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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 6, Issue 6, June 2016
ISSN 2250-3153
567
Decadal Pattern of Female Main and Marginal Worker

Participation in India: A Spatial Evaluation
Ankita Borbora
Assistant Professor,Department of Economics, Dibrugarh University,Assam(India)
Abstract- This paper shows the decadal pattern of work participation rate among females in India using the evidence of thirty five
states and union territories of India for three census years 1991, 2001 and 2011.This study uses the census data of female main
workers and marginal workers to show the work participation. It is found that after the introduction of New Economic Policy in
1991, female the worker participates rates are declining, however pattern that is found from the evidences of the states and union
territories in India reveals the difference in the work participation behaviour of female main and marginal workers. Though female
main worker participation has been declined during both the decades of (2001-1991) and (2011-2001),the female marginal
worker participation increased during (2011-2001). Available literature on female labour and work force participation find that
declining female worker participation in World as well as in India is attributed to the increasing educational attendance of girls
and effect of higher household incomes with the pace of economic development. To trace the causes of declining female worker
participation and as well as of difference in the pattern of change of main and marginal workers, this paper reveals the pattern of
work participation for two age groups. One is (5-19years)age group which is generally consisted of the females attending
education primary to higher secondary and another is the age group of ( 20-59)years female. Though educational factor is found to
be influencing in the female worker participation of (5-19) years age group and but the paper finds that in India actually the
shrinking employment opportunities for female after Economic reforms are mainly contributing to the declining female work
participation rate.
Index Terms- Female Worker Participation Rate, Female Main Workers and Female Marginal Workers, Decadal change, Age
groups of (5-19) years of female and (20-59) years of female
I. INTRODUCTION
ecadal Pattern of Female Main and Marginal Work Participation in India: A Spatial Evaluation
Introduction:
Women are assigned different role to part particularly in family life from their male counterpart and this difference spread
to the economic, political and social life also.
In almost every sphere of human functioning in India, the roles defined for women are subordinated to those defined for
males, the rights for women are fewer or less emancipating than those of men, and women's obligations are more limiting than
those of men, resulting in gender disparity at every level, cutting across all types of class and caste powerlessness [Malhotra et al.,
2002].
Hence, the issue of empowerment of women or the rise of the power or capacity of women is much popular in todays world.
The empowerment of women has been widely acknowledged as an important goal in international development [Malhotra &
Schuler 2006:71]
Discrimination that is occurred towards women in terms of their economic possessions can be revealed from the fact that
women perform two-thirds of the worlds work, receive one-tenth of its income and own less than one-hundredth of its property
(Desai and Thakkar 2001:40). The World Development Report 2012 of World Bank showed the differential behaviour between
women and men regarding time use. Women devote 1 to 3 hours more a day to housework than men do; 2 to 10 times the amount
of time a day to care (for children, elderly, and the sick), and 1 to 4 hours less a day to market activities. Thus, women spend large
part of their days time in economically unviable work that inhibits womens access to paid work. Economic empowerment of
women comprises economic opportunities (e.g. expanding employment and entrepreneurship, promoting decent and productive
work, improving access to finance);legal status and rights(e.g. improving womens property ,inheritance and legal rights);and
voice, inclusion and participation in decision-making(e.g. developing mechanisms to enhance womens involvement in decisionmaking bodies). [UNDP 2010]
Thus, womens accessibility to the economically productive work can be regarded as one of the main indicator for the
economic empowerment of women. According to the Census survey, work is defined as participation in any economically
productive activity with or without compensation, wages or profit and All persons engaged in 'work' are workers. Census survey
of India divides workers in two main groups i.e. main and marginal workers. Those workers who had worked for the major part of
the one year reference period of census(i.e. 6 months or more) are termed as main workers, while those workers who had not
worked for the major part of the reference period (i.e. work for less than 6 months) are termed as marginal worker. Both main and
marginal workers consist of the four main categories of workers (i.e. cultivators1, agricultural Labourers2, household industry
workers3,other workers4)
A person is classified as cultivator if he or she is engaged in cultivation of land owned or held from Government or held from private persons or institutions for
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With the inception of New Economic Policy, it was expected that under the globalised economy, the situations of women in
India would be better and women would get new employment opportunities. Since economic theory (Hecksher-Ohlin theorem)
states that, each country produces and exports the commodity in which it uses its abundant factor intensively. Hence increased
trade resulted from globalisation, should lead to the increased employment of abundant labour in the labour surplus developing
country like India. The advocates of globalisation have always been of the firm view that globalisation would result in significant
increases in labour intensive exports thereby promoting employment and income generation in developing countries. They put
forwarded the view that larger flows of FDI would result in increased investment in Greenfield areas and would lead to
accelerated direct and indirect employment and income growth in the developing countries in Washington Consensus during the
1980s. [Bhalla (2008)] There are some studies which show the positive effect of globalisation on women labour in India and
argue that the employment of women during the post reform period in India is growing though not a sustained manner and not
through the all the sectors of the economy. [Bhalla.(2008), Vijaya,(2014), Project Report of UNCTAD- Govt. of India- DFID
ProjectStrategies and Preparedness for Trade and Globalisation in India, Patel(2014)].There also exists ample literature which
blame globalisation for increasing the level of unemployment and underemployment among women and also have given rise to
many forms of discriminations in the labour market. Though some women are getting better access to the labour market but the
majority are being engaged at relatively low levels of pay and skills.[Sharma(2010 )].This paper tries to show the scenario of
female workers during the post reform period and to trace out the changes through the decades and the throughout the states and
union territories of India. It is an effort to depict the picture of the women work participation in India during post reform period
without going to analyse the factors behind the scene.
Objectives:
This study aims
(1) To trace the decadal changes of female main and marginal workers participation rate among states and union territories in
India.
(2) To explore the cause of decadal changes in female work participation showing the age-wise differential pattern of work
participation .
Female Main and Marginal Workers Participation in the States and Union Territories of India:
To depict the scenario of female work participation after the inception of Economic Reforms in 1991,the percentage of
female main workers as well as female marginal workers to the total female population has been calculated in the paper. This
study covers thirty five states and union territories of India using census survey data of three census years 1991, 2001 and 2011to
show the decadal changes in female worker participation throughout the twenty years period.
payment in money, kind or share. Cultivation includes effective supervision or direction in cultivation. Cultivation involves ploughing, sowing, harvesting and
production of cereals and millet crops such as wheat, paddy, jowar, bajra, ragi, etc., and other crops such as sugarcane, tobacco, ground-nuts, tapioca, etc., and
pulses, raw jute and kindred fibre crop, cotton, cinchona and other medicinal plants, fruit growing, vegetable growing or keeping orchards or groves, etc.
Cultivation does not include the following plantation crops - tea, coffee, rubber, coconut and betel-nuts (areca).
(Census Survey)
A person who works on another person's land for wages in money or kind or share is regarded as an agricultural labourer. She or he has no risk
in the cultivation, but merely works on another person's land for wages.
3
Household Industry is defined as an industry conducted by one or more members of the household at home or within the village in rural areas
and only within the precincts of the house where the household lives in urban areas.
4
All workers, i.e., those who have been engaged in some economic activity during the last one year, but are not cultivators or agricultural
labourers or in Household Industry, are 'Other Workers(OW)'. The type of workers that come under this category of 'OW' include all government
servants, municipal employees, teachers, factory workers, plantation workers, those engaged in trade, commerce, business, transport banking,
mining, construction, political or social work, priests, entertainment artists, etc
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Table 1: Region-wise female main workers participation in India

Name of
Regions
the
India
North
Delhi
Haryana
Himachal Pradesh
Jammu
&
Kashmir
Punjab
Rajasthan
Uttaranchal
Percentage of female main workers in total female

population
1991
2001
2011 Change(2001- Change(20111991)
2001)
16
15
15
-1
0
10
14
12
+4
-2
7
8
10
+1
+2
6
13
10
+7
-3
19
21
18
+2
-3
NA
-2
8
6
3
12
9
+9
-3
13
17
18
+4
+1
16
16
NA
0
0
0
Central
15
Chhattisgarh
Madhya Pradesh
Uttar Pradesh
East
Bihar
Jharkhand
Orissa
West Bengal
15
22
17
6
15
19
18
8
12
8
9
9
10
9
9
9
8
10
9
9
28
23
22
36
13
33
31
34
10
37
29
28
10
21
24
32
11
30
26
27
11
25
23
28
11
31
24
19
17
14
26
17
15
15
22
18
17
13
25
23
20
22
30
23
13
25
25
21
11
24
27
23
12
25
14
14
12
23
7
10
10
NA
-6
-1
-1
-3
+1
+2
0
-1
NA
-3
+1
-5
-1
0
0
0
-2
-8
-1
-3
-12
-7
-2
+1
-7
-3
-2
+1
+4
-1
-4
0
+1
-2
+1
-2
+1
-4
-3
+2
-2
+3
+2
-5
+2
-2
-2
-1
0
+2
+1
+1
-2
+2
+3
North East
Arunachal
Pradesh
Assam
Manipur
Meghalaya
Mizoram
Tripura
Nagaland
Sikkim
West
Goa
Gujarat
Maharashtra
South
Andhra
Pradesh
Karnataka
Kerala
Tamil Nadu
Others
Union
Teritorries
ANDAMAN &
NICOBER
ISLANDS
10
13
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CHANDIGARH
D &N HAVELI
DAMAN & DIU
LAKSHADWEEP
PONDICHERRY
10
31
12
6
14
13
25
13
5
15
14
14
13
5
15
570
+3
-6
+1
-1
+1
+1
-11
0
0
0
[Authors
calculation, Source:
Census
of
India,1991,2001 and
2011]
It is seen from the table that the female main worker participation at all India level was at 16% in 1991,while it decreased to
15% and remained it as the same in 2011 also. In case of the states consisting the North of India, female main worker participation
of all the states increased during the period(2001-1991) but declined during (2011-2001) except Delhi and Rajasthan.
In the Central part of India ,where the data of 1991 of Chhattisgarh is not available, in other two states Madhya Pradesh and
Uttar Pradesh, the female main worker participation decreased during the period of (2001-1991)while these rates marginally
increased during (2011-2001).While in Chhattisgarh, the rate has decreased from 22% (2001)to 19%(2011)
In case of the East, all the states Bihar, Jharkhand, Orissa and West Bengal have experienced a declining trend. While the
data of Jharkhand in 1991 is not available and the percentage of women as main worker in West Bengal increased from 8% (1991)
to 9% in 2001.
In case of the North Eastern States of India, on an average the percentage of FMWP decreased from a higher 28% in 1991 to
23% in 2001and again decreased by 1% during (2011-2001).During the period (2001-1991),all the North Eastern states showed a
negative change except Tripura, though during (2011-2001),Assam, and Nagaland have shown positive change.
In the West, during the decade (2001-1991),in Goa and Maharashtra, the female main worker participation got a negative
change, while during (2011-2001),only Gujarat got a negative change.
In the area of Other Union Territories, the FMWP in Dadra & Nagar Haveli declined in both the decades during (20011991) and (2011-2001) while Lakshadweep got negative change during (2001-1991). Lakshadweep, Pondicherry & Daman & Diu
remained at the same level during.(2011-2001).
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Table 2: Region-wise Female Marginal Workers Participation In

India
Name of
Regions
the
India
North
Delhi
Haryana
Himachal Pradesh
Jammu
&
Kashmir
Punjab
Rajasthan
Uttaranchal
Percentage of female Marginal workers in total female

Population
1991
2001
20115
(2001-1991) (20112001)
6
11
10
+5
-1
7
12
12
+5
0
0
1
1
1
0
5
14
8
+9
-6
15
23
26
+8
+3
NA
+1
14
15
2
7
5
+5
-2
14
17
18
+3
+1
11
11
NA
0
+8
-1
Central
7
Chattisgarh
Madhya Pradesh
Uttar Pradesh
East
Bihar
Jharkhand
Orissa
West Bengal
15
18
16
10
14
18
15
9
9
3
13
10
16
16
9
14
11
19
18
9
12
12
2
9
6
4
10
4
1
2
8
11
18
11
16
10
8
12
9
12
15
10
8
13
13
15
8
4
12
7
10
7
13
9
7
5
10
6
4
7
3
5
10
11
5
7
9
8
6
7
10
5
6
5
NA
+6
+5
+7
0
-1
-1
+1
+5
NA
+7
+6
+7
+1
+3
+2
0
)0
+6
+1
+2
+12
+7
+6
+6
+7
+10
+2
+1
+3
-1
-8
+3
+5
+3
-3
+3
+1
+2
+3
-2
-3
-3
-1
+6
-1
+4
+2
+2
-1
-3
+1
0
0
North East
Arunachal
Pradesh
Assam
Manipur
Meghalaya
Mizoram
Tripura
Nagaland
Sikkim
West
Goa
Gujarat
Maharashtra
South
Andhra
Pradesh
Karnataka
Kerala
Tamil Nadu
Others
Union
Teritorries
5
In the calculation of the percentage of female marginal workers for the year 2011, both the female workers under categories
worked for less than 3 months andworked for 3to 6 months are included .
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ANDAMAN &
NICOBER
ISLANDS
CHANDIGARH
D &N HAVELI
DAMAN & DIU
LAKSHADWEEP
PONDICHERRY
5
0
18
11
2
1
7
1
13
5
2
2
5
2
11
2
6
3
573
+2
-2
+1
-5
-6
0
1
+1
-2
-3
+4
+1
[Authors calculation, Source: Census of India,1991,2001 and 2011]

In contrary to the declining nature of female main workers participation the female marginal workers had shown positive
change during (2001-1991) except Daman & Diu. Table 2 shows that percentage of female marginal workers at all India level had
increased from 6% in 1991 to 11% in 2001 and again declined by 1% in 2011. During (2011-2001), among the states comprising
North,, Haryana and Punjab got negative change..In the states of Centre, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh during (2011-2001) got
negative change, while Chhattisgarh was remained at the same level of female marginal worker participation. The East
comprising Bihar, Orissa, Jharkhand and West Bengal has been showing a continuous increasing trend from 6% in 1991 to 13% in
2001and again to 14% in 2011.In case of North East, except Meghalaya and Mizoram all other five states are showing a
continuous rising trend of female marginal workers. The marginal worker participation among the females of Western states Goa,
Gujarat and Maharashtra decreased during (2011-2001).Among the states of South, the participation rates Andhra Pradesh and
Karnataka declined during (2011-2001). While,during (2011-2001), Andaman & NIcober Islands, D&N Haveli and Daman & Diu
showed negative change.
Thus, from the above statistics it should conclude that while in India, the female work participation as main workers
declined, the rates of female marginal workers were showing a constant increase during (2001-1991) and also to some extent
during (2011-2001). Which indicates a disappointing fact that the number of women working for comparatively less time of the
year in comparison to the women working for longer part of the year was growing after the Economic Reforms. This scenario also
implies one thing that though studies show that the decreasing labour force participation rate in India can be attributed to the
increased educational attendance of
the girls and income effect caused by higher household income.
[(Bourmpoula,E.,Kapsos,S.Silberman,A.(2014);PlanningCommission,2011;DasGupta,.&Goldar.(2005);Rangajan,Seema(2011),;V
inoj(2013)etc], but if these same reasons are considered for the declining female main worker participation in India, it will not be
logical, because if it would be the case the same phenomenon would be seen for the female marginal worker participation in India.
Otherwise we have to assume that school going girls engage themselves in some part time works and hence marginal work
participation of female does not decline. In this regard Bhagat, R.B & Das,K.C. (2008) in their study stated that the phenomenon
of the rise in the growth rates of marginal workforce with the decline in main workforce during the decade 1991-2001 was
occurred because of the jobs generated after the new economic policy and since most of them were of the part time nature.
Similarly,for the increase female marginal worker participation in some of the developed states likePunjab, Haryana, Delhi and
Chandigarh and in the lagging states like Bihar, Assam and Rajashtan and Uttara Pradesh they accounted the very faster marginal
workforce growth engaged in household industry. Apart from this Wolfgang(1985),the fertility rate among the marginal workers
are higher than the main workers, so this higher fertility might beone factor among females that compelled that to be attracted to
work for the lesser months.
To find the cause of the declining main worker participation and comparatively growing marginal worker participation
during (2001-1991), this paper throws a light into the age-wise pattern and change of female worker participation.
The female main and marginal workers participation rates for two age groups (5-19) years and (20-59) years. The female workers
of the age of five to nineteen generally represent the primary to higher secondary level students and therefore increased
educational attendance of women refers the possible decline of the female work participation within the range of 5 to 19 years of
age of female workers. Bourmpoula,E., Kapsos, S. Silberman, A.(2014) in their ILO Research Paper indentifies the factors behind
the sharp decline in female labour force participation in India as a whole and there they show the increased educational
attendance of girls as one of the main factor for driving out a large portion of female labour force form the economy. This paper
tries to find out the intensity of that education factor in affecting the female worker participation by calculating the trend of female
main and marginal worker participation for (5-19) years age group.
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Female Main and Marginal Worker Participation in age group of (5-19) years
Table 3 shows the region-wise female main workers participation within the female population of age group (5-19) years for
the three census years of 1991,2001 and 2011.
Table 3 : Percentage of female main worker participation in the (5-19) years age group female population in India
Name of
Regions
the
India
North
Delhi
Haryana
Himachal Pradesh
Jammu
&
Kashmir
Punjab
Rajasthan
Uttaranchal
Percentage of female main workers in the age group

(5-19years)
1991
2001
2011
(2001(20111991)
2001)
7
5
4
-2
-1
4
3
3
-1
0
1
1
1
0
0
2
3
2
+1
-1
8
4
3
-4
-1
NA
-2
3
1
1
8
3
7
4
2
5
3
Central
Chattisgarh
Madhya Pradesh
Uttar Pradesh
East
11
3
7
5
3
5
5
2
3
3
3
3
6
1
2
3
2
4
Bihar
Jharkhand
Orissa
West Bengal
6
4
11
+2
-1
NA
-2
-1
-2
-1
-1
NA
-6
0
-2
-2
0
-1
-1
-1
NA
-3
-1
-5
-2
-1
0
-1
-2
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North East
Arunachal
Pradesh
Assam
Manipur
Meghalaya
Mizoram
Tripura
Nagaland
Sikkim
15
6
10
13
13
4
12
13
3
1
8
10
3
8
10
2
5
6
6
2
6
5
West
Goa
Gujarat
Maharashtra
6
7
11
4
5
6
5
4
6
South
11
17
11
12
3
12
8
4
12
6
1
5
1
21
7
1
5
2
13
5
06
4
3
6
4
0
2
Andhra
Pradesh
Karnataka
Kerala
Tamil Nadu
Others
Union
Teritorries
ANDAMAN &
NICOBER
ISLANDS
CHANDIGARH
D &N HAVELI
DAMAN & DIU
LAKSHADWEEP
PONDICHERRY
calculation, Source:
India,1991,2001 and 2011
-7
-7
-3
-9
-5
-3
-1
-4
-3
-3
-1
+4
-2
-4
-1
-2
-5
0
-2
-2
-5
-2
+1
-1
0
-4
-6
-3
-4
+1
0
-2
-2
-3
-7
-1
+1
+1
-8
-2
0
-1
+1
-7
-1
0
-2
Census
[Authors
of
From table 3, it is seen than except the cases of Haryana, Punjab, Kerala and Chandigarh during (2001-1991) and Manipur,
Goa, Andaman & Nicober Islands and Chandigarh again during (2011-2001),in all other states and union territories of India
female main worker participation for the female population of age group(5-19) years shows a negative change. It indicates the
thing that the education effect is working in lowering the female main worker participation. However, since the increasing number
of young female population(5-19) years in the states can also lower female worker participation rate in that age group, which can
mislead the interpretation. Therefore, to nullify that population effect this study has also calculated percentage share of female
main worker participation from the age group (5-19)years to the total female main workers.
The percentage o indicate very negligible amount of number of female workers
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Table 4: Percentage of female from age group (5 -19 years) to the total female main workers participation in India
Name of
Regions
the
India
North
Delhi
Haryana
Himachal Pradesh
Jammu
&
Kashmir
Punjab
Rajasthan
Uttaranchal
Percentage of female from the age group (5-19years) to the

total female main worker participation
1991
2001
2011
Change(2001- Change(20111991)
2001)
16
11
7
-5
-4
14
9
6
-5
-3
5
5
4
0
-1
15
8
6
-7
-2
15
6
4
-9
-2
-3
-7
17
14
7
12
8
7
-4
-1
21
14
10
-7
-4
8
6
0
-2
-5
-1
Central
15
Chattisgarh
Madhya Pradesh
Uttar Pradesh
East
Bihar
Jharkhand
Orissa
West Bengal
10
10
11
10
9
7
8
11
19
17
11
10
11
10
12
8
10
8
8
7
15
11
15
17
11
16
14
13
12
18
11
9
7
13
11
8
12
15
7
7
6
9
7
5
7
7
14
11
17
13
9
7
11
8
8
6
10
6
15
10
19
18
7
15
15
12
4
10
8
7
2
5
16
14
17
15
0
-5
-4
-6
-3
-2
+1
-3
-5
0
-9
-5
-4
0
-3
-2
-5
-4
-4
-4
-8
-4
-3
-3
-5
0
-3
-5
-2
-1
-4
-4
-3
-5
-8
-1
-4
-6
-5
-5
-1
-1
-2
-5
-4
-7
-6
-3
-5
-3
-5
-2
-5
-2
-2
+1
-6
0
-3
North East
Arunachal
Pradesh
Assam
Manipur
Meghalaya
Mizoram
Tripura
Nagaland
Sikkim
West
Goa
Gujarat
Maharashtra
South
Andhra
Pradesh
Karnataka
Kerala
Tamil Nadu
Others
Union
Territories
ANDAMAN &
NICOBER
ISLANDS
CHANDIGARH
D &N HAVELI
11
6
4
23
4
5
16
4
5
13
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[Authors
Source: Census of
and 2011]
DAMAN & DIU

LAKSHADWEEP
PONDICHERRY
19
5
10
12
1
7
9
1
3
578
-7
-4
-3
-3
0
-4
calculation,
India,1991, 2001
The table shows that except the cases of Uttar Pradesh and Chandigarh, all other states and union territories of India showed
a drastic decline through the two decades, it supports the view that educational attendance of the girls is actually contributing to
the declining female main worker participation. But it is seen that the negative change exhibited by Uttar Pradesh in the
percentage of female workers to female population was only because of its overpopulation, increasing the denominator, which
underestimated the result. Similarly, the education effect on the female main worker participation can be seen clearly for the state
like Kerala by the percentage share of female main workers of (5-19) years to the total female main workers, where it declined
from 7% in 1991 to 4% in 2001 and again to 2% in 2011. But because of the lower population of Kerala, as a percentage to the
total female population they got a higher value and got a positive change during(2001-1991),In Haryana and Punjab too, there
showed the positive change during(2001-1991), but as percentage share of total female main workers it is declining.. Thus , we
can state that, the educational attainment of girls has become a leakage in the flow of female workers participation in India,. If
we see the same things for the female marginal workers, we get the following table 5.
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Table 5: Percentage of female marginal workers in the age group (5-19)years Female population in India
Name
of
Regions
the
India
North
Delhi
Haryana
Himachal Pradesh
Jammu & Kashmir
Punjab
Rajasthan
Uttaranchal
Percentage of female marginal workers in

19)years in India
1991
2001
2011 Change(20011991)
3
6
5
+3
4
7
6
+3
0
0
0
0
2
8
3
+6
7
13
14
+6
9
6
NA
1
3
3
+2
8
11
9
+3
5
5
NA
+5
the age group(5Change(20112001)

-1
-1
0
-5
1
-3
0
-2
0
-3
Central
4
Chhattisgarh
Madhya Pradesh
Uttar Pradesh
East
Bihar
Jharkhand
Orissa
West Bengal
9
10
9
7
6
9
6
4
5
2
6
4
8
8
5
6
4
8
8
4
3
1
4
2
2
9
1
0
1
7
6
6
2
7
15
4
7
11
6
2
5
7
5
4
4
14
10
4
1
6
4
5
3
8
4
3
2
5
2
2
4
1
2
5
6
0
1
4
4
1
2
6
2
3
2
NA
+3
+5
+3
-1
-3
-3
0
+2
NA
-3
+3
4
0
0
0
-1
-1
+5
+2
0
+5
+6
+3
+7
+10
1
-4
-1
5
-2
-11
0
7
-1
-2
+2
+2
0
+1
-1
-3
-2
0
+3
-1
+2
-1
-1
0
-2
1
1
-1
+1
-1
+1
0
-2
-1
+1
0
-5
-1
1
0
North East
Arunachal Pradesh
Assam
Manipur
Meghalaya
Mizoram
Tripura
Nagaland
Sikkim
West
Goa
Gujarat
Maharashtra
South
Andhra
Pradesh
Karnataka
Kerala
Tamil Nadu
Others
Union
Territories
ANDAMAN
&
NICOBER
ISLANDS
CHANDIGARH
D &N HAVELI
DAMAN & DIU
LAKSHADWEEP
PONDICHERRY
2
0
10
4
1
0
3
1
10
2
0
1
2
1
5
1
1
1
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[Authors calculation, Source: Census of India,1991, 2001 and 2011]

It is surprising to see that during the decade (2001-1991), except the states of Orissa, Kerala, Tamil Nadu and UTs Daman &
Diu, Lakshadweep, all are showing a positive change..Only at the 21st century, it can be claimed that education factor is operating
in lowering the marginal female worker participation and during (2011-2001), it has got negative change throughout the states and
union territories. Thus, in case of female marginal worker participation, the effect of educational attendance of girls is not very
convincing. The Table 6, which shows the share of female marginal worker participation from age group (5-19) is different from
the table showing percentage of female marginal workers in the female population of 5-19 years ,since in a greater number of
states share of female marginal worker are found declined. Delhi, Punjab, West Bengal, Mizoram, Tripura, Goa, Maharashtra,
Karnataka, Pondicherry are the addition in the names of getting negative change in the female marginal worker participation
during(2001-1991) apart from Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Orissa.
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Table 6: Percentage share of (5-19) years female in the total female marginal worker participation
Name
Regions
of
the
India
North
Delhi
Haryana
Himachal Pradesh
Jammu & Kashmir
Punjab
Rajasthan
Uttaranchal
Percentage share of female(5-19)years in the total female

marginal worker participation in India
1991
2001
2011
Change(2001Change(20111991)
2001)
18
18
14
0
-4
16
17
14
1
-3
11
1
13
-10
+12
16
19
11
3
-8
15
18
14
3
-4
23
14
NA
-9
18
15
15
-3
0
20
25
18
5
-7
18
15
NA
-3
1
-4
Central
18
Chattisgarh
Madhya Pradesh
Uttar Pradesh
East
Bihar
Jharkhand
Orissa
West Bengal
19
20
20
16
15
15
14
16
20
18
17
16
18
16
17
13
12
14
13
13
19
19
17
14
17
34
15
17
16
25
28
18
15
25
33
14
33
34
19
22
14
14
20
17
9
38
21
16
11
17
19
15
10
18
16
12
10
15
12
15
10
18
20
7
15
18
18
1
2
12
12
4
8
13
14
10
20
16
18
16
NA
0
0
-1
-5
-6
0
-4
0
NA
-4
-1
6
-4
-4
-3
-4
-6
9
1
1
8
-1
-1
16
18
-1
-6
-4
-1
-2
-6
-5
5
13
-3
-1
1
-3
-5
0
-3
-4
-1
-6
-2
-6
-13
1
-6
3
6
-4
-8
8
5
0
-7
-1
1
-11
-4
-1
-5
North East
Arunachal Pradesh
Assam
Manipur
Meghalaya
Mizoram
Tripura
Nagaland
Sikkim
West
Goa
Gujarat
Maharashtra
South
Andhra
Pradesh
Karnataka
Kerala
Tamil Nadu
Others
Union
Territories
ANDAMAN
&
NICOBER
ISLANDS
CHANDIGARH
D &N HAVELI
DAMAN & DIU
LAKSHADWEEP
PONDICHERRY
12
8
19
13
13
11
17
16
24
13
6
10
9
17
13
9
5
5
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From both the above tables it is seen that in case of the female marginal workers neither the percentage share of population
nor the percentage share of the female marginal workers are showing a continuous declining trend. The states where the (5-19)
years main workers participation are declining, for the same age group the marginal workers participation is increasing. It reveals
a serious cause of concerns and cause it might be an indicator of a fact that it is not the increased educational attendance of female
that has been sharply affecting the female main workers decline, rather they are not getting the more than 6 months of work.
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Female Main and Marginal Worker Participation in the age group (20-59) years :
This paper calculates the female main and marginal workers participation for the age group of (20-59) years. Analysing the
pattern of the work participation of this actively worked group of population, this paper reveals the difference of the female main
and marginal workers participation in that group and tries to explain the cause of this difference.
Table 7: Percentage of female main workers in the age group (20-59) years in India
Name
of
Regions
the
India
North
Delhi
Haryana
Himachal Pradesh
Jammu & Kashmir
Punjab
Rajasthan
Uttaranchal
Percentage of female main workers in the age group(2059)years in India

1991 2001
2011
Change(2001Change(20111991)
2001)
27
26
25
-1
-1
17
25
21
+8
-4
14
15
16
+1
+1
11
25
17
+14
-12
34
36
29
+2
-7
14
10
NA
-4
5
21
14
+16
-7
22
31
31
+9
0
30
27
NA
-3
+1
-1
Central
27
Chhattisgarh
Madhya Pradesh
Uttar Pradesh
East
Bihar
Jharkhand
Orissa
West Bengal
28
40
32
12
27
36
31
13
20
14
16
17
18
15
15
15
15
18
15
14
51
64
23
58
58
64
19
68
53
41
55
18
37
46
57
20
53
46
39
49
18
41
43
47
17
54
39
32
28
23
45
29
23
25
38
28
25
21
40
37
32
34
48
38
22
39
40
35
18
37
42
36
20
37
21
25
20
40
14
17
18
NA
-8
-2
-1
-4
-1
+1
-1
-1
NA
-5
+1
-10
-2
0
0
-1
-2
-9
-5
-11
-12
-7
+1
-15
-7
-3
-6
0
+4
-3
-10
-3
+1
-7
-1
-5
+2
-7
-5
+2
-4
+2
+2
-8
+2
-3
-4
-2
+4
+1
+2
0
-5
+28
-9
North East
Arunachal Pradesh
Assam
Manipur
Meghalaya
Mizoram
Tripura
Nagaland
Sikkim
West
Goa
Gujarat
Maharashtra
South
Andhra
Pradesh
Karnataka
Kerala
Tamil Nadu
Others
Union
Territories
ANDAMAN
&
NICOBER
ISLANDS
29
20
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CHANDIGARH
D &N HAVELI
DAMAN & DIU
LAKSHADWEEP
PONDICHERRY
19
50
20
12
24
[Authors
Source: Census of India,1991, 2001 and 2011]
22
42
21
10
24
23
23
20
9
23
+3
-8
+1
-2
0
587
+1
-19
-1
-1
-1
calculation,
Since the age group (20-59) does not include the school-going girls, the declining worker participation ratio of this group
indicates the point that the overall decline in the female worker participation is not attributed to only the increasing education
attendance of the girls. While at all India level, during both the decades (2001-1991) and (2011-2001), the female main workers
participation rate declined by 1%., the North Eastern States experienced except Tripura drastic decline of main worker
participation among females. During the decade of (2011-2001) also except Nagaland and Manipur did not show any increase in
the participation rates. The States of Punjab & Haryana showed large increase during the decade (2001-1991), though in the next
decade (2011-2001),they showed negative change..In the same way, the union territory Andaman & NIcober Islands also
experienced huge increase by 28%,but decreased during (2011-2001) by 9%Except Delhi which showed marginal increase in both
the decades, no more regions of India. had shown consistent increase in the female main worker participation during post reform
period. If we compare the tables 3 and &7,then will find that the states which showed positive change though by a small amount
during (2001-1991) in the age group (5-19) are same as of (20-59) i.e. Punjab and Haryana..Thus, from this statistics we can refer
one thing that the declining main worker participation in India does not only belong to the decline in the main worker participation
rate among the educational age group of girls, the participation rates of higher age group women are also decreasing..But
percentage share of (20-59) age group women to the total female main worker participation are not declining except the advanced
states of Maharashtra and Gujarat and in the comparatively backward states of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Uttaranchal, Andaman &
Nicober Islands, Chandigarh and Lakshadweep. This decline in the female main workers participation might be the effect of
higher
household
income
as
referred
by
many
studies(Bourmpoula,
Kapsos,
Silberman,
(2014);
Rangajan,Seema(2011);Vinoj(2013) . Which shows that worker participation rates are highest among the women from poorest
household,but lowest among the women living in the households with higher incomes. But for the states like Bihar, the effect of
the household income for lowering the decline of female worker participation is not found very logical. Rodgers(2012) examined
rural Bihar and finds that the decline in Female Labour Force Participation can be attributed to limited job opportunities outside
agriculture.
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Table 8: Percentage Share of female from age group (20-59 years) to the female main worker participation in India
Name
of
Regions
the
India
North
Delhi
Haryana
Himachal Pradesh
Jammu & Kashmir
Punjab
Rajasthan
Uttaranchal
Percentage share of female from age group(20-59 years)

to the female main worker participation in India
1991 2001 2011 Change(2001Change(20111991)
2001)
78
83
84.
+5
+1
83
85
87
+2
+2
93
92
92
-1
0
81
87
88
+6
+1
80
86
87
+6
+1
80
87
NA
+7
84
85
85
+1
0
75
81
83
+6
+2
85
84
NA
-1
+5
0
Central
79
Chhattisgarh
Madhya Pradesh
Uttar Pradesh
East
Bihar
Jharkhand
Orissa
West Bengal
82
83
83
81
82
86
83
77
81
80
83
82
83
84
83
84
80
84
85
87
80
79
80
82
79
81
82
79
78
83
83
85
85
81
84
85
81
80
86
87
86
86
84
87
88
84
87
82
85
79
82
86
88
85
84
85
88
83
83
87
80
84
80
76
77
88
80
83
91
83
86
89
78
79
80
80
NA
+5
+2
+3
+3
0
-4
+1
+2
NA
+3
+3
+3
-2
+1
+1
+4
+3
+4
+5
+3
+2
+3
+3
+2
+2
+4
+4
+1
+1
+3
+3
+3
+3
+7
-1
+3
+4
+2
+4
0
-2
-1
+3
+4
+7
+14
-5
+3
+2
+1
+3
+2
+1
-1
-2
+6
+7
+5
+2
-1
+3
+5
-1
+5
North East
Arunachal Pradesh
Assam
Manipur
Meghalaya
Mizoram
Tripura
Nagaland
Sikkim
West
Goa
Gujarat
Maharashtra
South
Andhra
Pradesh
Karnataka
Kerala
Tamil Nadu
Others
Union
Territories
ANDAMAN
&
NICOBER
ISLANDS
CHANDIGARH
D &N HAVELI
DAMAN & DIU
LAKSHADWEEP
PONDICHERRY
92
95
74
75
93
85
93
93
80
82
98
87
84
85
92
86
91
92
92
83
87
97
92
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As expected, though the female main worker participation of (20-59) age group female population has gone down some
extent, but the share of main workers to total female main workers from this age group has increased in almost all of the regions.
Where the exceptional cases are Delhi experiencing decline by 1%,Tamil Nadu by 5% and Chandigarh by 2% during (20011991) and in the decade (2011-2001),Uttaranchal experiencing decline by 1%,Uttar Pradesh by 4%,Bihar by 2%,Gujarat by 2%
and Maharashtra, Andaman & Nicober Islands, Chandigarh and Lakshadweep, all by 1%.
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Table 9:Percentage of female marginal workers in the age group(20-59)years Female population in India
Name of
Regions
the
India
North
Delhi
Haryana
Himachal Pradesh
Jammu
&
Kashmir
Punjab
Rajasthan
Uttaranchal
Percentage of female marginal workers participation in the

total female population(20-59)yrs in India
1991
2001
2011
Change(2001- Change(20111991)
2001)
10
17
16
+7
-1
+6
-2
13
19
17
0
2
1
+2
-1
9
22
13
+13
-9
26
33
36
+7
+3
NA
-1
23
22
3
10
7
+7
-3
25
26
28
+1
+2
17
16
NA
-1
+12
-1
Central
12
Chattisgarh
Madhya Pradesh
Uttar Pradesh
East
Bihar
Jharkhand
Orissa
West Bengal
24
28
26
18
23
29
23
15
14
5
21
18
28
25
15
23
19
32
27
14
18
17
3
17
11
8
13
7
1
3
12
18
28
19
20
17
12
16
14
18
22
16
12
20
16
21
12
6
20
10
15
11
20
13
10
8
15
8
13
11
7
11
5
7
14
16
8
12
13
12
9
10
16
9
9
9
NA
+10
+9
+12
+1
-3
-3
+2
+9
NA
+11
+10
+10
+1
+4
+2
-1
-1
+9
+2
+1
+17
+11
+7
+10
+11
+13
+3
0
-6
-3
-8
+3
+4
+5
-5
+5
0
+3
+5
-3
-5
-5
-2
+7
-1
+5
+3
+5
0
-4
+1
-2
-2
+15
-8
+2
-9
-11
0
-3
-6
North East
Arunachal
Pradesh
Assam
Manipur
Meghalaya
Mizoram
Tripura
Nagaland
Sikkim
West
Goa
Gujarat
Maharashtra
South
Andhra
Pradesh
Karnataka
Kerala
Tamil Nadu
Others
Union
Territories
ANDAMAN &
NICOBER
ISLANDS
CHANDIGARH
D &N HAVELI
DAMAN & DIU
1
0
29
20
16
2
20
9
8
2
17
3
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LAKSHADWEEP
PONDICHERRY
3
2
4
4
9
4
593
+1
+2
+5
0
Table 9 shows that in the marginal workers participation at all India level during (2001-1991),the percentage of female
marginal workers in the age group(20-59) shows increase of 7%,while in the next decade (2011-2001), it declined by 1% . In the
states of North also, during the decade (2001-1991),they got positive change, but at (2011-2001),the rates declined except the
states of Himachal Pradesh and Rajasthan. In the Central and Western states also, the female marginal worker participation in the
age group (20-59) declined after 2001,while the states of East exhibited an increasing decadal change both during (2001-1991)
and (2011-2001) except the case of West Bengal where the rate declined by 1% in 2011. The female marginal worker
participation also declined for some of the North Eastern states (Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram).The female marginal workers
declined in Western states of India during(2011-2001) and in the states of South also, except Kerala, all show negative change
during this decade..It is the case for Union territories also except Lakshadweep.
This table also shows that while the number of female marginal workers in this age group is higher in the states of North,
Central and North East India, in comparison to that the rates are lower in West and South India and in the union territories also.
As in the case of the (5-19) years age group, in this age group also the female marginal worker has not declined during (20011991) in contrary to the declining behaviour of female main worker participation. It means the number of women worked for
lesser time of a year during the first decade after reform (2001-1991) were more, though the number of female workers worked for
more than 6 months in a year were declined. Gradually after 2001,shrinking job opportunities of India might be condemned the
marginal worker participation also.
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Table 10: Percentage share of female marginal workers from the age group(20-59)years in total female marginal worker
participation India
Name of
Regions
the
India
North
Delhi
Haryana
Himachal Pradesh
Jammu
&
Kashmir
Punjab
Rajasthan
Uttaranchal
Percentage share of female(20-59)years in the

marginal worker participation in India
1991
2001
2011
Change(20011991)
77
76
78
-1
-5
75
80
76
85
81
81
-4
79
75
81
-4
78
74
75
-4
NA
72
72
76
78
76
+2
76
69
75
-7
73
74
NA
-2
total female
Change(20112001)
+2
+1
0
+6
+1
0
-2
+6
+1
+2
Central
76
Chattisgarh
Madhya Pradesh
Uttar Pradesh
East
Bihar
Jharkhand
Orissa
West Bengal
74
74
73
76
76
77
77
73
76
77
78
78
77
78
79
79
78
78
79
82
76
69
75
73
79
79
78
59
80
78
78
65
77
78
70
60
79
63
60
73
80
79
74
76
85
57
72
78
82
79
74
78
82
77
74
82
79
82
78
77
74
77
77
79
NA
-1
-1
+1
+3
+4
-3
+1
-1
NA
+2
+2
+3
0
+1
+1
+3
+6
-8
+8
-2
-1
-8
+1
-1
-15
-18
0
+3
+1
+4
+16
+6
-6
+12
+1
0
-2
0
+1
0
+1
+3
0
-7
+3
+1
+6
+4
-4
+7
-5
-3
+5
11
North East
Arunachal
Pradesh
Assam
Manipur
Meghalaya
Mizoram
Tripura
Nagaland
Sikkim
West
Goa
Gujarat
Maharashtra
South
81
Andhra
Pradesh
Karnataka
Kerala
83
75
82
76
76
91
85
Tamil Nadu
87
87
80
Others
Union
Territories
ANDAMAN &
NICOBER
79
80
82
83
80
85
85
75
86
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ISLANDS
CHANDIGARH
D &N HAVELI
DAMAN & DIU
LAKSHADWEEP
PONDICHERRY
89
76
82
83
83
81
71
80
90
82
79
81
83
93
87
596
-8
-5
-2
+7
-1
-2
+10
+3
+3
+5
Table 10 shows the percentage share of female from age group (20-59) years in the total female marginal worker
participation shows somewhat different result from the table 9 showing the percentage of female marginal workers in the age
group of (20-59) years of female population. Firsly the share of marginal workers from this age group to the total female marginal
workers is almost at the more or less same level for all the states and union territories of India. The share of marginal worker from
this age group to the total female marginal workers declined by 1% during (2001-1991) and increased by 2% during(2001-2001)
being the contrary to the findings of table 9. Only the states of Punjab, Kerala and Tamil Nadu are different in this regard, which
shows t positive change during(2001-1991) and negative change during (2011-2001).
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II. CONCLUSION
Authors like Olsen et al.(2006),Choudhury (2011) and Neff,et al.(2012) have argued that social and cultural barriers in a
predominantly patriarchal society like India can explain womens work choices. That is why having comparatively liberal
societies,tribal states showed a very good performance regarding work participation from 1991.But in these states also, with the
introduction of New Economic Policy the participation rates gradually declines. A comparison between male and female employment
by occupation shows that female employment growth between 1994 and 2010 largely took place in occupations that were not growing
at all and Less than 19% of the new employment opportunities generated in Indias 10 fastest growing occupations were taken up by
women [Bourmpoula,E., Kapsos, S. Silberman, A.(2014,). A large body of literature is devoted to quantifying the role of education
and
income
in
explaining
the
decline
in
female
LFPR
in
rural
areas,
including
studies
by
Choudhury(2011),Himanshu(2011),Rangarajan, et.al (2011), Kannan et.al(2012),Neff et.al (2012), Abraham (2013) and Klasen and
Peters(2013) . Across the process of economic development, the adult women labour force participation rate is U- shaped.When
incomes are extremely low and when certain types of agriculture dominate,women are in the labour force to a great extent. As income
rises,often because of an expansion of the market or the introduction of the new technology, women labour force participation rates
fall. [Goldin,2014].But if we see the trend of the female worker participation of India, then we get the idea that In India that increasing
educational attendance and higher household income are not the cause of declining main as well marginal worker participation in
India. Rather it is the result of the low employment opportunities for women.There is evidence that available employment
opportunities ...... for women have declkinedOne reason is that employment generation has not kept up with the rise in the workingage population,due to increased competition with men for scarce jobs and an increasing reluctance of women to take up informal(and
partly remunerated ) work. Another possibility is that industrial and occupational segregation may be hindering an increase in female
employment,that is if industries and and occupations that are experiencing job growth tend to be male dominated, women would be
less likely to be benefitted from overall job gains and may remain out of the work force given the limited opportunities.
(Chowdhury,2011)
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Geneva:International Labour Organization. Retrieved 15 July 2015, from http://www.ilo.org/global/research/papers/WCMS_250977/lang--en/index.htm
Bhagat, R.B & Das,K.C. (2008) Levels, Trends and Structure of Workforce in India: Census Based Study 1981-2001, International Institute for Population
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Kannan,K.P. and Raveendran,G.(2012),Counting and Profiling the Missing Labour Force,Economic and Political Weekly ,February accessed at www.epw.in
Lincove,J.(2008) Growth,Girls Education and Female Labour:A Longitudinal Analysis, The Journal of Developing Areas, Vol.41, No.2,p.(45-68)
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Malhotra A., Schler S.R. and Boender C, 2002:, Measuring Womens Empowerment as a Variable in International Development, Unpublished paper prepared
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the
World
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and
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Rangarajan,C., Kaul,P.I.& Seema(2011) Where is the missing Labour force?Economic & Political Weekly,Vol 46, No.39,pp.68-72
Vinoj.A.(2013) Missing labour force or defeminization of labour force in India? Working Paper 452,Centre for Development Studies,Retrieved 17 July,2015
from http://cds.edu/wp-content/uploads/2013/09/wp452.pdf
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ProjectStrategies and Preparedness for Trade and Globalisation in India.supported by Ministry of Women and Child Development(MWCD) accessed at
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[24] Vijaya,K.( 2014 )The Impact of Globalisation on the Role of Women in the Economy:A Case Study of India with Special Focus on Tamilnadu, SOCIAL
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AUTHORS
First Author Ankita Borbora, Assistant Professor,Department of Economics, Dibrugarh University,Assam(India) Email IDankitaborbora@gmail.com
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 6, Issue 6, June 2016

Decadal Pattern of Female Main and Marginal Worker

Table 1: Region-wise female main workers participation in India

Percentage of female main workers in total female

Table 2: Region-wise Female Marginal Workers Participation In

Percentage of female Marginal workers in total female

[Authors calculation, Source: Census of India,1991,2001 and 2011]

Percentage of female main workers in the age group

The percentage o indicate very negligible amount of number of female workers

Percentage of female from the age group (5-19years) to the

DAMAN & DIU

Percentage of female marginal workers in

the age group(5Change(20112001)

[Authors calculation, Source: Census of India,1991, 2001 and 2011]

Percentage share of female(5-19)years in the total female

[Authors calculation, Source: Census of India,1991, 2001 and 2011]

Percentage of female main workers in the age group(2059)years in India

Percentage share of female from age group(20-59 years)

[Authors calculation, Source: Census of India,1991, 2001 and 2011]

Percentage of female marginal workers participation in the

Percentage share of female(20-59)years in the

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