Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
Electricals
Limited, Jhansi.
www.bheljhs.co.in
Efforts By :
Ajitabh Gupta
B.Tech(ECE)
VIT University
Vellore, Tamil Nadu.
PREFACE
Inplant Training is a very important aspect of engineering. This
aspect of the academia gives an engineering undergraduate the
much required exposure to the industrial environment.
I would like to stress that this training at Bharat Heavy Electricals
Limited, Jhansi has been a very encouraging and informative
undertaking. In general for an engineer, seeing how a big
institution works is as important as all the theoretical concepts
learnt in college.
Overall, an enlightening experience for me under such a helping
guidance. During the course of the training I took up a project on
Global System for Mobile Communications(GSM), which turned out
to be an extremely interesting topic related to my area of
engineering.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
In the successful completion of this project, I am indebted to
countless people without whom the success of this project would
not have been possible. First of all, I would like to convey my
sincere thanks to Er. Tarun Suyal( Integrated Communication
Centre, BHEL, Jhansi) who gave me the opportunity to undergo
this training.
For this training I would also like to thank Mr. B.D. Arya( Dy.
Manager, Integrated Communication Centre, BHEL, Jhansi), for
his supervision and permission to undergo this training at the
Telephone Exchange.
I
thank
all
my
friends
for
their
unending
support
and
INDEX
S. No.
Topic
Page Number
1.
Rotation Report
01
2.
An Overview of BHEL
02
3.
Business Areas
03-05
4.
06-07
5.
07-10
6.
11-12
7.
13
8.
BHEL Objectives
14-16
9.
17
10.
Transformer Section
18-40
11.
Locomotive Section
41-44
12.
45-46
13.
Technology
47-48
14.
49
15.
Project Report
50-51
16.
52-59
17.
GSM - Services
60-62
18.
GSM - Basics
63-65
19.
66-68
20.
69-74
21.
75-77
22.
GSM - Architecture
78-98
23.
99-102
24.
103-104
Characteristics
25.
105-107
Access Scheme
26.
108-109
27.
GSM - Drawbacks
110-111
28.
112-122
ROTATION
REPORT
AN OVERVIEW OF BHEL
BHEL is the largest engineering and manufacturing enterprise in
India in the energy/infrastructure sector today. BHEL was
established more than 40 years ago when its first plant was set up
in Bhopal ushering in the indigenous Heavy Electrical Equipment
industry in India, a dream that has been more than realized with a
well-recognized track record of performance. It has been earning
profits continuously since 1971-72 and achieved a sales turnover
of Rs.7286.6 crore with a profit before tax of Rs. 662.8 crore in
2001-2002.
BHEL caters to core sectors of the Indian Economy viz., Power
Generation
&
transmission,
Industry,
Transportation,
BUSINESS AREAS
BHEL covers a wide area in production. These areas are as
follows:
POWER GENERATION
Power generation sector comprises thermal, gas, hydro, and
nuclear power plant business. As on 31.3.2002,BHEL supplied
sets account for nearly 67,232 MW or 64 % of the total installed
capacity of 1,04,917 MW in the country, as against Nil till 1969-70.
Products
manufactured
include:
power
INDUSTRIES
BHEL is a major contributor of equipment and systems to
industries, cement, sugar, fertilizer, refineries, petrochemicals,
paper, oil and gas, metallurgical and other process industries. The
range of systems & equipment supplied includes: captive power
plants, co-generation plants, DG power plants, industrial steam
turbines, industrial boilers and auxiliaries, waste heat recovery
boilers, gas turbines, heat exchangers and pressure vessels,
centrifugal compressors, electrical machines, pumps, valves,
3
TRANSPORTATION
BHEL is involved in the development, design, engineering,
marketing, production, installation, and maintenance and aftersales service of rolling stock and traction propulsions systems.
BHEL manufactures electric locomotives up to 5000 HP, diesel
electric locomotives from 350 HP to 3100 HP, both for mainline
and shunting duty applications. It also produces rolling stock for
special applications viz. overhead equipment cars, special well
wagons, and Rail-cum road vehicle.
TELECOMMUNICATION
BHEL also caters to Telecommunication Sector by way of small,
medium and large switching systems.
RENEWABLE ENERGY
Technologies that can be offered by BHEL for exploiting nonconventional and renewable sources of energy include: wind
electric generators, solar photovoltaic systems, solar heating
systems, solar lanterns and battery-powered road vehicles.
INTERNATIONAL OPERATIONS
BHEL is one of the largest exporters of engineering products &
services from
MANUFACTURING UNITS OF
BHEL
FIRST GENERATION UNITS
Bhopal
Haridwar
Insulator Plant.
6
Bangalore :
2) SYSTEMS/SERVICES
3) TRASPORTATION SECTOR
Diesel Electric generators.
AC/DC locomotives.
DC locomotives and loco shunters.
Traction system for railways.
Electric trolley buses.
4) INDUSTRY SECTOR
Boilers.
Valves.
T.G. sets.
Power devices.
Solar Cells.
9
10
12
RATINGS
1. POWER TRANSFORMER
2. SPECIAL TRANSFORMER
3. ESP TRANSFORMER
100 KV,140 MA
7. INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMER
8. DIESEL ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE
9. AC/DC LOCOMOTIVE
200 TON
13
BHEL OBJECTIVES
A dynamic organization is one which keeps its aim high to adopt
itself quickly to changing environment. So here we are in BHEL.
The objectives of the company have been redefined in the
corporate plan for the 90s.
VISION
A World-Class Engineering Enterprise Committed to Enhancing
Stakeholder Value.
MISSION
To be an Indian Multinational Engineering Enterprise providing
Total Business Solutions through Quality Products, Systems and
Services in the fields of Energy, Industry, Transportation,
Infrastructure and other potential areas.
VALUES
Zeal to Excel and Zest for Change.
Integrity and Fairness in all Matters.
Respect for Dignity and Potential of Individuals.
Strict Adherence to Commitments.
Ensure Speed of Response.
Foster Learning, Creativity and Teamwork.
Loyalty and Pride in the Company
14
HEALTH,
SAFETY
AND
ENVIRONMENT
MANAGEMENT
BHEL, as an integral part of business performance and in its
endeavour to becoming a world class organization and sharing
the growth global concern on issues related to Environment,
Occupational Health and Safety, is committed to protecting
Environment in and around its own establishment, and providing
safe and healthy working environment to all its employees. For
fulfilling
these
obligations,
Corporate
Policies
have
been
formulated as:
ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY
Compliance
with
applicable
Environmental
Legislation/Regulation;
Continual
Improvement
in
Environment
Management
Enhancement
of
Environmental
15
awareness
amongst
OCCUPATIONAL
HEALTH
AND
SAFETY
POLICY
Compliance with applicable Legislation and Regulations.
Setting objectives and targets to eliminate/control/minimize
risks due to Occupational and Safety Hazards.
Appropriate
structured
training
of
employees
on
and
maintenance
of
OH&S
Management
16
17
TRANSFORMER SECTION
TRANSFORMER COMMERCIAL (TRC)
The objective of the department is interaction with the customers.
It brings out tenders and notices and also responds to them. It is
this department that bags contracts of building transformers.
After delivery regarding faults, this department does failures and
maintenance. All such snags are reported to them and they
forward the information to the concerning department.
One of the major task of this department is to earn decent profits
over all negotiations. Transformer industry has become very
competitive. The company offering the lowest price gets the
contract but this process may continue does the work on very low
profits. To avoid such a situation, a body by the name of India
Electrical Manufactures Association (IEMA) was set up. This
association helps to maintain a healthy competitive atmosphere in
the manufacturing of electrical appliances.
The main work of the TRC is classified as: Tenders and notices.
Interaction with design department.
Place of the work.
Approximate cost of the work.
Earnest money.
The place and time where contract documents can be
seen.
18
20
FABRICATION
Fabrication is nothing but production. It comprises of 03
bays i.e., Bay0, Bay1 &Bay 2.
BAY-0
It is the preparation shop while the other two bays form the
assembly shop.
This section has the following machines :
o
Shearing machine
Bending machine
Rolling machine
Flattening machine
Drilling machine
Nibbling machine
21
BAY-1
It is an assembly shop where different parts of tank come
from bay 0.Here welding processes are used for assembly,
after which a rough surface is obtained Grinder operating
at 1200 rpm is used to eliminate the roughness.
BAY-2
It is an assembly shop dealing with making different objects
mentioned below.
1-Tank assembly
4-foot assembly
Before assembly, short blasting (firing of small materials
i.e., acid pickting) is done on different parts of jobs
to
Ultrasonic
test:
to
detect
the
welding
fault
4.
BAY-3
Here are basically three sections in the bay:
1.
Machine section
2.
Copper section
3.
Tooling section
Machine section :
The operations to form small components of power and
traction transformer are done in this section. The shop
consist of following machines:
CENTRAL LATHE: it consist one tailstock, headstock, lower
part of tailstock is fixed and tail stock spindle is moving. On
this machine facing, turning and threading is done
TURRET LATHE: its function is same as central lathe but it
is used for mass production. Here turret head is used in
presence of tailstock because turret head contains many
tailstocks around six.
23
Tooling Section:
In this section the servicing of tools is done.
BLADE SHARP MACHINE: It sharpens the blade using a
circular diamond cutter. Blade of CNC cropping line
machine is sharpened here.
MINI SURFACE GRINDER MACHINE: It serves grinding
purposes. It has a grinding wheel made of Aluminium
Oxide.
25
BAY 4
It is the winding section.
TYPES OF WINDING :
1. Reverse section winding
2. Helical winding
3. Spiral winding
4. Interleaved winding
5. Half sectional winding
26
BAY-5
It is core and punch section. The lamination used in power,
dry, ESP transformer etc for making core is cut in this
section.
CRGO(cold rolled grain oriented) silicon steel is used for
lamination, which is imported in India from
Japan ,U.K.
27
BAY-6
Single-phase traction transformer for AC locomotives is
assembled in this section. These Freight locomotive
transformers are used where there is frequent change in
speed. In this bay core winding and all the assembly and
testing of traction transformer is done.
Three-phase
transformers
for
ACEMU
are
also
BAY-7
This is the insulation shop. Various types of insulations are
1.
AWWW: All Wood Water Washed press paper is a 0.20.5mm thick cellulose paper and is wound on the
conductors for insulation.
2.
forms of blocks.
3.
4.
5.
6.
BAKELLITE
7.
8.
The machines used for shaping the insulation material are:1. Cylindrical machines
2. Circle cutting machine
29
3. Scarfing machines
4. Punching press machine
5. Drilling machine
6. Guilletin machines
7. Bench saw (special for OD)
8. Jig saw (special for ID)
9. Circular saw
10. Linesin machines
BAY 8
It is the instrument transformer and ESP transformer
manufacturing section.
INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMER These are used for measurement. Actual measurement is
done by measuring instruments but these transformers
serve the purpose of stepping down the voltage to protect
the measuring instrument. They are used in AC system for
measurement of current voltage and energy and can also
be used for measuring power factor, frequency and for
indication
of
synchronism.
They
find
application
in
32
34
BAY-9
In this bay power transformer are assembled. After taking
different input from different bays 0-9 assembly is done
power transformer is used to step and step down voltages at
generating and sub-stations. There are various ratings
11KV, 22KV, manufactured, they are
a)
Generator transformer
b)
System
c)
Autotransformer
Core building
2.
Core Lifting
3.
Unlacing
4.
35
5.
6.
7.
8.
Case fitting
Core Building :
It is made of cold rolled grain oriented steel CRGO. The
punched core is sent to this shop from core punching shop.
Here it is assembled with the help of drawing a set of 4
laminations is called a packet. The vertical portion of the core is
called a leg the horizontal one is called as yoke. Packets of
both are interlinked. It is undesirable to keep the X section of
core circular to provide low reluctance part without air space. A
perfect circle cannot be made so the core is stepped to achieve
a near circle. Whichever spaces are left, are filled with thin
wooden rod. After core building the end frames are bolted. The
bolts are insulated from the core.
Core Lifting :
The core is lifted by a crane and is placed vertical. The rest of
assembly is done on the core in this position.
36
Megger Test
2.
Ratio test
3.
37
39
STORE
There are three sections in store:
Custody Section
FUNCTIONS
A list of material coming in stores is prepared and Quality
Control people are called for inspection. If material is found
as per standard, SRV (Store Receipt Voucher) is issued for
each material. A total of 08 SRVs are prepared. Some
materials such as silicon oil, transformer oil, insulating
material, etc. are directly stored in the Bays.
40
LOCOMOTIVE SECTION
LOCOMOTIVE PRODUCTION(LMP)
There are two products :
WAG-5H
AC./D.C. Loco
WCAM-2P
WCAM-3
W-broad gauge
A-running in AC mode
C-running in DC mode
goods train
350 HP
700 HP
450 HP
1400 HP
1150 HP
1350 HP
2600 HP
UTV(Utility vehicle )
42
steel
DC motor
Alternator
Compressor
Flower
Static Rectifier-MSR
Static Converter-SC
Exchanger
43
Traction transformer:
It is fixed on under frame and gets supply from an overhead
line
by
equipment
called
pentograph.
The
type
of
44
Electrical Engineering
Electronics Engineering
Mechanical Engineering
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING :
This division looks after all the electrical machinery and
power distribution of the factory. Snags detected in the
system are immediately reported to this dept by the
concerning dept.WE&S takes prompt action to rectify it.
The factory has a feeder of 11KV .The total load sanctioned
for the factory is 2500MVA.
But the maximum demand reaches the range of 1700-2000
MVA.
45
Supplies
Bay 6 to Bay 9
SS -3
Supplies
Bay 1 to Bay 4
SS -4
Supplies
SS -5
Supplies
Bay -5
SS -6
Supplies
Administrative Building
46
TECHNOLOGY
This department analyses the changes taking place in the
world. and suggest changes accordingly. This is very
important because the products must not get obsolete in
the market otherwise they will be rejected by the customer.
FUNCTIONS :
Technology functions can be classified as :
47
The
principle
of
working
is
that
48
QUALITY :
It is the extent to which products and services satisfy the
customer needs.
QUALITY ASSURANCE :
All those plants and systematic action necessary to provide
adequate confidence that a product or service will satisfy the
given requirement is called quality assurance.
QUALITY CONTROL :
The operational technique and activities that are used to fulfill
requirement for quality are quality control.
QUALITY INSPECTION :
Activities such as measuring, testing, gauging one or more
characteristics of a product or service and comparing these with
specified requirement to determine conformity are termed quality
inspection.
49
PROJECT
REPORT
50
51
A SUCCINCT HISTORY
The GSM system is the most widely used cellular technology in use
in the world today. It has been a particularly successful cellular
phone technology for a variety of reasons including the ability to
roam worldwide with the certainty of being able to be able to
operate on GSM networks in exactly the same way provided billing
agreements are in place.
The letters GSM originally stood for the words Groupe Speciale
Mobile, but as it became clear this cellular technology was being
used worldwide the meaning of GSM was changed to Global
System for Mobile Communications. Since this cellular technology
was first deployed in 1991, the use of GSM has grown steadily, and
it is now the most widely cell phone system in the world. GSM
reached the 1 billion subscriber point in February 2004, and is
now well over the 3 billion subscriber mark and still steadily
increasing.
1982 - The Beginning
52
1986
1987
1989
1990
53
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
55
1996
8K SIM launched
1997
56
1998
57
1999
2000
58
2001
59
GSM - SERVICES
The GSM system was designed as a second generation (2G)
cellular phone technology. One of the basic aims was to provide a
system that would enable greater capacity to be achieved than the
previous first generation analogue systems. GSM achieved this by
using a digital TDMA (time division multiple access approach). By
adopting this technique more users could be accommodated
within the available bandwidth. In addition to this, ciphering of the
digitally encoded speech was adopted to retain privacy. Using the
earlier analogue cellular technologies it was possible for anyone
with a scanner receiver to listen to calls and a number of famous
personalities had been "eavesdropped" with embarrassing
consequences.
Speech or voice calls are obviously the primary function for the
GSM cellular system. To achieve this the speech is digitally
encoded and later decoded using a vocoder. A variety of vocoders
are available for use, being aimed at different scenarios.
In addition to the voice services, GSM cellular technology
supports a variety of other data services. Although their
performance is nowhere near the level of those provided by 3G,
they are nevertheless still important and useful. A variety of data
services are supported with user data rates up to 9.6 kbps.
Services including Group 3 facsimile, videotext and teletex can be
supported.
One service that has grown enormously is the short message
service. Developed as part of the GSM specification, it has also
60
CLIR allows you to bar anyone from seeing your number via
CLIP
No-static connections
62
GSM - BASICS
The GSM cellular technology had a number of design aims when
the development started :
* It should offer good subjective speech quality
* It should have a low phone or terminal cost
* Terminals should be able to be handheld
* The system should support international roaming
* It should offer good spectral efficiency
* The system should offer ISDN compatibility
The resulting GSM cellular technology that was developed
provided for all of these. The overall system definition for GSM
describes not only the air interface but also the network or
infrastructure technology. By adopting this approach it is possible
to define the operation of the whole network to enable
international roaming as well as enabling network elements from
different manufacturers to operate alongside each other, although
this last feature is not completely true, especially with older items.
GSM cellular technology uses 200 kHz RF channels. These are
time division multiplexed to enable up to eight users to access
each carrier. In this way it is a TDMA / FDMA system.
The base transceiver stations (BTS) are organised into small
groups, controlled by a base station controller (BSC) which is
63
typically co-located with one of the BTSs. The BSC with its
associated BTSs is termed the base station subsystem (BSS).
Further into the core network is the main switching area. This is
known as the mobile switching centre (MSC). Associated with it is
the location registers, namely the home location register (HLR)
and the visitor location register (VLR) which track the location of
mobiles and enable calls to be routed to them. Additionally there is
the Authentication Centre (AuC), and the Equipment Identify
Register (EIR) that are used in authenticating the mobile before it
is allowed onto the network and for billing. The operation of these
are explained in the following pages :
Last but not least is the mobile itself. Often termed the ME or
mobile equipment, this is the item that the end user sees. One
important feature that was first implemented on GSM was the use
of a Subscriber Identity Module. This card carried with it the users
identity and other information to allow the user to upgrade a
phone very easily, while retaining the same identity on the
network. It was also used to store other information such as
"phone book" and other items. This item alone has allowed people
to change phones very easily, and this has fuelled the phone
manufacturing industry and enabled new phones with additional
features to be launched. This has allowed mobile operators to
increase their average revenue per user (ARPU) by ensuring that
users are able to access any new features that may be launched
on the network requiring more sophisticated phones.
347 GSM MoU Association members from 128 countries
339 GSM networks on-air in 133 countries.
64
GSM now accounts for 60% of the world's total cellular market.
260 million GSM customers around the world.
8 billion G-Mail (GSM text messages) were over the airwaves
by global GSM mobile phone operators in August 2000
Option International is the largest GSM data vendor (DataQuest)
Italy has the largest number of GSM users
5 GSM 1900 users In North America (12/2000)
Nokia has the largest share of the GSM handset market followed
by Ericsson, then Motorola.
65
FDMA / TDMA
Duplex technique
FDD
933 -960 MHz
Channel spacing
200 kHz
Modulation
GMSK
Various - original was RPE-
Speech coding
LTP/13
270.833 kbps
Frame duration
4.615 ms
66
Today the GSM cell or mobile phone system is the most popular in
the world. GSM handsets are widely available at good prices and
the networks are robust and reliable. The GSM system is also
feature-rich with applications such as SMS text messaging,
international roaming, SIM cards and the like. It is also being
enhanced with technologies including GPRS and EDGE. To
achieve this level of success has taken many years and is the
result
of
both
technical
development
and
international
in
Scandinavia
and
proved
that
international
68
Band
Uplink
Downlink
(MHz)
(MHz)
Comments
380
410
450
480
710
750
810
850
900
900
900
876.0 - 915
921.0 - 960.0
69
P-GSM,
i.e.
Primary
or
Band
Uplink
Downlink
(MHz)
(MHz)
Comments
allocation
900
1800
1900
1785.0
1850.0
1910.0
T-GSM
1805.0 - 1880.0
1930.0 - 1990.0
frequencies
available
depend
upon
the
regulatory
70
For Central and South America, the GSM 850 and 1900 MHz
frequency bands are the most widely used although there are
some areas where other frequencies are used.
In order that cell phone users are able to take advantage of the
roaming facilities offered by GSM, it is necessary that the
cellphones are able to cover the bands of the countries which are
visited.
Today most phones support operation on multiple bands and are
known as multi-band phones. Typically most standard phones are
dual-band phones. For Europe, Middle east, Asia and Oceania
these would operate on GSM 900 and 1800 bands and for North
America, etc dual band phones would operate on GSM 850 and
1900 frequency bands.
To provide better roaming coverage, tri-band and quad-band
phones are also available. European triband phones typically
cover the GSM 900, 1800 and 1900 bands giving good coverage in
Europe as well as moderate coverage in North America. Similarly
North America tri-band phones use the 900, 1800 and 1900 GSM
frequencies. Quad band phones are also available covering the
850, 900, 1800 and 1900 MHz GSM frequency bands, i.e. the four
major bands and thereby allowing global use.
The power levels and power control of GSM mobiles is of great
importance because of the effect of power on the battery life. Also
to group mobiles into groups, GSM power class designations have
been allocated to indicate the power capability of various mobiles.
71
1998,
Specification
the
with
DIG
prepared
which
detailed
vendors
Requirement
could
comply.
72
specification.
GSM
400
is
expected
to
become
to
all
manufacturers
on
an
equal
basis.
As a result of this GSM 400 will form part of the existing GSM
standard, which is continuously evolving as per GSM standard
(900/1800). This evolution results in a phased approach toward
IMT-2000 service requirements.
73
phones,
Radio
Base
Station
and
Base
Station
Controllers.
Prototypes of tri-band GSM 400/900/1800 handsets with HSCSD
and WAP support will begin trials in the fourth quarter of 2000 and
are expected to be available in commercial volumes in 2Q / 2001.
Network infrastructure trials are planned for 4Q / 2000 with
commercial availability from 1Q / 2001.
74
77
GSM - ARCHITECTURE
The
GSM
network
architecture
as
defined
78
in
the
GSM
MOBILE STATION
Mobile stations (MS), mobile equipment (ME) or as they are most
widely known, cell or mobile phones are the section of a GSM
cellular network that the user sees and operates. In recent years
their size has fallen dramatically while the level of functionality has
greatly increased. A further advantage is that the time between
charges has significantly increased.
There are a number of elements to the cell phone, although the
two main elements are the main hardware and the SIM.
The hardware itself contains the main elements of the mobile
phone including the display, case, battery, and the electronics
used to generate the signal, and process the data receiver and to
be transmitted. It also contains a number known as the
International Mobile Equipment Identity (IMEI). This is installed in
the phone at manufacture and "cannot" be changed. It is
accessed by the network during registration to check whether the
equipment has been reported as stolen.
The SIM or Subscriber Identity Module contains the information
that provides the identity of the user to the network. It contains
are variety of information including a number known as the
International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI).
79
80
81
82
83
84
Transcoder
The transcoder is responsible for transcoding the voice channel
coding between the coding used in the mobile network, and the
coding used by the world's terrestrial circuit-switched network,
the Public Switched Telephone Network. Specifically, GSM uses
a regular pulse excited-long term prediction (RPE-LTP) coder for
voice data between the mobile device and the BSS, but pulse
code modulation (A-law or -law standardized in ITU G.711)
upstream of the BSS. RPE-LPC coding results in a data rate for
voice of 13 kbit/s where standard PCM coding results in 64 kbit/s.
Because of this change in data rate for the same voice call, the
transcoder also has a buffering function so that PCM 8-bit words
can be recoded to construct GSM 20 ms traffic blocks.
Although
transcoding
(compressing/decompressing)
86
87
89
91
92
Authentication data.
93
94
96
OPERATION
AND
SUPPORT
SUBSYSTEM
(OSS)
The OSS or operation support subsystem is an element within the
overall
GSM
network
architecture
that
is
connected
to
Security Management.
Network
configuration,
Operation
and
Performance
Management.
Maintenance Tasks.
Following is the figure which shows how OMC system covers all
the GSM elements :
98
many
networks
had
been
deployed,
the
level
of
100
7. E interface
The E interface provides communication between two MSCs.
The E interface exchanges data related to handover between
the anchor and relay MSCs using the MAP/E protocol.
8. F interface
The F interface is used between an MSC and EIR. It uses the
MAP/F protocol. The communications along this interface are
used to confirm the status of the IMEI of the ME gaining
access to the network.
9. G interface
The G interface interconnects two VLRs of different MSCs
and uses the MAP/G protocol to transfer subscriber
information, during e.g. a location update procedure.
10. H interface
The H interface exists between the MSC the SMS-G. It
transfers short messages and uses the MAP/H protocol.
11. I interface
The I interface can be found between the MSC and the ME.
Messages exchanged over the I interface are relayed
transparently through the BSS.
Although the interfaces for the GSM cellular system may not
be as rigorouly defined as many might like, they do at least
provide a large element of the definition required, enabling
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102
103
104
multiframes
and
superframes
synchronisation.
105
to
provide
overall
It can be seen from the GSM slot structure that the timing of the
slots in the uplink and the downlink are not simultaneous, and
there is a time offset between the transmit and receive. This offset
in the GSM slot timing is deliberate and it means that a mobile that
which is allocated the same slot in both directions does not
transmit and receive at the same time. This considerably reduces
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the need for expensive filters to isolate the transmitter from the
receiver. It also provides a space saving.
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GSM - DRAWBACKS
Global System for Mobile (GSM) communications is a secondgeneration digital mobile telephone standard. Speech is inherently
analog, so a GSM system digitizes and compresses voice data and
then sends it down a channel with two other streams of user data.
Digital systems can do a number of things that analog systems
cannot such as send and receive faxes, data calls, and messaging.
However, GSM systems have some drawbacks.
Quality
Cost
Availability
Dependency
has
become
dependent
on
fast
and
accurate
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(IMT-2000)
specifications
by
the
International
Telecommunication Union.[1] Application services include widearea wireless voice telephone, mobile Internet access, video calls
and mobile TV, all in a mobile environment. To meet the IMT-2000
standards, a system is required to provide peak data rates of at
least 200 kbit/s. Recent 3G releases, often denoted 3.5G and
3.75G, also provide mobile broadband access of several Mbit/s to
smartphones and mobile modems in laptop computers.
The following standards are typically branded 3G:
The latest UMTS release, HSPA+, can provide peak data rates up
to 56 Mbit/s in the downlink in theory (28 Mbit/s in existing
services) and 22 Mbit/s in the uplink.
new
generation
of
cellular
standards
has
appeared
113
and
400kbits/s
upstream,
but
is
not
commercially used.
Wireless,
Telstra
and
Telecom
NZ,
typically
or walking users, and 384 kbit/s in a moving vehicle, the ITU does
not actually clearly specify minimum or average rates or what
modes of the interfaces qualify as 3G, so various rates are sold as
3G intended to meet customers expectations of broadband data.
The bandwidth and location information available to 3G devices
gives rise to applications not previously available to mobile phone
users. Some of the applications are:
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4G
In telecommunications, 4G is the fourth generation of cellular
wireless standards. It is a successor to the 3G and 2G families of
standards. In 2009, the ITU-R organization specified the IMTAdvanced (International Mobile Telecommunications Advanced)
requirements for 4G standards, setting peak speed requirements
for 4G service at 100 Mbit/s for high mobility communication (such
as from trains and cars) and 1 Gbit/s for low mobility
communication (such as pedestrians and stationary users).
A 4G system is expected to provide a comprehensive and secure
all-IP based mobile broadband solution to laptop computer
wireless modems, smartphones, and other mobile devices.
Facilities such as ultra-broadband Internet access, IP telephony,
gaming services, and streamed multimedia may be provided to
users.
Pre-4G technologies such as mobile WiMAX and first-release Long
term evolution (LTE) have been on the market since 2006 and 2009
respectively, and are often branded as 4G in marketing materials.
The current versions of these technologies did not fulfill the
original ITU-R requirements of data rates approximately up to 1
Gbit/s for 4G systems.
IMT-Advanced compliant versions of the above two standards are
under
development
and
called
LTE
Advanced
and
International
candidates.
Telecommunication
Basically
all
proposals
Union
are
(ITU)
based
as
on
4G
two
technologies:
Present
implementations
of
WiMAX
and
LTE
are
largely
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3G
applications
like
mobile
broadband
access,
hypothetical
simultaneously
concept
connected
to
where
several
the
user
wireless
can
be
access
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REFERENCES
www.cellular.co.za
www.scribd.com
www.radio-electronics.com
en.wikipedia.org
www.connectindia.in
www.ehow.com
www.tutorialspoint.com
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