WindSeminar AlexRichardson Updated 2 9

Investigation of White Etching Crack (WEC) formation
mechanisms under Non-hydrogen charged test conditions
Investigations
of White
Etching
Crack
(WEC)
a
a
a
a
b
A. D. Richardson , L. Wang , R.J.K. Wood , M.-H. Evans , W. B. Anderson
Formation Mechanisms
a National
Centre for Advanced Tribology at Southampton (nCATS)

Chemical
Corporation,
Richmond,
VA23219,USA
M.-H. Evans,
A.D
Richardson,
L. Wang,
R.J.K. Wood
|
b Afton
National Centre for Advanced Tribology at Southampton (nCATS)
Contents
1. Introduction
2. FAG-FE8 cylindrical thrust washer bearing RCF testing (NON-hydrogen charged).

Test conditions and tests matrix.
Test 1: FAG-FE8 cylindrical thrust washer serial sectioning analysis.
Test 2-6: Thermal Desorption Spectroscopy (TDS).
3. Summary and future work.
Introduction
WEC formation drivers:
Transient Drivers
Impact loads
Vibration
Slip and traction
Hydrogen Drivers
Stray currents
Slip and traction
Metal-Metal contact
Water contamination
Oils and additive types
Standstill corrosion
75% of the literature cite hydrogen

diffusion as an accelerating root cause.
M.-H. Evans, White structure flaking (WSF) in wind turbine gearbox bearings: effects of 'butterflies' and white etching cracks (WEC), Materials Science and Technology, 28
(2012) 3-22.
Introduction
Several cited mechanisms for WEC initiation:

Surface initiation
Force
1)
Introduc Element
tion
Sub-surface initiation
Force
2)
Element
Race
Race
~ 1mm
Theory: WEC initiation

from inclusions and
butterflies.
Theory: Formation of WECs through surface cracking,

propagating into the depth direction supported by local
hydrogen liberation at crack faces.
Force
Force
4)
3)
Element
Element
Lubricant
Race
film
Race
~ 1mm
Theory: Initiation of WECs independent of defects by adiabatic

shear banding (ASB). WEC forms after WEA microstructural
alteration.
Theory: Self-charging of lubricants triggering localised transient current flow

causing local electromagnetic induction that passes the surface. This leads to
thermal effects within microstructural domains leading to WEA formation.
Introduction
Mechanisms for hydrogen entry:
1)
2)
Hydrogen ions (H+) combine with

electrons (e-) at wear induced nascent
surfaces. Hydrogen is generated by
tribochemical reactions of water and
decomposition of lubricant through
catalytic reactions.
Lubricant or water enters surface

microcracks allowing local release
of hydrogen ions through
tribochemical reactions at nascent
crack tips.
Evans, M.-H., White structure flaking failure in bearings under rolling contact fatigue, in Faculty of Engineering and the Environment. 2013, University of
Southampton: University of Southampton. p. 233.
Introduction
Project aim:
Investigate the effects of hydrogen on the formation of white structure flaking (WSF) through NON
hydrogen charged rolling contact fatigue testing.
Methodology:
Re-create white etching cracks (WECs) under NON hydrogen charged testing.
Conduct thermal desorption spectroscopy (TDS) to quantify concentration levels of mobile diffusible
hydrogen in RCF tested bearings under NON hydrogen charged conditions and increasing test durations.
Conduct serial sectioning analysis to explore the relationships between concentration levels of mobile
diffusible hydrogen and WEC formations.
Through further analysis using techniques such as XPS, investigation of the mechanism of hydrogen creation,
diffusion and its role in WSF will be explored.
Contents
1. Introduction

FAG-FE8 NON hydrogen charged testing

Test Conditions:
Cylindrical roller thrust washer bearing.

2x bearings tested simultaneously.
Statically radially loaded.
NON-hydrogen charged.
+ve and ve slip halves
Slip experienced continuously

between roller / raceway up to
15%
M.-H. Evans, A.D. Richardson, L. Wang, R.J.K. Wood, W.B. Anderson, Confirming subsurface initiation at non-metallic inclusions as one mechanism for white etching crack
(WEC) formation, Tribology International, 75 (2014) 8797.

Test Conditions:
Test system
Test rig
Test sample
FAG-FE8
Cylindrical roller thrust bearings
Bearing type
F-562831-01 / 81212
Oil properties
Oil type
Viscosity
Pressure viscosity coefficient ()
Dynamic viscosity o (100C)
Oil additives
Bearing material properties
Fully formulated gear oil (ISO VG64)

64 cSt (40C), 9.5 cSt (100C)
6.6 GPa-1
0.0046 Pas
This oil is known to promote WSF
Barium, sodium and calcium anti-corrosion sulfonates, ZDDP antiwear additives and
molybdenum friction modifiers
Steel washers & rollers
Roller / Washer / Cage material

Hardness Roller / Washer
Martensitic 100Cr6 steel / Martensitic 100Cr6 steel / Brass

765 HV / 590 HV
Surface roughness (Rq) Roller / Washer
0.09 m / 0.70 m
Test conditions
Rotational shaft speed
Axial load
Max contact pressure
Bearing / oil temperature
Minimum film thickness (hmin)
750 rpm
60 kN
1200 MPa
100C
0.053 m
Lambda ratio
0.01
Low load
Extreme boundary
Test1 1: First round of FE8 testing with

subsequent serial sectioning.
Test 2-6: Post test 1, test durations of 2, 6,
16.5 and 18 hrs with subsequent TDS
analysis conducted. No serial sectioning
conducted thus far.
Test durations
Tests 1/2/3/4/5/6 hrs, tests 2-6 have had TDS analysis conducted 18.5/16.5/6/6 repeat/2/18 hours
Subsurface shear stresses

Max orthogonal shear stress (o, max)
Max unidirectional shear stress (max)
317 MPa (acting @ a depth below the contact surface of 111 m)


Tests matrix:
Testing conducted on the FAG-FE8 test rig is as follows.
Test conditions (previous slide) are the same for all tests, duration being the only differing factor.
Serial sectioning analysis has been conducted on test 1 only see future work.
TDS Thermal Desorption Spectroscopy has been conducted on test 2-6.
Test
Analysis conducted
Test duration (Hr)
Serial sectioning
18.5 (spalled)
TDS
16.5 (spalled)
TDS
TDS
6 (repeat)
TDS
TDS
18
TDS
0 (control)
Test automatic
shutdown due to
spalling of contact
surface
Contents
1. Introduction

FAG-FE8 NON hydrogen charged testing Test 1

Macro images of roller and washer raceway contact surfaces post test.
Images around one rollers circumference split into 8-octants (A-G)
Several
flakings
on some
Rollers
Images around one of the raceway washers
NO flaking on the two

washer raceways

Serial sectioning process conducted on one chosen ROLLING ELEMENT
~3.8 m material removal per slice.
500x slices.
1.8 mm total distance sectioned.

13 WECs were mapped in their entirety.
5 WECs were focused on in this investigation
(images + inclusions recorded at each slice).
FAG-FE8
Testing
TEST testing
1 (18.5 hr)
FAG-FE8NON-Hydrogen
NON hydrogen
charged
Test 1
Typical WEC observed in a ROLLER during metallographic analysis.

Circumferential section (cross sectional face parallel to over-rolling direction).

Examination of the washer raceway showed very few white etching like lines.
No extensive WEC networks were found however.
Lack of diffusible hydrogen found in the raceway could be an indicator? see later slides.
Further examination is thus required.

Video of an entire WEC surface connection.
M.-H. Evans, A.D. Richardson, L.

Wang, R.J.K. Wood, W.B. Anderson,
Confirming subsurface initiation at
non-metallic inclusions as one
mechanism for white etching crack
(WEC) formation, Tribology
International, 75 (2014) 8797.

Some WECs were found to have connections with the contact surface.
Connections varied: i) large crack volume over many slices, or ii) minimal.
WEC 2
Connection: 9 slices total = minimal
WEC 4
Connection: 91 slices total = extensive
See previous video
Very thin &

short crack
connection
Large crack
connection

Some WECs were found to have connections with the contact surface.
WEC 5
1st connection: 15 slices total = minimal
WEC 5
2nd connection: 42 slices total = minimal
See for yourself

in previous video
& in paper
Extremely
thin radial
crack
Crack only just
actually connects
to the surface

Note: In the images the over-rolling direction is constant, however the
surface crack connections have different angles in different WECs
WEC 2
WEC 4
WEC 5
Surface crack angles
25
40
19

Note: If a surface connection exists, the authors do not automatically assume
a WEC initiated from surface cracking
WEC 2
Connection: 9 slices total = minimal
E.g. minimal and thin surface connection
+ WEC interacted with inclusions
appearing to be crack initiators.
See for yourself in video

in next slides + paper
Very thin &

short crack
connection
Propose that it is not likely that a

minimal crack would allow enough
lubricant/additive hydrogen liberation
at crack tip to drive such an extensive
WEC.
Propose WEC initiated subsurface at
inclusions and propagated to the
surface.

If an extensive surface crack connection WEC may be surface initiated
WEC 4
Connection: 91 slices total = extensive
E.g. extensive crack volume over

many slices could allow significant
lubricant penetration and liberation of
hydrogen at crack tip.
Large crack
connection

Many inclusions interacted with the WECs mapped.
Inclusions appear to be WEC initiators.

Top row: example of inclusions in a single WEC.
Rank
Type
Depth [m]
DDup1_233 (C:17, A:~34)

Inclusion lengths [m]

Many inclusions interacted with the WECs mapped.
Inclusions appear to be WEC initiators.

Example of a oxide inclusion-WEC interaction over multiple slices.
Crack and microstructural change morphology

look like crack initiation at the inclusion
Rank
Type
Depth [m]
DDup1_233 (C:17, A:~34)

Inclusion lengths [m]
Inclusions were ranked in their likelihood of WEC crack initiation.

Rank 1 & 2: initiation of crack by inclusion.
Rank 3: no initiation.
A rank of 1, 2 or 3 was given based on the following information:
depth below contact surface.
crack continuity in near vicinity of inclusion over multiple slices.
size of inclusion.
angle of crack with respect to the contact surface.
location of inclusion interacting with the WEC and appearance of WEC.
appearance of microstructural change in vicinity of inclusion.

Depth of inclusion-WEC interactions is consistent with max shear stress zone.
This further supports that WECs can be initiated by cracking at inclusions.
Subsurface shear stresses
Max orthogonal shear stress (o, max)
Max unidirectional shear stress (max)

o,max
max

A table summarises the information on the 5 WECs which were focused on.
See paper for details.
WEC 1
0.0 mm
WEC 5
Start zone
of WEC
Sectioning
zone
500x
slices
Individual inclusion-WEC
interaction data entries
End zone
of WEC
1.8 mm
Total number of inclusion-WEC interactions found

Conclusions:
13 independent WECs were mapped in their entirety over 500x slices at ~3.8 m intervals.
9 of the 13 WECs did not make any connection with the contact surface.
Conclusion At least one mechanism of WEC formation is subsurface
5 WECs were focused on (images + inclusion interactions recorded at each slice).

49 inclusions interacted with the 5 WECs (41 appeared to be crack initiators).
Size of inclusions interacting with WECs are small/short (~2 15 m).
Mostly sulfides, globular sulfide-oxides and globular oxide inclusions.
Conclusion The WECs were very likely initiated by non-metallic inclusions


Conclusion: Proposition of one mechanism of WSF
- Cracks initiate at inclusions.

- Aided by diffusible hydrogen
and/or transient events.
- Cracks propagate by same

drivers.
- WEA forms alongside cracks.
- Small WECs link-together.

- Density of inclusions (initiators)
important.
- Subsurface WECs connect to

surface.
- Flaking occurs.
M.-H. Evans, White Structure Flaking Failure In Bearings Under Rolling Contact Fatigue, Doctoral Thesis, University of Southampton, 2013, (free access
http://eprints.soton.ac.uk/355966/)
Contents
1. Introduction

Contents
FAG-FE8 NON hydrogen charged testing TDS Analysis
Tests 2-6 (2-18 hours)
In order to investigate the role of hydrogen in the formation of WSF and to explore the bulk diffusion mechanism of hydrogen as
mentioned in the previous slides (diffusion at wear induced nascent surfaces) further testing on the FAG-FE8 test rig was conducted.
Tests 2-6 represent FAG-FE8 NON Hydrogen charged test durations of 16.5 hr, 2 hr, 6 hr, 6 hr repeat and 18 hr respectively.
Test conditions being the same as that of TEST 1 -18.5 hr.
TDS is used to quantify diffusible hydrogen concentration in the steel bearings over increasing test durations.
Test
Analysis conducted
Test duration (Hr)
Serial sectioning
18.5 (spalled)
TDS
16.5 (spalled)
TDS
TDS
6 (repeat)
TDS
TDS
18
TDS
0 (control)

Thermal desorption spectroscopy (TDS):
Can determine concentration of mobile diffusible hydrogen in the steel.
Samples heated up to (<400 C).
Hydrogen gas effused is measured.
Minimum concentration measurable is 0.05 ppm and the precision is 0.05 ppm.
Diffusible hydrogen
analysis tube
Infra-red heating (400 C)
Specimen
Evans, M.H., Tomographic Serial Sectioning Investigations of Butterfly and White Etching Crack (WEC) Formation for Wind Turbine Gearbox Bearing Applications. STLE Annual
Meeting, Detroit, Michigan, 2013.

Sample preparation:
In order to trap any diffusible (mobile) hydrogen, bearings post RCF testing have to be immersed in LiN before TDS analysis.
Immersion in LiN at -196C ensures that as much hydrogen is kept trapped in the steel as possible.
Samples are cut up into relevant sections before analysis (see the figure below).
Rolling elements were kept as either whole or cut in half, the aim of this being to determine differences in diffusion levels in either
+ve or ve slip zones of the bearing.
A dry shipper dewar was used to facilitate the transportation of samples to and from TWI Cambridge where the TDS analysis was
carried out.
Once test ended, bearing sat idle before being taken off the rig and
immersed in LiN.
Test
Section cuts on rollers and raceway
Time bearing sat idle in rig
Total
post TDS
immersion in LiN
2 hours
~20 min
~45 min
6 hours
~20 min
~45 min
~20 min
~45 min
16.5 hours
~90 min
~120 min
18 hours
~20 min
~45 min
hours
time
until
(repeat)
Test
Duration stored in LiN prior to TDS

analysis
2 hour
2 days
6 hour
15 days
6 hour (repeat)
8 days
16.5 hour
15 days
18 hour
8 days
Stored at the
University of
Southampton.

Challenges in conducting TDS:
Difficulty in deciding how many rolling elements and raceway sections to analyse:
Since sample weight (g) is a factor in TDS analysis thought that too low a sample weight
would not suffice in showing any concentration in hydrogen.

Thus to begin with multiple sections were analysed at one time to increase the overall
sample weight.
Individual rolling elements and raceway sections were however analysed later on with
no significant differences in concentration levels of hydrogen between individual and
multiple sections being observed.

Challenges in conducting TDS:
Analysing SPALLED and NON-SPALLED samples:
Spalled and NON-spalled rolling elements and raceway sections were analysed.
This being in order to explore the argument that spalled sites on the contact surface act
as zones for hydrogen entry into the steel thus influencing the TDS result.
No significant differences were found between spalled and NON-spalled rolling
elements and raceway sections, individual or multiple sections being analysed.
Influence +ve and ve slip zones:
+ve and ve slip zones on rolling elements was explored. 2x +ve or ve slip halves
being analysed at each time i.e. one whole roller. No significant differences being seen
between the +ve or ve zones.

TDS results (<400 C):
Raceway sections showed negligible concentration of hydrogen diffusion (0.01 0.12 ppm across the increasing test
durations).
Possible reason as to why little evidence of WECs were found in the raceway upon sectioning in test 1 (18.5 hr).
Rolling elements show - increase in concentration with test duration up to a plateau.
+ve and ve slip halves were analysed at the 18 hr test duration no significant differences in hydrogen concentration.
Thermal desorption analyses of ROLLERS and RACEWAY from FAG-FE8 cylindrical
roller thrust washer bearing testing (<400 C)
Concentration of diffusible hydrogen in rolling
elements (ppm)
1.00
Negligible
0.90
6 hr: higher concentration seen

logical to say wear induced
nascent surfaces may have
formed. NOTE: NO visible spalls
on rollers.
0.80
0.70
16.5 and 18 hr: higher

concentration seen . Spalled
and Non-spalled rolling
elements analysed elevated
concentration levels were not
found between the two.
2 hr: no significant
increase logical due
to short test time.
0.60
0.57
0.50
0.50
0.40
0.30
Control
0.27
0.20
0.12
0.10
0.10
Average concentration level of diffusible hydrogen in raceway
0.00
0
10
12
Test time (hours)
14
16
18
20

Conclusion:
Washer raceway: Concentration of diffusible hydrogen in the washer raceway was measured as negligible in the
control (0 hour), 2hour, 6 hour, 16.5 hour and 18 hour tests.
Rolling Elements: Average concentration of diffusible hydrogen in the rolling elements increased with longer test
durations up to a point where a plateau appears to occurs.
The TDS analyses were mostly conducted on non-spalled rolling elements, results being confirmed with
spalled rolling elements as well:
Evidence suggests: hydrogen diffusion through

wear induced nascent surfaces - hydrogen is
generated by decomposition of lubricants
through catalytic reactions.
TDS relation to WECs: Test 1 proved that one mechanism of WEC formation is subsurface with strong evidence
for non-metallic inclusion interaction initiating WECs.
Since WECs readily formed in the 18.5 hr (Test 1) and results from TDS show heightened concentration after
6 hrs (0.27 ppm), 16.5 hrs (0.57 ppm) and 18 hrs (0.50 ppm):
Proposed that: hydrogen diffused into the steel could aid WEC formation and propagation.
Contents
1. Introduction

Summary and future work

Summary
Testing:
RCF testing was conducted on cylindrical roller thrust bearings on an FAG-FE8 test rig.
WECs were created under NON-hydrogen charged conditions.
Low load (Pmax 1200 MPa), boundary regimes, special oil.

Analysis:
Thermal desorption spectroscopy (TDS) utilised to quantify concentration levels of diffusible hydrogen (<400 C).
TDS has shown that hydrogen has diffused into the bearing steel during FAG-FE8 RCF testing.
TDS results show heightened concentration of diffusible hydrogen over increasing test durations.
Conclusion:
It is confirmed that at least one mechanism of WEC formation is subsurface.

One mechanism of subsurface WEC initiation is likely to be from inclusions.
Evidence for hydrogen diffusion through wear induced nascent surfaces, hydrogen is generated by decomposition of
lubricants through catalytic reactions Bulk diffusion mechanism.
It is proposed that hydrogen can diffuse into the steel with the potential of aiding WEC formation and propagation.

Future work
Further NON-hydrogen charged FAG-FE8 testing and TDS:
To confirm trends in the diffusible hydrogen curve and to confirm if a plateau exists.
Obtain a 10-12 hr data mark
1.00
Concentration of diffusible hydrogen in
rolling elements (ppm)
Thermal desorption analyses of ROLLERS from FAG-FE8 cylindrical roller

thrust washer bearing testing using test oil (<400 C)
0.90
0.80
0.70
0.60
10-12 hr
0.57
0.50
0.50
0.40
0.30
Control
0.27
0.20
0.12 0.10
0.10
0.00
0
10
Test time (hours)
15
20

Future work
Serial sectioning analysis:
Further NON-hydrogen charged FAG-FE8 testing and TDS:
Conduct serial sectioning analysis on TDS analysed tests 2-6 (2-18 hr) to examine trends in WEC formation
with test duration and concentration levels of diffusible hydrogen.
Testing with different oils and additives, coupled with TDS to understand the effects that the oil and
additives have on concentration levels of diffusible hydrogen.
X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS):
Perform XPS analysis on test specimens from tests 2-6 for the differing test durations in order to examine
the tribofilm and chemistry of contact during operation.
Thank you!
Contact details:
Alex Richardson
Email: adr1g08@soton.ac.uk
TEL: (+44) 7454373799
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Investigation of White Etching Crack (WEC) formation

mechanisms under Non-hydrogen charged test conditions

Centre for Advanced Tribology at Southampton (nCATS)

National Centre for Advanced Tribology at Southampton (nCATS)

2. FAG-FE8 cylindrical thrust washer bearing RCF testing (NON-hydrogen charged).

3. Summary and future work.

75% of the literature cite hydrogen

Several cited mechanisms for WEC initiation:

Theory: WEC initiation

Theory: Formation of WECs through surface cracking,

Theory: Initiation of WECs independent of defects by adiabatic

Theory: Self-charging of lubricants triggering localised transient current flow

Hydrogen ions (H+) combine with

Lubricant or water enters surface

2. FAG-FE8 cylindrical thrust washer bearing RCF testing (NON-hydrogen charged).

3. Summary and future work.

FAG-FE8 NON hydrogen charged testing

Cylindrical roller thrust washer bearing.

+ve and ve slip halves

Slip experienced continuously

FAG-FE8 NON hydrogen charged testing

Bearing material properties

Fully formulated gear oil (ISO VG64)

Steel washers & rollers

Roller / Washer / Cage material

Martensitic 100Cr6 steel / Martensitic 100Cr6 steel / Brass

Surface roughness (Rq) Roller / Washer

Test1 1: First round of FE8 testing with

Subsurface shear stresses

317 MPa (acting @ a depth below the contact surface of 111 m)

FAG-FE8 NON hydrogen charged testing

Testing conducted on the FAG-FE8 test rig is as follows.

TDS Thermal Desorption Spectroscopy has been conducted on test 2-6.

Test duration (Hr)

2. FAG-FE8 cylindrical thrust washer bearing RCF testing (NON-hydrogen charged).

3. Summary and future work.

FAG-FE8 NON hydrogen charged testing Test 1

Images around one of the raceway washers

NO flaking on the two

FAG-FE8 NON hydrogen charged testing Test 1

1.8 mm total distance sectioned.

Typical WEC observed in a ROLLER during metallographic analysis.

FAG-FE8 NON hydrogen charged testing Test 1

Further examination is thus required.

FAG-FE8 NON hydrogen charged testing Test 1

M.-H. Evans, A.D. Richardson, L.

FAG-FE8 NON hydrogen charged testing Test 1

See previous video

Very thin &

FAG-FE8 NON hydrogen charged testing Test 1

See for yourself

FAG-FE8 NON hydrogen charged testing Test 1

Surface crack angles

FAG-FE8 NON hydrogen charged testing Test 1

See for yourself in video

Very thin &

Propose that it is not likely that a

FAG-FE8 NON hydrogen charged testing Test 1

E.g. extensive crack volume over

FAG-FE8 NON hydrogen charged testing Test 1

Inclusions appear to be WEC initiators.

DDup1_233 (C:17, A:~34)

FAG-FE8 NON hydrogen charged testing Test 1

FAG-FE8 NON hydrogen charged testing Test 1