
Obviously,
the
ideal
gas
to the ideal gas approximation the van der Waals description leads to
pressure
at
1273 K,
where
Bricknell
and
instead of 4,740 MPa for the ideal gas. But still, the pressure calculated
the
van
der
Waals
gas
is
far
applied in creep rupture tests. The gas pressure should therefore play
in
cavity,
or
bubble,
for
nucleation
role
CO 2 -pressure
in
Ni-20Cr
alloy
elements
much
greater
by
pressure
10
to
affinity
to
in the
pressure
which
small.
At these low
---T inK
1000
1250
Q,
CII
....
500
\
\-ideal-gas
500
~
S
750
1(1)()
200
100
approx imation
eq. (9.13)
::::J
I,/)
I,/)
CII
....
50
Q,
Nickel +
0'"
lJ
20
\
~
(x c =5.35-1O-')
10~--~------~----~--~
1.5
1000K/T - - -
oxygen
partial
9.
136
The
calculated
CO-
rature
(Pandey, Dyson and Taplin, 1984). Pandey, Taplin and Mukherjee (1984) report
reduction
to
in
CO/C0 2 -bubble
formation
on
correct the oxygen partial pressure in the metal must be far greater
equilibrium
pressure,
maybe
than
the
boundaries, or because carbon is much more mobile than chromium and reacts with
oxygen
by
Weber
surface
where
form an oxide scale. Nickel, which has a low affinity to oxygen, diffuses
into the material but, being a slower diffuser, cannot quite balance
ward
descri-
flux
of
the
out-
is
what
is
called
hydrogen
and reacts with carbon to form methane. This reaction provides the pressure for
the nucleation of methane bubbles, preferentially on grain boundaries. After
certain
time,
the
growing
hydrogen
example,
(1976,
by
Shewmon
attack
1985)
and
in
steels
have
been
prepared,
for
It
should
be
noted
that these papers place their emphasis on bubble growth rather than nucleation,
since growth seems to be rate controlling. Therefore the subject will be
up again in connection with cavity growth in Section 11.1.6.
taken
9.2
137
Hydrogen Attack
to
other
industrial
processes
petroleum
industry,
but
elevated temperatures. In the early days of the Haber-Bosch process for ammonia
synthesis, failures occurred which were caused by hydrogen attack. This problem
was avoided later by fabricating the pressure vessel from a low-strength
shell,
its
carbon
the hydrogen which diffused through the inner shell could escape and no
ure
inner
which was not susceptible to hydrogen attack due to its low carbon con-
could
build
press-
to
hydrogen
attack than carbon steels for reasons which will become clear shortly.
The relevant reaction for hydrogen attack in a carbon steel is
Fe.C
2 H2
3 Fe
(9.16)
+ CH~.
CH~-bubbles
has
been
calculated
by
(1981) using a van der Waals description. Figure 9.2 shows the results. For
ideal gas,
one
would
predict p(CH~)
dashed lines),
an
but the
2000
1000
&
~
5
---
~~
100
50
30
20
10
03
as
2 3
p~)~M~
~~
9.
138
deviations
the
equilibrium
with
is
determined
activity, and therefore the methane pressure, compared to the sole presence
FesC.
Parthasarathy,
Lopez
and
Shewmon
(1985)
21/~Cr-1Mo
of
is
included
materials
of
fast
of
the
atomic
nuclei contained in common structural materials (for example, saNi or SB) react
with fast neutrons and subsequently
These
(n,a)-reactions
emit
a-particles,
i.e.,
helium
nuclei.
It
should
be mentioned that this is not the only form of material damage caused by irradiation. If helium embrittlement is to be studied in isolation, special
techni-
related
to
in atm
of
He,
the
atomic
and
x*
He is the solubility limit of He at 1 atm. Since the
solubility limit of He in iron is far less than 1 ppm and He concentrations of
several
hundred
ppm
are
easily
achievable
by
implantation, fugacities of
several thousand atmospheres are possible. From the critical data Pc = 2.26 atm
and
Tc
5.3 K,
and
9.3
Helium Embrittlement
139
are
of
the
1000 K.
Thus
the
equilibrium
nucleate bubbles.
in
the
sub-
cavity nuclei depends on how fast the constituents of the gas diffuse
to the nucleation site and how fast the chemical reaction takes place. The
precipitation
of
vacancies
and
gas
atoms
equation.
co-
based
on
the
Fokker-
of an inert gas, like helium, and the precipitation of a reaction product, like
methane.
However,
the
application
of
Trinkaus'
nucleation
of
helium
bubbles
factors
of
evaluation
the
nucleation
rate
are
not
explicitly
derived.
A complete
of the nucleation rate like that by Chen and Yoo (1984) for segreg-
here.
He
finds
at least for the kinetic laws he uses, there exist metastable bubbles in
the subcritical size range. These bubbles are stable against small fluctuations
in
size
and in gas
~ontent.
oxygen
in
cases
contained in the metal react at the specimen surface rather than at CO 2 -bubbles
formed
much faster than the inward diffusion of oxygen. In iron and nickel for
example, Bohnenkamp and Engell (1962) find that the oxydation of carbon occurs
primarily on the surface of the
metal
with
the
effect
that
the
metal
decarburized near the surface without internal gas bubbles being formed.
is
volume.
accommodated readily, while in a rigid matrix high stresses are built up around
the
particle.
Lopez
and
Shewmon
initiate cavities. They were led to their assumption by the occurrence of small
cavities
at
material was exposed to creep or any other treatment which is known to initiate
cavities. They ascribe the cavities to the stresses caused by the precipitation
of carbides during tempering.
Lopez and Shewmon's idea will be examined in
principles
of
the
light
of
an
analysis
the
two steps. First the diffusion of carbon to a carbide is considered the carbide
being
of
carbon,
determine
the pressure.
Mechanically similar is the effect
of
differential
thermal
strains
of
the
fraction
of
carbon
in
solid
solution,
x~
is
the
10.1
equilibrium
141
transfer
of a carbon atom from the matrix to the stressed carbide requires the work p6Q,
where 6Q is the increase in volume per carbon atom reacting with iron
to
form
Fe,C. According to Lopez and Shewmon (1983), the increase in specific volume by
Fe,C-formation is 10%, i.e. the increase per carbon atom is 6Q = 0.3 Q =
3.5'10-30 m3 , since each carbon atom increases the atomic volume of three iron
atoms. The chemical potential of carbon in the stressed carbide is
(10.2)
where we assume that the pressure dependence of Po is
p6Q, which is usually justified in solids.
negligible
compared
carbide
to
the
spherical carbide of radius HC as shown in Fig. 10.1, the solutions to the then
spherically symmetric diffusion problem can be taken from textbooks on
diffusion, or can be developed directly
result,
the
from
the
diffusion
equation.
As
outward
creep
~ \U
inward diffusion
of carbon
/
~B8
/'
FeJ C
'"
\
'"
outward
diffusion of
iron along
grain boundary
10.
142
far
from the carbide and in the carbide. This increase in volume will be
equated to that provided by several accommodation mechanisms (elastic deformation, creep and diffusion) to determine the pressure p.
Before the accommodation processes are studied, it should
be
noted
that
the
If the pressure grew greater than that, precipitation would stop and
reversed
according
to
eq.
(10.3).
This
upper
would
be
depends
on
the
supersaturation
xC/x~ which may be high directly after quenching from the austenitic regime, in
which a great amount of carbon is
soluble.
During
tempering
of
bainitic
steel, when carbides are already present and primarily undergo Ostwald ripening
(i.e., growth of larger carbides at the expense of smaller ones), the supersaturation
is
according
to
generate
eq.
(10.4).
pressures
of
50 MPa
and
1 = 1.61
500 MPa,
An/(3n)
compared
to
whose
specific
volume
has
increased
the
and the matrix, which are assumed to have the same elastic moduli. In
by
centered
at
the
co-ordinates
aee =
and
a~~,
the
the
stress
tensor
has
the
non-zero
(10.5
The only independent
problems demands:
variable
is
r.
Equilibrium
in
spherically
symmetric
10.2
143
Elastic Accommodation
o.
(10.6)
Combining eqs. (10.5) and (10.6) with Hooke's law, and eliminating
stress
and
a ( a~
ar ar
+ 2
~ )
(10.7)
solutions
-2
ur r and ur r
Within the particle, the singular solution can make no
contribution, because ur must be finite at the origin, while outside the
particle, the first of these solutions must have a vanishing coefficient, since
otherwise the stress at infinity would not vanish. Thus, the
solution
of
eq.
HC:
(10.9)
Second, the normal stress orr on the interface must be continuous, a
which
condition
is evaluated using Hooke's law and eq. (10.5). Thus, one finally obtains
- rr
2 E
lln
pressure
is
greater
(10.10)
3 (1-\1) 9n
compression).
If
the
so
given in eq. (10.4), precipitation cannot take place unless other accommodation
mechanisms
144
10.
by
eq.
which
(3.6) ,
(10.7)
and
grow
parallels
are
(10.8)
in
to
reduces
the
replaced
creeping
. a Bonpower-law
in uniaxial tension.
matri~
e;
elastic
by
the
case
described
requirement
The
above.
that
the
(10.12)
ur = a.3 I r
Here a.3 is a constant, which follows from the condition that the normal stress
on the interface be continuous, i.e. orr = -po This condition is evaluated
using the creep law, eq. (3.6), and leads to a volume growth rate of the
particle by creep of the matrix
(10.13)
The pressure in the particle is now defined by the requirement that the
growth
volume
rates given in eqs. (10.3) and (10.13) must be equal. This leads to the
describes
the
reduction
of
pressure
while
the
matrix by creep flow. Creep becomes effective in relaxing the pressure when the
second
term
in
the
denominator
temperature
of
term
pressure
is
xC/x* - 1
in
the
631 MPa.
39%
according
for
accommodate
steel
at
700 C: B = 710
MPa Is, n = 6.9 (from Frost and
C
-10 2
= 10 -3 ,DC
410
mis, RC = 0.1 ~m. Then the
-15-n
fast
enough
to
the
rate
of
precipitation,
unless
diffusi ve
10.3
145
hoop
stress
~ p
(RC / r ) 3/n [ 3/ ( 2n ) -1 ]
(10.15)
which
is
the
grain
boundary,
and
cavity
iron
atoms away from the carbide. Here we are interested in grain boundary carbides.
Then, at intermediate temperatures, the
primarily
along
diffusive
transport
of
iron
occurs
by the carbide on the grains. This is exactly the same problem as that of a
cavity growing by grain boundary diffusion under an internal gas pressure. The
analysis will be presented later (in Section
11.1)
and
the
result
for
the
in
of
the
the
r~tes
the
pressure
in
the carbide:
(kT/AO) In (xC/x~)
1
(10.18 )
2 (O/AO)2 6D b / (q RC xC DC) .
maximum
pressure,
while
the
10.
146
denominator
describes
the
correction
due
to diffusive accommodation. As an
example, we again consider a steel tempered at 700 0 e with the numerical values
used in the preceding subsection and, additionally, oD b = 5.3'10 -22 m3 /s,
we = 0.1, i.e., q = 2. Then the second term in the denominator is 0.15, i.e.,
grain
boundary
the
carbide
growth
rate
to
from
the
particle
in
the
vicinity
of
the
growing
on
the
grain
boundary
directly
carbide.
the
Since
interface,
is
the chemical
the
normal
than
promote,
cavity
nucleation
at
growing carbide.
In conclusion, cavity nucleation at growing carbides is unlikely to occur under
all conditions examined in this section, except when elastic deformation is the
only possible accommodation mechanism. Only in the latter case
exerted
by
is
the
stress
is, however, no obvious reason why grain boundary diffusion or creep should not
occur
Since
history,
materials
undergo
thermal
expansions
and
different from that of the matrix, stresses will develop around the
particles,
and
the
matrix,
~,
of
(10.19)
where
10.5
147
replaces
eq.
(10.19)
2 E tJ.a tJ.T
3 (1-\)
(10.20)
where tJ.T is the difference between the current temperature and the
temperature
(2n/3) 12 tJ.a
t /
the
matrix
(10.21)
Bll/n sign(tJ.at).
~c
tJ.~
= - arr
equating
circumferential
stresses
and cavity nucleation is not expected to occur. For negative pressure, however,
the stresses are tensile, which might cause decohesion of the particle/matrix
interface or of the adjacent grain boundary.
cubic
anisotropic
between
with
thermal-expansion
accommodated
difference
coefficients.
2tJ.a
If
the
symmetry,
the
resulting
and
expansion
the
is
minimum
incompatibilities
are
thermal
maximum
concentrated
additionally
at
triple
grain
the
thermal
stresses
with
respect
to
creep
rupture
conditions
growth
mechanism
atoms away from the cavity into the grain boundaries, where they can be deposited
(Hull and Rimmer, 1959). This process is described for rapid and slow sur-
Rapid
sur-
face diffusion implies that a growing cavity preserves its equilibrium lenticular shape, while for slow surface diffusion, the drain
of
atoms
through
the
an
models
allows
overestimated
and,
grain
surrounding
(Dyson, 1976, 1979). Indeed this constraint does reduce the cavity growth rates
to
level
which
is
compatible
understand how constrained growth can control the rupture lifetime, as will
be
equilibrium
concentration,
models
of
inhibited
diffusion.
be
(as
at
their
distinct from
exhausted
during
11.1
149
Section
14.1
(Hancock,
1976),
although
is
described
an
approximately
additive way (Section 15.1; Beere and Speight, 1978). Also elastic deformation
can enhance diffusive cavity growth (Section 15.2).
Rupture lifetimes are calculated in the chapters on various cavity growth mechanisms assuming that cavities nucleate readily at the beginning of the test. If
nucleation occurs continuously, the calculation of lifetimes is a more complicated task (Chapter 16). The theoretical results will be compared with measured
rupture lifetimes of various materials including commercial alloys. Chapter
17
edge
of
the
cavity
of
on
from
boundary. The driving force comes from the mechanical work done by
stress
atoms
the
normal
shape
the
cavities
are
assumed
2~
to
have
their
equilibrium,
cavities
grow.
as
governed
by
eq.
boundary
11.
150
oj
b)
0 0
o
J
,/0
be
uniform
over
the
whole
grain
boundary. This.is val id as long as the diffusive length l defined in eq. (4.17)
is large compared to the cavity spacing. Cases with arbitrary l are
in
Chapter
15.
Finally,
the
stress
may
be
different
considered
from
the
applied
stress
the
in
000.
polycrystal
In fact, the
constrained
growth
The stress distribution between the cavities and the cavity growth rate
i-
a2 /ax 2 ,
and
The
axisymmetric
A (Fig.
in
the
grain
boundary,
al-
though, strictly speaking, the axial symmetry of the flow field is disturbed by
the arrangement of the cavities (square, hexagonal, statistical etc.). As
long
as the size-to-spacing ratio of the cavities is not too large, the aXisymmetric
approximation can be expected to work well.
The flux of atoms half-way between two cylindrical cavities must
symmetry.
Since
the
be
zero
for
x = A/2.
In
the
11.1
151
axisymmetric
these
boun-
n
o
kT
t
21'l15D b
(x-R) (A-R-x)
(cylindrical cavity)
(11.2)
(axisymmetric cavity).
(11. 3)
The stress at the void tip, 00' is a constant of integration which follows from
the requirement that the chemical potential, ~, must be continuous, since the
transition of an atom from the cavity surface into the grain
expected
to
be
inhibited
boundary
is
not
boundary,
eq.
(4.2),
to
simp/R
(11.5)
(11.6)
The conservation of mass requires that the volumetric growth rate of an axisymmetric cavity is related to the displacement rate of the grains by
V=
(A/2)
un'
(11.7)
(For the cylindrical cavity only the final result for the linear cavity
rate,
R,
will
growth
grain
boundary,
A/2
f rOn
where
dr
kT Ii A2
(l-w) 00 + _ _n::..:....._ q (w),
32 I'l I5D b
(11.8)
11.
152
00 = (2R/A)2
(11 .9)
q(oo)
is
(11.10)
Resolving eq. (11.8) for un and inserting the result into eq. (11.7) gives
the
(11.11)
kT q(oo)
the
volumetric
growth
~(w)
with
radius
~ fv(~) =
411" sin W
(11.13)
W,
( 11.14)
kT hew) q(oo) R2
For small, widely spaced voids (00
11.1
153
(11.15)
2 kT h(W) ~n(A/4.24R) R2
For cylindrical cavities, the growth rate derived in an analogous way is:
3
cD b [ob - 00 (1-2R/A)]
(11.16)
2 kT f(W) (1 - 2R/A)3 A R
Ys sinW I R, and
(11.17)
The above results coincide with those given by Speight and Beere (1975) and
Needleman
and
the
by
so-called
Chuang
et
al
(1979)
have
their results must be divided by the factor 1-w or 1-2R/A for the
axisymmetric
and cylindrical void, respectively. Apart from the jacking factor, the paper of
Raj and Ashby (1975) contains a misprint which has been corrected by Raj et
(1977).
The
al
latter authors further claim that the surface stress (as distinct
from the surface energy) should be taken into account with a numerical value of
2Ys sinW I R. In this case, the factor 1-w adjoining 00 in eqs. (11.11) and
(11.14) can be deleted. Needleman and Rice (1980), however, point out that this
choice
In
earlier
work
(Hull
and
Rimmer,
effect
1959,
is
small
in
any
out
by
Raj
and
Ashby (1975). These older results are only approximately compatible with ours.
In all papers quoted in the preceding paragraph it was tacitly assumed that the
stress
0b acting on the grain boundary is equal to the applied stress, but the
the
assumption
of
an
equili bri um voi d shape except in eqs. (11. 5) and C11. 12). Therefore many of the
equations can be used in the analysis of non-equilibrium void growth as well.
11.
154
11.1.2
the
time
to
rupture
is
given by the time for void growth from an initial radius Ro to A/2 when
coalescence occurs. The void growth law, ~ = ~(R,A), can be integrated by
separation of the variables Rand t if the void spacing is time-independent (no
continuing nucleation). Integrating eq. (11.14) between R = Ro
between t
and
i.e.
A/2,
A/2
dR
(11.18 )
t f = R H(R)
o
if the sintering stress, 0 , is neglected. Further, in the term in brackets,
0
terms of order (RO/A) 5 and (Ro/A) 7 were omitted, since they are generally very
small.
If the stress on the cavitating boundary, 0b' is
identified
tentatively
with
the applied stress om' eq. (11.18) predicts t f ~ 110 m Such a linearly inverse
stress dependence of the rupture lifetime has hardly ever been observed. The
vast
majority
1/0.
An
example
much
greater
than
gener-
of
Raj
expected
to
relation
to
creep
possibilities
will
be
11.1
11.1.3
155
stress
in
the
growth law, eq. (11.14), may increase the rupture lifetime markedly. To
see this, consider the extreme case when the nucleation process provides nuclei
of
just
critical
be
the
rupture
time
deterministic
growth can take over. Hence the deterministic law will be applied from the time
on when it exceeds the growth rate by fluctuations derived next.
The average growth rate of a vacancy cluster by thermal fluctuations
by
n(B-B'),
~ =
where
is
given
these
expressions
near the critical cluster size gives the growth rate by fluctuations as
(11.19)
In the second form, the absorption rate at the
critical
pOint,
B*,
and
the
number of vacancies in the critical cluster, n*, were taken from Section 6.2.
Equating the growth rate due to thermal
growth
rate
given
in
eq.
(11.11),
fluctuations
yields
the
with
the
deterministic
cluster
and
is
the
abbreviation
(11.21)
which should be small compared
to
unity
if
the
above
calculation
of
the
the
rupture
nucleation)
by
time
can
integrating
be
the
calculated
cavity
(ignoring
the
time
for
cavity
11.
156
of
the
present
which
is
justified
(1-00)
in
the
energy and surface tension. Then the rupture time takes the form
(11.22)
Here, all terms of order 2R*/A and of order Et were neglected compared to
unity. The effect of the sintering stress is described by the term containing
tnE t Obviously, the effect becomes large if Et becomes small, i.e., if thermal
fluctuations push the cluster size only slightly beyond the critical size. The
logarithms in eq. (11.22) depend on quantities which do not vary a
for
different
constants
in
3/4 - tn(2R*/A)
replaced by
materials
order
to
deal
the
= 5 and tnEt = - 7,
2!ssin~/Gb'
great
further
and
if
discussion.
the
If
we
take
In this approximation the rupture time contains the well-known 11Gb-term, but
additionally a l/G~ -term is obtained which originates from the sintering
stress. The fourth-power term dominates for stresses smaller than
(11.24 )
With Ys - 1.5 J/m 2 , ~ = 75 0 and A = 1 ~m, this means that for Gb < 65 MPa the
cavities spend an appreciable fraction of the lifetime near the sintering
limit, and the lifetime is extended markedly by the sintering forces.
11.1.4
in
the
unconstrained
diffusional
cavity
growth
sintering times which are necessary to shrink existing cavities to zero size.
The closure of cavities is of interest in powder metallurgy during hot isostatic pressing and other sintering processes. Reviews on sintering have been
prepared by Swinkels and Ashby (1979), by Swinkels et al (1983)
and
by
Exnen
11.1
and
Arzt
(1983).
Sintering
of
157
may
have
developed
cavities
during
service
some
initial
size, R
from
o
s
(11.25)
0,
of
sintering
is
appears
tempting
to
times
accelerate
sintering
service
temperature.
Compressive
cavities
are
still small.
To the authors knowledge, eq. (11.25) has not been
compared
with
experiments
alloys
(Davies
and
simultaneous
effect
on
both,
the
the
micro-
creep
detrimental
and are therefore hard to remove (Dennison et aI, 1978). A gas pressure in
voids
or
the
surface
the
11.
158
austenitic
steels
by
effect
on
cavity
growth
is
8.
Now
lifetime
in
the
form
for
elements
on
6Db in iron is shown in Fig. 11.2 using data of Stratmann et al (1983). Grain
boundary diffusion in iron is also retarded by tin and antimony (Bernardini et
aI,
1982;
Gas
et
aI,
1986).
rational-
ized by an argument due to Borisov et al (1964). Since the atomic forces across
a grain boundary are reduced compared to the lattice, which is reflected in the
grain boundary energy,
- - T inC
700
800
t
$.
10-20
,,~
IO~ '~:,~
'
~v~
0-11
.s.,
600
:~:+400ppmN ~~
-13
10
10-2'
(1979)
0.9
1.0
1.1
1.2
10OOK/T---
11.1
159
be
lowered
by
the
grain
not
contribute
to
self-diffusion
for
(11.26)
is
of
now
from
eq.
(8.10),
which
enthalpy
by
(11.27)
diffusive
cavity
growth
time
reduce
it,
and
at
the
far
morpho-
of carbides and of other precipitates, and this may often be the dominant
trace
el~ment
properties.
An
example
for
boundary diffusion and forms stable sulfides within the grains thus
preventing
problem
of
the
cavity
eondition, eq. (11.8), and into the chemical potential on the free surface, eq.
(11.4) (the gas does the work pO in removing an atom from the void surface). In
the final results for the cavity growth rate and for the rupture lifetime,
gas pressure is taken into account by replacing [Jb by [Jb
the
11.
160
hydrogen
attack
has
methane
bubbles
carbon
and
tion using reaction rates measured by Grabke and Martin (1973). At higher temperatures
the
grow
either
by
the
diffusive
predomina-
(1981)
on
bubble
McKimpson
and
agreement with the diffusive growth model. The lifetime was found to depend
or
pressure as t f 1/p1.2, which is reasonably close to the predicted 1/p-dependence, and the observed temperature dependence agreed with that of grain boundary diffusion.
Another application of diffusive cavity growth under internal gas
that
of
pressure
is
Trinkaus and Ullmaier (1979) who analyze the nucleation and growth of
diffusion
along
assumed
in
the
the
grain
boundary.
If
to
the
equilibrium
next.
In
fact,
flat
cavities
are
by
Chuang
earlier
11.2
11.2.1
161
diffusion
and
ity growth rate, ACt). Although A is usually considered as the unknown quantity
to
be
determined,
it
is
the
surface
growth
rate
as
known.
simple growth rate histories. This gives the void shape, the chemical potential
and the flux into the void tip. The continuity conditions for the potential and
for the flux at the void tip link the surface diffusion problem
to
the
grain
boundary diffusion problem. The latter has already been solved in the preceding
section and the stress distribution only needs to be adapted
conditions
set
to
the
boundary
requiring global equilibrium, which relates the stress 0b to the initially prescribed growth rate ACt). The only difficult step in this procedure is to solve
the surface diffusion problem for a given growth rate. This will be done next.
11.2.2
In Chapter 4, the surface diffusion problem was formulated in terms of the curvatures and of the normal displacement rate,
vn ,
ulation which is more convenient here describes the cavity shape by the height,
w, of the cavity surface above the plane of the grain boundary as shown in Fig.
11.3. For the axisymmetric cavity, w is related to the old variables by:
r=O
equilibrium
v-O
transition
crack-like limit
11 _
CD
11.
162
1<:1
- w" ( 1
+ w,2)-3/2
(11.28J
1<:2
- w' ( 1
+ w,2)-1/2 1 r
(11. 29J
(w - Un /2)
(1 + w,2)-1/2,
(11. 30)
where the primes and the dots denote the derivatives with respect to r
and
t,
from
since n is meant to originate from surface diffusion alone while ~
comprises the whole displacement rate of the surface. This jacking effect of
the atoms plated on the grain boundary can be neglected for small
to-spacing
ratios
cavity-size-
(4.14),
takes
the form
Q 60 s
v2
w"
Ys V2 (
kT
(1+w,2)3/2
(11.31)
0,
= a2 /ar2
where
cavity set V2
condition
tan~
at the void
~,
impeded.
equilibrium
void
shape
Hence,
the
an
The
maintain
tip.
fast
enough
to
R 1 (n
60 s Y )
s
(11.32)
Next two specific solutions of eq. (11.31) are presented. The first
steady-state
(v
solution
which
applies
cavi ty
will
is
const, which
is
not
11.2
restricted
163
the
growth rate.
librium shape.
11.2.3
like limit
Chuang and Rice (1973) surmised that for fast cavity growth, steady-state
utions
to
sol-
eq. (11.31) exist. If the cavity grows very fast due to rapid grain
on
the
cavity
surface
region
to
Thus
small.
this
is
so,
steady-state
solutions
can
be
= - R w, + U
n /2, where the prime denotes the derivative with respect to x (as
defined in Fig. 11.3), and derivatives of w must go to zero as x + -~.
if
the
governing
eq. (11.31)
is
(11.33)
steady-state
approximation
cavities,
since
eq. (11.33)
has
-w
boundary
exponential
solutions.
With
- W exp [(
kT
n 60 s Ys
)1/3 x]
w:
the
+
-~
(11.34)
11.
164
w - un /2
iC 1
iC2
kT it
) 1 13 x]}.
g 60s 'Vs
(11.35)
kT R ) 1 13 exp[ (
kT it
) 1 13 x].
g 60 s 'Vs
goDs 'V s
( 11. 36)
g 60 s 'Vs
1/1
kT
d2w
-~=
dx
1/1 (
1/3
{1 - exp [(
gives
the
flux according to eqs. (4.11) and (4.12). The continuity conditions at the void
tip for the potential and for the flux set
the
boundary
conditions
for
the
without
resorting
to the linearization employed here. Comparison with their result shows that the
linear solution for the flux and the curvature at the void tip is
within
2%
for
accurate
to
(11.36).
11.2.4
Dimensional considerations [or insertion of the expression for w below into the
governing equation (11.31)] show that
(11.37)
represents a family of self-similar solutions of eq. (11.31). The dimensionless
coordinate
is defined as
(11. 38)
for the axisymmetric cavity. From the form of the Similarity coordinate
clear
t 1/4 ,
as R ~ t
ordinary
-3/4
The
solutions
will
solved
linearized
it
reproduces
the
the
of
that
growth
rate
and
version
is
it
v,
the
similarity
acts as a smooth transition between .the limiting cases. The price for
11.2
165
history
which follows for the similarity solutions (see Chuang et aI, 1979).
The stress associated with steady-state, crack-like cavity growth
is
expected
to be time-independent. Its magnitude will be derived next by coupling the surface diffusion problem with the grain boundary diffusion problem.
11.2.5
The relation between growth rate and stress in the crack-like limit
together
by
the
requirements
and
that,
grain
at
the
boundary
diffusion
are
potential and the flux must be continuous. Continuity of the chemical potential
is
expressed
to that along the grain boundary, eq. (4.3), specifies don/dr at the void
which is denoted by
tip,
0' .
(11.39)
The curvatures, K1 +K2 , at the void tip are known from eq. (11.36).
The distribution of the normal stress on on the grain boundary was
connection
with
equilibrium
cavity
u
n
derived
in
the
void
0'
tip,
(11.40)
the
equilibrium
condition,
eq. (11.8),
takes
0 ,
the
0' and
o
11.
166
(11.43)
The normalized growth rate v, q(w) and w were defined in eqs. (11.32), (11.9)
and (11.10), respectively. Solving eq. (11.41) for v and using the definition
of v leads to the final result for the growth rate of an axisymmetric cavity in
the crack-like limit:
(11.44)
pressure
in
the
p instead of abo
Depending on the value of the product Qr~, the growth rate given in eq. (11.44)
has two limiting ranges. For very slow surface diffusion, i.e. if Qr~ 1, a
power-series expansion of the square root in eq. (11.44)
up
to
linear
terms
leads to
(11.46)
Qr~
= _ _12_---,1"""7"<"
I(T
(y
c5D )172
s
s
3 c5Db ab
)3/2
2 A Q (1-w)2 sin(~/2)
diffusion
(11.47)
has
retarding
effect since c5Ds appears in the denominator. The reason for this is that for an
increased rate of surface diffusion the void shape tends to a rounded, equilibrium shape so that more atoms must be removed through the grain boundary.
11.2
161
Which one of the limiting cases applies, depends on the normalized growth
rate
v defined in eq. (11.32) and on the product QtA. At low stresses, or alternately, low growth rates or high surface
vails.
At
diffusivities,
equilibrium
in
growth
pre-
high stresses or high growth rates, the cavities grow in the crackslow-surface-diffusion
and into a high-stress range, in which a (3/2) power law obtains. Chuang et
al
from
an
axisymmetriC,
( 1+ tAl 1 12 - 1
8 kT >.3 A3
- 2R/>.
(11.48)
Ro'
2 kT, >.4 A3
to
{11.49)
21 D 60 s 'Vs
Here Wo
(11.42).
defined
in
eqs. (11.43),
over
and
carried out in closed form. However, the value of Q does not vary
extent
(11.45)
the
entire
to
0.015
great
D 60s 'Vs
(1 - 35 R 18>.) {
0
(1
A 172
}3
0.6tA)
- 1
Wo
is
(11.50)
stresses and low surface diffusivities, a series expansion of eq. (11.50) leads
to the inverse cube law for the rupture time
11.
168
(11.51)
prevails,
i.e. if v
0.6L~ ~
1.5
and
if
crack-like
cavity
range
within
which
the
inverse
cube
rupture
time
is
defined
by
0.6L~
oDs Ys
(1 - 4.4 RIA) (
0
200 r--,--,----.-----..----,
t
150
OC
l/a:rz
2.5x
'"
~ 100
""-
.-<
b
50
tf
OC 7/a
OL-.-..L..----'--------'-------'------J
1.
kT A4
0.058
If oDb/oDs
0.6L~
20
1,0
60
80
100
Fig. 11.4. Range of validity of the inverse cube law, eq. (11.51).
(11.53)
11.2
169
(11.54)
For small 6Db/6Ds the inverse cube law does not obtain and the
occupies the whole crack-like limit, i.e. it is valid for
power
3/2
law
(11.55)
11.2.7
vapor
bubbles
had
specimens
in
which
tests in order to bypass the cavity nucleation stage. The stress and
temperat-
ure dependence of the measured lifetimes are in good agreement with the inverse
cube law t f ~ 1/03 , eq. (11.51), which exhibits the activation energy of surface diffusion. By doing tension and torsion tests on the same kind of material
(copper with water vapor bubbles), Stanzl, Argon and Tschegg
the
(1983)
confirmed
observations of Nieh and Nix, and they provided the additional information
that the rupture lifetime is determined solely by the maximum principal stress,
but not by the von Mises equivalent stress.
There is, however, a serious problem associated with
(11.51)
the
application
of
eq.
to the experiments of Nieh and Nix and of Stanzl et al. From Fig. 11.4
cube
law
is
only
possible
if
o)./Ys
> 60 and
6Db/6DS > 30. Both requirements are violated in the experiments of Nieh and
Nix, at least at first sight. The bubble spacing is ). = 3.2 ~m, the surface
2
Ys = 1.7 Jim
for copper and the applied stresses range from 4 to
60 MPa. Hence o)'/Ys ranges from 7 to 110 with only two data points, out of 17,
energy
is
having
values
greater
used
vapor,
which
is
an
extreme
presence
of
admittedly uncertain. Only if the actual value of 6Db were much greater, or
if
6D s were much smaller than the commonly accepted value, could the occurrence of
the inverse cube law for the rupture time be expected.
Goods and Nix (1978) have performed the same kind of experiments on silver containing
water
vapor
bubbles.
11.
170
by
pre-
limit, eq. (11.51). However, the same problem arises as in the case of embrittled
copper.
under
grain-boundary
diffusion
only applicable if the reverse is true. Goods and Nix (1978) suggest to resolve
the
contradiction
by
sence of water vapor are very different from those usually measured.
Although such an assumption is not satisfactory, the idea that
by
diffusive
cavity
failure
occurs
water
vapor
bubbles,
but
of
magnitude
strengthened
material
was
two
controlled
by
creep
and
fits
the
data
on
silver with implanted water vapor bubbles well, there remains some
doubt as to whether the inverse cube law should be applicable to these cases.
11.2.8
Void~shaBe
Taplin and Wingrove (1967) and Wingrove and Taplin (1969b) have
observed
that
cavities in iron, when growing at a high rate, assume an irregular shape. Their
periphery in the grain boundary, which is usually circular, breaks
wavy
shape
and
up
into
as an intrinsic instability of crack-like diffusive cavity growth. The phenomenon resembles the shape instability of a void in a thin
two
glass
plates
liquid
layer
between
cavities arises from the interplay of surface tension forces and grain boundary
diffusion, which draws matter out of the crack. A protrusion of the crack front
implies that the surface is more strongly curved there, which is unfavorable in
terms
of
the
hand,
the
protrusion
is
favored
for
kinetic
11.2
171
reasons:
the atoms leaving the cavity through a protrusion can spread into the
grain boundary along divergent flow lines, whereas the atoms leaving the cavity
through
an
intrusion
the adjacent protrusions which retards the diffusive flux. Therefore the
of
atoms
is
stronger
drain
cavity shape is enhanced. For rapid cavity growth and for slow surface
diffus-
ion, the kinetic aspect dominates leading to the shape instability, whereas for
slow growth and rapid surface diffusion, the cavities retain a regular shape.
The evolution of such shape instabilities from initially straight crack
was
fronts
disturbance
"crit
Here,
as
w~
function
of
the
stress,
w~
and
R can
~.
If the result is
the
desired
this
critical
(1978)
to
describe
the
instability
of
cavities
having a finite size, but, on the other hand, the result is more complicated.
aj
bj
diffusion in grain
boundary
expect
from
the
rate
of
diffusive
much
greater
than
one
growth
isolated
material. This is
cavitation
grain
so
-depends
boundary
because
on
its
the
confined
to
orientation
to
of
the
grain
stress
boundary
axis
is
and
nickel;
to
on
the
Don
and
facet were rigid, the excess volume of the cavities could not be accommodated
and cavity growth would come to a standstill. Thus the rate of cavity growth
can be controlled by the deformation rate of the surrounding material. This
called
constrained
cavity
growth.
On
the
other
hand,
if the surrounding
of cavity
~owth
cavitation
not enclosed
the
~n
constraint
the
In
bi-crystal
specimens,
and
is
that
interpretation
of
The
resulting
stress,
Db'
on
the
grain
boundary adjusts itself such that the rate of the volume increase by diffusive
cavitation is compatible with the deformation rate of the surrounding material.
In
the unconstrained limit, the cavitating facet experiences the whole applied
the
stress
on
the
12.1
173
bound-
ary facet is described as a penny-shaped crack of diameter d embedded in an infinite block of power-law creeping material characterized
by
a;j.
of
the
a;,
applied
i.e.
the
eq.
only
ai,
(3.6).
(The calculation
non-zero
com-
stress,
as shown in the figure). The crack transmits the normal stress
which is determined from the following compatibility argument.
The volume growth rate of all cavities in the boundary facet can be
in
two
independent
ways.
Under
the
action
the
number
ab ,
calculated
The
eq. (11.11).
Multiplying
whole facet:
(12.1)
--
- - - (1r""
100----
----.j
Fig. 12.1. Cavitating grain boundary facet. The penny-shaped crack model
idealizes the cavitating facet as circular and ignores other boundaries.
12.
174
where w is the cavitated area fraction of the boundary, q(w) was defined in eq.
(11.10) and ao is the sintering stress of an isolated cavity.
On the other hand, the opening rate of a
viscous
body
penny-shaped
crack
in
nonlinear
in
Section
7.1.2.
Using
boundary
develop approximate solutions which turn out to be highly accurate under a wide
range
of
conditions
when
is
but a generalization to finite ab
Hutchinson's method essentially consists of
use
of
a;
replacing
linear
the
by
fact
a;-ab
approximation
that
normal
elastic
problem,
one
can
accuracy
of
the
one obtains the volume growth rate of the facet by creep flow of the matrix
(12.2)
<II
For compatibility, the volume growth rates by diffusive cavitation and by creep
flow must be equal. Equating eqs. (12.1) and (12.2) defines ab as
(12.3)
where q'
eq.
(12.3)
into
material
the
constraining
effect
which
the
rate is large, the cavity volume produced by diffusive transport can easily
accommodated. Correspondingly, the
(12.3) and (12.4) vanish for large
second
be
which. implies
that
the
full
applied
12.1
stress
acts
on
175
the boundary, and the growth rate, eq. (12.4), reduces to the
unconstrained limit, eq. (11.14). On the other hand, if the strain rate becomes
very small, 0b becomes small and approaches the sintering stress, while the
cavity growth rate becomes accommodation controlled and approaches
the
constrained limit:
(12.5)
by
12.5
and
h(~)
by
0.61.
The
grain
boundary
diffusion coefficient plays no role in the constrained limit. The cavity growth
rate now varies in proportion to the strain rate.
A condition for whether or not the constraint is effective for a
rate
is
obtained
by
given
strain
which gives
(12.6)
For strain rates higher than this characteristic strain rate, cavity growth
unconstrained,
is
virtue
of
E~
and
co-workers.
The
results
out
by
In
this
section,
cavity growth rates from these studies are compared with theoretical predictions, while the pertinent rupture lifetimes will be given in Chapter 16. Figure
12.2
shows the growth rate of the i-th largest cavity (with i * 1000) observed
by Needham (1983) in two ferritic steels at 550 oC. The dashed lines represent
the
growth rate
expected
for
the
is
approximated
oD b
by
expression
176
12.
10-10
55O"C
.s
------------
----R":02IJ.m
10-11
R=05/-L1JI_-------
------
III
"'E
10-12
R= 1JJ.T----
------
Q::
100
(J
(12.7)
where strgss is in MPa, length in meters and time in
shows
the
unconstrained
diffusive
mechanism
seconds.
12.2
for
figure
solid
lines
in
the
As
H,
18
~m
strain
as given by
rates
are
cavity
Needham
and
with
h(~)
= 0.61.
In
the
spacing
is
estimated
cavity
densities. The cavity density varies from (0.5 to 2.5). 1011 /m 2 in the 1Cr- 1/ 2 Mo
from
reported
steel.
21/~Cr-1Mo
).
3.2
for
~m,
As
the
1Cr-1/2Mo steel ~nd 1/).2 = 0.5'10 11 /m 2 , i.e. ). = 4.5 ~m, for the 21/~Cr-1Mo
steel. With this choice of the parameters, the agreement with the experimental
data is good, but it should be kept in mind that Rand
tests
substantially'
whereas
the
calculation
Needham's
data
strongly
suggests
that
was
the
).
varied
during
the
diffusive
growth
growth
is
model
indeed
12.1
177
grain size of d
act
as
1300 0 C.
cavity nucleation sites. The cavity spacing was typically A = 4.5 pm,
565 0C
at
cavity
growth
rate,
are
~,
plotted
The
results
for
Ale
as a
the
constrained
growth
ru:
(12.8)
A were
inserted numerically. (Units are m, sand MPa). Strain rate and stress were
taken from plots given by Cane (1979). At low stresses, cavity growth is
constrained
and
proceeds much slower than would be predicted by the
unconstrained diffusive growth model, which is represented by the dashed line.
Between 100 and 200 MPa a transition to unconstrained growth occurs, which
means a decrease in HI: since now diffusion becomes rate controlling. The
constrained growth model agrees with the measurements of Cane to within a
factor 2.3, which is satisfactory, while the unconstrained model exhibits a
totally wrong behavior at low stresses.
is also plotted, where the material parameters, as well as
For his
notch geometry is
150
a;la;
d,
R and
notched
specimens
= 2 so that, according to
\ unconstrai
E 100
(.onstrained \
:::t
.5;
.~
'0:::
50f----
Cane(exp
\
~
o~~~--~--~~
60
100
150
200
UinMPa ---
12.
178
is
expected
to
a;.
twice that of the uniaxial tension tests for the same value of
presents only four measurements on notched specimens. On the average,
data
lie
by
factor
1.5
above
the
data
bE
CanE
thesE
steel
measured
sults. The theoretical curves were computed using the grain boundary
coefficients
diffusion
given by Needham and Gladman, which agree with those reported for
other stainless steels and for Y-iron by Frost and Ashby (1982) and
given
stain-
spacing as A = 6.3
~m,
0.6
are
~m
which
seems
12
~m.
to
have
The creep
was approximated by 2.
model
overestimates
the growth rates in this case. However, the theoretical result is sensitive
10-
to
-I--
10- 17
I.
--f-~
650C
.s:
00:: 10-12
10-13
100
7
150
/.;
.I
200
(J
/
b 55OC
300
400
in MPa - -
Fig. 12.4. Cavity growth rates in rype 347 stainless steel, from Needham and
Gladman (1980). Solid lines: eq. (12.4). Dashed lines: Completely constrained
and unconstrained limits. Dashed-dotted line: Plastic hole growth mechanism.
12.1
179
the choice of R and A, and it is not exactly clear for which values of R and
Needham
and
Gladman
(1980)
give
their
experimental
A
growth rates. If, for
and
0.8 urn,
lifetimes does not involve these uncertainties and the agreement of theory
experiment
is
and
for
continuum
plastic
hole
growth
growth
rate
ob-
of
methane
bubbles
nickel
the internal gas pressure and under an applied tensile stress. They show
growth
the
model,
observed
eq.
growth
(11.14).
rates
are
compatible
qualitative
with
the
in
observation
is
data
for
the
therefore
the
of
the
deformation
cavity
flow
of
polycrystal,
and
creep
can
be
described
as
linear
progresses
Cavity
until
12.
180
Greater
cavities
accommodation
v
0.3, h(tjI)
cannot
mechanism
=
be
accommodated
intervenes,
0.61, d/A
'"
10, aIlE
cavity
elastically,
growth
cavitation.
Nonlinear
strain-rate
viscous
which
relation
&~
is
sliding
is
grains
nonlinear
B(fa)n
sliding on
greater
other
0.17.
constrained
also,
but
with
If
stressl
grain
boundary
growth rate retains its form given in eq. (12.4). Only the remote
is
no
&= B~
if
and
stops
by
factor
fn
than
it
is
strain
rate
According to Rice (1981), who uses a different argument, grain boundary sliding
should enhance the volume growth rate of a penny-shaped crack by a factor of
about two. This is consistent with the estimate based on the stress enhancement
factor. It should be noted that for closely spaced as opposed to isolated cavitating facets, the effect of grain
(Section
12.6.3).
Also,
if
boundary
sliding
is
very
much
a;
stronger
< 0, is
growth,
which
was described in Section 11.2, may be constrained under certain conditions. The
volume growth rate of the facet for crack-like growth is
still
given
by eq.
(12.1), so that eq. (12.3) for ab remains valid, but now the stress at the tip
of the cavities, ao ' becomes dependent on the cavity growth rate. The further
analysis is complicated unless it is confined to the case where ao can be
negelected. This corresponds to the limiting range in which the
rate
increases
with
the
cavity
growth
12.2
181
tc'
can
be
in
the
creep
life,
the
time
to
cavity
is
neglected
against
of
the
con-
i.e. for diffusion being rate controlling. The second term represents
coalescence
at
small
strain rates. At first sight, this seems to provide the desired explanation for
the prolonged rupture lifetimes of commercial alloys compared to
calculated
from
the
lifetime
with
the
time
to
cavity
coalescence
has
often
been
by
facet-size
microcracks will only commence after coalescence has occurred. In this case,
the time to cavity cOqlescence can be expected to control the lifetime, if the
additional time which is required for the joining of the facet-size microcracks
is small.
In the constrained limit, however, the situation is different as Riedel (1985c)
pointed
out.
sintering
stress
12.
182
which
is
often
negligible.
In
other
metallographically
traction-free
microcrack,
its
failure,
constraint
may
facet.
Thus
the
poly-
the
rupture
process.
The constrained growth model does not lend itself to the calculation of rupture
lifetimes. Rather, one is led to the conclusion that, in the constrained limit,
it
ling for the rupture lifetime, possibly together with the continuous nucleation
of
new
cavities.
Interaction
this
idea
will
be
and
Rodgers
(1977)
on
Nimonic 80A at 750 0 C. The material had intentionally been pre-cavitated by prestraining at room temperature followed by a suitable
high-temperature
anneal.
This treatment provides a uniform density of small grain boundary cavitie! from
the beginning of the creep test with a cavity spacing of
A = 1.5
~m.
The
ex-
perimental results are compared with the time to cavity coalescence calculated
from eq. (12.11). The following parameters were used: = 2.10- 17 0 4 2 (in MPa
3
and sec), 6D bo = 10 -14 mis,
Qb ~ 170 kJ/mole, d = 50~m, A - 1.5~m (from Dyson,
1979) and h(~) = 0.61. Note that the grain boundary diffusion coefficient deviates
from
the
unconstrained
growth.
Ob-
data points fall within the range of constrained growth and agree
12.4
183
Nirnonic 80 A
750C
70 6
eq. (12.11)
70 5
-..:::::-..:::::
II)
s.....
70~
......
unconstrained
10 3
700
750
"
"""""- ""--
200
(J
""-
------~
in MPa
300
--
Dyson and Rodgers (1974) varied the cavity spaCing by applying varying
amounts
of prestrain at room temperature. Dyson (1979) evaluated the results and showed
that the strain to failure, E f , increases in proportion to the cavity spacing.
This is predicted by the constrained growth model, but not by other models.
12.4.2
prestrained
decreasing
bracketed
spacing
of
the
of cavity spacing. The data pOint for material which had not
is
of
of Inconel alloy X-750 at a stress of 400 MPa and at 700 oC. Increas-
been
prestrained
cavity coalescence. The solid line represents the time to coalescence calculated
from eq. (12.11) in the constrained limit. In this case, the first term can
approximately
written
as
t f = 0.32(A/d)/E.
12.6 shows, the model overestimates the rupture life by a factor two, but
184
12.
..c:
(.)
300
0%
250
200
L /
3% prestrain
..? 5%
.!; T50
........
TOO
Inconel
~ 744%
50
9.5%
X-750,700e
0
0
cavity spacing
Ain I'm
TO
12.4.3
Svensson and Dunlop (1981, 1982) have reported results of creep rupture tests
on a-brass at 700K (427 oC). Before the creep test, the material was given a
heat treatment which produced a distribution
typical diameters of 2R
0.3
~m
of
water
and a spacing of A = 6
vapor
~m
bubbles
having
in grain boundaries.
ct.-brass
T07
700K
10 6
I/)
.5::
........ 105
10'
10
20
40
fJ
uinMPa - -
Fig. 12.7. Rupture time of a-brass with implanted water vapor bubbles, from
Svensson and Dunlop (1981). Dashed lines: Unconstrained limit, eq. (11.18).
(After Riedel, 1985c).
12.4
185
About 20% of the grain boundaries were cavitated. Some creep tests were
rupted
and
inter-
of the bubbles. Other specimens were crept to rupture giving the rupture
shown
times
in Fig. 12.7. Since the number of bubbles, or cavities was constant dur-
ing the tests, the lifetime should be given by eq. (12.11). All relevant material
parameters
and the strain rate are given by Svensson and Dunlop (1982) so
and
shown
in
Fig.
12.7.
350
describes
Since
and 500
the
data
very well except at the highest stress, a = 63.7 MPa. The unconstrained diffus-
12.7,
which
underestimate
of
the
cavities influences
called
the
applied
stress
the
macroscopic
and
growth
be
is
extended
which
response,
which
is
boundary
cavitation
is
described.
The
higher
dena
es
of
12.6,
the
theory
as
will
rates
cavity
facet-facet
interact-
are those of Harris, Tucker and Greenwood (1974), Skelton (1975), Crossland and
Harris (1979), Beere (1980a, 1981) and Raj (1983).
12.5.1
facets
has
dropped
to
the
order
on
the
stress. Thus, if the small sintering stress is neglected, the cavitating facets
can
has
been
investigated
extenSively in the past (see, e.g., Mura, 1982, Horii and Nemat-Nasser, 1983).
186
12.
has
been
studied
by
Hutchinson
containing
(1983).
He
penny-shaped
assumes
that the
cavitating facets are well separated from one another, so that interactions can
be neglected, and that they are aligned normal to the principal tensile stress,
or. For a matrix material obeying Norton's power law, eq. (3.6), Hutchinson
derives the following macroscopic stress/strain rate relation for the material
containing a dilute concentration of microcracks:
0i'J
p_
+ __
n+l
( 12.12)
The tensor mij is defined such that its components in the co-ordinate system of
the prinCipal axes of stress are zero except in the maximum pricipal stress
direction where mr = 1. The term containing the factor
the
microcracks
is the contribution of
(12.13)
where d is the diameter of the microcracks and Nmc is the number of microcracks
per unit volume.
According to eq. (12.12), the presence
of
the
microcracks
adds
dilatant
component to the strain rate (the second term in brackets), but the response to
deviatoric stresses is also modified (the first
term
in
brackets',
and
the
( 12.14)
Here,
the microcracks, s
12.5.2
Bon.
of
stress,
0b'
which
was
given
in
eq. (12.3).
transmit
finite
Hutchinson's
(1983)
12.5
Constitutive Behavior
187
for
oD b
small
In
uniaxial
(12.16)
where, additionally, the sintering stress, ao ' was neglected, and p was replaced by the volume density of cavitating facets, Nmc ' according to eq. (12.13).
The result given in eqs. (12.15)
additional
extensional
and
(12.16)
above
simply
limit
means
that
the
In
the
this was not so: the presence of the cavitating facets also
viscous continuum.
continuum
T~is
process
ignores
the
fact
that
diffusion
creep
advantage
not
this
has
is
sections.
Whereever
can
be
taken
from
the
to
eq.
(1.5).
12.
188
the
creep
is
simply
to
0b
is
under-
one
their
distances
another are comparable to, or not much greater than, their diameter,
then the creep flow fields around the facets start to interact. In general, the
interaction
will
enhance
cavity
cavit-
ating facets, which, as we have seen, behave like microcracks in the constrained limit. Such a net-sect ion-stress argument, however, does not lend itself
to
It
will
also
interaction
effects
effects depends greatly on whether or not the grain boundaries between the cavitating
facets
can
slide.
all boundaries that are inclined to the tensile axis slide freely, while
no
constraint
cavitation since the volume increase of the cavitating facets can be accom-
sliding
alone.
More
realistic,
three-dimensional
An approximate way of including interaction effects is the well-known self-consistent method, which is applied here to the constrained limit, i.e. the cavitating boundary
crack
is
f~cets
analyzed
microcracks.
An
isolated
rounding material, however, is not given the properties of the parent material,
but is described by the as yet unknown constitutive law of the solid containing
a not necessarily dilute concentration of microcracks. From the
deformation
field,
the
so
calculated
closed
by
re-
12.6
Quiring
that
this
189
now
in
way
which
is
not
exactly
the
cracks
parent
material
differs
from
the
un-
PE
instead of
PE s ,
E is
where
rate of the cracked material. With this substitution, eq. (12.14) resolved
for
(12.18)
e:
p,
(12.14),
cracked
mat"erial
can be
assessed
(1984a,b)
p
for
while
has
by
comparing
carried
out
for
with
numeric
periodic
calculations,
arrays
of
which
cracks.
Tvergaard
For n
5 and
0.38, Tvergaard (1984b) reports a macroscopic strain rate which exceeds the
(1977)
and
made that the cracked material is an isotropic von Mises solid, one
from
the
can
start
uniaxial form of the material law for the dilute limit, eq. (12.14).
E,
cracked
material
E=
E.
by
for p
With
this
0, integration
12.
190
(12.20)
Beere (1980a) USing a different
method
analyzes
configuration of square
grains with all normal boundaries cavitating, i.e. with Nmc d 3 = 1. His result
(12.21)
is nearly identical with eq. (12.20). For n = 5, eq. (12.21) predicts that
the
ET,
be
calculated
the condition that the trace of the strain rate tensor equals the rate of
cavitating
material
(12.23)
The second term in the brackets accounts for the dilatancy
of
the
cavitating
material.
12.6.2
only
th~
completely
constrained
conven-
limit, 0b = 0, is considered. As an
diameter
A.
This
configuration
was
growth rate of the crack can be approximated to within better than 10% by:
Vf
~f
self-consistent
scheme,
eq.
motivated
by
the
result
of
(d/A)2
the
was
12.6
191
three-dimensional array of cracks. The numerical factor 0.59 results from a fit
of the formula to the numerical results.
Numerically, the enhancement factor for the volume growth rate of the facet due
to
which are approximated by eq. (12.24), one obtains enhancement factors of 1.14,
1.45,
1.97
and
4.47 for n
argument
would
lead
1/2,
to
configuration
grains shown in Fig. 12.8. The grain boundaries are assumed to slide freely
stress
cavitate.
The crack density in this configuration is Nmc d 3 = 0.5. The grains are modeled
as nonlinear viscous as described by eq. (3.6), which reduces to = Ban in
uniaxial
tension.
the following approximation formulas for the volume growth rate of a cavitating
facet and for the macroscopic extensional and transverse strain rates
Strain rate
stress u
Fig. 12.8. Grain structure considered by Anderson and Rice (1985). First
orientation: hexagonal facets H are perpendicular to the applied stress and
are cavitated. Second orientation: square facets S are perpendicular to stress
axis and are cavitated.
12.
192
. 3.1 n d3
. 3.34 . 3.1 n .
. - 0.23
Vf
3.4
(12.25)
ES
(12.26)
ES
(12.27)
E.
ET
Here, Es is the strain rate of the polycrystal with sliding grain boundaries,
but with no cavitation, i.e. ~ = B (fa)n. The stress-enhancement factor, f,
s
due to grain boundary sliding was defined in Section 1.5.2. (Anderson's and
Rice's model can also be applied to the case of sliding boundaries with no cavitation giving f
with
the
corresponding
expression
for
to
compare
eq.
(12.25)
Vf
Vf
(isolated facet)
(12.28)
factor
is
now
1228,
which
is
much
orientation
in
which
the
mc
d3
the
crack
density
for
smaller
than
in
the
In
this
first
configu-
case,
viz.
Vf
E
ET
. 1.7n 3 .
.
= 1.68 . 1.7 n
.
- 0.39
2.9
(12.29)
ES
(12.30)
ES
(12.31)
E.
for
uration
is
not
interaction
enhancement
this
config-
1 where f = 2.9.
factor
for
~f
is
12.7
193
the
opening
possibilities
will
12.3.
12.7.1,
microcrack
damage
with
in-
inclined
boundaries
near
the
facet-size microcracks. The microcracks can then grow by coalescence with these
cavities, a process analogous to creep crack growth on a small scale.
an
application
However,
the
strength
min~n,~~nVQ
)~ycrysla~
honnmos
of the
order
of
microcracks
such
as
in
criterion
closely
their
failure.
To
apply
the geometrical relation Vf = (~/4) d 6 and require 6 = d. For the first configuration analyzed by Anderson and Rice, Vf is given by eq. (12.25) and
failure is found to occur at the following value of the Monkman-Grant product:
s f
= 0.23/3.1 n
( 12.32)
subjected
to the stress o. Equation (12.32) gives extremely small values for the MonkmanGrant product, e.g. Est f = 0.08% if n = 5. For the second configuration analyzed by Anderson and Rice (in which the square boundary facets cavitate), Vf is
given by eq. (12.29) and the Monkman-Grant product becomes 1.9% for n = 5.
Anderson and Rice (1985) have carried out their
analysis
within
small-strain
smaller
is
not
12.
194
taken into account. This deficiency is avoided by Tvergaard (1985) who performs
a large-strain finite element analysis of an
cavitating
facet
is
aXisymmetric
conf"iguration.
The
sliding grain boundaries are conical surfaces through the crack front. A weakness
strain
rate
does
not
increase
predicts
configuration
markedly
(the
within
model
d/2,
rap-
model,
the
Monkman-Grant product calculated with the strain rate of the uncavitated material is relatively small. In the example shown in Fig. 12.9 is ~stf
12.7.2
6.6%.
The number of grain boundary facets having relaxed normal stress is usually not
constant during a creep test. Lacking preCise information, we assume that their
number, increases in proportion to some power of strain
l.Or-----...,..------.----...........----,
a2
-----
O~~~~~------~--------~~
a02
aol,
a06
normalized time tst Fig. 12.9. Creep curve computed by Tvergaard (1985) for the axisymmetric
model shown in the insert. The dashed line characterizes creep of the
parent material with no grain boundary sliding and no cavitation.
12.7
or
195
a' Y
"
(12.33)
where p was defined in eq. (12.13). The dimensionless factor 6 and the exponent
Y reflect
an abbreviation. These parameters are related, albeit not uniquely, to the nucleation rate, a', of individual cavities which was introduced in Section 5.7.1.
The result of the
fracture
when
p =
self-consistent
model,
eq.
(12.18),
apparently
predicts
the strain reaches the critical value Ef = (1/6,)1/Y. By combining eqs. (12.18)
and (12.33), the creep curve for a solid with continuous cavity nucleation and
constrained growth can be determined. Integrating eq. (12.18) with eq.
inserted for constant
the form t = t(E):
(12.33)
(12.34)
~ t
Figure 12.10 shows this result in the form E(t). The Monkman-Grant product is
Y
(12.35)
Y+1
Thus,
0.12
t'
'S"
0.1
0.08
0.06
.!::
U)
00t.
0.02
0.01
0.02
0.03 QOt.
normalized time
i, t
0.05
---
12.
196
by the parameters
is
clear
that
~'
the
when
= 1.
the
Further,
it
denominator
Rather,
failure
is
method
leads
to
similar
results.
If
eq.
curve is obtained as
(~';s)-1,
the
occurs
when
+~.
The
rupture
time
is
given
by
to
material
which
was
develops
described
microcrack
in
Section
2.2.3
is
stress/strain-rate
response
of
the
where ES is the initial strain rate of the uncavitated material. Using the
factor (1 + E) implies that incompressibility is assumed. Since the material
develops dilatancy as p increases in
proportion
dilatancy
the
introduces
an
error
of
order
to
be
tolerable.
A proper
treatment
error
variables,
and
t,
12.1
191
and
Stegun
(1968)
give
(12.39)
The upper bound is particularly simple illustrating how
necking
and
internal
microcrack damage combine to cause fracture. Recall that for necking alone, the
Monkman-Grant product is 1/n, while for internal damage alone, it is 1/8'.
cavity
growth
be-
for
the
rupture
process.
3) Nevertheless, measured rupture lifetimes of pre-cavitated materials approximately agree with calculated times to cavity coalescence.
4) Despite this coincidence, other rate-controlling processes for
rupture
be-
was
It
factor
1.5
to
if
to values often greater than 100 the precise value depending strongly on the
stress
exponent
sometimes
together
the
low
boundaries is not an appropriate measure for the state of damage in the material.
in
many
cavity- growth
diffusion
creep
Sections 1.4 and 7.3.6). The inhibition of cavity growth may be caused by
the fact that vacancies which aggregate in the cavities are not
enough
rates
replaced
fast
the
particle/matrix
interfaces.
growth,
as
well
the
vacancies
needed
in
of
the
grains
and
diffusional
for
generated
The
number
of
vacancies
grain
boundary,
un'
the maximum rate that can be maintained by this type of vacancy production is
u
(13.1)
and the volumetric and linear growth rates of a cavity that collects all vacancies from a grain boundary area A2 (A
2
V = A' A E.
13.1
199
(13.3)
of
predicts
that
A'
should
of
order
grain
to
relate
size,
while
Beere
ambiguous,
we
probably has the same microscopic origin as the inhibition of cavity growth
the
threshold
(13.4)
AI
~,
is calculated from
eq.
(4.17)
with
om = 0th.
Since 0th is nf the order of only 1 MPa, ~ is rather large, and A' is found to
be greater than the grain size in most cases.
If the inhibition of diffusion arises from the difficulty of plating atoms onto
the interface between high-melting particles and the matriX, and if the accommodation is achieved by power-law creep around the particles,
rate
is
the
displacement
given in eq.' (7.49). It has the same form as eq. (13.1), viz.
Iin
ex
e.
Hence, the above equations retain their validity. Further, the threshold stress
in eq. (13.4) above can be expressed by eq. (7.51), which gives:
AI
= 1.5 p/w~
the
free
diffusive
growth
(13.5)
obtained
by
(13.6)
200
13.
expressed
by
the
threshold
stress through eq. (13.4). Taking ot = 50, w = 0.2, d/A = 10, Gth = 1.3 MPa and
n = 5, the stress at which cavity growth becomes inhibited is found to be
3 MPa.
Below that stress, growth rates are inhibited and they are proportional
growth
prevails
as
while
above
that
stress,
free
example is typical, the inhibition plays no role in most creep rupture tests.
0 to R
cavity
=
A/2:
(13.7)
Here it was assumed that rupture occurs once the cavities have
coalesced.
The
result exhibits the desired property that the Monkman-Grant product, ~tf' is
independent of stress.
Equation (13.7) is similar to the result of the constrained growth
model
[the
second term of eq. (12.11)]. The main difference is that eq. (13.7) contains A'
instead of the gr'ain size d. Since eq. (13.4) showed that A' is generally greater than d, we conclude that inhibited growth gives much shorter lifetimes than
does constrained growth. On the other hand, it was demonstrated in Section 12.4
that
eq.
times
to
coalescence,
there
are
also
important
differences.
is
rates
During
relaxed
but
this is not so during inhibited growth. Therefore the argument that constrained
growth cannot control the rupture lifetime (Section 12.3) does not
apply
to
inhibited
growth.
Another
difference
is
that
cavity
analogously
growth in
the
free
diffusive
growth law, while growth is greatly retarded in polycrystals, supports the constrained growth model, but is not explicable by the inhibited growth model.
coalescence
of
cavities
(1976)
proposed
to
lead
products
growth
is
out, however, that the plastic hole growth mechanism gives too
Grant
that
compared
to
measured
large
Monkman-
by
grain boundary sliding, which seems to have some relevance in metals with easily sliding boundaries, will be presented.
material
obeying
eq.
(3.6),
which
reduces
to ~
of
nonlinear
Bon in uniaxial
analyzed
in
rate was given in eq. (12.2), which is a special case of eq. (14.1)
below.
In
fact, the volume growth rate of arbitrarily shaped voids in homogeneous stress
and strain-rate fields, for reasons of dimensional consistency, must have the
form:
~
A (411/3)
.CX>
R3 e
( 14.1)
Here, e is the equivalent tensile strain rate at large distances from the
void, R is the void radius as defined in Fig. 11.1, the factor 411/3 was intro-
202
14.
V,
and
(4~/3) R3
is
the
cavity
shape and on the ratios between the stress components. There are,
in
general,
The
aspect
of
solution
special
Section
14.1.2,
illustrates the effect of the stress exponent n. In Section 14.1.3, results for
spherical
voids
embedded
stress fields are reported and compared with solutions for penny-shaped cracks.
Finally, in Section 14.1.5, a few remarks on void interaction effects are made.
The reader who is only interested in the void growth rate for the
rupture tests
usual
creep
in eq. (14.18) and the subsequent discussion. The results for triaxial
loading
of spherical voids and cracks are summarized in eqs. (14.17) and (12.2), and in
Fig. 14.1.
The shape of the voids is determined by the
growth
process
itself
and
surface
competition
diffusion.
between
Surface
the
diffusion
conserving
the
void
plastic
tends to
volume,
whereas creep flow leads to other void shapes and generally changes the volume.
Apparently, equiLibrium shapes will predominate for slowly growing
coupled
problem
of
plastic
void
growth
and
voids.
The
that
the
void
shape either has no great influence on the growth rate (as in uniaxial tension)
or that plastic flow does not lead to severe deviations
from
the
equilibrium
shape (as in the high triaxiality limit where growing voids remain approximately spherical).
14.1.1
out
has
been
deformation
material,
if
de-
14.1
formed
203
ellipsoidal shape. However, the axes of the ellipsoid may rotate and
extend
at
different
rates.
This
implies
they
may
spheroid
under
axisym-
metric loading with a~ being the tensile stress and a; being the transverse
stress as in Fig. 12.1. The remote strain rates are related to the stresses
-2E; =
through E~ =
described by
B (a~ - a;)
E; =
and
(14.2)
where R1 and R are the semi-axes in
the
tensile
and
transverse
directions,
respectively, and wand r are coordinates in these directions. The aspect ratio
of the spheroid is defined as A = R1 /R, i.e. A = 1 corresponds to a sphere.
The principal results for the volumetric void growth rate
change as expressed by
--=
Aare
and
for
the
~"" V
2A2
shape
(14.3)
+ 1'>( 1-A2 )
(14.4)
where a:
(a;
2a;)/3 is the mean (or hydrostatic) stress, a is an abbreviaI a""I = ae'" , and I'> is defined as
"" i.e.
ar"" - aT'
if A <
I'>
if A
of
of
the
(14.5)
> 1.
loading
conditions
no
the void axes occurs. Note that eq. (14.3) is compatible with the
right-hand
side
of
eq.
(14.3)
and
(14.3) multiplied by A.
For a momentarily spherical void is A
(14.4) reduce to
1 and
I'>
14.
204
90:
40
ce V
...
...
...
01 + 20;
3
II
....
( 5/2) c
(14.6)
...
01 - T
(14.7)
degenerate
case
VIV
since
A=
0 and
(14.8)
(9/4) B
O. In
0, Il
this
[ c...e
(41[R3
13) ]
...
= ( 3 0...1 /1[0),
is
by
in
this
specializes
to
3/1[,
factor 4/1[ larger than the growth rate of a sphere having the
(14.9)
uniaxial
uniaxial
tension].
We
conclude
of
eq.
(14.8)
factor
31[/4
faster
Budiansky et al (1982) have studied the evolution of the volume and the
aspect
ratio of an initially spherical void by integrating eqs. (14.3) and (14.4) over
the time. They find that, depending on the stress ratio 0;/0;,
the
voids
can
deform into prolate or oblate spheroids, including the asymptotic forms of long
cylinders, needles and cracks. In uniaxial tension, for example,
spherical
void
is
pulled
out
initially
an
initial
volume
tends
towards
infinity,
while
the
For nonlinear material, Eshelby' s (1957) solution does no longer apply. Direct
integration
of
the
equilibrium
and
compatibility
14.1
205
Norton's power law is possible for circular-cylindrical voids under axisymmetric loading (Budiansky et aI, 1982). The radius of the cylinder is R. To be
compatible with the notation in the preceding section, the stress along the
axis is denoted by o~, while the radial, or transverse, stress is
cylindrical
CD
aT' According to Norton's law, eq. (3.6), the corresponding remote strain rates
.. ''I n- 1
....
...
ICDI
are e:...I - - 2'"
e: T B I aI-aT
(aI-aT)
and e:e
= e: I
In a cylindrical coordinate system (r,
axis
the cylindrical void, the only non-zero displacement rates are ur and
z The strain rates are calculated from the displacement rates according to
of
(14.10)
Incompressibility requires:
( 14.11)
In cylindrical coordinates, the equilibrium condition takes the form
(14.12)
Together with the material law, eq. (3.6), and the boundary conditions (orr
0;
at r = R, and orr =
at infinity) these equations can be integrated by
elementary algebraic operations to give the stress and strain-rate fields in
the
Whole
block.
In
particular,
the
R as:
(14.13)
can
be
evaluated
easily
giving
( 14.15)
14.
206
eq.
(14.4).
For
perfectly
plastic
paragraph
As the second form shows, the hydrostatic component of the stress, om' enhances
the
void
growth
rate
exponentially
in
the
although the hydrostatic component of stress does not affect the remote
rate
(only
the
stress
deviator
strain
material
and
is
subjected
block
of
power-law
remotely applied principal stresses is 0; and the two others are 0;. This case
has been investigated by Budiansky, Hutchinson and Slutsky (1982). Following
Hill (1956b), they cast the constitutive equations
of
the
nonlinear
viscous
field
for
~
the
displacement
Rayleigh-Ritz
method,
function
of
(14.4).
Uniaxial
implies
0"'/0'" = '"
m
represent the
0"'/0'"
to
and pure shear means o'"
tension
in
Fig. 14.1a
corresponds
om/o'"
m
1/3,
hydrostatic
tension
hi~h-triaxiality
carried
out
with
respect to a o only. This implies that the voids preserve their spherical
shape during growth in highly triaxial stress fields. The minimization can be
carried
out,
making
14.1
207
30
'e"
3'----"---'---r"T"""J"7"""T7JI
bJ
aJ
spherical
void
25
20
<1>'
..c::
~
15
c:
0
.iii
c:
10
uniaxial tension
c:
o~--~----~----~----~
1.5
05
2na
of
validity
depends
(14.17)
n2
(Recall
that
a; = la~I).
large negative a~/a~, the sign of the right-hand side must be inverted and
constant
0.4319
must
Fig.
14.1
bring
out
the
be
Its
the
(14.17)
and
since
the
remQte
strain
rate
is
degenerate
by
Budiansky
14.
208
spherical
bodies
+ ~
A.
Equation
(14.18)
shows
volume
fraction
of
voids
as
as (2R/A)3
spac-
are
n =5
compared
to
an
isolated
void.
However,
the
Fig.
14.1b. The dashed lines represent the analytic approximation, eq. (12.2), which
has been obtained by He and Hutchinson- (1981)
whereas
using
linearization
method,
the solid lines are numerical solutions developed by the same authors.
of
voids
Thus a Simple
and
cracks
of
having
the
same
radius
are
similar.
spherical
approximation formula, which is valid to within 35% in uniaxial tension for all
n and for all void shapes between a sphere and a crack, is
(14.19)
where E is the tensile Strain rate. In particular, this formula will be approximately valid for lenticular, equilibrium void shapes.
The case of a spherical void in a remotely uniform,
stress
but
otherwise
case
for
that
for
spherical
consists
The general
~).
arbitrary,
field, as distinct from the axially symmetric case, has been considered
of
the
void
remotely
the
triple
equivalent
applied
direction
of
of
independent
tensile
strain
principal
stresses.
.=
Ee'
parameters,
the ratio of
0:/0:,
and the
(14.20)
.m
.~
where EI > Ell> EIII are the principal components of the remote
strain
rate.
14.1
209
1 with
the plus sign for negative ;1 and the minus sign for positive ;1' In terms of
these three loading variables, the growth rate of a spherical void in a
perfectly plastic matrix is given by Rice and Tracey (1969) in the form
The result shows that under most loading conditions, the Lode variable
has
no
great influence on the void growth rate. For uniaxial tenSion, for example, the
first term of eq. (14.21) is 32 times greater than the second one
and
in
the
0:/0:.
by
axisymmetric
plastic
material
is
primarily
case
variable, vL' can be neglected except for cases in which the hydrostatic stress
component is very small, say if
< 0.05. Also for arbitrary n, the Lode
variable
will have no great influence on the growth rate, since the
1:1/:
the
void
shapes
~inear
is
(4w/3) heW) R3
given
with
by
eq.
(14.1).
For
R A Ee 1 [3 hew)] .
(14.22)
Here EO is the strain at which the void is nucleated and Ro is the void radius
at nucleation. The second form of eq. (14.23) applies if A is time-independent.
A time-independent A obtains for proportional loading and
does
not
if
the
void
shape
vary during growth. Rupture occurs when neighboring voids touch each
condition
14.
210
(14.24)
In the second form, the strain to failure is expressed in terms of
the
voided
nucleated,
is
neglected,
the
critical
the
absolute
are far too large compared with measured values. Assuming that A/2Ro
10 and
= 0.61, and using A = 1.1 for uniaxial tension, the critical strain is
h(~)
cent
in
are
typical
for
and
Ridley,
1984).
The relevant difference to creep rupture tests is probably that the strain rate
in superplastic deformation, although low compared to usual tensile
higher
than
in
tests,
is
in
the
super-
This
fracture
mode
is
brought
about
by
plastic
void
would be even higher did necking not intervene. Thus, the analysis presented in
this chapter possibly applies to superplastic materials and to dimpled fracture
at room temperature, apart from the necking instability, but
probably
not
to
creep
those
surroundobserved
rupture tests. One might suspect that void interaction effects could
explain the discrepancy. However, several analyses described next indicate that
void interaction effects are moderate under typical creep rupture conditions.
This point of view is supported by a finite element
analysis
carried
out
by
14.1
211
Needleman
and
Rice
(1980).
conditions
on
an
appropriate unit cell. Diffusive void growth is included in that model, but the
limit of void growth by creep flow alone can readily be evaluated. The
indicate
that
up
to
results
negligibly small. Thus the strain to fracture can hardly deviate markedly
from
eq. (14.24).
A simple, although not very well defined, approach to account for
action
effects
is
void
inter-
that, owing to the reduced load carrying area, the stress on a cavitated
boundary is enhanced by the factor 1/(1-w) where w
ion of voids. Therefore, after replacing
eq.
(14.28),
can
be
integrated
Wo
(2Ro/A)2, to coalescence, w
from
i em
an
initial
Wo
for
integer
n.
law,
(14.25)
dw .
i em /(1_w)n,
3 he lP) /1 (1-w)n
2 A
by
grain
Figure
in
terms
of
elementary
1.5 .------"T1rr-'C'"""T---,---,--.--""T'""-.,...-----,
L-~_-L_~
002
__
0.06
~_L-~
0.10
_ _~_~
a It,
14.
212
effect
(corresponding to 2Ro/A
0.16
argument
applied
here,
must
as
be
large
as
25~. If more realistic values for Ware chosen, say W < 0.01, then the
preo
0
dicted Monkman-Grant product is well above 100~. Again this is a result which
is appropriate for superplastic materials but not for creep rupture conditions.
Incidentally, self-consistent estimates of interaction
Chen
and
Argon
(1979)
lead
to
effects
like
that
by
element
analysis
that
of
Burke
interaction
effects
creeping
matrix.
Burke
high,
least
45~.
they
find
moderate,
the
are
and
cross
section
in
to
over-
some-
times
ter~inates
the
probably plays no role under creep rupture conditions, since shear bands do not
develop
until
(see, for
100~
contributes
to
cavity
connection
with
constrained
boundary,
as
was
already
12.1.3. Under normal tensile stresses, this only means that cavity growth rates
are
enhanced, but under a transverse compressive stress the cavities would not
grow at all unless sliding took place. Sliding transposes the transverse stress
into a wedging force pushing the grains adjacent to the cavitating facet apart.
This mechanism may have operated in the exper1-ments of Davies and Dutton (1966)
14.2
213
I O'l =0
0)
b)
d
boundary
Fig. 14.3. Cavity growth by grain boundary sliding.
a) Compressive transverse stress. b) Growth at a tensile ledge.
and Davies and Williams (1969). They applied tensile stresses to copper and
copper/aluminum alloys until the specimens developed cavities and reached the
tertiary stage. Then the stress was either reversed, which led to at least
partial closure of the cavities, or a compressive stress was applied at 90 0 to
the original tensile direction. In the latter case, the cavities
continued
to
grow, which is expected from Fig. 14.3a. To quantify cavity growth under transverse compression, we assume that diffusive growth occurs so easily that it
is
constrained. Then the analysis of the problem shows that the cavity growth rate
has the same form as the constrained growth rate in tension, eq. (12.5),
from
numerical
factor,
and
a~
apart
in
Fig. 14.3b. A cavity located at a tensile ledge is pulled out by grain boundary
sliding. If surface diffusion is slow (which we assume), the cavity growth rate
1984).
on
copper
Sklenicka
et
al
showing that the average cavity growth rate and the average
14.
214
by
that
of
grain
= 10,
on the facet,
valent
T~
0.84;
equi-
strain rate of the polycrystal. Equation (14.26) has two limiting rang-
it would be
the
polycrystalline
constraint
on
denominator,
sliding,
which
repre-
the
0.55
(14.27)
d.
1/2.
It is not surprising that the result resembles that for the constrained
growth
cavity
diffus-
ive cavity growth rates are larger by a factor of the order (A/2R)2 than growth
rates by constrained sliding. Therefore constrained diffusive
be
the
dominant
fracture
cavitation
will
the
assumption
that
the adjacent grains were rigid. Now the consequences of grain deformability for
the cavity growth rates are explored. In Sections
15.1
and
15.2,
power-law
11,
atoms
of
leaving
diffusive
the
cavitation,
which was
described
in
boundary
is
compatible with the assumption of rigid grains. If the grains are deformable by
creep, the diffusion distance may be shorter, since the then nonuniform
thick-
suggest
that
the
diffusion
than
the
cavity
half-spacing,
which
was
is
much
than A/2, the possibility of creep does not reduce the diffusion
distance
and
diffusion
and
creep
in
cavity growth is not simple. Beere and Speight (1978) were the first to present
an approximate model of the coupling which turned out to yield reasonably accurate
(1979)
and
by
216
15.
Cocks
and
Ashby
(1982),
which,
from
the
numerical
re-
sults.
Such numerical finite-element solutions were developed by
(1980)
and
by
Sham
Needleman
and
Rice
A
prescribing appropriate boundary conditions on the surface of the cylinder.
Chen and Argon (1981c) found the following surprisingly simple interpolation
formula, which accurately reproduces Needleman's and Rice's finite element
results in the whole range from diffusive cavity growth to hole growth by creep
flow: the cavity growth rate is given by eqs. (11.11) or (11.14) (for Vor R,
respectively) with the only modification that the cavitated area fraction w is
interpreted as
librium-shaped cavity of radius R in a finite circular cylinder of
diameter
rate.
(15.1)
calculated from eq. (4.17) using the remotely applied stress and
For
large
~,
eq.
cavitated area fraction, eq. (11.9), and the growth rate is then the
growth
rate
obtained
in
the
rigid
grain
diffusive
fortuitous, the use of eq. (15.1) in eq. (11.11) leads to the correct
in
the
strain
behavior
the function q(w) defined in eq. (11.10) with w from eq. (15.1) shows that
of
the
leading term is of order ~3. This means that V - R3 e is obtained. Moreover, the
coefficient is such that the factor A introduced in eq. (14.1) becomes A = 9/8,
which happens to agree with the result of the hole growth analysis given in eq.
(14.19).
For multiaxial loading it cannot be expected that the same accidental
of
q(w)
behavior
leads to the correct growth rates in the plastic hole growth limit as
well. In this case Sham and Needleman (1983) obtain an excellent representation
of their finite element results by adding the cavity growth rates by diffusion
Ceq. (11.11)] and by creep Ceq. (14.17)] in the following way:
(n-1)(n+O.4319)
n2
Here, w has the following meaning:
}~
(15.2)
15.1
217
factor
1.5
(15.3)
multiplying
1,
and
is
and the
calculated from eq. (4.17) using the von Mises equivalent stress, om,
e
corresponding strain rate, ~m = B (om)n, which under axisymmetric loading is
e
e
equal to ~: = ~;. Since the high-triaxiality limit of plastic hole growth is
used in eq. (15.2), its validity is restricted to
0:/0:
corresponds to
0:/0:
= 113).
for
the
diffusive
and
the
creep
flow
mechanisms
separately,
with w
interpreted simply as the cavitated area fraction, also reproduces the limiting
cases and is accurate to within a factor of about 2 in the transition range.
From the preceding formulas it is clear that the transition from diffusive
cavity growth to hole growth by creep flow occurs when 1 becomes smaller than
the cavity radius, R. Typical cavity sizes are 2R
the
melting
temperature,
one obtains 1 = R
0.5
~m.
~m
In pure iron at
half
For higher stresses growth occurs predominantly by creep flow, whereas at lower
stresses diffusion predominates. In creep resistant materials, owing to the relative smallness of ~/o, 1 is usually so large that diffusive growth
predomin-
ates over the whole range of conditions generally applied in creep testing.
Another remark on the coupled growth mechanism seems to be in
the
literature,
order
here.
In
11.2.
The interaction was treated in complete analogy to the case of equilibrium void
shapes, i.e., in eq.
eq.
~11.44)
meaning
specified
in
of crack-like growth. The reason that a cavity may grow in a crack-like mode is
the
localized
drain
to
totally
limit,
i.e.
for
small
R/l
(except
for
15.
218
15.1.2
creep
and
spacing. Hence, diffusion is the predominant growth mechanism. Often the strain
rate is even so low that diffusive cavitation is constrained, which, in terms
of ~, means that ~3 > A2d, where d is grain size [cf. eq. (12.6)J. Therefore,
there are only a few experiments in which the creep-enhanced
can
growth
mechanism
be descr i bed.
Cane and Greenwood (1975) measured the size of
700 0 C.
cavities
growing
in
iron
For the largest cavity observed in each sample they find that the radius
expands according to R
oc 0 3/2
t 1/2 ,
at
is
experimental
growth gives the straight line with slope 1 if the sintering stress is neglected,
which
is
justified
calculated
from
eq. (11.14) using the material parameters for ~-iron at 700 0 C given in Appendix
10-1'
E
.~ 10-12
15
9 10
(J
20
inMPo - -
15.1
219
R= 5
10-25 a/R2
the
prediction
the
same
in
Also
shown
Since the strain rate increases with the 7.3'th power of stress in the material
considered, one obtains a line with slope 7.3. The interactive growth mechanism
is treated in the simplest possible way by adding the growth rates of
the
two
non-equilibrium,
crack-like
the
experimental
diffusive
growth
growth
as
rate
might
described
by eq.
(11.46). However, Cane and Greenwood (1975) show that their cavities have equilibrium
shapes.
It
could
mode and assumed the equilibrium shape only after the end of
the
creep
test.
However, since surface diffusion preserves the cavity volume, the volume growth
rate would have been measured correctly even if the cavities were
R,
after the creep test. Now, although the linear growth rate,
rounded
out
is higher in the
crack-like mode than it is in the equilibrium mode, the volume growth rate ~ is
smaller.
This
is clear from eq. (11.11) which is valid for both modes. In the
of
Cane
good
and
not
be
if
con-
were effective, it would only reduce the calculated growth rate, which
in
effective
rates
of
cavities
at
by grain boundary sliding Ceq. (14.270] are even lower than constrained
growth rates.
In summary, the rates at which the largest cavities in a-iron are
grow
are
This may be due to the fact that the largest cavities tend to
~re
observed
located
at
be
those
junctions
which
to
higher than any of the growth mechanisms discussed here can explain.
the
stress
is
concentrated.
Because
triple
220
15.
concentration
factor
of 1.4 to 1.8 suffices to raise the calculated growth rates to the level of the
observed ones.
Svensson and Dunlop (1981) evaluate Cane and Greenwood's (1975) data for the
growth rate of the average, rather than the largest, cavity. Since nucleation
was continuous in these experiments, the average size may not be indicative of
the cavity growth kinetics as will be pointed out in Chapter 16. Nevertheless,
Svensson and Dunlop report reasonable agreement of the data with the
growth model.
diffusive
The second set of experiments which refers to the range of creep-enhanced diffusive cavity growth are the tests of Wang, Martinez and Nix (1983) on copper
containing implanted water vapor bubbles. They compare the measured lifetimes
with lifetimes calculated from various models of creep-enhanced cavitation,
e.g. that by Chen and Argon (1981c). They find
that
the
model
exhibits
the
explanation
for
the
remote
tensile
the
void
tip.
In
time
concentrations
15.2
221
the
transient,
void
tip.
During
cylindrical
cavities
with
diameter
2R
considered
problem
emplDying
the
Fourier transformation method. His numeric results indicate that the transition
from the initial elastic behavior to the final steady
state
occurs
within
characteristic time of
td
kT A3
0.01
(15.5)
E n &Db
of
elastic
stress
concentrations
at
connection
triple
with
the
grain junctions or
particles. Comparing this relaxation time with the rupture time for diffusional
cavity
growth, eq. (11.18), shows that elastic accommodation plays a role only
30/E
and
alE
is
typically
the
R,
V.
con-
growing
fields
expand
around
have
little
practical
relevance,
since
Vitek (1978) and Chuang (1982) modeled the growth of flat cavities by prescribing
traction-free
boundary
222
15.
2w,
is
small
cavity
defined
in
eq.
(15.7) below]. The coupled elasticity/grain-boundary diffusion problem is formulated in terms of an integro-differential equation for the normal stress an on
the
grain
boundary,
tip,
time
moving
with
the
void tip, the stress is required to approach the elastic singular field asymptotically, an
compared
to
the
cavity
conditions
at the void tip for an (denoted by 0 0 at the tip) and for don/dx (denoted by o~
at the tip) are chosen differently by Chuang (1982) and by Vitek (1978), but as
long
as
00
and
we follow the
surface
o~
~pproach
diffusion
problem
described
00
and
o~
in accordance
with
the
between the stress intensity factor and the growth rate can be written
in
the
implici t form:
0.75 a
L1/2
11
(15.6)
and
00
1/2
cDb
4 (1-v ) kT
0'
(15.7)
] ,
dependence of KI on
00
00
and
and
o~
o~
the
void
tip.
The
taken
from
the
surface
diffusion
(R/R . )-1/12].
mIn
(15.8)
5.9)
15.2
223
[l
6D 4
8.13 ....:...-.::...
kT y2s
(15.10)
(1-v ) 6Db
which have the meaning of the minimum stress intensity factor and cavity growth
rate, for which eq. (15.8) has solutions. For smaller stress intensity factors,
the steady growth of isolated cavities by elastic accommodation
possible.
Fig.
15.2
alone
Aaccording
at
high
is
not
to eq.
stress
to
metals.
the crack length was much larger than what is usually considered as typical for
cavities, the micromechanism of crack growth in one of the ceramics tested
may
have been diffusive growth as assumed in the present theory. The pertinent data
are included in Fig. 15.2, using values for the unknown diffusion
and
surface
energies
a6
t
10-2
lOB
.....,.
'0:
'uQ
~
.
~
.5
:'l::
where
3'
..
agrees
Kr inMPa.m"}_
.!:;
.~
and
00E
coefficients
10-6
10'
....,
..
u
.,
..E
Q
c:
K/K min _
3'
r r
Fig. 15.2. Crack growth rate in Sialon ceramic from Lewis and Karunaratne
(1982) fitted to eq. (15.8).
224
15.
is
expected
to
become prevalent, the data start to deviate from the theoretical curve.
The assumptions of small-scale diffusion (L
(2w
Rand L)
are
approximate
the actual cavity shape more closely. The numerical result for
for (O-Oo)/E
Roberts
(1978)
obtain
essentially
the
same
voids.
result
a relation between
Rand
00 ,
Speight,
from
eq.
an
Beere
and
approximate
(11.35)
and
the
stress
{( 1 +
1 .75 cSDb
)1/2
E cSDs sin(1/I/2)
R to
1
give:
I6 .
(15.12)
For ocSD b EcSD , eq. (15.12) gives R oc 0 3 while in the opposite limiting case
~
6
there results R oc 0 Correspondingly the rupture time exhibits inverse stress
dependences with exponents between 3 and 6.
Takasugi and Vitek (1981) compare the growth rate predicted by eq. (15.12) with
the
growth
rate obtained for rigid grains. They observe that under almost all
acceler-
cavity growth markedly. Only at very high stress or extremely small ratios
Goods
and
the
tests
ximated by eq. (15.12) more closely than by the rigid grain model,
an
exponent
of
which
gave
fractions
of
the
creep
rupture
over
take
this
fact
into
account.
nucleation
and growth on the other is the cavity size distribution function. It is denoted
by N(R,t), where NdR is the number of cavities per
having
radii
unit
grain
boundary
those boundary facets only which are 'essential' for the rupture
failure
process.
For
area
stress
axis,
since
between
60 0
and
90 0
to
the
R+dR,
only
by
cavity
condition
in
of
cavities
having
the
growth
Its
time
dependence
stems
from its dependence on the cavity spacing, which decreases continuously as more
cavities are nucleated. Cavity nucleation enters into the problem in
the
form
16.
226
of
boundary
condition
to
Continuous Nucleation
to
zero,
must
be
equal
to
= J*
at R
O.
(16.2]
theories
or,
as
in
th.e
nucleation
&= 0,
provided
that
the
size
distributions
observed
by
Cane
not
compatible
J*
where A1 , A2 , a, Band Y may possibly depend on stress and strain rate, but not
on time nor on the cavity size. Because of the power-law forms of the
equations,
one
solutions,
which one seeks in the form N(R,t) - tPf(R/t Q). The exponents P and
may
expect
that
eqs.
(16.1)
(16.1)
and
(16.2).
The
and
the
(16.2)
have
similarity
similarity
solution
into
if
Q = (a-1)/(B+1)
and
RB+1
------]
(a+Y)/(l-a)
1+B A t 1-a
(16.5)
off at a maximum R,
function
must
16.1
227
ex. = -5/4
~ = 2
1=0
c:n
ex. = 2
ex. = 0
~ = 2
1=1
30
P= 2
1 =0
10
2:
<D
t=1
C"")
10
R-
R-
1.
the
first
cavities
nucleated
R,
because
grow
= e for x ~
+ 1/x)x
gives
00
(16.6)
for a = 1. It is worth noting that in this last example,
size
distribution,
the
maximum
of
the
eq.
(16.5),
the
maximum,
and
the
cavity
growth
kinetics
can
be
drawn
directly from the observation of the evolution of the average cavity size.
w,
of the
grain
boundaries
having
orientations
and
to the tensile axis is obtained by integrating the areas,
~R2, occupied by the individual cavities times their density, NdR:
between
60 0
90 0
f ~R2 N(R,t) dR
I(
a,,,,
0
y)
(16.7)
N(R,t)
from
eq.
(16.5),
and
the
16.
2~
Continuous Nucleation
with U
(16.8)
expressed
if
by the Beta function (Abramowitz and Stegun, 1968, pg. 258). Here it
by
chosen as wf
W=
wf
The
critical
value,
W=
Special
cases
will
be
unconstrained diffusive cavity growth rates are given by eq. (11.14). Unfortunately
neither the sintering stress nor the function q(w), which was defined in
power-law
form
of
eq.
(16.3),
q(w)
by
this
choice,
eq.
(11.14)
not
well
eq.
=
(5.1),
the
nucleation
1, which
sense.
defined,
rate
summarized
(16.9)
~ 1/0(3n +2)/5.
The second line shows the stress dependence of the lifetime predicted for the
case in which the nucleation rate is given by J* = a'E = a'Bo n according to eq.
(5.1) and to Norton's creep law. The activation energy is then predicted to
be
(2Qb+3Q)/5. where Qb and Q are the activation energies for grain boundary
diffusion and for power law creep. respectively. The result will be compared
16.2
229
funct-
ion, which is always greater than q(w). This leads to a lower-bound estimate of
t f In the rigid-grain limit, which is considered here, the volume growth rate
rather than on
of a cavity depends on the average cavitated area fraction,
w,
w = (2R/A)2 calculated with the individual cavity radius. This means that
should
be
w.
q(w)
wmust
be consistent
with
eq.
of
made on q(w).
This insensitivity of the result to changes in the cavity growth
why
Lonsdale
and
Flewitt
(1979,
1981)
law
explains
(16.9), although they start from an incorrect cavity growth rate. Also
and
Gladman
(1980)
do
not
use
Needham
rather
Consequently,
than
they
critical
arrive
at
slightly
area
fraction,
different
leads
stress
to
and
of
fracture.
temperature
dependences of the rupture time and they obtain a grain size dependence.
In some cases, the cavity spacing is found to decrease in inverse proportion to
the
creep
strain,
J*
~2 t,
(16.10)
the
diffusive
growth
rate,
with
Y = 1.
Together
as before, eq.
w~2 )3/8.
(16.11)
aile:
Together
tf
nucleation
rate,
of
Trinkaus
16.
230
and
Ullmaier
(1979)
take
Continuous Nucleation
They
use
eq.
(6.28)
to
calculate the nucleation rate, with c neglected against cmax . This assumption
requires that the possible nucleation sites are not exhausted during the rupture
lifetime,
and
it
gives
cavity growth rate they use a result for the diffusive growth
cavity
with
elastic
accommodation.
that
In
-2
of
O. For the
an
isolated
Ignoring
the
was pointed out in Section 15.2.1, one obtains the rupture time in the form
(16.12)
where NL is the Loschmidt number andt fo is the following abbreviation:
Here, the spacing of the potential nucleation sites, A ,is related to their
2
nuc
area density, c max ' by 1/Anuc = cmax For high stresses the first term in the
exponential of eq. (16.12) is small. Then the rupture time behaves similarly as
in
eq.
(11.18)
where
beginning of the test, i.e., t f 1/(a6Db ). When the stress becomes smaller,
the first term in the exponential function starts to dominate. That means that
nucleation becomes difficult,
decreasing
and
the
rupture
time
increases
sharply
for
stress. At the same time, the effective activation energy for creep
kT).
(16.15)
stresses
the
Under
order
of,
and
smaller
than,
the
nucleation
stress.
of
which
Certainly
the
predictions
of
eqs.
(16.12)
to
(16.15)
are not
16.2
of
231
continuous
cavity
nucleation
and
growth
rate
of
diffu-
eq.
em-
(6.17), which neglects the Zeldovich factor, but they admit that the
neglect
com-
pared to cmax . Otherwise their model, which they treat numerically, is the same
as that of Trinkaus and Ullmaier (1979). They find that for stresses which
exceed the cavity nucleation stress markedly, the rupture lifetime exhibits the
inverse stress dependence of eq. (11.18), while at
lower
stresses
nucleation
growth
was
given
in
limit
of
crack-like
diffusive
power-law form assumed in eq. (16.3), which allows for similarity solutions for
the
cavity
size
diffusion where
R~
a=
O. For a time-independent
W=
eq.
(16.7)
for
and
wf :
(16.16)
If J* ~
16.2.3
is
synonymous
Therefore it is
unlik~ly
continues
boundaries
on
with
small
undergo
constrained
cavitation.
previously
stresses,
Continuous
damaged,
in
Section
12.7.2
and
12.7.3,
and
that
is
probably
the
which
assumes
continuous
Continuous Nucleation
16.
232
is
given
by
(12.5). If the sintering stress is neglected, the growth rate has the pow-
er-law form,
of
1//
(16.17)
f J*dt
eq.
(16.7)
where r(2/3)
the time to
3n(1+3/n)
c
J*
1/3
)
a; hew)
(a~
e; d)
2/3
wf
2r(2/3)
( 16.18)
r~ture
be
at
coalescence,
Ac = (J*t c )-1/2
is
(16.19)
n = 5,
heW) = 0.61,
compared
to
instantaneous
1.7 w~/2
wf = n/4)
nucleation of all cavities at the beginning of the
n~~erically
(=
1.2
for
whether cavity
nucleation
to
express
the
(16.20)
with n = 5, hew) = 0.61 and a:la~ = 1 as above. The dependence on
nucleation rate, a', resembles the empirical relation given in eq. (5.2).
the
16.2
233
For later use we note that the whole problem, starting at eq.
formulated
(16.1),
the
can
be
strain
constancy
and (16.20) the product Etc is replaced by the time-integral on E from 0 to tc.
(16.21)
16.2.4
Inhibited cavity growth rates as treated in Chapter 13 exhibit the same dependencies on cavity spacing and cavity size as constrained growth rates. Therefore
the results of the preceding subsection can be transferred to inhibited growth.
In particular, the conclusion remains true that continuous nucleation extends
the time to coalescence by some 20% compared to instantaneous nucleation. Thus
the
time to coalescence, which can be identified with the rupture lifetime for
The cavity growth rate by creep flow of the matrix is given by eq. (14.19),
if
R = [0.37/h(1jI)]RE, I.e. a
0,
but
only
for
uniaxial
tension
is
considered. Then is
tion function is possible, N = J*/R. Then eq. (16.7) can be integrated from
Ro
(the
size at which cavities are nucleated) to Rmax ' which follows by integrating the cavity growth law to be R
R exp[0.37E/h(1jI)]. Resolving for strain
max
0
and setting; = wf leads to the strain to failure
(16.22)
where h(1jI)
of
stress, but eq. (16.22) usually predicts an absolute value of several hund-
red per cent. This is too large to be applicable to creep rupture conditions.
234
16.
Continuous Nucleation
cavity
with
nucleation rates and creep strain rates, so that the data can
be compared unambiguously
with
subsection.
As
first
the
lifetimes
calculated
in
the
preceding
18
~m
material were given in Fig. 12.2, which also showed that the constrained growth
model
agrees
with
the
observed
growth
rates.
h(~)
stress
range
than the free diffusive model. Since the slower of the two processes determines
the rate, the constrained model is the appropriate one here .
constrained
10'
uncon- ,
strained "
100
"-
150
(5
, ......
2(1J 250
in MPa --
Fig. 16.2. Rupture lifetime of 2 1 /.Cr-1Mo steel. Solid line: eq. (16.18).
Dashed line: eq. (16.9). (From .Riedel, 1985c).
16.3
235
factor
1.5,
although
the
predicts
the
data
to
within
kinetic
laws
growth,
in
correct order of magnitude for t f , although the cavity growth rate is sUbstantially overestimated as was shown in Fig. 12.2.
Figure 16.3 shows the same type of comparison for a 1Cr-1/2Mo steel in two
differently heat-treated conditions. The data were taken from Needham's (1983)
report. Cavity growth rates for the material austenized at the ordinary austenizing
the
temperature
circular
experimental
of
symbols
data,
while
to
the
that
open
material:
symbols
closed symbols
bound
the
represent
theoretical formulas were evaluated. Square symbols represent data for the
mater.ial austenized at 1300 oC. The high austenizing temperature was chosen in
order to simulate the conditions in the neat-affected
zone
of
weld.
This
D. Gust. 1300e
10'
t
<:
.5;
Gust. 930e
0....
lQ1
0.....
....
1~
,
"-
, ......
"- . . . . I ....... ,
........
"II ........
"'-
"-
. "
550e
"'""'1er-'izMo steel
10
100
150
(j
in MPa
'"0
--
200
250 300
236
16.
Continuous Nucleation
icles on prior austenite grain boundaries. Since the sulfides nucleate cavities
easily,
the nucleation rate increases, and therefore the rupture lifetimes are
reduced. In addition, the high austenizing temperature increases the grain size
88 ~ compared to 18 ~m in the material austenized at 930 oC, and the coarse
to
adversely
in
the
case
of
the
The
data
lie
about
halfway
between
the
lifetimes
of
steel
21/~Cr-1Mo
measured
by
Cane
Measured cavity growth rates from that investigation were shown previ-
ously in Fig. 12.3. The material exhibits relatively poor creep rupture properties since it was given the heat treatment involving austenization at 1300 oC,
which results in an unfavorable distribution of sulfides. Figure 16.4 illustrates
the
~ere
longer
if
cavities
test. This is demonstrated by the two dashed lines in Fig. 16.4, which are calculated from eqs. (11.18) and (16.9), respectively.
10CX1J
--!\............
. . . . . -..
lCX1J
.
contmuous
nucleation
unconstrain~" "-
1 j
100
'\~
instantaneous "
_____ ::~~~n~~
2'4 Cr-1Mo steel 565-C
10~--------~----~----~
50
100
150
200
oinMPa __
Fig. 16.4. Rupture lifetime of overheated 21/~Cr-1Mo steel after Cane (1979).
The theoretical curves correspond to eqs. (11.18), (16.8), (12.11) and (16.18)
(from bottom to top). (From Riedel, 1985c).
16.3
237
A,
increases
is
slightly
bent
to 5.2
since
the
cavity
at higher stresses
con-
strained,
it
is
almost
irrelevant
was
studied
Section 11.1.3, was examined in relation to the data of Cane (1979). It was
raises
the
bottom
Needham and Gladman (1980) tested Type 347 stainless steel at 550 0 C and
650 0 C.
Measured
cavity
growth
rates
12.4.
continuously
at
In
a
experiments,
cavities
were
found to
11
rate J* = a'E with a' = 8.10 /m2 . The
or
growth were calculated from eqs. (16.9) and (16.18), respective-
constrained
Needham's
and
Gladman's
data.
The agreement of the constrained growth model with the data is good, but
to a lesser extent at 650 0 C than at 550 oC. Thus again one observes that the
time
to
ure, although there is no obvious reason that the two quantities should be
rectly
related.
di-
correct
dependence
on
right
order
of
magnitude
and
tested
Type
316
stainless
steel
bi-crystal
which is
in
eq.
16.
238
10000
347 stainlessstee/
'\
, 1000
--<:
.s;:
10 6
10 5
\I)
'\
10'
'\
100
10J
50
"-
200
150
(fin
977K
bicrystals
316 stainless st.
Gandhi and Raj
-- ---
---
300
MPa
100
(j
400
in MPa
due
to
---
200
cannot
A=2!J.m
unconstr.~:
100
Continuous Nucleation
experiments
this
instantaneous, nucleation can increase the rupture time. The solid line in Fig.
16.6
by eq. (16.9). Unfortunately, Gandhi and Raj do not provide all data
to
evaluate
necessary
eq. (16.9). Therefore the nucleation rate was assumed to obey the
relation J* = a'E; a' was chosen to fit the solid line to the data as
12 2
a' = 310 1m, which is slightly higher than the value for a' observed by
Needham and Gladman
B = 3'10-25 MPa- 8 1 Is
(1980).
by
The
creep
extrapolation
coefficient
of
was
assumed
to
be
absolute
value
of the theoretical rupture time should not be taken seriously, but the slope is
predicted as -(3n+2)/5 = - 5.26 independent of these uncertainties, which is in
reasonable agreement with the data.
The prolonged lifetimes of the bi-crystal specimens compared to
cavity
the
diffusive
of
- n = - 8.1
observed slope.
in
Fig.
16.3
16.3.3
239
Shiozawa and Weertman (1983) performed creep rupture tests on the nickel-base
superalloy 'astroloy' at 750 oC. By giving the material appropriate prestraining
and annealing treatments, they were able to generate cavities preferentially on
grain
boundaries
oriented
either
parallel
or
to the applied stress. Figure 16.7 shows the measured rupture lifeboundaries
parallel
to
the
of the creep strain behaves similarly to material which was not pre-
strained at
all,
whereas,
not
surprisingly,
pre-cavitation
on
transverse
cavity
spacing
of
A= 2
~m,
were
a grain size of d
evaluated
90
~m,
using
the diffusion
coefficient, oD b , reported in Section 12.4.1 for Nimonic 80A, and heW) = 0.61.
Strain rates have been given by Shiozawa and Weertman (1983) as E = 1.4.10-6 /s
at a = 500 MPa and E = 3.6.10-6 /s at 650 MPa. With these values, the time to
cavity coalescence
growth
model,
eq. (12.11),
astroloy
1000
750C
1(Xl
250
300
400
(J
500
650
inMPo -
Fig. 16.7. Rupture lifetimes of astroloy for virgin material (triangle) and
for material pre-cavitated on boundaries parallel to stress axis (open
squares) and transverse to stress axis (solid squares), from Shiozawa
and Weertman (1983). Theoretical curves for constrained and unconstrained growth and for continuous and inst'antaneous nucleation.
16.
240
Continuous Nucleation
unconstrained
growth,
eq.
lifetime
The
values
given above, wf = ~/4 was used in preparing the top two curves in Fig. 16.7.
Interestingly, unconstrained growth leads to longer lifetimes than does
completely constrained growth. Among these two growth mechanisms the slower one
should determine the lifetime, i.e. the constraint should not be
the
cavitation
of
the
effective
in
agreement of eq. (16.11) with the data represented by the triangle and the open
squares
in
and
in
which
are lacking at
smaller stresses.
its
kinetics.
From
been
the
applied
cavity
to
detect
cavitation
and
individual
cavities.
For
cube-shaped
to
of
relative
volume
(16.23)
where an equilibrium cavity shape was assumed. With N(R,t) from eq. (16.5)
intgral can be evaluated and leads to:
l1V IV
the
(16.24)
16.4
Density Changes
241
for Cl '" 1
(16.25)
for Cl
The second argument of the Beta function, w, depends on the sign of 1-Cl, viz.,
for Cl < 1
w = (1 +y) I ( 1-Cl)
(16.26)
w
(1+Y)/(Cl-1) -
for Cl ) 1.
3/(6+1)
rate
takes
power-law form of eq. (16.3) with Cl = 0 and 6 = 2. Then, from eq. (16.24),
(16.27)
2
usually
= Et has often
been
observed,
on constrained growth.
In the limiting case of creep-constrained cavity growth a
calculate
direct
approach
to
grain facet was given in eq. (12.2). If Nmc is the number of cavitating facets
per unit volume (the subscript means 'microcracks', since facets undergoing
constrained
increases
cavitation
behave
(16.28)
Gladman
(1980)
for
Type
347
Needham
ceramic
metals,
alloys
with
relatively
applied
low
stresses.
Cavitation
the
~ucti1ity,
is
fracture
usually
path
being
by
At
high
recrystallization
temperatures,
prevent
the
grain
cavitation
boundary
of
migration
grain
and
dynamic
very
slowly
and
17.1 Nucleation
If a critical stress for cavity nucleation
10 MPa
in
pure
metals
exists,
it
certainly
nucleation
sites
lies
below
metals
most
frequent
triple grain junctions and ledges in grain boundaries. Another important observation is that cavity nucleation occurs continuously over substantial fractions
of the creep life, the number of cavities being approximately
proportional
to
creep strain.
The theories of cavity nucleation by the rupturing of atomic bonds or by vacancy
condensation
at
stresses
above
typically
predicted
to
nucleus.
(For
spherical
nucleus Is fv = 4w/3). It is unlikely that fv has values very much less than
unity in all materials which cavitate. Therefore, there is a gap between the
17.1
243
Nucleation
junctions
at
particles,
triple
will usually not be the overriding factor for the cavity nucleation process
there
is
less
correspondingly smaller.
preferentially.
(The
or
no
sliding
Nevertheless,
apparent
and
transverse
the
stress
by
transverse
localized
slip
bands
such
boundaries
as
the
nickel
base
which
cavity
nucleation.
the
applied
cavitate
If
cavity
tend
to
superalloys,
to
concentrations are
even
lead
concentration
develop
the
boundary
stress
particles
continuously,
since
slip
grain
bound-
aries, such as sulfides in steels, cavities are easily nucleated at these particles. For some types of precipitates,
interface
is
affected
by
the
the
strength
segregation
of
of
the
particle/matrix
(even
very
smal~)
or
by
vacancy condensation is not yet clear. Observations and theories related to the
segregation of impurities to interfaces were described in Chapter 8.
The precipitation of gases under high
assist
pressure
into
the
cavity
nuclei
may
is
unlikely,
however,
that these effects playa key role under ordinary creep rupture conditions.
boundary
diffusion
has
been
analyzed in Chapter 11 for the limiting cases of equilibrium void shapes (rapid
17.
244
for
The
12).
transition
strain
rate
cavity
growch
rates
agree
lifetimes
for
suited
for
the
calculation
model
often
of
Monkman-Grant
product,
Et f ,
which
is
be
the
observed~
step
under
constrained
should
been investigated using self-consistent models and other models for facet-facet
interactions in Section 12.6.
The inhibition of diffusive cavity growth by a lack of vacancies near the growing
faces has been considered in Chapter 13. The importance of the effect has
estimated
been
stresses
below
those
but
it
growth
Monkman-Grant
constant
indication
that
this. mechanism
predominated.
be too slow to account for observed growth rates, since sliding in polycrystals
is usually constrained (Section 14.2). Similarly, diffusive growth with elastic
or creep accommodation played no
role
in
the
analysis
of
the
experiments
17.2
245
eq. (11./,)
from
of
the
cavity
growth
rates
necessarily
Q,;
....
eq. (11.23)
-~
stress
'---~
crack-Ii ke diffusive
continuum hole growth, eq.
log (stress) - - - -
246
17.
the cavity size and spacing. If, for example, the surface diffusion coefficient
is
large, crack-like cavity growth may have no range of validity between equi-
to
17.2
summarizes
the
equal
to
the
time
to
cavity
coalescence
is
rupture
time
is
affected
by
the
nucleation
16.
The
theory
is
based
on
this
the
so
that
problem
was
developed
in
importance
of
continuous
growth mechanism. If
nucleation
leads
diffusive
to
much
greater
on
the
other
hand,
growth
lifetimes
beginning
the
is
unconstrained,
than
of
the
test.
For
Fig.
16.4.
Using
illustrated
constrained
continuous
which
agree
with measured data for many materials. However, it should be kept in mind
constrained
growth
model
in
lifetime
calculations
is
predominates
at
room
of
microcracks.
This
the
stress
and
strain
homogeneous
cavitation
grain boundaries over the whole cross section of a specimen, rather than by
temperatures
ion-going strain rates, i.e. long hold times at tensile stresses (Fig. 18.1).
a.
a.
18.
248
In some cases, however, symmetric loading cycles may also cause cavitation. The
strong
Maiya (1979), Sidey and Coffin (1979), Hales (1980) and Baik and Raj
1983).
While
the
crack
(1982a,b,
the
cavitational mode is relatively insensitive (Maiya, 1981). The transition between the cavitational mode and microcrack propagation depends strongly on material and wave-shape and is very sensitive to environment.
There are materials like the aluminum alloy studied by Baik and
which
do
Raj
(1982a,b)
fast cyclic loading. The reason for this behavior is that, under constant load,
failure
by
transgranular
are
hole
growth
and
necking,
are usually conducted under complete strain reversal). Diffusive cavity growth,
on
the
other
hand,
is
the
attempt
extensive
evaluate
clude the results in a brief chapter of this book. Therefore only a few
examp-
les will be selected which highlight the most important aspects. There are more
comprehensive reviews on various aspects available, for example those by Coffin
(1977),
Taplin
and
Collins
(1981) and the b06k edited by Skelton (1983). The cavitational mode of
failure
will
be
fatigue
growth
and
coalescence
of
grain
boundary cavities, one expects that the models for cavity nucleation and growth
described in the preceding sections should also be applicable to calculate
the
18.2
249
so
far.
of
the
part
of
growth
models
if
the
that the sign is reversed. In this case, the cavity growth models would predict
that
the
average
both,
at
high
loading
frequencies
Weertman, 1978), and at low frequencies and high amplitudes (Sidey and
Coffin,
1979, Baik and Raj, 1983). This problem will be addressed in Section 18.4.
Compared to balanced
unbalanced,
loading,
slow-fast
the
fatigue
life
drops
significantly
under
the basis of the cavity nucleation and growth models described in the preceding
sections.
Beere
and
Roberts
with little success. They assumed the cavity density to be constant and,
for
this
maybe
cavity
is
as
considered.
well.
If
all
for
cyclic
test, integration of the cavity growth law leads to the rupture time, t f , given
in
eq. (11.18), where now the stress is replaced by its time average, o. If
v~
cr,
relevance
since
it
predicts
that
Nf ~ v~ /
whereas in the empirical Manson-Coffin law the freqency dependence
is much weaker and the main dependence is that on the applied nonelastic strain
range, i.e.,
(18.2)
with the empirical exponents a
1 to 4. (Many of
the
data
18.
250
cavitation.
However, there are also well documented cases where eq. (18.2)
nucleate
in
unidirectional
creep
rupture
tests,
cavities
the test. In creep rupture tests, it has been found empirically that the number
of cavities often increases in proportion to creep strain. Although the reasons
for this behavior are not quite clear, it is likely that it has to do with slip
band
formation
or
other
strain-related
the
absence
Therefore,
of
the
where
11'
11'
I Ene I ,
(18.3)
that found in creep rupture tests. Of course, cavity nucleation cannot continue
at a constant rate up to very high accumulated
cavity
density
would
become
strains,
unrealistically
since
high.
valid
otherwise
Therefore
when
the
the
cavity
growth
leads
the
simple
density
lifetime,
diffusional
to
the
J* =
J*
(averaged
cyclic strain range. This, together with eq. (16.9), gives the number of cycles
to failure for continuous, strain-controlled cavity nucleation,
(18.4)
Experimental results are often plotted as a function of
rate
in
related to
the
Et
tension-going
part
of
~ne
and of the
strain
Ec '
by
(18.5)
18.2
251
Inserting this into eq. (18.4) gives the cycles to failure in terms
of
strain
l)
Et
]2/5.
(18.6)
Q6DbG
The results given in eqs. (18.4) and (18.6) have a form similar to the
Manson-
Coffin law. (A more detailed comparison with experiments will follow later). In
addition to the dependences contained in the Manson-Coffin law, eqs. (18.4) and
(18.6) also predict a dependence on the average stress 0; Nf goes to infinity
if 0 goes to zero, i.e., if the load cycles are balanced. In this limiting
case, a new cavity growth mechanism must become effective in certain materials,
for example magnesium or copper, which fail by cavitation under balanced cyclic
loading, albeit with a much longer fatigue life than under slow-fast loading.
18.2.2
At high strain rates, the plastic hole growth mechanism described in Chapter 14
leads to higher growth rates than does the diffusive mechanism. Whether or not
plastic hole growth predominates depends on the magnitude of the characteristic
diffusive
length,
defined
i,
in
eq.
(4.17)
value
of
for
the
experiments
of
Majumdar and Maiya (1979), Sidey and Coffin (1979) and Baik and Raj (1983), and
has found that i ranges from 0.4
and
is
~m
to 1.2
~m
steel
since
cavity
each
cycle. Since plastic hole growth is strain controlled, the net growth increment
in a cycle is zero. In reversed strain tests, the plastic hole growth mechanism
can
only
contribute
to
continuing
caused
by
residual
elements
segregating
said
nothing
can
6E
increases
in
of
the
18.
252
crack
faces,
and
in
the
next
when
cumulative
tensile
strain
reaches
the
(18.7)
The strain to failure is predicted by the plastic hole growth mechanism in
order
of
few
hundred
per
the
if
indeed
the
effect
of
the
irreversibilities,
which
Unfortunately,
18.2.3
For balanced cycles, the constrained cavity growth model (Chapter 12)
no
net
predicts
growth increment per cycle. Even unbalanced cycles, if they are strain
than
the
the
by
diffusion
in each cycle.
during
of
I~
compressive
part
of
the
very
fast
cycle
is
compression,
the
shrinkage
negligible,
and
only
the
that
cavity
growth
is
coalescence
occurs
the cumulative tensile creep strain, NfAE ne , reaches the critical value,
Ef ~ 0.37 Aid aC90rding to eq. (16.19). If cavity coalescence implies failure,
the fatigue life is given by
when
(18.8)
which is independent of loading frequency and temperature.
this
In
agreement
with
18.2
253
Collin, Sidey and Taplin (1979) remark that the product NfAEne
low
as
the
become
as
may
lives
are
sub-
The
fatigue
life
Fig.
range, frequency and the ratio Et/lEcl < 1) held constant. As the figure
shows, diffusive cavity growth prevails at intermediate temperatures. As long
as the accumulated strain 2AEneNf is not too large, cavities nucleate
continuously throughout the test and eq. ( 1 8.4) applies. The effects of
Nf ~ (vtT/6Db) 2/5
Nf , on the other hand, the cumulative strain becomes so large
very
large
described
by
that the cavity density saturates early in the fatigue life, so that it can
considered
as
being
the
plastic
plastic hole
growthJl8.7 )
be
trans granular
crack
growth
254
18.
mat-
erials, the formation and propagation of fatigue cracks will intervene at lower
temperatures before plastic hole growth leads to failure
At high temperatures, diffusive growth becomes so fast that the imposed
strain
rate (which is kept constant in Fig. 18.2) can no longer accommodate the cavity
volume. Growth in the slow tension-going ramp becomes
constrained
first.
The
temperature,
part
the
shrinkage
of
the
cavities
in
the
short
growth during tension. In the limit of very fast diffusion (i.e., at very
temperatures),
cavity
growth
becomes
constrained
high
an
AI-5%Mg
Under
balanced
cyclic
loading,
alloy
in
on-elastic
they
observed
was
intergranular
cavitation
in
the
temperature range 450 K to 550 K, and the number of cycles to failure exhibit a
behavior which is compatible with that predicted in Fig. 18.2.
It should be noted that Baik and Raj (1982a,b) offer a slightly
planation
different
ex-
for their observation than ours, but the two explanations are relatcentral
role
in
argue
that
grain
boundary
sliding
grain boundary sliding in a polycrystal is constrained just as diffusive cavitation is constrained. The similarities are evident if the shear crack model for
18.3
255
sliding (Chapter 7) and the tensile crack model for cavitation (Chapter 12) are
compared.
by
constrained
sliding.
If
offset
accumulates.
This
open up wedge cracks and may lead to failure. The primary difference betw-
constrained
sliding
is
that the constrained sliding model predicts a sliding offset not only for slowfast tests, but also for fast-slow tests, whereas constrained cavitation
takes
place only in slow-fast tests. Since slow-fast cycles are generally observed to
be far more damaging than fast-slow cycles, the explanation based on constrained cavitation is preferred here.
18.3.2
Lim and Raj (1984) tested pure nickel in vacuum with a frequency of 1 cycle per
= 310 =4 Is, IEC I = 1.510 -2 Is, and AEne = 1.35%. Up to a temperature
minute, E
t
of 573 K, failure occurred by transgranular crack propagation, whereas above
700 K,
cavitation
predominated.
18.3 together
la'
x
10 3
.r\ \.M
\ \
"\, .M
\
\
eq. (18.1)
x\
fvf
Ni ~=1,35%
x Cu L1=1,65%
Icpm
;;::,-
la'
I
lntergronular
.!::fixed
Iransgranular
10
3(1)
to)
5(J)
6ClJ
7!lJ 8I1J
T inK _ _
9JJ
1a:rJ
Fig. 18.3. Fatigue life of pure nickel and pure copper vs. temperature. Data
from Lim and Raj (1984b) and Baik and Raj (1983). Comparison with models.
256
18.
range
of
values
observed
in
creep
l~m
after
310 cycles, which is compatible with the final spacing observed by Lim and Raj.
The
fatigue
life
in
the
underlies
eq.
(18.4),
is
and
eq.
(18.1),
denSity
beginning of the test, becomes the appropriate equation. The dashed-dotted line
in
Fig.
trans granular
crack
in
growth
this
a = 400
case,
intervenes,
towards
while
towards
0.66.
lower
higher
starts
be
con-
to
increase
Correspondingly,
Figure 18.3 also shows data on OFHC-copper measured by Baik and Raj (1983). The
= 3.2 10 -4 Is, 1 Ec =
loading
frequency
was v t = 1 cpm, aEne = 1.65%, E
l
t
1.6 010-2 /s. The material response in terms of stress was
= 80 MPa at 573 K
0
and
a=
in Fig. 18.3 are the experimental results on balanced cyclic loading for
the
fatigue
lives
were
factor
which
to
failure,
18.3
257
cavity
spacing
of
within
0.3~
100 cycles.
other
= 75~
models
and A =
(12.6),
the
such
0.5~
as
eq.
constraint
is
found
not
perfect,
although
(assumed since
is
not
reported)
are
inserted
into
eq.
ramp.
At
least,
the
304
stain-
less steel at 866 K for various wave-shapes and frequencies. They observed that
failure occurred by intergranular cavitation in slow-fast tests. Otherwise
fracture
mode
was
the
for
the
slow-fast
tests together with the strain rates and the associated stresses.
Table 18.1 also includes test results by Sidey and Coffin (1979)
material
on
the
same
for the same type of slow-fast fatigue loading. The fracture mode for
The
rate
of
cavity
nucleation
result
material
Qb = 167.4 kJ/mol,
Source
parameters
were
taken
29
3
1.21.10m in agreement
ne
in %
T
in
fit
eq.
data. The
oD bo = 2.10- 13 m3 /s,
the values generally
as
with
the
V.L1
in s
in MPa
Nf
(exp)
870
0.01
= 200
847
815
by
predicted
Nf
(theor)
Majumdar and
Maiya (1979)
0.7
0.7
870
0.0004
= 190
261
230
Sidey and
Coffin (1979)
1.8
923
0.0017
150
148
152
1.9
1093
0.0022
50
52
70
18.
258
well
over
wide
fitted,
range
eq.
(18.4)
represents
the
frequency. From eq. (12.6) it is concluded that all tests in Table 18.1
for
that
data
except
A=
and
2~m
d =
50~
cyclic
loading
with
zero
cavitate
under
be described next.
Skelton (1966) and Weertman (1974) argue
stress-directed
diffusion,
which
that
the
fundamental
equation
is
for
more
during
the
reverse
is
true.
Therefore,
the
cavities
grow
during the compressive part, and this acts against the tendency of the cavities
to
shrink by sintering forces. However, the nonlinear effects are of the order
which is so small compared to
020/kT
stress
can
usually
was
proposed
by
Weertman (1979). She argues that for some transient time after the beginning of
the test, effects of elasticity enhance cavity growth as described
15.2.
Under
in
Section
cyclic loading, the growth rate oscillates with the amplitude de-
creasing during the elastic transient. It is then clear that a compressive half
wave cannot quite compensate the growth increment of the preceding tensile half
wave, which was slightly higher. Therefore, depending on whether cycling starts
with
tensile
or
compressive
can
do so only during the elastic transient, since afterwards no further net growth
occurs. However, the elastic transients are generally much shorter than typical
test
18.4
259
is
dislocation
occur
as
during
monotonic
loading
well,
dipoles.
(The
same
processes
al
of
grain
et
(1981)
boundaries.
Thus,
the
dismissed
under
creep
rupture
stressing
arise
from
ex-
asymmetric
loads.
This
compression.
The
accumulated grain boundary sliding offsets observed by Evans and Skelton (1969)
and by Westwood and Taplin (1975) are also evidence for asymmetries of
deform-
be
too
small
and
they
may
in
growth.
Finally, the possibility should be kept in mind that residual gases may be precipitated
into cavity nuclei, and the gas pressure can provide the mean stress
18.5 Discussion
The dependence of the fatigue lifetime on temperature and on loading
obtained
frequency
in
growth
and
continuous
nucleation.
all tests considered, the strain range was either constant or was
not varied considerably. A great number of tests has been done by other workers
showing
Nf
oc
that
the
dependence
of
fatigue
life
(~ne) -B ,where B has typical values between 1 and 1.7 ( Lloyd and Wareing,
18.
260
1981).
On
constant
the
other
frequency
hand,
or
eqs.
strain
rate,
respectively.
Thus,
a = 0.6
the
or 1 for
theoretical
by
crack
propagation
rather
cavitation
than
Generally,
and,
at
the
to
longer
same
tensile
hold
times
favor
a but
the
dominant
failure
mode
certain
tests,
slow-fast
dependence
on
the
strain
the
agreement
would
be
better
if
the
tests
were
done
available.
crack
prupagation
Part III
Creep Crack Growth
and Creep-Fatigue Crack Growth
macroscopic
crack
at
elevated temperatures under more or less constant load. For cyclic loading conditions, one speaks of creep-fatigue crack
growth.
distinct
from
grain
boundary
cavities,
A macroscopic
for
crack
crack,
growth
as
~for
example, the grain size). Failure by crack growth may predominate over homogeneous grain boundary cavitation in the whole cross section, if a crack is
iated
at
init-
nucleated
by
some
corrosion-related
process before profuse cavitation occurs within the bulk of the material. Under
cyclic loading conditions, surface microcracks are generally
formed
early
in
generating
electric-power
early
1970's
(Siverns
and
Price,
subject area of creep crack growth was reviewed repeatedly, for example by
Leeuwen
1970,
and Sandor, 1971, Robson, 1972, Thornton, 1972). In the meantime, the
(1977),
van
inspection
standards should provide a means to assess the relevance of cracks in high-temperature components. Such an assessment should include crack-like defects which
have
actually
been
detected
certain
maximum
size,
which
might have escaped detection, are present. A lifetime prediction should then be
based on the expected growth rates of such defects in future service.
19.
264
Current
Introduction to Part II
crack-like
defects
at
all.
analyses
are
not
aimed
at
ient crack formation in uniformly strained specimens usually indicates that the
lifetime
is
practically
are present from the beginning or are nucleated early and which grow in
wise
virtually
other-
easily
predicted
or
it
is
convenient
to
distinguish
two
(e.g.
grain
crack
separately, an approach which will be adopted in the following chapters. A combined treatment of deformation and damage will be described in Chapter 27.
sharp
crack
fields
at
strain distributions. Important results of such crack analyses are the asymptotic fields near crack tips and the load parameters (K I , J, C* or others depending on the material law) which determine the strength of the asymptotic fields.
As
long
crack tip, the continuum deformation fields encompass and control the evolution
of
damage
and
therefore
growth. (There are possible exceptions to that rule: if, for example, the crack
growth
rate
is
atmosphere to the
obviously
region,
the
crack-tip
deformation
fields
are
19.2
265
The main task in the following chapters will be to identify the load parameters
which
blunting
finiteness of the
(Section
specimen
22.1),
thickness
various
load
parameters
three-dimensional
(Section
effects
22.2),
arise
due
deviations
from
to
the
from
the
idealized material laws employed (Chapters 23 to 26), and from the evolution of
damage in a growing process zone (Chapter 27). The practical value of the
load
parameters lies in the fact that creep crack growth rates measured in the laboratory can be transferred to structures of different size and shape
appropriate
load
parameter
the
using
has
the
the
appropriate
test specimen, the crack-tip fields will also be the same and the fracture processes leading to crack growth must respond in an identical manner.
In the early papers on creep crack growth, the stress intenSity factor, KI , and
the net section stress, Gnet , were considered as candidates for appropriate
load parameters. While KI turned out to have its range of validity, the net
section stress has no sound theoretical basis, but, nevertheless, was sometimes
successfully applied. However, the most important load
creep
parameter
by Ohji, Ogura and Kubo (1974) and by Landes and Begley (1976). The
of
C*
to
describe
usefulness
(1976),
Koterazawa
and
Mori (1977), Taira, Ohtani and Kitamura (1979), Saxena (1980), and Ohji, Ogura,
Kubo and Katada (1980). The boundaries between the ranges of validity of KI and
C*
were established theoretically by Riedel and Rice (1980) and by Ohji, Ogura
Creep crack growth often occurs by the nucleation and growth of grain
boundary
cavities ahead of the main crack and their final coalescence with the crack.
This will be modeled in Chapters 21 and 23.3 by combining the laws for cavity
growth with the stress field of the growing main crack. A rather conclusive
picture of creep crack growth in the absence of corrosive effects emerges,
since the models predict the observed behavior of several materials well.
266
19.
19.3.2
Introduction to Part II
crack
strong
influence
on
the
so under cyclic loading conditions, which will be considered in Chapter 28. But
also
under
(Sadananda
and
Shahinian,
1980a,
1983;
Floreen, 1983; Stucke et aI, 1984). The crack growth rate may increase 100-fold
in air compared to an inert environment, even if unstressed
hardly
any
material
exhibits
develop
protective
into
It is not yet known precisely how oxygen accelerates creep crack growth to
large
extent
observed.
form brittle oxides which fracture readily. Oxygen may also attack carbides
the
carbide/matrix
internal
had
oxidation and therefore they exert an opening force on the crack faces.
segregation
of
oxygen
Ferritic
and
accelerate
austenitic
creep
crack
growth
compared
insensitive.
to
even some of the cast superalloys (Shahinian and Sadananda, 1984) appear to
relatively
as
up
formed along grain boundaries usually have a greater volume than the metal
before
at
the
be
their microstructure, which varies from material to material and has a pronounced effect on creep crack growth rates (Floreen, 1983).
Little work has been done to model the corrosive effects on creep crack
growth
rates quantitatively. In fact, the author knows of only one publication on that
subject (McClintock and Bassani, 1981). Before a more detailed understanding of
the
corrosive
processes
Creep deformation of metals and alloys at elevated temperatures can oe described, to a first approximation, as nonlinear viscous. Viscous behavior is defined
by the existence of a unique relationship between the strain
rate
tensor
and
are
neglected.
C*
are
often
use
plays
the
two-dimensional,
planar
of
of
the
path
r.
The
J-integral in elastic. materials (Rice, 1968a,b), and will not be repeated here.
In principle, C* can be measured by testing a pair of specimens having infinit~simally
cal. From the measured load-displacement rate records of the two specimens,
C*
20.
268
p
Xz
x,
1-----
W -----001
from
eq.
(20.1)
provided
that
be
calcul-
already been determined for the configuration considered. This usually requires
numerical
techniques
such
as
the
finite
element
particularly useful for power-law viscous materials, which are described next.
which simplifies to e
(20.3)
denotes the deviator, ae is the equivalent tensile stress, and Band n are
material parameters. In agreement with the behavior of real materials, eq.
(20.3) describes incompressible deformation, since the trace of the strain rate
is zero,
E11
..
a!.
11
20.2
269
rate
fields
because
of
the
the
description
of
stress
and
3.4.2. All stress components at any point of the body increase in proportion to
the
applied
load
while
n'th power of the load. In configurations which are symmetrical with respect to
the
crack
as load divided by the area of the uncracked ligament ahead of the crack.
Then
in-plane
specimen
into
eq.
(20.1)
the
n+1
a B Gnet g1(a/w,n).
(20.7)
with W*
requires
several workers
collection
~hich
of
using
results
the
finite
element
method.
Their
tabulations
The
most
comprehensive
the
EPRI
Handbook.
materials. Due to the elastic-viscous analogy (Section 3.4.1) one can write
instead
of
J,
A,
C*
270
20.
connected
through
elementary
algebraic
relations. For the compact specimen in plane strain, for example, they write
n+1
(W-a) B h 1 (a/W,n) [ P1 /[1.455n(W-a)] ]
,
C*
(20.9)
where a and W were defined in Fig. 20.1, P1 is load per unit thickness, h1 is
tabulated by Kumar et al (1981) (see also Appendix C) and n is given there in
closed form as a function of a/W. Comparison with our notation
in
eq.
(20.7)
or
(20.9)
is
that these formulas strongly rely on Norton's power law, whereas real materials
often deviate from a strict power law. In addition,
markedly
upon
specimens
of
appropriate
whether
finite
(see
plane-stress
thickness
the
discussion
it
or
is
in
the
plane-strain
not
Section
clear
which
displacement
are
depends
used.
In
case
is
limiting
function
values
location
for
which
For the compact specimen, results are given for the load line deflection rate
=a
h 3 (a/W,n) [P 1 /[1.455n(W-a)] ]n
(20.11)
and for the crack opening displacement rate at the edge of the specimen
(20.12)
5e are relative
between the respective pOints above and below the symmetry
rates
line of the specimen. Combining eqs. (20.9) and (20.11) leads to the
following
(20.13)
(20.14)
20.2
271
(W/a-1)
h1 I h 31+1/n.
al
(20.15)
to
or
plane
stress
solutions
were
developed
body.
&is
used in connection with the constrained cavity growth model in Part II. If
the
relative
is
numerical
techniques,
stress
the
field
in
finite
body
usually
C* )l/(n+1)
InBr
a.. (9).
(20.16)
lJ
The asymptotic field is valid for small distances from the crack
It
is
important
Load
a.
tip,
crack-tip
stress
and specimen geometry affect the crack tip field only through the
C*-integral. Therefore, in
viscous
materials,
creep
crack
growth
will
be
differently,
say,
due
to
grain
C*
is
valid
for
derived
for
power-law
especially convenient in that the near-tip field can be given in closed analytic
form.
parameter
(i.e.,
C*
in
viscous
and
coalescence
of
cavities
of the main crack will now be considered (see Fig. 21.1). As a plausible
and
grows
at such a rate, that at a distance Xc ahead of its tip, the condition for cavity coalescence is met. Usually Xc is equal to the cavity spacing. The analysis
is
carried
out
for
in
all,
cases.
practical
21.1
273
The material in which the crack grows is modeled as power-law viscous. Only the
asymptotic
term
is taken into account in the analysis to follow. Then, beyond the knowledge
C*,
the
load
and
the
outer
the
cavities
is
at
is
assumed
of
is
independent
of
whether
the
the stress field. Cavitation, however, does affect the stress distribution, but
this is neglected beforehand.
The formulation of the problem in terms of integral equations follows
Riedel
(1981a),
work
(1982) and Hui and Banthia (1984). Ohji (1977) and Kubo, Ohji and Ogura
choose
of
formal
damage
parameter
description,
which
(1979)
is equivalent to the
continuum
the results will be shown to be practically equivalent with those derived next.
Other related models were quoted in reviews by Riedel (1984a, 1985a).
of
cavitation
on
the
stress
and
strain
fields, it is not necessary to distinguish between critical strain and MonkmanGrant product. For constrained cavity growth and
nucleat1"on,
the
Monkman-Grant
strain-controlled
continuous
0eIOI we insert the corresponding ratio in the HRR-field of the crack. Then the
critical strain at which cavity coalescence occurs takes the form:
(21.1)
h(w)
0.61.
If
the
crack
274
21.
tip in the following sense: the macroscopic crack must grow at such a rate that
the material at a distance Xc ahead of its current tip just reaches the
cal strain
Ef
HRR
criti-
stress
starts
from
field, and calculates the strain rate using the material law,
eq. (20.3). The strain follows from time integration of the strain
rate.
This
to
.
a
time
differential
replaced
by
da'/a(a'),
is the as yet Unknown growth rate. Then the total strain ahead of the
where
crack tip is given by the expression on the left hand side of the following
equation. To satisfy the critical-strain criterion, this strain must equal
a
)n/(n+1)
Bo~(O)
ao
C*
) n/(n+1 )_.da'
InB(a+xc-a')
a(a')
of
a.
the
Ef
unknown
1/a
Ef
(21.2)
as
reached
ahead
of
the
stationary
crack:
(21.3)
where 0e(O) is the value of the normalized angular function for the
equivalent
crack
according to
growth
increment
dimension-
(21.4)
21.1
275
(21 .5)
convolution
integral
can
be
solved by the Laplace transformation method. However. in the present case the
result takes the form of an integral over the incomplete Gamma function. which
must
be
solve
eq.
(21.5)
directly
The
numerically.
1/A
recurrence
formula
which can be evaluated step by step. Results are shown in Fig. 21.2a.
of
the
growth
rate.
which
follows
by
obtained
by
inserting
A A~
with
unspecified ~ into eq. (21.5). and expanding for small 1/A. In terms of
the physical coordinates a and a-a o ' the two-term expansion for large A is:
n/(n+1)
C*
In
[(
oj
o<{
...
~
...0.
0
10
----
.,-
"2
--- ---
xc
500
IS
2!-
a-a_
_
0 )1/(n+1)
r(a)
] (21.6)
r(2-a) r(2a-1)
b)
'00
~"3OO
......
ti'
.-..--n~86
12(1)
100
~
0
c:
00
100
2(1)
300
A=(a-aoJ/xc
--
'00
500
00
20
'0
t/ti--
60
Fig. 21.2. a) Crack growth rate normalized as in eq. (21.4) vs. crack-growth
increment. Dashed lines: eq. (21.6); solid lines: full solution of
eq. (21.5). b) Crack-growth increment vs. time; ti from eq. (21.3).
21.
276
where a = n/(n+1). The expression involving the Gamma-functions has the numerical values 0.85, 0.90, 0.95 and 1.0 for n = 4, 5, 7.5 and ~, respectively. The
initial growth rate is obtained by neglecting A against 1 in eq. (21.5). There
results
= (1+1/n)x c Iti'
In experiments, C* usually increases with crack length unless the load is reduced in order to maintain a constant C*. The predicted growth rates for three
hypothetical constant-load tests are shown schematically in Fig. 21.3. The ini-
tial growth rates, o ' lie on the dashed line which, in a log-log plot, has the
slope n/(n+1). As Figs. 21.2 and 21.3 show the initial growth rate is rather
low, typically by a factor 10 lower than later on, for the same value of C*.
Subsequently the growth rate increases due to both, the increase in C* and the
increase in A shown in Fig. 21.2a. After the crack has grown by a sufficiently
large multiple of xc' A increases only slowly, although it does not exactly
saturate [eq. (21.6)]. Then the further increase in growth rate is almost exclusively caused by the increase in C*, and
becomes an almost unique function
of C*. A comparison with experimental results in Section 21.5 will show that
the above results agree with the observed crack growth rates, whereas the
models described in Sections 21.2 to 21.4 disagree. Therefore the reader who is
interested in the most important models only can proceed to Section 21.5.
The continuum hole growth mechanism described in Chapter 14
critical-strain
also
leads
to
criterion for local failure at the crack tip, but the critical
Fig. 21.3. Crack growth rate vs. C* for constant-load test (schematic).
21.1
277
eqs.
(14.24)
that
equation
uniaxial
but it is still higher than the 0.78% strain to failure obtained from
instantaneously
once
critical
stress, 0nuc' is exceeded. This is not a very realistic assumption when compared to the observations reported in Chapter 5, although it agrees with the
basic
nucleation
combined with strain-controlled cavity growth. Hence, the crack must grow
ject
to
the
sub-
must reach the critical value Ef at a distance Xc ahead of the crack tip.
In the HRR-field, eq. (20.16), a given nucleation stress
is
exceeded
over
distance
(21 .7)
ahead of the crack tip. This model gives a threshold for creep crack growth:
crack does not grow if C* is so small that rnuc < xc. Otherwise, the crack
starts growing, and nucleation has no effect on the crack growth rate as long
as
the crack grows within the zone in which nucleation had occurred initially.
drops
discontinuously
strain
accumulated after
n/(n+1)
. Therefore
the crack must stop at a-a o = rnuc-xc and wait until this defect in damage is
compensated by further straining. The waiting time is t.(x Ir
)n/(n+1).
1
c nuc
During that time, the strain increment
E
(I
)n/(n+1)[(a - r
f Xc rnuc
nuc
+ 2X c )/X c
same
]-n/(n+1)
happens
when
the
crack
(21.5), which governs the crack growth rate, then takes the form:
21.
278
J (1+A-A,)-a
A-R
A- 1dA'
(21.8)
This equation is valid piecewise for kRn < A < (k+1)R n for any positive integer
k,
while for k = 0, the lower boundary of the integral is zero. The abbreviat-
to
the
author
defined
as
found
it
quation.
to a gradual drift
criterion,
i.e.,
the
of
the
the
solutions
strain
away
from
the
imposed
crack
growth
desired valuef' This drift can be corrected by noting that, for large A,
curves must merge into the analytic result for A ~ ~:
the
(21 .9)
.~
Rn =20
20
40
60
80
100
Fig. 21.4. Crack growth rate normalized as in eq. (21.4) vs. crack-growth
increment for stress-controlled cavity nucleation and strain-controlled growth.
21.2
279
in
the
+ ~
were
calculated.
by
the
Apparently
the
A to
constant
rate
physical dimensions
was given in eq. (21.4). For the steady-state growth rate this gives, from
eq.
(21.9) :
(21.10)
.
1/(n+1)
where the second line is valld for (rnuc/x c )
1.
spacing
law
can
If
the
(11.14).
be
Integration from R
integrated
o at
by
separation
is
of
neglected,
the
the
variables
cavity
R and t.
on
the
maximum
principal
stress
attains
the
at
distance
Xc
the
time
on
stress
is
calculated
in
analogy
to
the
280
21.
11
315 l'!oD b
01(0)
I B
n
(21.12)
The maximum tensile stress component in an HRR-field ahead of the crack, 1(0) ,
is oriented normal to the plane of the crack. A discussion of the result
follows in Section 21.5.
neglected.
Then
the
criterion for the growth of the main crack is that the time integral on 01 must
attain the critical value given in eq. (21.11). Since now stress-controlled
nucleation is taken into account, the integration on 01 must start only when
the principal stress exceeds the nucleation stress. In close analogy to Section
21.2,
one obtains the same type of integral equation as eq. (21.8), but with a
= 1/(n+1),
and
Abeing
non-dimensionalized differently
in
way not shown here. Figure 21.5 shows a numerical solution for n = 5 and for
80
60
t
.-::(
Rn=20
40
20
21.3
281
crack
approaches
h(~)
n
0nuc
In B]
steady-state
growth rate of
a = 158 (1+1/n) -n+1
01
06D b C*I [
kT3
A
This result will be discussed in
neglected compared to Rn/ (n+1).
Section
21.5.
In
eq.
(21.13),
(21.13)
unity
was
Riedel and Wagner (1985) have measured creep crack growth rates in a 1Cr-1/2Mo
steel in the temperature range 450 0 C to 600 oc. Some of the tests were performed
en as-processed steel which had a fine, bainitic microstructure. However, the
majority
of
the
tests
282
21 .
of
12.5,
25
and
50 rom. Most of them had 25% side grooves as recommended by deLorenzi and Shih
(1983) in order to approximate a plane-strain field along the whole crack front
(cf.
Section
22.2).
Indeed,
that
the
stress
growth,
which
crack front .
During the tests, the crack length was continuously monitored using
tric
potential
drop
technique
the
elec-
and
they
were
described
recently
surface
continuous methods .
Some creep
cra~k
examined
for grain boundary damage. There is clear evidence of cavitation near the crack
tip, as the scanning electron micrograph in Fig. 21.6 shows. The main crack
appears to grow by interlinkage with cavitated grain boundary facets.
In order to see whether environmental effects playa dominant role, some of the
21.5
283
No
difference
in
growth
in
ferritic
was
de-
termined using eq. (20.13). [Application of eq. (20.7) gave the expected deviations due to the uncertainty as to plane strain or plane
stressJ.
If
plotted
against C* the crack growth rates exhibit a very small temperature dependence.
On a log-log plot of
versus C*, a slope of n/(n+1) fits the data. In Fig.
21.7,
data pOints from the early stages of the tests were omitted. These early
growth rates are generally smaller than later on, for the same value of C*,
as
occupy
large
fraction
of
the
lifetime
of
specimen since the crack grows slowly in this range. Thus the data
sake
are
very
important
for
lifetime
the
model
which assumes that local failure of the material at the crack tip is strain
controlled (SectIon 21.1). First. the predicted dependence
~ C*n/(n+1) is
."
'!>2
Cr /VIa steel
'"Q
~\':
E!>2
.~
0 ~
" 450C
+ 535C
o 600C
!>2
~
51
'!>2
"
"
Fig. 21.7. Crack growth rates in 1Cr-1/2 Mo steel. Solid line: eq. (21.6).
(From Riedel and Wagner. 1985).
21.
284
confirmed experimentally. Second, eqs. (21.4) and (21.6) explain why the temperature
dependence
is
weak:
the
strongly
temperature-dependent material
parameter B from Norton's creep law is raised to the small power 1/(n+1). This
reduces the apparent activation energy of the growth rate (n+1)-fold compared
to that of B. The other parameters in eq. (21.6) are not strongly
temperature-
dependent nor do they vary greatly from material to material. This explains why
different kinds of materials exhibit similar creep crack growth rates. Thirdly,
the
data
omitted
from
Fig.
a on
increment, a-a o ' besides that on C*, which is qualitatively comparable with the
dependence predicted byeq. (21.6) (see Fig. 21.3). Finally, the absolute values of
are also predicted well. To show this, insert B 5.6.10-26 MPa-n/s,
Ef
as an adjustable parameter. The solid line which fits the data in
Fig. 21.7 is obtained if E f = 0.56%. This is in excellent agreement with the
estimate, E f = 0.78%, given in Section 21.1, which was based on creep-constrained cavi-tation in the HRR crack-tip field.
nucleation
a
is
and
strain-controlled
growth
of
Using
the
stress-controlled
dependence
in Fig.
(21.7) the
nucleation
rnuc = 680 ~m if C* =
Ef
distance
increases
in
proportion
to
C*
and
is
a are
too high,
since
the
linear
relation
~ C*, and to a weak temperature dependence,
~ 6Db/B Ceq. (21.13)],
which is compatible with the experimental results. However, for eq. (21.13) to
fit the data the nucleation stress must be chosen as 0nuc
21.5
285
(21.12) rather than eq. (21.13) should be applied. But eq. (21.12) was
already
Conclusions
failure
nucleation
and
growth
behavior.
The
case
of
that
such
model,
if
it
observed
creep
the
mathematical
difficulties.
It
is
measured data.
It should be kept in mind that the whole discussion so far has
purely
been
based
on
growth rates will be described in Chapter 23. These transient effects are not
negligible in materials which are not too ductile. Further, the subject of
crack growth modeling will be taken up again in Chapter 27 in the framework
continuum damage mechanics.
of
satisfy
certain
minimum
crack-tip
opening
displacement
must
be
small compared to the specimen dimensions, which is expressed by the ASTM-E 813
rule. Crack-tip blunting sets an analogous limitation to C* as will
Further,
the
be
shown.
conditions, which requires sufficiently thick specimens. This is so in rate-independent fracture mechanics as well as in creep crack growth testing. The discussion of this problem in Section 22.2 is applicable to both cases.
In
later
chapters, further limitations to C*, which arise from the constitutive behavior
of the material, will be described.
grain
boundary
as
being
distances from the crack tip which are large compared to the crack-tip
opening
tip,
and
by
distances
from
the
to
allow
22.1
287
Limitations to C* by Blunting
(22.1 )
opening
displacement,
depends
on
must
be
than
the
Parks
(1979)
show that the singular HRR-field has a reasonable range of approximate validity
if M
center-cracked
plates
in
plane-
strain tension, M = 200 is required. It is important to realize that the existence of a unique asymptotic field is essential for C*-testing since it
tees
guaran-
the
crack
= J/(2a ),
by
of 0t' eq. (22.1) represents the ASTM-E 813 requirement for valid J-testing.
Following
the crack faces, where two lines drawn through the apex of
inclined
by
the
crack
profile
the
crack
As
long
plane
strain.
Figure
for n
5 and 7,
respectively,
when the crack grows. The profiles were calculated by integrating the displacement rate, eq. (22.2),
288
22.
crack
wedge-type
shape
of
the
few
times
ti'
say at t = 3t i From eqs. (22.3) and (21.3), the crack-tip opening displacement
at t = 3ti for n = 7 is found to be
'\
1600
(n+1) In
f
xc
(22.4)
For f = 1%, Xc = 3~m and n = 7, eq. (22.4) yields 0t = 25~m. Typical specimen
dimensions are 'sufficiently large compared to 25~m to satisfy eq. (22.1). In
conclusion, crack-tip blunting generally implies no severe
limitation
to
C*,
but the related effect of wegde-like growth may restrict the use of C* to small
crack growth increments. The latter effect is hard to quantify at present.
are
22.2
289
tant to know under which conditions the idealized two-dimensional limits are
good approximations. In the following, a few facts are listed which the author
found useful in relation to fracture mechanics testing both for rate-independent materials and for creeping materials.
22.2.1
three-dimensional
de-
formation fields,
(22.5)
vanishes for all closed surfaces S bounding regions which contain no cracks
or
a surface as shown in Fig. 22.2. The parts of the surface along the side
since
n1 = 0,
and aijn j = 0 on the crack due to the traction-free boundary conditions. Since
the whole surface integral must vanish, the integrals over the partial surfaces
Sl and S2 must be of equal magnitude and opposite sign. This means that the 3-D
C*-integral defined on a partial surface Sl is independent of the choice of
that surface. In other words, the thickness average of the 2-D C*-integral
evaluated on a cylindrical surface is path-independent. It is
integral
related
to
the
the
C*-value
measured at the load pOints gives the average value of C* at the crack front.
22.
290
22.2.2
To start the discussion of the 3-D fields it is first shown that the asymptotic
field
is
the
asymptotic
field
strain component parallel to the crack front, e 33 , cannot become singular except directly at the point where the crack front intersects the side surface of
the specimen. If e 33 had a singularity in r over a finite length in x3-direction, the displacement u 3 = fe 33 dx 3 would become infinite, which is inconsistent with the compatibility condition. Therefore, the equations for the leading,
asymptotic
terms
of
the
stress
strain condition. Hence, the resulting asymptotic field must be that for
plane
The singularity at the intersection of the crack front with the surface
Figure 22.3 shows a plan view on the crack plane and on the ligament ahead of
the crack. The crack front intersects the free surface at a right angle. The
intersection point is called a vertex. At the vertex, a new type of singularity
develops
which
is
e and
(p,e,~).
Note
un cracked
ligament
specimen
surface
vertex
cracktront
o
crack
plane
Fig. 22.3. Spherical co-ordinates around a vertex. The angle e (not shown)
pOints out of the plane being e = 0 on the ligament and e = n on the crack.
22.2
leads
Fij(6,~)
291
three-dimensional
field
equations
for
power-law
This eigenvalue problem has been solved only for linear elastic (or, by
gy,
find
that
numerical
techniques.
0, 0.3 and
analo-
linear viscous) material by Benthem (1977, 1980), Benthem and Douma (1980)
weaker
than
the
~,
i.e., close
to
the
crack
front,
the
~ ~
0,
(22.7)
where f ij (6) describes the angular stress distribution in linear elastic cracktip fields.
The factor kI in eq. (22.6) is undetermined by the asymptotic analysis of the
vertex field. Its determination would require a full 3-D finite element
analysis of the Whole specimen. However, from the scaling
laws
for
power-law
1//r-crack-
Singularity, which we call the local stress intensity factor, goes to zero
C*, which is also defined locally here as the strength of the singularity.
292
22.
,
CT-specimen
o~~--~~--~~
o a1 a2 a3
I
surface
a~
x3/ B, - -
as
center
For comparison, the result of a 3-D finite element calculation by deLorenzi and
Shih
(1983) is also shown in Fig. 22.4. The numerical calculation was done for
a standard ASTM compact specimen. At the free surface, the numerical result
is
compatible with the required asymptotic behavior. Also shown is the numerically
calculated distribution of J for elastic strain-hardening plastic material at a
load
which
is
25%
distinctly towards the free surface if the specimen is fully plastic. A remedy
for
the
undesirable
non-uniform
distribution
of
J is Side-grooving of the
of
validity
of
various
singular
~,
valid.
away from the crack front the in-plane stress gradients become
smaller.
Since
all stress gradients are related through the equilibrium equation, the throughthe-thickness gradients must also become small. Because of thiS, in combination
with
the
traction-free
boundary
conditions
on
= 0,
22.2
293
for field on
ligament
era
plane-strain
HRR-field
scales
with the specimen thickness, Bt , and the outer limitation to the plane-stress
HRR-field is some fraction of the crack length or ligament width. For thick
specimens,
on
the
other
plane-stress HRR-field,
fraction
of
the
hand,
and
the
HRR-field
is
valid
to
some
off
by
crack-tip
front
validity.
This
problem
will
plane-stress
specimen
finite
range
the
of
if
of
the
specimen
approaches
that
of
an
near
under
conditions
plane
of
over
to plane stress or plane strain. These two questions should not be confused.
294
22.
rather
than
only
known
rarely
two analytic estimates for linear elastic material will be described next.
Yang and Freund (1985) perform an approximate analysis based on
assumption
that
the
the
kinematic
original
(22.10)
into
x3 over the specimen thickness. Yang and Freund (1985) solve the
two-dimensio-
nal equations for a large, cracked plate of thickness Bt using a boundary layer
approach. This means that the crack is considered as being of semi-infinite
length
and
the fields far from the crack tip must asymptotically approach the
Yang
and
arrive at' the following result for the lateral contraction of the plate
with
our
i.e.
independent
of
r,
in
for
the
validity
of
the
plane-strain
field
consider the lateral stress which one obtains from Hooke's law:
(22.12)
have an inverse
While E33 is nonsingular, the stress components all and
square root singularity and therefore dominate at the crack tip. Now we define,
arbitrarily, that the range of approximate validity of the
ends
where
the
nonsingular
term,
EE 33 ,
reaches
plane-strain
field
22.2
295
v(011+ 022) Taking E33 from eq. (22.11) and 011 = 022
the outer range of validity of the plane-strain field:
(22.13)
Towards the crack tip, the range of validity of the plane-strain field ends
at
about 5 6t due to blunting. Thus the plane-strain HRR-field has a nonzero range
of validity if the specimen thickness exceeds about 40 6t [taking v = 0.5 in
eq. (22.13)]. For rate-independent plastic materials is 6t = 0.5 J/oy , and
hence the thickness condition becomes: Bt > 20 J/oy This is
ASTM-E 813 rule, which recommends a factor 25 instead of 20.
close
to
the
For creep cracks, 6t was found to be small. Hence, the thickness condition for
plane-strain crack-tip fields is often easily fullfilled as far as blunting is
the limiting factor. Wedge-like crack growth as shown in
Fig.
might
22.1
be
of
validity
of
the
plane-strain
asymptotic field is to inspect the stress fields at the vertex given by Benthem
and Douma (1980). Their numerical solutions for the vertex field show that 033
on the ligament has dropped to 60% of the plane-strain value if ~ = 14 0 with ~
as defined in Figs. 22.3
approximate
plane-strain
or
22.5.
conditions
This
are
small
value
of
indicates
that
crack front. If we require that this sector extends 56 t ahead of the crack
front over at last 70% of the specimen thickness, the specimen thickness must
be Bt > 133 6t This is by a factor 3 more stringent than the criterion derived
from the Yang and Freund solution.
In both cases, the definitions of what is considered a sufficient approximation
to plane strain were somewhat arbitrary. In practice, the acceptable deviations
from plane strain will also depend on the sensitivity of the
fracture
process
to
22.2; 6
crack
tip
in
the
center
of
296
22.
c)
aJ
flat precrack
crack front
shape of the crack front which is also called crack tunneling (Fig. 22.6a). The
degree
of
theirs
which
indicates
that.
for
linear
normal on the surface. Then the degree of the singularity is the same along the
whole crack front. which is a prerequisite for a uniform stress
fact,
3-D
numerical
calculations
of
Smith.
intensity.
In
nearly constant value of KI along the crack front if it intersects the surface
at an angle between ~ = 90 and 110. In agreement with these predictions.
fatigue cracks grown under linear elastic conditions in fracture mechanics test
specimens often exhibit surface angles between ~ = 100 and ~ = 15 0 .
For nonlinear materials. vertex fields have not been
investigated.
experiments
for
and
3-D
finite
element
calculations
curved
but
both.
crack fronts
(Kikuchi and Miyamoto, 1984a), indicate that crack tunneling must be much
pronounced
than
in
linear
elastic
result
shown
in
Fig. 22.4
more
This
the
is
compatible
with
the
non-uniformity of J is much
greater for nonlinear than for linear material if the crack front is straight.
22.2.7
Shear lips
Even if the front of a growing crack adjusts itself such that constant
constant
J-.
or
stresses. in particular of 033' towards the surface at any finite distance from
22.2
297
the crack tip. The fracture process in many materials is sensitive to this loss
of triaxiality. As a consequence, the fracture mode may change
separation
of
the
specimen
halves
in
the
the
formation
of
shear
lips
normal
from
creep
crack
growth
An effective means
side-grooving
to
suppress
both,
crack
tunneling
and
shear
lips
is
the tendency of the stress intensity to falloff towards the free surface. By a
suitable choice of the included side groove angle, 28, the degree of the vertex
singularity, s, can be adjusted to that within the material. Further, the depth
of
the
side
(1977)
for
linear
material
and
by
deLorenzi
constant
at 2S
grooves
in
terms
of
kept
out
a to
to
be
was
and
deLorenzi
conditions
along
the
whole
crack
front.
22.7 shows that J and the transverse stress component 033 at a distance
about 1% of the crack length ahead of the crack front, normalized by 011 + 22 ,
vary to a much lesser extent in side-grooved than in parallel-sided specimens.
Accordingly, side-grooved specimens exhibit
This
is
practically
no
crack
tunneling.
Nimonic BOA. The dark part of the fracture surface is due to creep crack growth
at 650 0 C, while the remaining ligament was fractured at room temperature giving
a
bright
materials,
fracture
appearance.
Sometimes,
particularly
in
more
ductile
the crack advances faster at the side grooves which suggests to use
Kikuchi
and
Miyamoto
draw the same conclusion from their 3-D finite element analysis.
(1984a,b)
22.
298
a)
><:'"
"""l
a6
/ / i?
/
elastic
" "-kelastic-plastic
'~
.......
'-'-
00
01 a2 03 at: 05
.vBt
a5
b) 1
..
P=125 If
1-
--------
elastic-plastic
--. at:
'"
b'
I
03 /~_l
I
:::;:: 02 r
J
0-
b~
elastic,
v=03
al
aa
01
--
Q2 03 at: a5
x3 /Bt
Fig. 22.7. J-integral (a) and plane-strain constraint (b) vs. distance
from specimen surface for 25% side-grooved (solid lines) and parallel-sided
(dashed lines) CT-specimens. (From deLorenzi and Shih, 1983).
22.2.9
(1977)
compare
3-D
Thei~
22.2
299
grooves
and
without
for
included
in
the
bottom
Values
plane
raises
in
the
Side
elastic
thickness
here).
limits.
The same is
2
true for the J-integral, which also differs by only a factor 1-v between plane
if
the
can
be
determined
displacement
from
eq.
(20.13),
i.e.
to
from
and plane stress, and to side-grooved speCimens, for which deLorenzi and Shih's
(1983) finite element calculations suggest very good accuracy of eq. (20.13) if
plane-strain values for g2 are used. Kikuchi's and Miyamoto's (1984b)
tions lead to the same conclusion.
calcula-
If, however, the displacement rate is not known (e.g., before the test has been
For
plane
stress
a/W = 0.5
a/W = 0.6
a/W = 0.6
plane
strain
3-D, no
side grooves
37.0
33.7
63.4
57.7
(from deLorenzi and Shih, 1983)
36.3
60.9
62.1
3-D, 25%
side grooves
38.2
63.6
63.3
22.
300
which
are
(1981).
The
re-
of
side-grooved
and
parallel-sided
for plane strain (p-E) and plane stress (p-o) and for the
used
of
interest
here.
this case, the load-line displacement was calculated also from eq. (20.11)
material
parameters
by deLorenzi and Shih. The applied load per unit thickness was either re-
ferred to the net specimen thickness between the side grooves, Bnet , or to the
total thickness, Bt , or to an effective thickness defined by Shih, deLorenzi
and Andrews (1977) as
(22.14)
As Fig. 22.9 indicates, the
approximated
3-D
calculation
for
Side-grooved
specimens
best by plane stress using the effective thickness. This 2-D cal-
is
problem
Fig. 22.9 is that the 3-D result for no side grooves gives a greater dis-
placement than the plane-stress calculation using Bt , which is the only reasonable thickness for parallel-sided specimens. This disagrees with intuitior
and with other results from the literature which indicate that
configuration
is
plane-stress
2000
1000
p-I1,Bnet
700
no side grooves
500
400
300
200
CT 5-specimen
mo
load-line displacement, Lf in mm
In
the
preceding
approximated
sections,
the
deformation
response
of
materials
was
neglected,
and
may
even become dominant, in materials which are relatively creep resistant and
brittle, i.e., which exhibit substantial creep crack growth before the whole
specimen
creeps
extensively.
The
distinction
chapter.
This
will
be
quantified
in
elastic
situations,
the
while
stress
intenSity
C* applies in the
reduces
to
E=
~efined
alE
material
Ogura
and
Kubo
(1980).
Some
of
is
modeled
mat-
23.
302
(23.2)
where KI is the Mode-I stress intensity factor and the angular functions fij(e)
are given in Appendix B.
Also known is the stress field which is valid
at
very
long
times.
In
this
limit, the creep strains, which increase continuously, become exceedingly large
compared to the elastic strains, which remain bounded. Then
behaves
as
if
the
material
stress
field
the
described
in
Chapter
is
directly
from
the
~
material
law,
eq.
can be neglected compared to creep rates for any time t > O. The reason is that
the
stress is unbounded near the crack tip, and therefore the creep rate (<< on
with n > 1) has a stronger singularity than does the elastic strain rate (<<
As
consequence, the
~ymptotic
a).
(23.3)
Except for the time-dependent strength of the singularity, C(t), the quantities
were
defined
in
presented
will
C* for t
(23.4)
CD.
tip,
the
material
creeps rapidly, which, in turn alleviates the initial stress concentration. For
23.1
303
from
the
crack
then
be
analyzed
using
boundary layer approach. The boundary conditions on the actual specimen surface
are replaced by the much simpler boundary condition that the
crack
is
consi-
dered as being of semi-infinite length and the stress field must asymptotically
approach the elastic singular field, eq. (23.2), at infinity.
specimen
geometry
enters
Then
the
outer
Cartwright, 1974).
With the elastic singular field, eq. (23.2), being the
the
remote
initial
ions as Riedel (1978) and Riedel and Rice (1980) pointed out for
Mode-I
condition
and
and
from the equation for the stress function [eqs. (3.11), (3.15) or 3.19)J
using
dimensional analysis and noting that E,B and t enter into the gove~ning
equation only as the product EBt and can therefore appear in the solution only
in this form. The similarity solutions are then found to be:
(23.5)
wlth the Similarity coordinate
r
R = K2 (EBt)27(n
I)
(23.6)
~ij
Eij (EBt)n/(n-1)/B,
Le
is the dimensionless equivalent tensile stress and the prime in Llj denotes the
deviator. Compatibility and equilibrium are obviously satisfied by eq. (23.5)
23.
304
if they are satisfied by Eij and Lij . Further, insertion of eq. (23.5) into the
remote boundary condition, eq. (23.2), shows that:
for R
(23.8)
-+ "'.
Thus the whole system of equations for Lij and Eij depends on R, but not on r
and t seperately, which proves that eq. (23.5) is a solution of the field equations and boundary conditions. To obtain a complete
solution,
the
system
of
equations for Lij and ~ij must be solved. This has been carried out for Mode
III by Riedel (1978) numerically based on a stress-function formulation. For
Mode I,
finite
element
solutions
original field equations making no use of the similitude of the solutions. Some
features of the solutions can also be derived analytically. All this is summarized in the following sections.
Once the solution for the stress field is known, elastic strains
are
obtained
(n-1) (EBt)-1/(n-1)
'" Ln - 1L!.
EIR
1J
IR
dR.
(23.9)
This latter result follows by time-integration of the creep rate with the timedifferential replaced according to eq. (23.6): dt/t
23.1.2
-[(n-1)/2J dR/R.
with
the
similarity
solutions
necessarily
C\j
0.. (e).
(23.10)
1J
or, in terms of the factor C(t) which was introduced in eq. (23.3):
C(t)
ct
2
KI (1-v2 )/[(n+1)EtJ.
The
numerical factor
ct
(23.11 )
the
factor
1-v2
must
be
strain), but its precise value remains undetermined by the asymptotic analysis.
However,
Riedel
and
23.1
305
viscous
materials,
be
field leads to the estimate a = 1. This analytic estimate was confirmed numerically by Ohji, Ogura and Kubo (1980), Ehlers and Riedel (1980),
Ehlers
(1981)
and Bassani and McClintock (1981). In the range n = 3 to 10, the finite element
results fall within the range a = 0.9 to 1.24, the precise value
depending
on
stress
decreasing
intensity
factor
as
solely
by
the
geometry are concerned. Near-tip fields in differently shaped specimens are the
same
if
KI
is
boundary
condition.
23.1.3
the
remote
elastic singular field. Over the whole range of distances the equivalent stress
can be described by the interpolation formula between eqs. (23.2) and (23.10):
ae
(23.12)
which reproduces the limiting cases of small and large r and which agrees
with
the finite element results of Ehlers (1981) in the transition range to within a
few
per
cent.
approximating
Figure
the
23.1
shows
an
example.
An
even
of
the
way
of
simpler
near-tip
HRR-field
elastic far field are equal and to take the HRR-field inside, and
singular
fields
yields
stresses which do not deviate by more than 15% from the finite element results.
The coordinates used in Fig. 23.1 are the
eqs.
Similarity
coordinates
defined
in
23.
306
l5
. . C:~~
to \(FE
interpolation
formula
05
01
(elastic
".
Q2 03 04 05
distance R ~
06
23.1.4
strain
near
(23.13)
lJ
n- 1
where e: ij
(3/2)
1J.. Obviously, the creep strain has a singularity of
-n/(n+r)
the order r
, whereas the elastic strain is proportional to stress.
(el) r- 1/ (n+1). This confirms the remark made earlier that near the
i.e. , e:
crack
tip
creep
the short-time limit. The different behavior of creep strain and elastic strain
suggests
defining
be
strain
fields
develop
in
self-similar
in the short-time limit, it is clear that the creep zone also preserves
sha~e
while it grows in this limiting range. The form of the similarity co-
23.1
307
ordinate, R
r/t 2/ (n-1), requires that the creep zone must grow according to
r
(23.14)
cr
load
and
specimen geometry only through Kr and expands around the crack tip according to
the time law rcr ~ t 2/ (n-1)
The dimensionless shape function Fcr(S) was
calculated by Riedel and Rice (1980) using an approximate analytic method based
on eq. (23.12), which leads to the dashed curves in Fig. 23.2. Figure 23.2 also
includes
results
of
limit.
Figure
to
beyond
the
short-time,
or
small-scale
plan.e 1.0
strOIn
.,_
_./'nolytic
\\
c5
O.S
1.0
23.
308
Fig. 23.4. Maximum distance of creepzone boundary from crack tip vs. time.
Plane strain, n = 5, v = 0.3. Dashed
line: small-scale creep approximation.
CCT = center-cracked tension
3PB = three-point bend
CT = compact tension
DECT = double-edge-cracked tension
CT
~B
OL-~'--~2~~3~~'~~
time ( ~'la)(EBt) 2/{n-I} - -
Figure 23.4 shows finite element results of Ehlers (1981) on the maximum extent
of
the creep zone in various specimen geometries all having a/W-ratios of 0.5.
universal
short-time
result, eq. (23.14). At longer times, the deviations from the short-time behavior parallel tnose discussed for the plastic zone size in elastic-plastic material
(Larsson and Carlsson, 1973, Rice, 1974). For the creep-zone size the so-
of
which
eq.
(23.14)
is
the
first
term,
for
short
must be proportional to
small-scale
creep limit may have either sign depending on the specimen geometry.
23.1.5
The transition from the small-scale creep limit to the steady-state creep limit
was
described above by the spread of the creep zone across the ligament of the
by
the
the
transient
the
be
can
steady-state
short
times,
a KI (1-v )
(n+1)
C*
(23.15)
for plane strain; for plane stress the factor (1-v2 ) is deleted. It was pointed
23.1
309
100
10
01
time t / t , -
Fig. 23.5. HRR-field amplitude, C(t), after a step load. Long-time, and
short-time limits (dashed lines) intersect at t=t 1 rnterpolation formula,
eq. (23.16), and finite element results of Ehlers (1981).
Comparing
therefore
t 1,
can
be
duration provides an idea of whether creep crack growth occurs under Kr-controlled elastic conditions, or under C*-controlled conditions. The ranges of
validity of Kr and of C* will be displayed on a load parameter map
25.1.4.
The
characteristic
time
in
Section
The finite element results for the HRR-field amplitude C(t) can be approximated
well
in the whole range from short to long times by the simple formula (Ehlers
(1 + t 1 /t)C*,
(23.16)
Which reduces to eq. (23.11) in the short-time limit and to C* for long
As
Fig.
23.5
shows,
this
formula
times.
to
deflection
~el.
application
is
the
elastic
of
23.
310
elastic-plastic
el
cr
la t-(n-3)/(n-1).
(23.17)
A~
a B a~et'
and
of
is
obtainable
from
finite
element
which
cracked
tension
specimens.
As
Fig.
23.6a
the numerical results can be approximated well in the whole time domain
(The
numerical results are indistinguishable from the analytic curve in Fig. 23.6a).
It may appear counter-intuitive that the deflection rate is
creep
zone
is
still
small
than
it
is
when
the
stressed
creep
zone
greater
whole
in
when
specimen
the
the
creeps
small,
but
deflection-vs.-time
plot
stage (Fig. 23.6b), although the material law does not include
primary
creep.
The tertiary stage shown in (Fig. 23.6b) arises from crack growth .
100
oj
3PB
DECT
~
.~
.
lil
;;::
..... .....
.......
.............
...
-..:....-------.....
0.1
10
time t/t, -
10
15
20
t/t, - -
Fig. 23.6 a) Load-line deflection rate vs. time for n=5, v=0.3 (log-log plot).
b) Load-line deflection vs. time (schematic for constant load).
23.1
311
for
behav-
the whole range of times. In the short-time limit, the two quantities
differ slightly, but for large n the different time exponents, -(n-3)/(n-1) vs.
-1,
are
similar.
This
difference
with the present definition, while Saxena's (1986) definition differs slightly.
23.1.7
The analysis
of
stationary
cracks
in
elastic/nonlinear
viscous
materials
of
time,
the
law
are
explicit
in
time,
solutions
as
notch is
(23.20)
where NI is a notch stress intensity factor, s is the eigenvalue tabulated in
Table B.2 in Appendix B as a function of the included notch angle, 2a, and the
gij'S are the angular eigenfunctions pertaining to s. With eq. (23.20) as an
initial condition and as a remote boundary condition, similarity solutions are
possible just as in the limiting case of a sharp crack.
312
23.
stresses,
the
following
transient
where C* dominates. The near-tip fields, however, have a different form with
logarithmic stress singularity, 0
~n(1/r),
ions
are
given
in
Section
20.2.1
no
longer
exact,
although
the
form
fields
remain
HRR-type
are
taken
into
account,
the
crack growth brings about a change in the character of the fields (Hui and Riedel, 1981). The stress singularity will be found to have the form 0 r- 1/ (n-1)
for both, Mode-I and Mode-III loading. Since the
simpler,
formulas
for
Mode
are
the arguments which lead to the new singularity will be presented for
Mode III, but the results to be given in Section 23.2.2 will refer to
Sections
23.2.3
to
23.2.5
deal
In
many
practical
Mode
I.
III
condi-
given
in eq. (3.11). If the coordinate system moves with the crack tip in
23.2
313
(23.22)
where a/at is the time-derivative in the moving system and a is
the
(possibly
o
with
B = ~+lB.
the
elastic
(23.23)
strain
rates,
while
the
correspond
to
power-law creep.
For an asymptotic analysis, it is important to note that the first term in
eq.
(23.23) exhibits a stronger singularity near the crack tip than does the second
term, since it contains higher differentials in Xi' Therefore, the asymptotic
problem is always a steady-state problem with the term a/at deleted.
Next, it is shown that the HRR-field cannot persist near a growing
To
show
tip.
this, assume that the third (nonlinear) term in eq. (23.23) dominates
crack
is
the
HRR-field
which
the
solution
of the remaining
is characterized by W r n/ (n+1). To check
whether the neglect of the first and second terms was really justified,
substitute w r n /(n+1) into eq. (23.23). Then it is found that the first term
is proportional to r-(2n+3)/(n+1), the second varies as r-(n+2)/(n+1) and the
third
as
ity, which is incompatible with the assumption that the third term dominates.
Next assume that the first term in eq. (23.23) dominates and
are
negligible.
The
solution
of
the
remaining
equation,
that
the
others
V2w = 0, is the
of
the
stress
function,
w r1/2. Substitution into eq. (23.23) shows that now the first and
-5/2
-(n+2)/2
third terms vary as r a n d r
,respectively. Hence, the assumption
that the first term dominates is correct if n < 3. In this case, the asymptotic
field near a growing crack tip is
possibility
will
indeed
the
elastic
singular
field.
work of Hart (1980, 1983). If, however, n is larger than 3, the first
less
singular
This
than
the
third.
Hence
term
is
determine
23.
314
the
asymptotic
behavior,
s = (n-2)/(n-1).
The
function f( 8)
(23.24)
stress
(neglecting
differential
is
obtained
by
substituting
eq.
dimensionless
into
The
angular
eq.
(23.23)
the second term, i.e. a/at = 0) and solving the resulting ordinary
equation
differentiation
of
numerically.
~.
The
stress
components
follow
by
of
crack
growing
in
)l/(n-1)
EBr
Eij
(Il /E)
EBr
Gij
)l/(n-l)
(23.25)
()
Eij
(8)
(23.26)
as
dim~nsionless
an
HR-field
angular func-
2.0
0~--~30----6~0----9~0~--~12~0~--~15~0~~180
e-
O~---L--~----~--~----~~~
30
60
90
e-
120
150
180
Fig. 23.7. Angular distribution of the asymptotic stress at cracks grow ing in
elastic/nonlinear viscous materials. Plane strain, v=0.5. After Hui and Riedel
(1981) reproduced by permission of Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, Dordrecht.
23.2
ti ons a ij
A
is
equal
315
()
to
unity.
The
n-dependent
numerical
factor
A,
was computed as
a 4 = 1.042 and a6 = 1.237 for plane strain (with Poisson's ratio v = 0.5), and
as a4 = 0.815 and a6 = 1.064 for plane stress, where the governing equation is
independent of v. For Mode III, the numerical result is represented
0.2%
accuracy
~ = [0.29(n-3)]1/(n-1),
by
replaced by G and
and
E and
to
B.
within
remarkable
(23.26),
applied load. Only material parameters and the current crack growth rate, but
not growth rates at prior times, determine the asymptotic fields. (Of course,
this independence of load and prior history cannot hold for the remote fields).
Possible consequences for creep crack growth will be discussed later.
It should be noted that some of the properties of the growing-crack singularity
depend sensitively upon the material model used. In this connection, the reader
is referred to recent work by Yang and Freund (1986) on the interrelationships
between crack-tip fields in rate-dependent and rate-independent materials.
23.2.3
Small-scale
behavior
creep
conditions
are
characterized
by
predominantly
elastic
the stress and strain fields near the crack tip are analyzed subjected
to
the
that
the
a/at-term
in
eq.
(23.23)
can
be
define
the
steady-state,
small-
scale creep problem contain a set of parameters which can be combined to form a
group having the physical dimension of length:
(23.27)
This is the characteristic length for the range of validity of
HR-field.
Further,
the
asymptotic
state stress field in the small-scale creep limit must have the form
23.
316
(23.28)
R1 = r/r 1
where
~ R~1/(n-1)aij(S)
The
dimensionless
function
Eij
must
approach
for small R1 in order to recover the near tip HR-field Ceq.
(23.25)]. For large R1 , eq. (23.28) must give the elastic singular field, i.e.,
Eij = f ij (S)/(2wR 1 ) 1/2 The knowledge of Eij at intermediate distances requires
a numerical solution of the field equations. Such a finite element analysis was
carried
out
suggested
by
by
Hui
Riedel
(1983)
and
who
found
that
(1981)
is
Wagner
accurate.
For
the
elastic
case.
Alternately,
the
field
equivalent
can
also
stress
in
the
be approximated by
matching the near-tip field and the far field together on the line on which the
two terms on the right-hand side of eq. (23.29) are equal. This is analogous to
the procedure adopted in Section 23.1.3.
The steady-state solution is valid as long as the alat-term in eq.
(23.23)
is
negligible. It can be shown that this is equivalent to requiring that the crack
growth rate,
i,
an
remote
HRR-field
boundary
characterized
condition,
the
by
C*,
general
is
embedded
of
the
field
follows
from
(23.32)
23.2
317
of
C*-controlled
crack
growth,
the
characteristic
Let a constant load be applied at time t = 0 and let the crack grow at a
time-
dependent rate a ~ t B For B = 0, this includes the case that the crack starts
growing at a constant rate at time t = O. The growth rate is artificially
prescribed here rather than calculated from a crack growth criterion.
The evolution of
procedure
the
stress
field
can
be
visualized
using
the
matching
three
singular
which are matched together as illustrated in Fig. 23.8a, namely the HR-
field, eq. (23.25), which is valid very near the crack tip, the elastic
lar
is
assumed
to
singu-
dominate
in
region
bounded by the lines 'on which the equivalent stress equals that of the adjacent
HR
a)
elastic field
....
GJ
lJ
c::
.E
.!!!
c::
.E
.!!!
"tJ
----
a:rcr 'i
'fiR
log r
....
GJ
lJ
\:;)GJ
c) ts= 10 t,
b) t, ts
"tJ
ts
time t - -
tl
time t - -
318
23.
a=
for
constant
crack
growth
rate
(i.e.
0) and for constant stress intensity factor. Then, among the three singular
fields, only the HRR-field is time dependent. It is apparent how the ranges
validity
grow
and
shrink
if
of
has
the
order
of the creep-zone size and is denoted by r cr ' while that of the HR-field
is r HR The results are shown schematically in Figs. 23.8b and c. At short
times, the range of validity of the HR-field expands according to
(23.34)
Here, all numerical factors such as (n+1) were omitted for simplicity. After
and
the
HR-field
is
directly
embedded
in
the
attained, i.e., if t1 < t s ' then the HRR-field displaces the elastic field and
the HR-field is eventually embedded in the steady-state HRR-field characterized
by C*. This Situation, in which r HR must approach r 2 defined in eq. (23.32) for
long times, is shown in Fig. 23.8c.
Now, by Simple matching, a rather complete picture of the transient fields
been
obtained.
The
has
that
the
results
Numerically, Hawk and Bassani (1986) have performed finite element calculations
for the transient, growth problem (for Mode III). They found that the fields obtained by matching agree with their finite element results to within 15%.
If the prescribed crack growth rate
varies
as
oc
t-(n-3)/(n-1),
the
crack
growth increment, a-ao ' and the creep zone expand at a fixed proportion as long
as small-scale creep conditions prevail. In this case, the full governing eq.
(23.23),
including
the
23.2
319
a/r cr
For
slow
the
ratio
field.
For
fast
crack
rate.
Now
prescribed
such
rate
crack
must
grow
Ef
elastic
transient
at
the
beginning
which
exhibit
the
propagation
since
its
range
HR-field
plays
no
in
length for the fracture process, xc. At the same time, it is assumed
speCimen
role
that
the
reaches the limit of extensive creep before it fails, but the initial
may
be
influenced
by
the
elastic
transient.
This
corresponds to the situation shown in Fig. 23.8c for the limit r 2 ~ O. Hence,
the theory to be developed here is an extension of the crack growth theory for
viscous
materials
to
include
but now with a time-dependent amplitude, C(t) from eq. (23.16), instead
Sect-
23.
320
ion
21.1
C(t)
is
an
(21.4)
i~
C(t),
which
represents
given
by
(1 + t 1 /t)C*.
elastic
transient
test. During the transient, the growth rate decreases, until the trend is
in
Fig.
time
as
this
rapid
crack extension may reduce the lifetime of a cracked specimen considerably. The
magnitude of the effect increases with the ratio t 1 /t f . It
materials
which
are
is
pronounced
for
alloy will be given in Chapter 27, and another one on 2 ' /.Cr-1Mo steel will
shown in Section 25.3, after primary-creep effects have been considered.
time
---
be
23.3
321
this
section,
(calculated)
the
creep
case
zone
is
analyzed
boundary
where
relatively
the
early
crack
in
overtakes
the
the
a and
and
for
crack
an
integral
equation
(23.36)
Under the integral sign, the normalized growth rate A is taken at the point A'.
Further, A = (a-ao)/x c and
A ae: f
BXc
2Tfx c
(23.31)
KIfe
KI fe (Cln Oe )n-1
/ 2TfX c E
(23.38)
e: f
e:o/e: f
field
(x c /r)n/2
ahead
of
the
elastic
singular
stress, while 0e at
of
growth
rate
of
eq.
(23.36)
approaches
is obtained by setting
integral
cannot
be
A=
steady
state.
The
evaluated
in
closed
00.
form.
Therefore the result obtained numerically by Hui (1983) is shown in Fig. 23.10.
For a given KI , the growth rate has two branches. The lower branch is unstable
in the sense that the strain ahead of the crack increases if the growth rate
23.
322
10
K.l/K.'I,mm
. ~
Fig. 23.10. Steady-state growth rate vs. Kr after Hui (1983).
increases. The upper branch is stable. For large a, the range of the asymptotic
HR-field, r 1 , becomes negligible so that the elastic field alone determines the
evolution of creep strain. rn this limiting case the steady-state growth rate
is found to be
A=
fe Kr
121TXc
which
(23.39)
no
steady-state
growth
is
amin were
by
Riedel
Wagner
numerically. They point out that, in analogy to the two branches in the
steady state, there are either two solutions to eq. (23.36), one
stable,
and
or
of
which
is
(23.40)
or in physical dimensions:
n(2n-1)/(n-1)
(23.41)
------------~,--- 121TXc EE f
2(n-1)(an e)n-'f e
crack
growth
23.3
rate
are
given
in
323
to
show
that
eq.
i.e.,
the
crack
must
a,
both
A = 0 and at the point where the crack stops. In reality, a creep zone will
spread around the decelerating or arrested crack and crack growth will continue
or
will
be
re-initiated.
Wu,
Bassani
improved analysis by including the HRR-field, which was neglected by Riedel and
Wagner
(1981).
Wu
et
Section 23.2.5. They find that crack growth is possible also at small values of
KI , but the behavior
defined in eq. (23.41).
becomes
very
irregular
due
by
the
simplified
to Riedel and Wagner (1981) is the fact that the strain associated
.1/(n-1)
reached.
This
behavior
is
admittedly
Whether
longer
or
approximate)
not
these
combined
effects
with
the
critical-strain
described
"'
oi
e.0.5
:S
o ~--~--~--~--~--~
2
crack extension
{!:go Xc
next
were
23.
324
shown, the crack-tip fields are determined by the stress intensity factor,
recommended
to
calculate
the
characteristic
time
(e.g.
Saxena
and Hudak, 1978). On the other hand, the use of C* is justified if the deflection rate has reached a steady state. In power-law viscous
materials,
the
de-
flection rate is related to the load and to the crack length by eq. (20.11).
In the following two subsections, two extreme cases are described in
order
to
illustrate the use of KI and C*. The transient regime, which may be important
in other materials, will be discussed in a later section, after instantaneous
plasticity and primary creep have been taken into account.
23.4.2
A 1Cr-1/2Mo steel
The heavy deformation of the 1Cr-1/2Mo steel specimen shown in Fig. 23.12
tainly
precludes
the
use
partly
cer-
of
ICr-l/2 Mo steel
Under testing
Nimonic BOA
23.4
Application to Experiments
325
hours
or
less. Correspondingly, elasticity effects can be neglected and KI gives no correlation among the measured crack growth rates, whereas C* does (Fig. 23.13).
It is interesting to note that the crack growth rates in the as-processed steel
shown in Fig. 23.13 are very similar to those measured on the same steel having
a prior service history (Fig. 21.7Y. This is so despite a considerable loss
creep
in
if
the
comparison
is
based on C*. If the materials were compared for equal loads, the more creep-resistant material would exhibit slower crack growth. The
compatible
observed
behavior
is
with the prediction of eq. (21.6), where the creep properties enter
only weakly into the crack growth rate, for constant C*.
23.4.3
Nimonic 80A
not
Wagner
(1985)
for
tests were many years, while the specimens failed at much shorter times.
Therefore the crack growth rates are plotted as a function of KI in Fig. 23.14.
The
data show that the crack growth rate is temperature dependent when plotted
against KI , and that the gaseous environment has a marked effect. In an Ar/H 2 mixture, the crack growth rate increases by about a factor 10 as compared to
..'"
III[] C
goo
o
~
-L.
co
C
CC
23.
326
environmental
eff-
and
to
650 0 C in
air
at
low
the
data
points
for
this
choice.
theoretical
7.56 below the solid line. This is the predicted effect of the reduction of
temperature from 650.oC to 600 oc, i f the temperature dependence .of B in eq.
(23.39) is identified
Qv
= 271 kJ/mol.
This
with
that
line
is
of
to
the
diffusion
coefficient
of
nickel,
600 o C.
Although the data can be explained partly by eq. (23.39), it should be
ned
that
continuum
damage
mentio-
The
problem
is aggravated by the fact that neither of the models takes corrossive effects
into account, which obviously playa role in Nimonic 80A.
.0
10
's?
+
.0
50
100
. AAN -3/2
K1 In""
m
24 Instantaneous Plasticity
In
into
creep crack growth we assume that the total strain rate can be written as a sum
of elastic, plastic and creep strain rates:
(el) + g(pl)
E: ij
ij
(cr)
E: ij
(24.1)
The elastic strain rate is given by Hooke's law, eq. (3.5), the creep
assumed
to
exhibit
power-law
viscous
behavior,
rate
is
~~~l)
IJ
(3/2)
(B IN)
0
1/N-2'
ae
ae
(24.2)
aij'
range
0.05
to
0.3
for
plasticity
and
accurate
creep,
but
constitutive
model
combining
E~~l) = 0, eq. (24.1) describes an elastic/nonlinear viscous material, which was already discussed in Chapter 23. For Ei~r) = 0,
elastic-plastic
fracture
(1979).
At
for
the
the
including
exam~e,
by
basis
the
for
fully
Hutchinson
and
forms
mechanics
evolution
represent
the
initial
24.
328
Instantaneous Plasticity
takes
place
yielding
approximation
is
valid.
In
this
width,
the
overall specimen response is elastic and the plastic zone size is given by
(24.3)
where the numerical factor is approximate.
For increasing load, the plastic zone spreads across the whole ligament and the
fully plastic limit is approached. In this case, elastic strains can eventually
be neglected compared to plastic strains. The analysis
of
the
fully
plastic
limit is relatively simple because of the fact that, under conditions specified
below, the
str~s
is
the
same
as
called
deformation
plasticity)
is
valid
elasticity
only
(which
is
for proportional,
violated
near
tip of a growing crack, a fact which bounds the validity of the J-integral
the
reader
results
described
implies
that
in
elastic-plastic
material
is
24.1
329
(24.5)
where I1/N and Gij are taken for 1/N instead of n as in the
case, and J is the J-integral. For small-scale yielding is
nonlinear
(24.6)
Plastic
Fracture
viscous
al
(1981)
in
and
fields
represent
the
tip
occur
field, eq. (24.5), replaces the elastic singular field in its role as the initial condition and the remote boundary condition in the short-time limit.
>
Toe condition,
tip
finite time t > 0 and that a creep zone growing around the crack
for
any
1/n,
the
crack
described
in
Section 23.1.1, Riedel (1981b) shows that the creep zone must grow according to
r
cr
a:
'
(24.7)
If
the instantaneous plastic zone is small, the creep zone grows beyond the
initial elastic-plastic boundary after some time. Subsequently, it grows in an
elastic
field
(n+1) In
r t
) 1/(n+1) -G
(
)
ij B,n ,
(24.8)
24.
330
irrespective of
prevail
whether
initially.
small-scale
yielding
or
Instantaneous Plasticity
fully
plastic
conditions
specimen,
and
the
C*-integral determines the crack-tip fields. Equating the short-time field, eq.
(24.8) and the long-time field, eq. (20.16), gives the characteristic time
for
(24.9)
(n+1)C*
This is a generalization of eq. (23.15) to
and
it
obviously
reduces
include
instantaneous
plasticity,
from eq. (24.6) is inserted. If creep crack growth occurs at times smaller than
t 1,
the
crack
tip
fields
example
for
law
happen
to
material
point occurs only immediately at load application (thus neglecting any additioional plastic straining by
strain
later
stress
redistribution).
Then
the
plastic
rate can be combined with the creep rate by replacing the coefficient B
function.
Now
the problem is reduced to an elastic/nonlinear viscous problem with time-dependent B(t). According to Section 23.1.7, such a material law can be treated like
one with a constant coefficient by replacing time by f[1+B o o(t)/B]dt = t+Bo/B.
By this substitutlon, the crack-tip field can be obtained from eq. (23.10).
However,
is
again
of
Bt/Bo'
the
near-tip
24.3
331
I Br [(n+l)t + BIB]
)l/(n+l)
0iJ'(S).
(24.10)
0 and for Bo
O.
316
steel
at
(SENT). Their tests were relatively short-term tests done at high load
so
that
the
specimens
became
growth
can
be
decided
levels,
by
comparing
their
test
place
duration
before
with the
of the specimens were less than, or at most of the same order as the
the
growth rates correlated well with J but did not correlate with C*.
The dominance of J in these
experimental
proof
that
experiments
the
load
was
line
additionally
deflection
supported
was
mainly
the
by
the
due
to
order
2S Primary-Creep Effects
take this into account in the analysis of creep crack growth. Two different
(Riedel,
1981b)
already
power-law
strain-hardening
namely
= B(t)~
not
provide
an
accurate
description
of
the
can
be
part
of
the
creep
curve
(312)
(25.1)
B1
where B1 , m and p are material parameters, Ee = (2EijElj/3)1/2 is the equivalent strain, and the superscript (pr) denotes primary creep. For constant
stress in uniaxial tension, eq. (25.1) can easily be integrated in time to give
(25.2)
Here, strain is a power function of time.
creep law, E ~ t 1 / 3 , is obtained if p
In
particular,
Andrade's
primary-
alone
are
analyzed
assuming
that
primary
with
elastic-plastic
strains
and
with
secondary
25.1
creep,
a
333
21/~Cr-1Mo
field
1981b).
Then
the stress field has a form like eq. (20.4), and the strain field calculated by
time-integration of eq. (25.1) is
related
to
the
stress
field
as
if
the
B1 (t)
is independent of
the
spatial
variables
and
B1
[B 1 (1+p) fP(t,)m(l+p)dt,]l/(l+P)/p(t)m,
(t)
(25.4)
and
powers
of
P are
understood
as
Similarly, by time-differentiation of eq. (25.3), one finds that the stress and
strain-rate fields are related as if the material were power-law viscous:
t
-p/(l+p)
(3/2) B1 /(1+p) [(l+p) fp m(l+ p )dt']
pmp om-1 0i'Jo.
1
(25.5)
found
to
be
independent of the spatial variables, it can be concluded that in two-dimensional crack problems
th~
relations
eqs.
(25.4)
even for constant load (note that the time dependences are given by J
Clf
OE).
and
(1981b) defined
order
to
remove
the
dependence
OE
and
334
25.
Primary-Creep Effects
(25.6;
C~
C~
for
hardening
creep.
property
01
C~
iE
(25.7)
Since under proportional loading
behaves
as
if
it
were
the
nonlinear
material
viscous,
characterized
by
[B 1 (1 +p) ] 7 (1 +p) 1m r
25.1.2
eq.
(25.1)
----,rrrCT~:;:;::,r-_
1
by
the
correspondine
C~:
(25.8)
Now we consider step loading of a cracked body which consists of material whicn
can deform elastically and by primary creep
+ (pr)
Eij
,
The
instantaneous
response
of
(25.9)
(25.1)
such
with
stress
exponent
field
is
an
HRR-type
field
like
eq.
25.1
335
K2 (1_,,2) IE
h [(~+1)t]11(1+P)
(25.11)
in the short-time limit and approaching eq. (25.8) in the long-time limit.
characteristic
time
for
stress
redistribution
is
The
1 +p
(25.12)
dis-
played on a load parameter map in Section 25.1.4. Equation (25.12) also describes the transition from an elastic-plastic state to primary creep provided that
Ki(1-,,2)/E is replaced by the J-integral (Riedel, 1981b).
25.1.3
elastic
primary
creep,
so
strain can be neglected, but near the crack tip the material has
creep.
To
model
this
situation
the
like
eq.
(25.8).
again
has
crack-tip
secondary-creep
zone.
This
boundary-layer
secondary-creep zone
r cr
giving
(25.13)
m~st
grow according to
(25.14 )
with
the
determined
from
a..(a,n).
(25.15)
lJ
similarity
arguments
alone.
As
an
25.
336
a(n,m,p)
Primary-Creep Effects
(n+p+1)/(n+1).
(25.16)
this
leads
to a(n,m,p)
approxi
1.
For long times, the secondary-creep zone spreads across the whole
specimen
so
C*
h
)(p+1)/P.
(1+p)C*
(25.17)
state
ion 1+(t 2 /t)P/(1+ P ). This reproduces eq. (25.15) in the short-time limit. If,
additionally, the elastic-plastic response is to be taken into account, the
following interpolation formula for the HRR-field amplitude is suggested:
C(t)
25.1.4
(25.18)
primary
creep
and
secondary
on
the
vertical
axis and 0net on the horizontal axis. In this plane, the areas are indicated in
which each of the four deformation mechanisms considered so far determines
specimen
behavior.
the
growth
macroscopically
in
the
respective
example.
In
the
low
stress/short
time
(cf. Section)
25.1
337
22.1 and the ASTM E-813 rule). The primary-creep regime, which is labeled by
-(m+1)(1+p)
C~,
is separated from the elastic regime by t1 anet
Ceq. (25.12)J,
while after the time t 2 a~:~n)(p+1)/P Ceq. (25.17)J, steady-state creep
starts
to
the secondary-creep zone catches up with the primary-creep zone while both
still
small,
and
the
further
evolution
are
to
steady-state
creep
then occurs with the characteristic time t1 a~~~-1) Ceq. (23.15)J. At even
higher stresses the transition from instantaneous plasticity to secondary creep
1/N-n Ceq. (24.9)J. At long times, crack-tip blunting
occurs at around ..u1 anet
bounds the range of validity of C* unless fracture of the specimen intervenes.
n+1
Combining eqs. (22.1) and (22.3) and recalling that C* anet shows that the
limitation set by blunting varies as tb a~~t.
The load parameter map is a deformation map of cracked bodies, but
any
sense
related
is
not
in
on
25.
338
Primary-Creep Effects
An alternative description of
superior
to
the
previous
primary
one
creep
effects,
which
appears
to
be
(1946).
They
introduce
an
internal
variable, called internal stress ~ .. , which counteracts the applied stress and
IJ
which increases by strain hardening and decreases by recovery. Following Kubo
(1983),
whose
formulation
is
based
( 3/2)
n-1
C1 'e
'ij
..
(2/3)
C2
IJ
IJ
IJ
(25.19)
-Ii - C n-Ii-1
3 (1e
~e
..
(25.20)
IJ
(25.21 )
C1 , C2 , C3 , n and Ii are material parameters. Table 25.1 shows a few examples,
which are taken from Kubo (1983) who refers to Mitra and McLean (1966). Delph
(1980) uses a slightly more general formulation than eqs.
(25.19)
to
(25.21)
stress
while
the
second
term
describes
recovery
increases
with
strain,
MateriB.l:
n
Ni
Al
Zn
4.7
4.6
1.7
1.1
1.5
25.2
339
axial tension under constant stress. Figure 25.2b schematically shows the shape
of
the
internal
stress,
(25.22)
For long times,
e saturates to
(25.23)
+5
~r
....e
can
be
obtained
Q
.s:
....e
11)
11)
o
c: 1
by
e from
'"w
.~
transient
time ---
340
25.2.2
25.
Primary-Creep Effects
material
can
be
hardening/re-
c,on. Therefore,
following Kubo ('983), we note that the initial stress field must be that of
nonlinear viscous material. In particular, the crack-tip field must be the HRRfield, eq. (20.'6), with B replaced by C,. Depending on the stress experienced,
different
creep stage within different periods of time. If n-' > B (which is usually
case
for
metals)
the
the
described
by
similarity
solutions.
From
their form it follows that the steady-state creep zone must grow according to
r
ss
(25.26)
times,
steady-state
creep
prevails
in
the
whole
specimen.
The
same
form
(25.27)
However, the C*-integral becomes time-dependent even
for
constant
load.
The
short- and long-time values of C* are given by eq. (20.7) with B replaced by C,
and C,/H"
respectively:
C*(t=O)
n+'
a C,Onet g,(a/W,n),
(25.28)
C*( t="')
25.2
341
At intermediate times. C* is not a well-defined parameter. But as an approximation one can continue to assume its path-independence and to measure it according to C* = g20netA. This will probably provide an estimate for the strength of
the HRR-field. C(t). Theoretically. Kubo (1983) concludes that C(t) must
decrease for short times according to
1 - y[~-1-B C C t]1/(B+1)
net
1 2
C(t)/C*(t=O)
(25.29)
where Y is an unknown numerical factor. Equating this with the long-time value.
eq. (25.28). gives a characteristic time which varies with stress as
(25.30)
This characteristic time describes the transition from primary to
steady-state
creep of the whole specimen. It corresponds to the time t2 given in eq. (25.17)
which was. however. derived from a different model of primary creep.
25.2.3
If elastic strains are added to the material law. eq. (25.19). the sequence
events
after
of
size
and
the
primary
creep
(25.31 )
Since the steady-state zone increases with a higher power of time than does the
2l (n-1)
primary zone. rpr t
two different cases are possible: first. the
steady-state zone may catch up with the primary zone while both are still small
compared with the ligament width. Primary creep then never dominates the
specimen behavior and the transient occurs effectively from elastic behavior to
steady-state
creep.
Second.
the
primary
zone
may
creep
in
cracked
specimen
is
shown
in
of
harden-
from
elastic
25.
342
response
Primary-Creep Effects
but
eq.
the
25.3
shows
that
shape of the region occupied by primary creep depends on the constitutive model
chosen.
reported.
In
order
load
the specimens beyond the elasticity limit so that instantaneous plasticity must
be taken into account. Further, it turned out that primary creep played an even
greater
role
during
the
eq.
toga
net
___
25.2
Analysis of an Experiment
343
load
line
was
A = 492 pm,
while
purely
elastic response would have led to Ael = 269 ~m. From the Merkle-Gorten (1974)
formula, the J-integral immediately after load application was obtained as
J = 18.7 kJ/m 2 , while its linear elastic (or small-scale yielding) value would
have been J el
the test
characteristic
secondary
time
creep
for
as tl
the
transition
from
elastic-plastic
to
the
as t2
to
regimes.
This
corre-
case shown by the load parameter map in Fig. 25.1b. The trans-
behavior
eqs.
(25.17)
and
the specimen, 596 h. In fact, the measured displacement rate exhibited a transient
behavior
the
The observed crack growth behavior is shown in Fig. 25.4. During the transient,
the
crack
The
figure
alsa
shows
several
curves, which are derived from eq. (21.6) (taking the limit Xc
ing the Gamma functions). Equation (21.6) is based on a
erion
and
on
theoretical
0, i.e. delet-
critical-strain
crit-
replac-
ing G* with G(t) as was already pOinted out in Section 23.3.1; G(t) is given in
eq. (25.18). If tl and t2 are approximated by constant values pertaining to the
beginning
of the test, and if G* is inserted from eq. (20.7), the crack growth
law given in eq. (21.6) can be integrated by separation of the variables, a and
t.
The
the procedure is
describ~d
condit-
carried
assumptions.
First,
out
for
only
plane-strain
secondary
conditions
under
three
in
Fig.
25.4. The critical strain, which appears in eq. (21.6) was chosen as f = 1.82%
in order to adjust the calculated lifetime to the observed one. In a second
25.
344
i
E
E
.!:
c
33
32
31
30
29
28
27
26
25
24
0
Primary-Creep Effects
."..
":;",:;:,:;,,,::::,:::,:::,:::,';:,';:'::;
Fig. 25.4. Crack length vs. time. Circles: measured data; dashed line:
calculated with secondary creep only; dotted line: elastic-plastic strain
included; solid line: primary creep and elastic-plastic strain included.
taken
into
account, which means that C(t) is taken from eq. (23.16) with t1 = 8.7 h. Numerical integration of eq. (21.6) then leads to the dotted line in Fig. 25.4.
Here,
Ef =
primary
creep
the
initial
transient.
from
eq.
(25.18).
If
this
choice for C(t) is inserted for C* in eq. (21.6), one obtains the solid line in
Fig. 25.4, where
~f
length.
If
although C* is
no~
the
time-differentiation
of the
aBon+1
net g1 ,
obtains Fig.
tranSient,
one
obtained if
a is
eq.
(25.18).
At
long
times, all definitions used in Fig. 25.5 merge into the steady-state value, C*.
25.2
Analysis of an Experiment
345
b)
a)
10-'
'/
V
c)
...lL
n+l
-8
11\
"E
10
.!;
oCJ
2~Cr-l""o
10-9
540C
CTl
P=20.12kN
10-10
0.D1
al
10
100
C=aBa::;:g, -
,/
al
10
al
100
10
100
crt) -
C1=.tiq.,., g2 - inW/m 2
FIg. 25.5. Measured crack growth rates plotted against different parameters
The dashed lines in-Fig. 25.5 are theoretical curves derived in Chapter 21.
Fig.
25.5b,
only
In
trolled creep crack growth. The dashed line in Fig. 25.5c represents
the
com-
plete solution of eq. (21.6), which was already shown as the solid line in Fig.
25.4. It includes primary-creep effects by calculating C(t) from
Apparently, after fitting the critical strain as f
eq.
(25.18).
the measured growth rate well apart from a slight deviation in the shape of the
cur-ve.
for Xc
Possibly,
~ere
done
> o.
the
to
C(t)
contribute
itself
to
the
is
practical
ad-
over
likely
material
parameters
26 Diffusion Creep
is
the
common
high-temperature
ceramics
diffusion
creep,
If,
creep
is
body
is identical with a
analogy. The crack-tip
(26.3)
the
J-integral
under
linear
26.1
347
Deformation Fields
elastic conditions, J
law
mater-
as
deformation
small
power-law-creep
zone
by
the
(26.5)
This equation is represented by the vertical line on
the
load
p'arameter
c or K]
t....
(linear
(nonlinear
viscous)
viscous)
log (JnetFig. 26.1. Load parameter map showing the regime of diffusion creep
(upper left regime).
map
Diffusion
26.
348
Cree~
The transition time from the initial elastic behavior of a cracked specimen
nonlinear
viscous
creep
at
tc
stresses, the transition from elastic behavior to linear viscous creep involves
no stress redistribution, apart from the 033-component which depends on
Possion's ration in plane strain. In the elastic regime is typically v = 0.3
while
diffusion
creep
is
to
elastic
strain,
(26.6)
which coincides with the limit of eq. (23.15) for n = 1, apart
from
numerical
such
that,
at
distance ahead of its tip, the strain attains its critical value,
Ef
structural
, the crack
(26.7)
Here, numerical factors were omitted and the limit a-a o Xc was taken. As eq.
(26.7) shows, the crack growth rate increases in linear proportion to Kr in the
present case.
If the material develops a
field,
the
power-law-creep
zone
within
the
linear
ViSCOUE
crack growth rate is given by eq. (21.6) with n > 1 as long as the
C*
from
eq.
(26.3),
the
crack
K2 )n/(n+l)/
[ B(a-a )]1/(n+l) (
o
Bd I
Ef
(26.8)
Ki n /(n+l).
27.1 Introduction
In the preceding chapters, the deformation behavior of materials was
by
elastic,
described
plastic and creep strains. Whenever damage was taken into account
in order to model creep crack growth, it was assumed that the stress distribution remained unaffected by damage. This assumption is now dropped.
27.1.1
sequel
is
the
phenomenological
damage
needed.
(1~84).
both
Here
we
employ
the
maximum
pr.incipal
of
stress
the
called
stress,
aI'
and
parameter
depends
on
according to
(27.1)
determination
of
the
material
parameter
case,
while
under at least two different stress states such as tension and torsion.
The damage parameter itself is not meant to be measurable. Only its
the stress/strain-rate relation is detectable:
effect
on
27.
350
(27.2)
IJ
that means the creep rate increases sharply, or the stress drops to zero, if
approaches
under
stress-,
or
data
for
copper
(27.1)
and
(27.2).
and for the aluminum alloy were taken from work of Hay-
steels
were
ob-
tained from creep curves provided by Bendick and Weber (1984). Since the latter
authors carried out uniaxial tension tests only,
materials
cavitat-
these
12.7.
There are several interesting pOints which should be noted before the
of
creep
crack
growth
is
described
analysis
criterion,
E/[GPaJ
Al
Cu
Stl
St2
60
66
150
150
B/[MPa
-n
Is]
3.2'10- 21
3.6'10- 10
1.3'10- 24
2.7'10- 31
D/[MPa-X/s]
6.9
3.0
7.3
10
5.0'10- 18
1 .7'10- 7
7.5'10- 21
2.0.10- 23
6.5
1.2
6.2
7.0
<P
9.5
3.8
5.5
12.3
0
0.7
w = 1,
27.1
Introduction
351
reason-
ably be defined. Damage is developed rapidly near the crack tip in a zone which
may be called the 'process zone' and which will be
later.
As
long
defined
more
specifically
damage)
as
the
consequences.
Only
in
this
important
limit,
the
process zone becomes so large to perturb the singular fields which validate the
use of
the
respective
description
load
parameters.
Therefore,
no
fracture
mechanics
which
is
sufficiently
was
given
by
has
range
of
Hayhurst,
validity.
Brown
The
answer
to
the
second
finite element analyses of cracked specimens based on the full damage mechanics
equations.
However,
this
separate
finite
element
analysis, but it may also lead to serious error. The continuum damage equations
do not include any specific corrosive effects which may
creep
crack
growth
enhance
the
the
rate
of
the other hand, includes the corrosive effects if the laboratory tests are done
in
the same environment in which the component operates. Crack growth data are
merely transferred from the laboratory test specimen to the component using the
appropriate
the
small-scale
strain
and
be for plane strain. The geometry and the coordinate systems are the same as in
earlier
(1985b).
sections
(cf.
Fig.
20.1).
The
27.
352
Similarity solutions
material
characterized
by
eqs.
(27.1)
and
under the remote boundary condition that the stress field at infinity must
HRR-field
represents
the
lysis shows that the damage mechanics equations must have similarity
solutions
of the form
(Dt)-l IX I: .. (R, e)
(27.3:
w(R,e)
(27 .4;
(Br/C*) (Dt)-(n+1) / x
(27.5:
ij
IJ
with
of
these
IJ
solutions
as
yet
unknown.
Of
course,
the
contours
01
constant stress or constant damage expand around the crack tip according to
(n+1)/X In particular, the crack tip, which is characterized by w = 1,
r t
moves according to
6a
a(n,X,.,K) (C*/B)(Dt)(n+1)/x,
(27.6)
27.2.3.
will
be
estimated
in
crack
growth
27.2
Small-Scale Damage
353
n+1
(27.7)
ob-
tained in Chapter 21. There, the stress field had been assumed to be the undisturbed HRR-field moving with the crack tip, an assumption which is not
in
adopted
the damage mechanics description. Further, the conditions for local failure
at the crack tip were derived from cavity growth laws in Chapter 21, while
the
now
mechanics
To
realize
this,
of
large
note
~a/xc.
the
vanishes
criterion.
In
in
the
that
the
critical-
~a.
(21.6)
pre-
strain to failure using eq. (2.12) with X = n, it becomes evident that the
two
the
older
replaced
by
the
which
is,
compatible
with
the
required
the
factor
a(n,x,~,K),
undisturbed
HRR-field
centered
at
the
initial crack tip position. For such a time-independent stress, the kinetic law
for ~ is easy to integrate. It is found that the crack tip moves in
accordance
with the form of the similarity coordinate, and the factor a is then given by
(27.8)
Since the HRR-field was assumed to remain centered at
the
original
crack-tip
27.
354
but is otherwise undisturbed. If one lets the crack tip move in accord with eq.
(27.6), a is obtained as:
(27.9)
with s
x/(n+1). Incidentally, this gives the same growth rate as that derived
in eq. (21.6) if X = n,
Ef
the
small-scale
damage
limit
analysis
contour w = 1, which describes the crack, does not spread along the line
directly ahead of the crack. For the special case n
X = 5,
= ,
a =0
= 1, for ex-
ample, the calculation predicts a plane-strain crack to branch along planes inclined
by
a real crack will actually branch. The crack may also follow the direction +24 0
along
certain
scopically
a=
along
portions
meters, the
the
crack
front,
on~he
24 0 ,
of
the
upper-
= 37.
factor a is found to be a
and
lower-bound
estimates
give
217
and
29.8,
respectively.
27.2.4
Somewhat arbitrarily, the process zone is defined as the zone within which
equivalent
strain
rate
is
at
the
process
zone
is
obtained by calculating the damage from eq. (27.1) and the strain rate from eq.
(27.2) using the undisturbed HRR-field centered at the original crack tip. Then
the process zone size normalized by the growth increment is found to be
(27.10)
For the material parameters of copper and of the aluminum alloy shown in
27.1,
this
ratio
= ,
Table
X = 5, the ratio
becomes 0.99.
Figure 27.1 illustrates that this definition of the process zone is reasonable.
The
figure
shows
finite
element
Hence,
27.2
355
Small-Scale Damage
t
~
'"
b'"
:;::..
11)
11)
05
11)
g
c::
,,
/",HRR
" '1"'--__
I
I
I
I
I
I
CI.I
I
I
I
I
1p-!
2
r/Lla -
Fig. 27.1. Stress distribution in the process zone ahead of a growing crack.
Finite element results for n = ~ = X = 5, K = 1, e = 24 0 , after Riedel (1985b).
Also
shown
is
the
process
zone
size
by
crack-tip
blunting,
the
small-scale
a certain fraction, denoted by 2.5/M, of the crack length and ligament width
rp < 2.5 aiM.
(27.11)
Otherwise the HRR-field has no finite range of approximate validity between the
process zone and the outer specimen surface. Then C* cannot characterize cracktip fields uniquely. The factor M must have values of around
geometries
including
the
= 25
for
bend
plate in plane-strain tension. The condition for the small-scale damage approximation
to
be
valid,
eq.
(27.11),
27.
356
of
crack
as 10% of the crack length. At first sight, this might look like a very
restrictive condition. But the condition for the allowable crack growth
incre-
ment can alternately be expressed as the requirement that the time must not exceed a certain fraction of the lifetime, t f , of the cracked specimen, and it is
found experimentally and theoretically (Section 27.6), that 10% crack extension
correspond to a substantial fraction of the total lifetime. On a load parameter
map, the regime of large process zones Is represented by the hatched band shown
in Fig. 27.2. Although C* should no longer be valid in this regime, the experiments
reported
with the C*-integral up to greater fractions of crack extension than 10% of the
ligament. This agreement might be fortuitous, but it may also indicate that the
process zone Is not quite as large as predicted by the Kachanov equations.
of
behavior
can
be
distinguished
which
are
described
w ~ 1.
In
other
in the two
neglected
except
the remote
elastic field.
In more ductile
....
-8'
J
log (/netFig. 27.2. Load parameter map showing the limitation
to C* by too large process zones (hatched area).
21.4
351
materials, on the other hand, the creep zone grows faster than the process zone
so
that final failure occurs under extensive creep conditions, but the initial
criterion,
in
Section
for
creep
steady-state
23.2.3
based
on
dimensionless length, R1
and the remote boundary condition, which is the elastic singular field here. In
terms of these variables, the condition w
J [KE I
(l-KlLeJx dR 1
(27.13)
1.
o
This equation is obtained by integrating eq. (27.1) over the time, replacing dt
by -dx/a and inserting the dimensionless variables. The integral is taken along
the line ahead of the crack tip,
a=
as
yet
unknown
value which may depend only on the dimensionless material parameters and on the
bracketed dimensionless combination of variables, which appears in front of the
integral, but not on R1 , nor on a, B, E or D separately. Thus eq. (27.13) above
is an implicit relation for the bracketed combination of variables. If resolved
for the crack growth rate, the result must have the form:
(27.14)
where a is an unknown dimensionless factor. This result for
rate
is
the
some
d~stance
critical-strain
crack
a
growth
K~ assuming
criterion
to
be
model
can
sometimes lead to drastic disparities in the results. Although the damage mechanics model appears to be theoretically preferable, experiments tend to support
the stronger dependence, a
crack
growth
under
small-
27.
358
27.4.2
If the process zone grows well inside the creep zone (which itself is initially
small compared to the crack length), the evolution of damage can be analyzed as
the following boundary layer problem: far from the crack tip, the stress
must
asymptotically
strains
can
is
(23.10).
Inside
this
boundary
layer,
field
limit
except
that
the
remote
boundary
the form of eqs. (27.3) and (27.4). The similarity coordinate is now
(27.15)
Therefore, the crack growth increment and the crack growth rate are
n+1
(n+1)/x
Dt)
n+1-x
~a
K2(1_v 2 )
n+1 (a
I
)X/ n+1
X
(n+1) ESt
)
D~
a(n,x,~,K)
(n+1-x)/(n+1)
(27.16)
(27.17)
the extensive-creep case, but in the following, the two factors are assumed
growth
rates
in
the
short-time limit, eq. (27.17), and in the extensive-creep limit, eq. (27.7), is
obtained by replacing C* in eq. (27.7) by
C*
(1 + t 1 /t) C*,
(27.18)
The characteristic time, t 1 , was defined in eq. (23.15) and is meant here to be
calculated for the initial crack length.
A comparison with Section 23.3.1 shows that, in the case of slow
inside
the
crack
growth
creep zone, the continuum damage model leads to basically the same
crack growth rates as the previous model based on the undisturbed HRR-field and
on
o.
21.5
Primary-Creep Effects
359
strain-hardening
model
introduced
in
Section 25.1. Damage is taken into account by using eq. (21.1) for wand
(21.19)
Two limiting cases are distinguished in the following analysis.
21.5.1
If only the primary-creep term in eq. (21.19) plays a role, the remote boundary
condition
for
the
solved
Section 21.2. The final result for the crack growth rate, eq. (21.1), needs
C*/B
by
C~/B1 1/(1+p),
and
the
and
secondary
the
case
that
elasticity,
primary
secondary-creep
zone.
In analogy to previous cases, this case can be dealt with approximately by taking the crack growth nate from eq. (21.1), but with C* replaced by
(21.20).
The same interpolation was suggested in eq. (25.18).
laws
the
crack
the small-scale damage approximation are ignored. Whether or not this leads
serious
error
to
associated with the integration of the crack growth laws. It is the rule rather
than
the
exception
that
27.
360
which are inclined to the original crack plane. This implies two
First
difficulties.
with
various
steels indicates that the crack surface remains macroscopically flat and normal
to the tensile direction. Side-grooving of the specimen supports this tendency.
Second,
if
the
crack
did
actually
branch
macroscopically,
For
component.
these
stress,
i.e. if
C*-values for
would
principal
is
done
for
tensile
stress
rather
than
reasons
that
branches
the
calculat-
(K
if
there
are
no
by
to remain flat, for example, because deep side-grooves are used, the
ion
have
projecting
the
applied
only
which
crack
occurs
primarily
in
the
calculation
into
account.
the crack growth rate, eq. (27.7), with the correction for the transients,
eq.
(27.20), and the e,xpression for C*, eq. (20.7), inserted. Then the crack growth
law can be integrated by separation of the variables, a and
t.
There
results
with
F(a/W)
ar
(0 /0
ne
t)X da
(27.21)
(27.22)
tlt1
G( tlt1 )
(t 1 /t)
(27.23)
o
Here, ,
t 2 /t 1 ,
00
length,
27.6
361
The
(20.10)
was
be
for
plane
factor cose accounts for the projection of the local crack growth
taken
F and
G must
for
long
times
when
transient
effects
become
negligible.
The group DoXt represents the time in units of the failure time of
o
an unnotched specimen subjected to the tensile stress 0 0 If failure of the
cracked specimen occurs at longer times than 1/(D oX), the material is called
o
parameters.
Results
for
21/~Cr-1Mo
and
for
double-edge
cracked tension specimens (DECT) and center-cracked tension specimens (CCT) for
plane-strain. Material parameters for copper and aluminum were taken from Table
27.1. The factor a was computed from the upper-bound estimate, eq. (27.9). The
D(j; t
(forAIIDECi) 10
15
lO~----~--~-T~~~~--~
a)DECT
09
,
,
t)
~ 08
~
tJ Q7
/,~
~-----
Q6
0.5
1.0
./
~~----- AI
1.0
I.
b)CC'"
,,
AI./
.... /
1.5
Fig. 27.3. Normalized crack length vs. normalized time calculated from
eq. (27.21). Note separate scale for DECT-specimens of AI. Dashed line:
without elasticity correction [G(t/t 1 ) = 1J. (After Riedel, 1985b).
27.
362
dashed lines represent results which neglect transient effects, i.e. which
the elastic transient. Primary creep effects are neglected in
copper,
are
obtained
the
Fig.
27.3.
For
curve for the CCT-specimen was omitted since it deviates by only 2% in lifetime
from
the
curve
calculated
with
to
the
crack
growth
initially
high stresses at the crack tip during the elastic transient. This
the
lifetime.
The
magnitude
of
the
correction
transient,
while
for X < n/2 the transient is often hardly visible in plots like Fig. 27.3.
27.7 Discussion
The general features of the evolution of the crack length,
initial
in
particular
cies in detail may arise primarily from four sources. First, the damage
nics
the
equations
axial stress field at the crack tip. (Recall that the parameter
determined
mecha-
is
usually
from tension and torsions tests both of which exhibit far less tri-
axiality than a crack tip field). Second, the continuum damage approach becomes
definitely
inappropriate
if
calculation
based on eq. (20.7) usually under-estimates the C*-integral. Crack growth rates
are underestimated correspondingly. A difference by a factor 10 in crack growth
rates
appears
to
be
possible
according
Finally, the small-scale damage approximation, which underlies the crack growth
law,
eq.
increments.
The latter problem caused by the use of the
can
be
resolved
by
small-scale
damage
approximation
Brown and Morrison (1984). These calculations were performed for the same material
parameters
and
specimen
from which eq. (27.21) and Fig. 27.3 were derived except that a finite
element
27.7
363
Discussion
solution
their
calculated
lifetimes
be
0 0 enters only
into
1/0~-1). Since Hayhurst et al do
not report the values which they use for 00 , plausible values were assumed.
Further, since no accurate values for the factor a were available, the upper
and lower-bound estimates, eqs. (27.8) and (27.9), were used. As the table
shows, the bounds for the lifetime are close together and they agree well with
the result of Hayhurst et al as far as copper is concerned. In the case of
aluminum, however, the bounds span a range of up to a factor 12, and, for the
DECT-specimen, do not even encompass the finite element result.
the
elasticity
correction
(recall that t1
The failure of eq. (27.21) to reproduce the finite element result for aluminum
may indicate that the small-scale damage approximation is not accurate enough
in this case. This far-reaching conclusion, however, should not
yet
be
drawn
definitively Since there are other possible sources for error. In particular,
eq. (27.21) cannot deal reasonably with the problem of crack branching or
kinking which is, however, important in aluminum.
Al
D oX t f
0
FE
Eq.(27.21)
for
t f /t 1
Cu
CCT
DECT
CCT
DECT
1.07
0.98
1.17
1.03-6.7
0.82-6.5
8.4-73
5.7-68
0.83-0.97
1.04-1.22
50 MPa
100 MPa
50 MPa
100 MPa
30 MPa
30 MPa
12-75
6-48
4.6-41
2.3-26
41-48
20-24
now
failure
by
will be investigated.
Figure 28.1 shows the general trends observed in fatigue crack growth
testing.
As
a function of the stress intensity factor range, 8K 1 , the crack growth rate
per cycle, da/dN, increases starting at a threshold value, 8K th . The power law
observed in the intermediate range is often called Paris' law, and the exponent
typically lies in the range 2 to 4. Further, the crack
growth
rate
increases
with increasing temperature and loading-cycle time and is sensitive to environment, particularly at high temperatures. There
creep-fatigue
crack
growth,
which
exists
vast
literature
on
increasing
aggressiveness of
environment,
hold time,
28.1
Micromechanisms
365
Ohtani and Komatsu (1979); Runkle and Pelloux (1979); James (1979);
James
Mills
and
(1980); Michel and Smith (1980); Floreen and Kane (1980); Saxena, Willi-
Wareing
and
Sadananda
(1982);
Riedel
1984); Saxena and Bassani (1984); Floreen and Raj (1985); and Pineau (1985).
This chapter tries to provide a basis for the understanding of
and
the
mechanics
of
creep-fatigue
the
mechanisms
important micromechanisms (i.e. alternating slip at the crack tip, grain boundary cavitation and corrosion) will be described qualitatively. A combination of
the micromechanisms with the stress and strain-rate fields in
different
types
of materials (viscous, elastic-plastic and elastic-viscoplastic) leads to theoretical predictions of fatigue crack growth rates (Sections 28.2 to 28.5).
analysis
applies
The
range.
Microcracks
are
often
initiated
early in fatigue life preferentially at the specimen surface (see, for example,
Heitmann, Vehoff and Neumann, 1984), and their growth
determines
the
fatigue
The alternating slip model (also called the crack-tip blunting model)
The most common mode pf fatigue crack growth up to moderately high temperatures
and
moderate hold times is a direct consequence of the cyclic blunting and re-
sharpening of the crack tip: the new surface created during the opening part of
the
cycle is not removed reversibly during the subsequent closure of the crack
by
oxygen
atoms
which
the
crack
advances
in
each
visible
striation
marking
to
Laird
and
detailed
Smith
the
28.
366
crack opening
U
I
------tl
after closing
b)
occurs
is
single
in
quite
analogous.
that
Therefore,
the
the
mechanism
operating
mechanism
is
in
called the
whole
truth
of
28.2
were
will
actually
be
done in the following sections. However, there are several complicating factors
not all of which are well understood. One of these factors
called
is
the
phenomenon
crack closure (Elber, 1970). As the crack grows it leaves behind a wake
of plastically stretched material, which leads to crack closure well behind the
crack
tip
during
unloading
mechanical contact of the crack faces reduces the cyclic stress intensity experienced by the crack tip region. This, and the concommitant reduction in crack
growth rate, was modeled by Budiansky and Hutchinson (1978) and by Newman
(1981).
between the crack faces, which enhances the closure effect (Section 28.1.3). An
empirical
description
of
the
growth
crack
closure
rates,
will
given
in
the
Discussion
28.1
367
Micromechanisms
should
Stage-II
fatigue
is still contained within a single grain, often does not yet grow by
ing
slip
crack
on
two
slip
systems,
alternat-
The
mechanism
by which a Stage-I crack grows consists in the exposure of fresh surface at the
crack tip by slip in the tensile part of the cycle. Due to oxidation
or
other
irreversible processes, the new surface cannot be rewelded upon reversal of the
slip direction. When the crack grows longer, it usually assumes an
which
orientation
At
high
temperatures
of
this
boundary
ies.
mechanism act in
The
alternating
slip
mechanism
and
the
cavitation
growth
rate
cavit-
predominates.
This
slip.
in
by
I~,
steel
usually
grow
transgranularly
by
fatigue
changes
to
intergranular,
and
this
change
is
the
main
crack.
The
subsequent fatigue crack growth can occur by fracturing the pre-cavitated grain
boundaries by the plastic hole growth and coalescence mechanism. This
preferred
da/dN
>
only
15~m.
at
mode
is
remains
active
interactions
may
under special conditions. In the tests of Min and Raj (1978) the specim-
ens were subjected to creep straining for some fraction of their lifetimes
and
to fatigue for the rest. More often each loading cycle involves both, creep and
fatigue components, and this is the subject of the following sections.
28.
368
28.1.3
crack
growth
has
been
noted
that
(=
Ni-base
alloys,
the
enhancement
observed
as
well.
and
larger
factors
have
fatigue
crack
growth
rates
in
austenitic
ors of 50 to 100 in aNi-base superalloy at 650 0 C. This variability is not surprising considering the multitude of possible mechanisms and their interactions
with other mechanisms of fatigue crack growth.
A list of mechanisms which possibly explain the environmental effects on
fati-
gue crack growth has been given by Floreen and Raj (1985). Here only the most
important of these mechanisms will be discussed. In the minority of cases, the
presence of oxygen can be beneficial for the high-temperature fatigue lifetime.
One of these strengthening mechanisms is the formation of a
corrosion
product
between the crack faces. This enhances the crack-closure effect, which is known
to retard fatigue crack growth. Suresh, Parks
and
Ritchie
(1982)
show
that
crack-closure
nanometers
observed
thickness.
Through
for
fatigue
crack
of
the
causes
for
the
super-
of
but this is not the subject of the present chapter. Second, in the ab-
sence of oxygen, fatigue crack growth may be impeded by full or partial rewelding
of
the crack faces during unloading (Neumann, Fuhlrott and Vehoff, 1979),
exposed
metal
28.1
Micromechanisms
369
boundaries.
In
the
material,
oxygen
occurs
the
matrix,
and
to
decohere
presence
of
oxygen
intergranular crack growth, and Floreen and Raj (1985) consider such
may
along
of
the
environmental
carburization
(Floreen
and
cor-
rosive environments was proposed by Saxena (1983). The corrosive atoms entering
the material through the crack tip spread over a diffusion length which increases with time as (Dt)1/2, where D is their diffusivity in the host material. If
these atoms embrittle the material, for example by oxide formation on grain
boundaries, the material fractures over some, possibly stress-dependent, fraction of the diffusion zone during the tension-going part of the
Then
loading
cycle.
diffusion starts again around the new crack-tip position. This model must
lead to a fatigue crack growth rate which increases with hold time, or decreawith loading frequency, according to da/dN
1/v1 / 2 with an activation
ses
diffusion
length
square-root
dependence
on
show
that
an
the
nickel-base
oxidation-con-
trolled fatigue crack growth rate is often found to be small, corrosion tends
to predominate at int~rmediate temperatures, while at high temperature, the
effects
dependence of the crack growth rate. From tests by Pelloux and Huang (1980)
the
nickel-base
alloy
on
while
at
760C
creep
predominate. For a CrMoV rotor steel the transition seems to lie some-
370
28.
cracked
bodies
under
cyclic
loading
conditions
is
ion of the current load only but not of the prior history. The crack-tip stress
fields
are
the
range
should
be
mentioned,
however,
It was pointed out in Section 28.1.1 that the crack growth increment per cycle,
da/dN, must be of the order of the cyclic crack-tip opening displacement
~O.
In
Ceq.
(22.2)].
Integrating
over
eq. (22.3)
(28.1 )
The integral extends over the tensile part of the cycle and a numerical
contained
factor
progressively.
In
In Chapter 21, creep crack growth rates were calculated based on cavity
laws.
Since
in
that
growth
of
the
crack
growth rate given in eq. (21.6) over a cycle gives da/dN. For strain-controlled
failure at the crack tip there results
da/dN
(28.2)
Xc was taken, and the numerical factor 8n combines constants from eq. (21.6), which are of no interest here. If cavitation is revers-
ible during compression, the time-integral in eq. (28.2) extends over the whole
28.2
371
loading
cycle
with
the
integrand
being
negative
during
extends
compression.
over
the
If
tensile
part of the cycle only. In both cases, the principal dependencies of eq. (28.2)
are given by da/dN ~ c*n/(n+1)/V~' where v~ is the loading frequency.
This
to
purely
viscous
behavior, which predominates at high -temperatures and slow load variations. The
elastic-plastic response of the material to cyclic
usually,
by
total
loading
is
described,
as
plastic strain rates, but the plastic strain has a special property. The stress
and
strain
the hysteresis loops must be related by a unique law, independent of the amplitude of the stress, and this relationship is assumed to have the power-law form
B
(00) 1 IN,
(28.3)
stress,
to
the
cyclic
0Cy; if, for example, the cyclic yield stress is defined as the
analyzed
for
and Irwin (1965) and by Rice (1967b). An important feature of the solutions
that
is
the plastic zone are proportional fields, i.e., material elements are
plastically
strained
in
other
eq.
(28.3)
(with
elastic
strains
Mode-I loading are also proportional fields for the same reason that
power-law
materials develop proportional fields under monotonic loading. Thus the propor-
28.
372
important
limiting
cases,
and
its
approximate validity between these limits is assumed. Crack closure, i.e. mechanical contact of the crack faces during unloading and compression, renders the
fields
near
the
contact
closure over a considerable distance behind the crack tip and over
substantial
fractions of the loading cycle limits the validity of the following arguments.
28.3.2
are
proportional
fields,
as
pOinted
out
above,
incremental plasticity and nonlinear elasticity become equivalent. This has the
important consequence that the cyclic deformation fields at crack tips
characterized
by
path-independent
can
with
be
the
60, 6E, 6u, measured from the point of load reversal. The crack-tip fields have
the HRR-type form of eq. (24.5) with Z substituted for J and 60 i , for 0, ,.
J
lJ
Since the Z-integral characterizes the crack-tip fields in elastic-plastic materials under a wide range of conditions, at least approximately, it is expected
to be a useful load parameter to characterize fatigue crack growth. The Z-integral
can
be
by
the
with
(28.4)
The plastic part, Z l' is given by formulas analogous to those given for C*
Section
20.2.1
and
in
equi-
alternating
slip
mechanism
the
crack
growth rate should be of the order of the cyclic crack opening displacement. In
elastic-plastic material, displacements are
given
by
an
equation
like
eq.
28.3
373
(22.2) with u i ' B, C* and n replaced by u i ' Bo ' Z and l/N. The crack-tip
opening displacement is analogously obtained from eq. (22.3), and this gives
(28.5)
da/dN
where
the
0
is the cyclic yield stress measured from the point of load reversal,
cy
numerical factor in the square brackets in eq. (22.3) was approximated by
to
be
stronger
like
com-
plicating factors mentioned in Section 28.1.2. Of course, the crack growth rate
in rate-independent material is independent of the loading frequency.
The cavitation micromechanism does generally not predominate under
time-indep-
in
eq.
o/E
material behaves purely viscously if all load variations occur slowly, with the
characteristic
time
tl
~P,
This
distinguishes
contains
internal
role,
fields
immediately
before
and
immediately
28.
374
1983a).
Near
the
crack
Hence,
the
initial condition for the crack-tip field after a load step is the
solutions
after
the
load
step
can
(28.7)
(n+1)EC*
where C* is taken as the steady-state value after the load step.
Figure 28.3 schematically shows the
loading,
which
crack-tip
stress
field
for
square-wave
assumed to be small, v t
the
stress
and
C*
both,
Further, one observes that each load step is followed by a stress peak near the
crack tip.
28.4.2
I~(t)~ LlK,'I1-v')
15
t to
(n+l)Et
~(t)+~
.!::
11)05
load
r-
I\,
If
/'
time--
Fig. 28.3. Stress field at crack tip for slow, square-wave loading.
After Riedel (1983a). Adapted, with permission, from STP 803, copyright
American Society for Testing and Materials
28.4
375
ex
til,
(28.8)
with the arbitrary exponent Il. The specimen is now assumed to have no
stresses
due
to
internal
just
as
in
ex
til and
with
a shape which depends slightly on the exponent Il (Riedel, 1983a). The crack-tip
field
is
given
K~
replaced
by
For long times, nonlinear viscous behavior is approached. The
for
short
times
by
eq.
(23.10)
with
(1+2Iln)[K r (t)]2.
crack-tip field is then the HRR-field, eq. (20.16), with C* increasing in time
according to C* ex t ll (n+1). The characteristic time of the elastic transient
under continually increasing load is given by:
2
1+21ln Kr (l-v )
n+1
EC*
Figure 28.4 shows the crack-tip fields
for
(28.9)
a
lin~ar
load
increase
(Il
1)
followed by a hold time. The stress is normalized by the value which it assumes
after a long hold time. The behavior depends on whether the load-rise time, t r ,
is smaller or larger than t 1 . For rapid loading, tr < t 1 , the stress at the end
of the rise time is much greater than its long-time value. For slow loading, no
such
stress
peak occurs and the crack-tip field follows the applied load, and
can be described by C*(t), except for the small hump at short times.
f 2.0
::J
1.5
11)
1.0
....~
~
c::
aJ slow loading
0.5
0
3 0
376
28.
28.4.3
cycles, the overall response of the cracked specimen remains elastic. This case
of
rapid, fully reversed cyclic loading can therefore be treated in the spirit
at
a large distance from the crack tip (Riedel, 1983a). Dimensional considerations
analogous to those used in connection with the short-time solution after
step-
loading show that the near-tip HRR-field must then have the form
(28.10)
The dimensionless function of time,
of
dimensional
consistency,
S(v~t),
cannot be determined
by
arguments
A compari-
son of the first with the following cycles indicates that a steady cyclic state
is
reached
cyclic loading do not affect the later evolution of the deformation fields
a long time.
for
11t~
normalized time
Fig. 28.5. Crack-tip stress for rapid cycling. Solid lines: first loading
cycle; dashed lines: all following cycles; light lines: load. Finite element
calculations for n=5, v=0.3. After Riedel (1983a). Adapted, with permission,
from STP 803, copyright American Society for Testing and Materials.
28.4
377
The
is
for
strain-reversed
rapid
(Riedel,
slip
1983a).
If
fatigue
crack
growth
amount
of
But
occurs
by
the
cycling.
termined easily
alternating
solved
crack
closure
and
thus
role
by
reducing
The crack-tip opening displacement, and hence the crack growth rate, in elastic/power-law viscous material is given by eq. (28.1), but with the C*-integral
replaced by the time-dependent amplitude of the crack-tip field, C(t).
slow-loading
limit
is C(t)
In
the
8Ki
(28.11)
S(v~t)
0.67
the
loading
cycle
in
of
for
the
will
triangular
wave-shape
the
be
shown
graphically
The
in
dependence
the
Summary
on
frequency,
(Section 28.7)
28.
378
28.4.5
ahead
of
the
crack starts to dominate at high temperatures and long hold times. Incid-
nothing
to
do
growth
behavior
of
cavities in response to the complicated crack-tip fields in elastlc-viscoplastic materials. Hence, we model cavitation damage at the crack by
Rabotnov
equations,
the
Kachanov-
Thus,
cycle
can be taken from eq. (27.6) for the purely viscous limit or from
formula
an
inter-
between the limiting cases. Thus one obtains the growth rate
da/dN
tt
(aC*/B) [0 f (l+t It)x/(n+1)dt](n+1)/x
(28.12)
Here, tt is the tensile hold time, t1 is the characteristic time defined in eq.
(28.7), a is the dimensionless factor introduced in eq. (27.6), and 0 and X are
material parameters which appear in
damage,
eq.
the
kinetic
law
for
the
evolution
of
can be neglected,
da/dN 1/vin+1)/~.
i.e.
If
dependence
and
the
frequency
is
t1 It
0,
the short-time response dominates, eq. (28.12) reduces
2
to
da/dN
i.e., da/dN
will
be
a (6K I )
2
(l-v )/E
(n+1) Btt
Ott
)(n+1 )/X
l-x / (n+1)
compared
(Section 28.7).
with
(28.13)
(28.12)
28.5
379
Combined Effects
in
uniaxial
(28.14)
The notation is the same as in Chapter 24, except that for cyclic
loading
the
law
were considered in the preceding sections. Now the limiting cases are
An approximate general expression for the crack growth rate by alternating Slip
component
between
these
two
limiting
much
calculation
ially, but the results can be written in a form that does not
speCialization
depend
on
yielding conditions. Then, for short times after a load step, the stress
at
the
crack
this
tip
is
Kr
replaced by
~Kr.
field
From the
stress, the crack-tip opening displacement, which defines the crack growth rate
for growth by alternating slip, can be calculated with the result:
daldN
(28.15)
The elastic part of tbe Z-integral, Zel' was defined in eq. (28.4)
the tensile hold time.
and
we
in
passing
and
is
mention
that similar formulas have been proposed and compared with experi-
tt
Saxena
(1981),
Swaminathan,
380
28.
exponent to Zel' allow for effects of the load-rise time and of the decay time,
include
threshold
stress
intensity
factor
and
BN Z
o pI
to
and
adding
account
for
large-scale
crack
growth
rate
under
square-wave loading:
(28.16 )
da/dN
Of course, the additive superposition of the growth rates from various limiting
cases
can
only
structing eq. (28.16), a transient was included only in the elastic part of
since
the
stresS
Z,
the
terms
containing
and C*. This will be done in the following two subsections for two special
cases.
28.5.2
deflection
rate,
6,
is
g3
b.(n+1)/n /a 1/n
cr
BN Z
o cr
(28.17)
in
eq.
load-
line displacement rate of CT-specimens and of similar test specimens approximately reflects the transient at the crack tip. Therefore, if b. cr is interpreted
as the time-dependent part of the deflection irrespective of whether it arises
from steady-state creep or from the transient, the transient is
already
into account and the bracketed term multiplying Zel in eq. (28.16) can
taken
be
de-
28.5
381
Combined Effects
(28.18)
BNo (Z el + Zne)'
The nonelastic contribution is defined as Zne = Zpl + Zcr' This is very similar
to an approach proposed by Okazaki and Koizumi (1983), who suggested to correlate creep-fatigue crack growth rates by a sum of an elastic-plastic Z-integral
and
a contribution by creep. The derivation of eq. (28.18) shows why and under
to
trans-
ient effects.
Next, a more convenient expression for the determination of Zne is derived.
To
were
defined
in eq. (20.15), and 80net is the cyclic range of net section stress. Now Zne
and da/dN are determined by quantities which can be measured unambiguously
during the credp-fatigue test even for wave-shapes other than square-wave loading. except for 8pl and N. (Only for square-wave loading is it possible to
plastiC displacement from creep displacement). However. the dependence
discern
of Zne on these quantities is weak, so that small errors have no great effect.
For practical applications of eqs. (28.18) and
(28.19),
it
is
important
to
As another
applicatio~
and
high
temperat-
shape
usually
the
the resulting hysteresis loop are shown in Fig. 28.6. It should be noted that
382
28.
~ ~~
/1
~ ~
~a
1/
I~
--
strain.
In
to
control
tension-
The crack growth rate for arbitrary specimen geometry was given in eq. (28.16).
It
can
be
C~
= 2.4
Ecr (1+3/n)-1/2
= 1.9
(28.22)
Ecr
is
the
peak
strain
stress and Ecr the creep strain rate (Fig. 28.6). The
second forms for Zpl and C* are valid for n = 1/N = 5. The expressions above
are taken from the solutions of He and Hutchinson (1981) for the penny-shaped
crack, but modified by a factor 1.25 in order to account for the
fact
that
surface crack is considered (Heitmann, Vehoff and Neumann, 1984). Such a factor
occurs between a crack in an infinite body and a surface crack in
elasticity.
Of
course,
this
can
only
be
plane-strain
28.5
383
Combined Effects
form
da/dN
(28.24)
with
where the nonelastic strain range is ~Ene = ~EPI + ~Ecr = ~Etot - ~Eel In
contrast to the preceding subsection, the transient term multiplying Zel must
now be retained, since strains are now measured far away
from
the
microcrack
and cannot be expected to reflect the transient behavior of the stress field at
the crack tip. Using the material law, the transient term in eq. (28.23) can be
written in a more convenient form by substituting one of the forms
500
~E
(28.25)
cr
where acy is the cyclic yield stress at 0.2% plastic strain. To calculate the
fatigue lifetime, the growth law, eq. (28.23), is integrated by separation of
the variables, crack length, a,
and
number
of
cycles,
N.
The
integration
extends
assumed
to
observations en several steels (Heitmann, Vehoff and Neumann, 1984; Ebi, Riedel
and
Neumann,
1986).
8 0 DCF
(28.26)
acy
)2
~E
~a
n 1/n
~ [1 + (n+1) ~ (-;;-) J
E
~~PI
+ 1.9 M ~Ene
(28.27)
was introduced, which will be called the damage parameter for creep-fatigue. It
is determined solely by quantities which can be taken from the hysteresis loop,
and it is a measure of the damaging effect of a given loop, provided that failure
occurs
28.
384
28.6 Discussion
The following list reviews the assumptions underlying the above results:
(1) The material was treated as an elastic-viscoplastic continuum. This may
a
limitation
be
boundaries
or
other
microstructural
and
mechanism.
Alternating
linear
the
Ermi
and
aI,
1978;
Tomkins,
the
crack-tip
opening
zq or da/dN
(Z I
e
Z )q.
ne
(28.28)
the
quanti-
growth.
In
fatigue
rate-inde-
pendent material, Heitmann, Vehoff and Neumann (1984) find that the closure
effect can approximately be incorporated if 6K I , which enters into Zel'
modified according to
is
(28.30)
28.6
Discussion
385
creep
will
lead
to
Kubo
(1981 a, b)
has
demonstrated,
measured
is
the
eq.
time
and
material
para-
28.7 Summary
The deformation fields in cracked, elastic-viscoplastic bodies have been analyzed and the ranges in which different load parameters dominate have been identified. For rapid strain-reversed cycling, i.e. for
v~
> 1/t1
(n+1)C*/Z,
the
Z-integral
is
its
small-scale
yielding value, Z
high
loading
frequency
zone,
Z degenerates
range, ~KI' can be used. For very slow, continuous cycling, v~ 1/t 1 , the
C*-integral is the appropriate load parameter. In the transition range between
slow and fast cyclic loading, or if an otherwise slow
loading
cycle
contains
rapid load variations, the crack-tip fields are not characterizable by a single
parameter, but both Z (or ~KI) and C* are needed. In Section 28.5, mixed parameters were derived, which interpolate between the limiting cases. In fracture
mechanics speCimens, for example, the parameter Zel
(28.18) and (28.19) should be applicable.
Zne as
defined
in
eqs.
28.
386
Assuming that crack growth occurs by alternating slip leads to linear dependencies
of
the
crack
dependence is
only
growth
rarely
suggesting
that
the
alternating
slip
rate
hold-time,
dependences
of
the
times,
alternating
as
[1+(n+1)Bt IB ]1/n
according to
to'
limit, crack extension by coalescence with
should
be
reiterated
eq.
increases
occur
and Saxena
corrosive
at
with
hold
cavities
usually
~KI
dominates.
It
small
time
crack
therefore
and
Bassani
effects
may
(1984)
control
mentioned
crack
in
Section
28.1.3
are
correct,
growth
(i.e.
effect
of
given
loading
cycle
with
given
characterize
stress
and strain
{og(1l"Vt )
Fig. 28.7. Fatigue crack growth rates vs. inverse loading frequency
the
Appendices
taken
from the sources indicated. The shear modulus, G, varies approximately linearly
with the temperature, so that the two values given for G can be used to
polate
E
to
other
temperatures.
Young's
modulus,
E,
can
be
calculated as
efficient
of
Norton's
extraThe
co-
Table A.l using eq. (1.2). Diffusion coefficients are represented in the
usual
amount
to
some
30%,
was
examined in Section 8.2.3. The grain boundary diffusion coefficient, oOb' and
the surface diffusion coefficient, oDs, are also sensitive to the segregation
of
trace
impurities.
This
is
taken
Material
a-iron
[1,2,3]
Y-iron
[1,2]
nickel
[1,'2]
copper
[1,2]
o in 10- 29 m3
b in 10- 10 m
G(300K) in GPa
G( 800K) in GPa
A* def. eq.(1.2)
n (stress exp.)
ovo in m2 /s
Q in kJ/mole
o~bO in m3/s
from [3]:
Qb in kJ/mole
from [3]:
00
in m3 /s
so
Qs in kJ/mole
Yb in J/m 2 [4]
Ys in J/m 2
1.18
2.48
64
48
7.10 13
1.21
2.58
1.09
2.49
79
63
3.0.10 6
4.6
1.9.10- 4
284
3.5.10- 15
1.18
2.56
42
33
7.4.10 5
4.8
2.0.10-5
6.9
2.10- 4
251
1.1.10-12
10- 15
174
105
2.5.10- 9
232
0.85
2.1
4.3.10 5
4.5
1.8.10- 5
270
7.5.10- 14
159
1.1.10-10
220
2.0
115
4.4.10- 12
199
0.7
2.0
197
5.0.10- 15
104
6.10- 10
205
0.65
1.7
Sources: [1] Frost and Ashby (1982), [2] Swinkels and Ashby
(1981), [3] Stratmann et al (1983), [4] Chuang et al (1979).
Table A.l. Material parameters relatett to creep fracture.
from
two
390
(see
Section
6Db than pure nickel due to the addition of boron and zirconium. A value
Nimonic 80A as reported by Dyson (1979) was quoted in Section 12.4.1.
for
Some of the material parameters of the pure metals can be applied approximately
to
the commercial materials derived from the metals. Among the only moderately
n,
the
elasticity
moduli, the interface energies and, to a certain extent, the diffusion coefficients, with the proviso that impurity segregation affects oD b markedly.
On the other hand, the creep resistance of commercial materials is usually much
greater
than
that
shown
in
Table
A.2.
Extrapolations
to
neighboring temperatures are possible based on eq. (1.2) and using the activation energies of the diffusion coeffiCient, Qv' and (less important) the temperature dependence of the shear modulus listed in Table A.l. The creep resistance
of ferritic steels depends sensitively on prior heat
material
treatments.
As-processed
has a substantially greater creep resistance than has the same mater-
530C
for
more
than
B in MPa- n s- 1
a-iron
at 540C [1,2]
lCr-Mo-V steel at 540C [1,2]
lCr-1/2Mo steel (used) at 535C [5]
21/~Cr-1Mo steel (new) at 540C [6,7]
21/~Cr-1Mo steel (used) at 540C [6,7]
1/2Cr-l/2M6-1/~V (new) at 540 0 C [6,7]
1/2Cr-l/2Mo-l/~V (used) at 540C [7]
Y-iron
at 650C [1,2]
304 stainless steel at 650C [1,2]
316 stainless steel at 650C [1,2]
347 stainless steel at 650C [8]
Nimonic 80A at 650C [5]
at 750C [9,10]
n
6.9
6.0
8.6
6.0
10.8
9.5
14
4.5
7.0
7.9
8.1
13
4.2
Sources: [1,2] see Table A.l, [5] Riedel and Wagner (1985), [6] Bendick and
Weber (1984, private communication), [7] own measurements, [8] Needham
and Gladman (1980), [9] Dyson and Rodgers (1977), [10] Dyson (1979).
Table A.2. Parameters of Norton's law,
E = Bon,
elasticity
described
~,
by
suggests
to
conveniently
are
in
Fig.
B.l.
Their
in
polar
is
to
be
into eq. (B.l) leads to the ordinary differential equation for fee):
f""
2 (s2 - 2s
2) f"
s2(2 - s)2 f
0,
(B.2)
The sym-
392
Insertion
of
adjoining
the
k = 2-s
cosines
give
(or
II
is
described
solutions
sines)
of
eq.
(B.2).
The
by
the
1 04>
r or
-- +
(B.3)
o
ra
=-
for
the
factorized
form
of
4>.
~ r- s
sharp
notch
under
a 2 cos[(2-s)9J.
(B.4)
and
are
conditions
Non-zero solutions
lead
exist
0,
where the plus and minus signs apply for Mode.! and Mode II, respectively.
(B.5)
393
0.5
0.500
0.488
0.456
0.384
0.181
Table B.1 shows the smallest positive eigenvalue obtained numerically from
(B.5)
eq.
for
Mode I for various included notch angles, 2a. This eigenvalue gives
the stress singularity, r- s , at the notch tip. The boundary conditions on the
notch flanks demand that the constants of integration obey the relation
a 1 /a 2
= -
cos[(2-s)(w-a)]/cos[s(w-a)]
(B.6)
asymp-
totic analysis.
B.1.2
Crack-tip fields
in
the
the same eigenvalues, 1/2, 0, -1/2, -1, -3/2 etc. The first of these gives
the
intensity
factor,
~
=
(1/3)cos(38/2)]
} for Mode I
(B.7)
} for Mode II
(B.8)
COS 3 (8/2)
~ = - KII (2w)-1/2
or
(7.1). Their angular parts, f ij = a ij 12wr/K I , are listed in Table B.2. The
Cartesian components are derived from the polar components by the usual tensor
transformation
relations.
The
component
=
v(a 11
394
lj co~
36
36
cOT
= lj" co~ + lj
. 6
lj Sl~ + lj
0 11
sin'26
lj co~
- lj
3 sl.n36
2
+ lj
3 sin! _ 3 sin36
lj
i 36
s n'2
~ co~
sin~ (2
*cos~6
lj
t::
co~ co~)
cos~ (1
sin~ sin~6)
6
6
36
sin'2 cos'2 cos2
6
cos'2
36
cOT
Si~
cos~ [(1_2\1)2
co~ [1
3 (sin~)2J1/2
3 (sin~)2J1/2
. 6
sm2
\I
[(1-2\1)2(sin~)2
[3 - 8 (sin~)2
3 -
+
+
sin 2 6J 1/2
9 (sin~)4J1/2
. 6 - [1 - lj
3 sln
. 26 J 1 12
- sln'2
expressions
stresses
are
listed
also.
ments are given by Rice (1968b), by Tada, Paris and Irwin (1973) and
by
Broek
(1982).
In Mode III, the stress components are derivable from the Mode-III stress function ~, which near the crack tip has the form
stress components are
KIll
I2"1iT
and 013
sin~
2
a~
ar
~ =
__
KIll (2r/w)
KIll
6
- - cos..
12wr
2
1/2
cos(6/2). The
(B.9)
395
B.1.
The
shown
wa~
in
(B.2) and having the symmetry of the triple junction must have the form
f( 9)
a 1 cos(sa)
a 2 cos[(2-s)aJ.
= b 1 cos[s(1[-a)J
b 2 cos[(2-s)(1[-a)]
Ia I
(B.10)
> 1[-CX.
Mode II will not be considered here. The eigenvalue s and the constants of integration
are determined (again apart from a constant) from the conditions that
0 on either
side
e = 1[-CX) , that 0aa must be continuous at a = 1[-CX, and that the displacement
displacement
where 90
related
to
0 in the domain
1/2).
There results
3 (2-s)
4 (1-s) E
Inserting stresses from eq. (B.3) and recalling that f' is
across
(B.12)
already
continuous
the sliding boundary leads to the requirement that ff(a)da must be con-
this
equation
the
relat-
Shih
(1981) using the finite element method. Some of their results are reported now.
The numerical data were fitted by functions of the general form
(C.2)
F(x)
Here, x
represents
any
of
and
and g2 is fitted, it is convenient to choose fixed values for part of the parameters and to let the rest be determined by a least-square-fit computer program. In this way, the parameters shown in the tables were obtained. The values
that
were
prescribed,
rather
Kumar
values
et al tb within better than 3%. The results for the compact specimen
rate
at
6e ,
A,
and
the
dis-
[4a2 + 4a + 2J 1/2 - 2a - 1
n
where a
inFig.C.1.
(C.4)
shown
397
0'00
tL112
1L
1
l.d/2
FIg. C.l. Test specimen configurations.
=
N
0.50
o/W
0.75
0.25
1.00
-7
0.50
o/W
-7
0.75
0.50
o/W
--'>
1.00
0.25
0.50
o/W
0.75
-7
1.00
0.75
1.00
398
10
16
13
20
for h,:
2.374 3.512 1.374 0.120 0.090 0.118 1.564 1.317 0.831
ao
al
0.039 -7.581 -2.867 -0.442 -0.260 -0.431 -10.25 -8.842 -5.634
-2.674 9.116 4.849 1.040 0.115 0.159 24.40 21.36 13.75
a2
a3
1.837 -3.597 -2.007 0.461 1.134 1.103 -23.79 -21.56 -14.43
8.926 8.457 6.115
0*
0*
0*
0*
0*
0*
a4
a 5 , a6
0*
0*
0*
0*
0*
0*
0*
0*
0*
p
-0.027 0.469 2.090 2.373 2,541 1.363 1.629 2.142
0*
for h 2 :
a
20.14 12.00 11.95 2.293 0.314 2.491 2.118 1.686 0.576
0
-41.43 -25.65 -36.27 -7.804 -0.684 -15.38 -13.94 -11.42 -4.374
al
a2
39.69 24.16 45.51 11.65 -0.348 35.41 33.66 28.24 12.59
-13.02 -6.777 -18.10 -3.710 2.833 -34.11 -34.86 -30.42 -16.65
a3
a4
0*
0*
0*
0*
0*
13.39 14.60 13.29 8.999
0*
0*
0*
0*
0*
0*
0*
0*
0*
a 5 , a6
p
0.285 0.419 0.552 1.707 2.995 2.412 2.767 3.095 4.179
for h3:
-0.467 8.026 8.103 1.554 0.283 0.237 0.225 1.323 0.467
ao
al
4.098 -16.'03 -24.34 -5.352 -0.601 -0.641 -0.633 -9.017 -3.563
-2.082 14.73 30.93 8.008 -0.434 -0.449 -0.522 22.46 10.30
a2
a3
2.758 -3.733 -12.22 -2.260 2.526 2.261 2.132 -24.43 -13.65
10.74 7.357
0*
0*
0*
0*
0*
0*
0*
a4
a 5 , a6
0*
0*
0*
0*
0*
0*
0*
0*
0*
p
2.194 0.401 0.560 1.756 2.868 3.282 3.487 3.064 4.135
for g2:
1.082 1.886 -0.338 -0.282 -0.227
a0
-0.860 -4.244 1.135 1.006 1.132
al
1.192 7.262 -1.027 -1.263 -1.731
a2
0*
0*
-0.611 -3.839
a3
0*
a4
0*
0*
0*
0*
0*
-0.299 -0.287 -0.220
0*
0*
a5
a6
0*
0*
-0.891 -1. 117 -1.368
1*
1*
0*
0*
1*
P
Table
C.,.
-0.182
0.675
-1.480
0*
0*
-0.283
-1.396
1*
-0:158
0.691
-1.589
0*
0*
-0.264
-1.443
1*
-0.188
1.058
-1.867
0*
0*
-0.211
-1.448
1*
-0.124
0.471
-1.413
0*
0*
-0.279
-1.427
1*
6e = h2
A = h3
a B [onet/(1.455 n)]n
a B [onet/(1.455 n)]n
g2 1:. 0net
399
10
13
for h 1 :
3.235 2.252 2.009 0.498 0.554 0.041 0.103
ao
a1
-1.863 -3.069 -0.732 -1.075 -1.571 .0008 -0.250
-0.177 3.088 0.775 1.999 2.967 -0.095 -0.136
a2
a3
0.885 -0.698 0.302 -1.013 -1.247 0.941 2.477
0*
0*
0*
0*
0*
0*
0*
a
a4' 5
a6
0.836 0.558 1.949 -0.399 0.082 0.444 3.465
2*
2*
-0.25*
0*
0*
0.75* 0.75*
P
16
20
0.113
0.367
0.021
1.909
0*
2.616
2*
0.074
0.248
0.076
1.041
0*
1.283
2*
for h2 :
a
3.813 1.179
0
1.347 0.650
a1
a2
-2.705 -2.565
3.384 4.528
a3
0*
0*
a 4 a6
0.104 0.073
a5
1.5*
2.5*
P
for h3:
3.469 1.641
ao
a1
1.087 -1.338
-2.079 -0.200
a2
a3
2.821 3.109
0*
0*
a
6
a 4
a5
0.252 0.137
p
1.5*
2.5*
for g2:
a
0.031 -.0077 0.093 0.087 0.197 1.274 1.488 1.247 1.558
0
0.776 0.367 -0.312 0.343 -0.878 3.209 3.467 3.205 3.738
a1
a2
0.155 -1.461 0.345 2.521 2.152 -5.276 -6.404 -5.146 -7.231
-0.162 2.186 1.155 -1.630
0*
2.247 2.936 2.142 3.457
a3
0*
0*
0*
0*
0*
a
0*
0*
0*
0*
6
a 4
0*
0.074
0*
0.018 0.034
0*
0*
0*
0*
a5
4.108 3.423
-0.242 -0.309 -0.183 -0.310
1*
1*
3*
P
Table C.2. Parameters from eq. (C.2) for CT-specimen in plane stress.
n+1
~e
i;
h3 a B [Onet/(1.071 n)]n
400
10
13
16
20
for h 1 :
0.344 3.826 2.095 1.520 0.837 0.655 0.190 0.058 0.044
ao
a1
-1.151 -6.064 -3.982 -2.713 -0.749 -1.142 -0.481 -0.096 -0.142
5.676 3.041 2.172 -0.521 -3.212 -1.300 0.025 -0.194 0.093
a2
a3
-3.322 1.624 1.567 3.260 4.451 2.619 0.520 0.353 0.047
0*
0*
0*
0*
0*
0*
0*
0*
0*
a4' a6
a5
-0.084
-.0042
-.0033
0.406
0.147
-0.173
0.052
-0.023 -0.073
2.5*
2.5*
p
1*
1*
0.76*
2*
2.5*
1.5*
1.5*
for h 2 :
a
0.307 2.301 3.642 -0.407 1.091 0.534 0.109 0.089 0.057
0
-0.561 -4.439 -7.349 8.298 -2.109 -0.747 -0.687 -0.194 -0.183
a1
a2
2.089 3.511 4.392 -22.44 -1.039 -1.803 -0.742 -0.150 0.114
2.634 -0.154 2.735 17.32 3.462 2.914 1.030 0.417 0.069
a3
a 4 , a6
0*
0*
0*
0*
0*
0*
0*
0*
0*
0.049 -0.631 0.245 -0.092 -0.280 -0.321 -.0093 -0.012 -0.014
a5
2*
2*
1*
0.5*
0.5*
2*
2.75* 0.455* 1*
P
for h3:
0.521 0.734 0.696 0.339 0.449 0.389 0.054 0.023 0.014
ao
a1
1.766 -0.285 1.117 -0.226 -0.897 -1.002 -0.106 -0.040 -0.038
-4.594 -2.686 -0.949 -1.854 -0.678 0.077 -0.130 -0.082 .0038
a2
a3
4.492 3.821 2.636 2.678 1.821 0.984 0.297 0.152 0.040
0*
0*
0*
0*
0*
0*
0*
0*
0*
a 4 , a6
a5
-0.114
-.0026
-.0029
-.0039
0.010 0.010 .0061 -.0038 -0.030
2*
2*
2*
2*
1.5*
1*
2.5*
2.75* 2.75*
P
Table C.3. Parameters from eq. (C.2) for SENT-specimen in plane strain.
C* = hl (W-a) (a/W) B [Onet/(1.455 n)]
6e
= h2
~c =
n+l
point
a B
displacement
rate
due
to
the
crack,
i.
applied stress.
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Index
cosegregation 122.123
crack opening displacement 270.
286-288.293.295.365-366.370.
372.377.379.384
crack closure 366.368.372.377.384-385
creep crack growth tests 281-283.
297-298.324-326.331.342-345.363
creep curve 3.4.25,194-196,339
creep embrittlement 117-119
creep-fatigue 247-260.364-386
creep zone 99.306-308.329-330,
334-335,357-358,375
cyclic loading 247-260.364-386
damage (different kinds of) 14
damage mechanics 349-363
damage parameter 24-26,349-350.353.359
decohesion (see cohesive strength)
deformation map 11-13
density 52,240-241
diffusion 5-7,40-48,123,130,389-390
diffusion creep 6-8,96-98,110-112,
346-348
dimensional analysis
(see similarity solutions)
dimpled fracture 18
dislocation 4,5,12-14,16,198
elastic-viscous analogy 33,94,107,
269,328,346
electron microscopy 52
equilibrium 27.121,142,143,204,205,
292,303
fatigue 247-260,364-386
finite elements 10-11,39,94-96,106,194,
210,212,216,269,292,294,296-300,
303,305,307-310,316,318,351,
354-355.362-363,376.396
Fokker-Planck equation 77-82
fracture mechanics 263-386
fracture-mechanism map 15-22
free energy 72-75
free enthalpy 121,133.134
gas bubbles 131-139,159,169,243
gas constant 5
Gibbs adsorption equation 124-126
grain boundary energy 68,69,71,124-126
grain boundary migration 21,55,58,242
grain boundary sliding 8-11,13,56,
85-115,212-214,254-255
Index
418
292-293,302,306,312,316-319,329,
334-336,340,352-355,372,374-376
Hull and Rimmer model 148
hydrogen attack 117,136-138,160
hyperbolic-sine creep law 312
ideal strength 67-69
impurities 17,63,69,116-130,158
incubation time 80-82
intermetallic compounds 17,55,117
internal stress 5,140-147,338-339
J-integral 34,35,38,327-331
Kachanov equations 24-26,349-350
Langmuir-McLean isotherm 122
Larson-Miller parameter 24
ledge 57,114
load parameter map 336-337,341-342,
347,356
magnesium alloys 54,59,60,249
Monkman-Grant product 21,23,26,91,
154,193,195-197,200,201,
210-212,230,244,273,353
multiaxial loading 28,86,173-174,
186,191,203,205-209,216,349
necking 18-21,196,197
neutron scattering 52
nickel alloys 7,14-15,54,55,57,60,
63 -6 6 , 70 ,84 , 117 -1 18 , 131 -1 36 , 157 ,
159,172,182-184,239-240,243,
255-256,266,287-288,324-326,
368,369,389
Norton's creep law 5,28-31,105,186,
205,268,270, 28 1,389-390
notch 311,392-393
notch strengthening/weakening 361
nucleation of cavities 57-60,62-147,
194-196,225-241,277-278,280-281
nucleation stress 65-66,78-80,83,
129,130,277,28i,284
oxide particle or layer 15,55,56,59,
60,69,118,133,136,243,266,367-369
oxygen attack 131-136
particle coarsening 14,124,281,325
penny-shaped crack 87,90,173,186,190
plane strain 32,93,95,97,293,307,308
354-355,361,396-400
plane stress 31,307,308,396-399
plastiC zone 328
power-law breakdown 312
primary creep 4,332-345,359
process zone 351,354-355
recovery 4,338-339
recrystallization 21
replication technique 53
rupture lifetime 154-156,167-169,
181-185,193-196,200,209-211,
214,224,228-240,244-246
by creep crack growth 344,359-363
scaling law 33,34,269
secondary creep 4,26,267-271,359
segregation 116-130,158
self-consistent method 11,188-189,212
side grooves 282,296-300
silver 7,55,169-170,224
similarity solutions 38,46,80-81,
99 -100,113,164,201 ,215,226,
302-304,315,316,318,329,335,
340,352,357,358,375,376
slip band 16,57,84,86,243,250
small-scale creep 302-306,315,321,356
small-scale damage 351-356,359,
362-363
s tee 1 s 7, 1 4-1 8 ,21 ,22, 5 3-5 6 , 59 , 60 , 6 3-6 5 ,
118-120,123,126,136-138,158,160,
172,175-179,234-238,241 ,257-258,
266,281-284,324-325,331,342-345,
350,368-369,389
strain hardening 4,327,332
stress concentrations
at cracks 36-38,263-385
at ledges 114
at particles 102-114
at slip bands 86-91
at triple grain junctions 92-101
stress-enhancement factor 10,11,
96,192
102,105,222,301-326,346-348,
356-358,364,372-377,393-394
stress relief cracking 59,62,119-121
Stroh-McLean transition 61
sulfur and sulfide 59,63,69,118-121
superplasticity 18-21
surface diffusion 45,160-171
surface tension 71,151,153,156-157
temper embrittlement 116-117
tertiary creep 4,26,194-196,339
thermal expansion 146,147
threshold stress 7,8,112
threshold stress intensity 364
titanium 55
trace elements (see impurities)
triple junction 59,61,92-102
tungsten 55
vacancy 6,40,69,70,74,75,129,139,
148-149,198