KUEU 3245 MECHANICS OF MACHINES

MECHANISMS IN BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING

- FOUR BAR MECHANISMS IN KNEE PROSTHETICS -

NAME

: SUBASHINY PRABAKARAN

MATRIC NO : KEU120047
LECTURER : PROF IR DR WAN ABU BAKAR

BIN WAN ABAS

SUBMISSION DATE : 5/6/2015

source of power to the resistance to be

ABSTRACT
There are plenty of different types of
mechanical

mechanisms.

Mechanisms

convey the concept of how a device or

machine operates in different aspects. They
also can reduce the load on some concepts

overcome. A machine has two functions:

transmitting definite relative motion and
transmitting force.

These functions

require strength and rigidity to transmit

the forces.

and make them easier to work with it, if

The term mechanism is applied to the

designed using the right mechanism. Some

combination

of them are greatly in use in the field of

which constitute a machine or part of a

biomedical engineering. One major example

machine. A mechanism may therefore be

is four bar linkage mechanism in the knee

defined as a combination of rigid or

prostheses which will be discussed in this

resistant bodies, formed and connected

report.

so that they move with definite relative

of

geometrical

bodies

motions with respect to one another [2].

1

INTRODUCTION

The

word

1.1 Types of Mechanisms

mechanism

has

many

meanings. In kinematics, a mechanism is

a means of transmitting, controlling, or
constraining

relative

Movements

which

movement
are

[1]

electrically,

magnetically, pneumatically operated are

excluded

from

the

concept

of

mechanism. The central theme for

mechanisms is rigid bodies connected
together by joints.

Mechanisms can be divided into planar

mechanisms and spatial mechanisms,
according to the relative motion of the
rigid bodies. In a planar mechanism, all
of the relative motions of the rigid
bodies are in one plane or in parallel
planes. If there is any relative motion
that is not in the same plane or in
parallel planes, the mechanism is called
the spatial mechanism. In other words,

A machine is a combination of rigid or

planar mechanisms are essentially two

resistant bodies, formed and connected

dimensional and all the points of its

do that they move with definite relative

mechanism move in parallel planes.

motions and transmit force from the

On

the

other

hand,

in,

spatial

mechanisms, different particles may

move in paths which dont all always
remain in a plane and are three
dimensional [2].

mechanism, four bar mechanism, and

ratchet mechanism [3].
In the field of biomedical engineering,
the application of these mechanisms is
wide. Most of the medical equipment

A body has spherical motion if all of its

operate mechanically on the basis of

particles move on the surface of

these mechanisms. In this article, three

concentric spheres. In this case, planar

of

motion is the limiting case of spherical

employed in various medical equipment

motion when the radius of the spheres

are discussed, with respective examples.

goes to infinity. For instance, a four-bar

linkage is a planar mechanism, even
though

it

is

constructed

in

three

dimensions.

these

mechanisms

which

are

1.2 Slider crank mechanism

Slider crank mechanism is mainly used
to

convert

rotary

motion

to

reciprocating motion or vice versa. This

Spatial linkages can be synthesized for

mechanism

is

composed

of

three

problems such as function generation,

important parts which are the crank

path generation and motion generation.

which is the rotating disc, the slider

Even though applications for general

which slides inside the tube and the

spatial mechanisms are less common

connecting rod which joins the parts

than for planar linkages, there are many

together. As the slider moves to the right

useful spatial devices, such as folding

the connecting rod pushes the wheel

baby strollers and cribs. One of the most

round for the first 180 degrees of wheel

common spatial mechanisms is the

rotation. When the slider begins to move

constant velocity coupling.

back into the tube, the connecting rod

pulls the wheel round to complete the

Mechanisms

come

in

various

assortments. A simple machine can also

be considered as a single mechanism.
Types of mechanisms include timing
belt drive cam mechanism, slider crank

rotation.

Figure 1: Slider crank mechanism

1.3 Cam mechanism

A cam may be defined as a machine
element having a curved outline or a
curved groove, which, by its oscillation

Figure 2: Cam mechanism

1.4 Four bar mechanism

rotation

motion,

gives

The four-bar mechanism, in its simplest

predetermined

specified

motion

to

form, has four bar-shaped links and four

another element called the follower. A

turning pairs. In a four-bar mechanism,

cam mechanism usually consists of two

one of the rotating members usually is

moving elements, the cam and the

the driver and is called the crank or

follower, mounted on a fixed frame. The

driver (the red bar). The other usually is

transformation of one of the simple

called the rocker or follower (the green

motions, such as rotation, into any other

bar). The floating link (the blue bar ) that

motions

conveniently

connects the crank and the rocker is

accomplished by means of a cam

called the connecting rod, and the fixed

mechanism. Cam devices are versatile,

link ( the black bar ) is called the frame.

or

is

and almost

often

any arbitrarily-specified

motion can be obtained. In some

instances, they offer the simplest and
most compact way to transform motions.
The cam has a very important function
in the operation of many classes of
machines,

especially

automatic type.

those

of

Figure 3: Four-bar mechanism

the
Many mechanisms can be broken down
into equivalent four-bar linkages. These
mechanisms have many applications in

mechanical

operations.

Four-bar

amplify a force "in line", which a bell

linkages are considered one of the

cranks, can do in a limited space. There

fundamental mechanisms.

is a tradeoff between range of motion,

linearity of motion, and size. The greater

1.5 Bell Crank

A bell crank is a type of crank that
changes motion through an angle. The

the angle traversed by the crank, the

more non-linear the motion becomes

angle can be any angle from 0o to 360o,

(the more the motion ratio changes).

although 90o and 180o are common. The

Bell cranks are often used in aircraft

name comes from its first use, changing

control systems to connect the pilot's

the vertical pull on a rope to a horizontal

controls to the control surfaces. For

pull on the striker of a bell used for

example: on light air craft, the rudder

calling

often has a bell crank whose pivot point

staff

in

large

houses

or

commercial establishments.

in the rudder hinge. A cable connects the

A typical 90o bell crank consists of an

pilot's rudder pedal to one side of the

"L" shaped crank pivoted where the two

arms of the L meet. Moving rods (or
cables or ropes) are attached to the ends
of the L arms. When one is pulled, the L
rotates around the pivot point, pulling on
the other arm.
A typical 180 degree bell crank consists
of a straight bar pivoted in the center.
When one arm is pulled or pushed, the
bar rotates around the pivot point,
pulling or pushing on the other arm.
Changing the length of the arms changes
the mechanical advantage of the system.
Many applications do not change the
direction of motion, but instead to

bell crank. When the pilot pushes on the

rudder pedal, the rudder rotates on it's
hinge. The opposite rudder pedal is
connected to the other end of the bell
crank to rotate the rudder in the opposite
direction.
Bell cranks are also seen in automotive
applications, as part of the linkage
connecting the throttle pedal to the
carburetor, and connecting the brake
pedal to the master brake cylinder.

1.7 Spur gears

Spur gears are the most common type of
gears. They have straight teeth, and are
mounted on parallel shafts. Sometimes,
many spur gears are used at once to create
very large gear reductions.

Figure 4: Bell Crank Mechanism

1.6 Bevel gear

Bevel gears are gears where the axes of the
two shafts intersect and the tooth-bearing
faces of the gears themselves are conically
shaped.
Bevel gears are most often mounted on
shafts that are 90 degrees apart, but can be

Figure 6: Spur gear mechanism

designed to work at other angles as well.

The pitch surface of bevel gears is a cone.
The bevel gear is used to change the axis of
rotational motion. By using gears of
differing numbers of teeth the speed of
rotation can also be changed.

2. APPLICATION IN BIOMEDICAL
ENGINEERING
As seen before, there are so many different
types of mechanisms present mechanically.
Of them all, the four-bar linkage mechanism
is one of the widely used in the field of
biomedical engineering.
One example of the employment of the fourbar linkage mechanism in the functionality
of medical equipment is four-bar linkage
knee prosthetics. Four-bar linkage knees

Figure 5: Bevel gear mechanism

provide greater toe clearance during the

swing phase of walking than do single-axis
knees. It has been increasingly applied to
persons with above-knee (AK) and throughknee (TK) amputation.
The knee joint is not simple; it is a complex
compound joint that deserves a deep
appreciation from musculoskeletal clinicians.
The knee is the largest synovial articulation
and has the largest synovial reservoir in the
8

human body. It is not a hinged joint, but is

Figure 7: Anatomy of knee joint

considered a complex compound joint due to

The function of the anterior cruciate and

the irregular joint surfaces, the menisci, the

posterior cruciate ligaments (ACL and PCL)

presence

ligaments

is to limit anterior and posterior shear of the

(anterior cruciate and posterior cruciate),

knee, as well as prevent rotation of the tibia

and the compounded articulations of the

in relation to the femur.

of

intra-articular

tibia with the femur and the patella with the

femoral condyles.

However, in reality, the function of these

ligaments
contribution

is

more
to

than

knee

merely their

stability.

These

ligaments are vital in transferring power

More than a dozen muscles cross the knee
joint. Additionally, several other joints and
muscles contribute to the motion, function
and stability of the knee.

from the muscles of the hip and pelvis

(particularly the gluteus maximus and
medius) to the leg. This transfer of power is
done through the four-bar mechanism
created by the degree of tension of these
ligaments, and the stiffness of the tibia and
femur.
The four-bar mechanism of the knee is a
relatively simple apparatus that transfers

power while maximizing leverage and

of activity between these structures during

minimizing energy loss. It is part of a

knee motion.

broader

biotensegrity

system,

which

combines contractile and non-contractile

tissues to efficiently transfer power and
motion through the musculoskeletal system
with minimal energy expenditure.

While

each

of

these

components

is

important, the gluteal muscles have a

prominent role in both power transfer and
protection of the knee. This knee-gluteal
muscle

relationship

is

particularly

The four links transfer power and motion

interesting since the gluteal muscles do not

from relatively distant sources of power

directly attach to or even reside near the

through a driver. In the knee, the femur,

knee.

which is the longest lever in the body, acts

as the driver as it transfers power from the
gluteal muscles through its stiffness and
strength to create tension on the ALL and
PLL. This tension moves the femur relative
to the plane(s) of the tibial plateau.

Closed-chain

motions

of

the

lower

extremities are motions such as lunges or

squatting motions during which the feet are
in contact with the ground or another
immobile surface. Open-chain motions of
the lower extremity are motions or exercises

(It should be noted that the four-bar

that allow the foot to move freely, such as

mechanism of the knee does not exactly

leg extensions or leg curls.

mirror man-made mechanical models of

four-bar machines. The anterior cruciate and
posterior cruciate ligaments (ACL and PCL)
are relatively stiff only while under load,
and even when under load, they maintain
some elasticity.)
Certainly the ACL and PCL do not work
autonomously in transferring power. The
lower extremity is a complex aggregate of
structures that includes ligaments, muscles,
joint capsules and fascia. There is a concert

The four-bar mechanism of the knee is

particularly valuable at transferring power
and motion from the muscle of the hip and
pelvis while in closed-chain, yet may be less
effective in open-chain.
Four-bar linkage knees allow for a closer
leg-length equality in unilateral transfemoral
amputees. The length of the prosthesis often
is fabricated to be slightly shorter than the
length of the sound leg to aid clearance
during

swing.

However,

lower-limb

prostheses that are too short have been

Bilateral amputees also benefit from the

suspected of causing low back pain. Because

swing-phase shortening of four-bar linkage

of the greater floor clearance afforded by

knees. The transfemoral/trans tibial amputee

four-bar knees over single-axis knees, the

normally experiences difficulty with floor

prosthetic length can be made closer to the

clearance during swing phase due to his or

full length.

her inability to vault and control timing. The

A sitting advantage of a four bar knee is the

effective shortening of the shin as it passes
into flexion. This feature was noted above as
a swing phase. benefit of a four bar
prosthesis which simulated the motion of the
actual human knee joint. This advantage
also gives the unilateral above knee amputee
the visual appearance of legs with matching
knee heights when sitting.

bilateral transfemoral amputee frequently

resorts to circumduction to clear the floor
during swing. Four-bar knees offer obvious
benefits for both of these types of problems.
Also, with the advent of unique foot/ankle
mechanisms that shorten during the stance
phase, floor clearance becomes an even
more

critical

issue.

Selection

of

the

appropriate knee for this combination of

components should include consideration of

For tall amputees, an excessively long shin

the shortening characteristics of a multiaxis

can cause clearance problems when sitting at

knee.

desks or tables. In addition, when sitting on

low chairs the tall amputee is forced into an
uncomfortable position of excessive hip
flexion. The four bar knee reduce both of
these problems by the shortening action of
the shin when sitting. The "L" value was
defined above at 65 knee flexion to provide
a

comparative

method

of

analyzing

shortening of a prosthesis. If the same

After deciding to fit a transfemoral amputee

with a four-bar linkage knee, the selection of
a particular four-bar knee should be made
primarily on the basis of factors other than
floor clearance. These other factors include
stance-phase stability, swing-phase control,
cosmetics,

weight

of

the

knee

unit,

durability and cost.

calculation is made at 90 of knee flexion,

The amputee consumes energy during

the value obatined would be the effective

ambulation through muscular activity. This

shortening of the prosthetic shin when

muscular

sitting.

necessary for ambulation. It is the goal of

activity

develops

the

forces

the prosthetist to eliminate unproductive

reduces the need for mechanical friction.

forces and minimize the productive forces

Since mechanical friction is an energy

required of the patient. This results in a

consuming phenomenon, this furnished an

proportional decrease in the energy loss of

additional means of energy conservation for

the patient during ambulation.

certain

It was shown above that a and B stability

reduce the force required from the patient to
maintain extension during the early part of
stance phase. This force reduction results in
a directly proportional energy savings and
therefore, a and B give a relative means of
evaluating this energy loss.
It was noted that the four bar knee prosthesis

four

bar

knees.

Finally,

the

acceleration and deceleration of a four bar

knee are relative to knee position. In effect,
these properties are perfectly timed controls
occuring only at the position at which they
are required. The precision and efficiency
thus provided can also serve as a source of
energy savings.
3. CONCLUSION

can shorten as it passes from extension to

Four bar knee mechanisms can provide the

flexion. This feature eliminates energy

biomedical engineering with a selection of

losses due to gait defects such as "hip

knee characteristics which were previously

hiking," "vaulting," "circumducting," etc.

unavailable with a single axis knees. Using

This feature also eliminates the need for

simple

excessive shortening of the prosthesis. The

mechanisms, the engineer would be defining

amount of prosthetic shortening causes a

unique qualities or advantages of that knee

directly proportional energy loss. Moving

mechanism. So, it is evident from this

the patient's mass center up and down during

example, that four bar mechanism plays a

each full cycle of gait is the source of this

huge role in the field of biomedical

loss. Therefore, the L value gives a relative

engineering just like many other mechanical

means of analyzing the reduction of this

mechanisms.

particular energy loss.

The

special

acceleration-deceleration

properties of certain four bar mechanisms

also contribute to energy savings. The
efficient operation afforded by these knees

analysis

of

these

four

bar

4. REFERENCES
1. Hunt, K. H., Kinematic Geometry of
Mechanisms,

Oxford

Press, New York, 1978.

University

2. Ham, C. W., Crank E. J. and Rogers

5. BIODATA

W. L., Mechanics of Machinery,

McGraw-Hill, 1958.
3. Cleghorn

W.L.,

Mechanics

of

Machines, Oxford University Press,

2005.
4. J.S. Rao, Kinematics of Machinery
Through HyperWorks, History of
Mechanism and Machine, Science 18,
DOI 10.1007/978-94-007-1156-3_2,
Springer Science+Business Media
B.V. 2011.

Name : Subashiny Prabakaran

Matrics No: KEU120047

5. Radcliffe CW. Four-bar linkage

prosthetic
kinematics,

knee

mechanisms:

alignment

and

prescription criteria. Pros and Orth

Int 1994; 18:159-73.
6. Greene MP, Four-bar linkage knee
analysis. Orth and Pros. 1983;
37:1:15-24.
7. Gard S.A et al. The Influence of
Four-Bar
Prosthetic

Linkage

Knees

Swing-Phase

on
Floor

IC No: 931127086020
Citizen: Malaysian
Gender: Female
Race: Indian
Course: Bachelor of Biomedical
Engineering (BBMedEng), Faculty of
Engineering, University of Malaya
Contact Number: 010-3794246

Clearance. Journal of Prosthetics &

Orthotics. 1996. Vol. 8, Num. 2: pp.
34-40.
8. http://www.rudyard.org/knee-jointanatomy/

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