1.

8 Selection, Substantiation, Development and Coordination of the

Airplane Load carrying Structures
In solving the problem of general arrangement for airplane units, such fundamentals must be
taken into account:

the mass of the airframe structure for the set conditions should be small. This is
achieved by rational transfer of load to structural members at necessary rigidity;

structure must have high degree of survivability, i.e.. ability to withstand operational
loads at partial failure of its separate members, and meet the requirements of fatigue
strength.

structure must provide the greatest convenience in operation of the airplane due to
rational arrangement of hatches and maintenance breaks in units for access to the
power plant, equipment, arms, etc.

In this work, we will use mainly statistic data describing the general arrangement of airplane
units.

The diagram of mutual coordination of the primary members shall be defined after choosing the
general arrangement of units ( wing, fuselage, horizontal and vertical tail units, landing gear).

On the drawing of the general arrangement of units, we will show the arrangement of spars ,
stringers, normal and reinforced ribs; and for the fuselage, the arrangement of longerons.
Stringers, normal and reinforced frames.

Distances between members of longitudinal and transverse structural members of the wing, tail
unit and fuselage shall be specified.

Circuit of coordination for the primary structural members of the airplane will show
coordination of position of spars, false spars of a wing and tail unit, attachment fittings for the
landing gear struts and engines( nacelles) to strong frames or ribs.

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1.8.1 Material Selection Criteria

Materials selection is quite frequently a compromise involving various considerations and the
more important considerations have been associated with mechanical properties.
The selection criteria for materials are as follows:

Static strength efficiencies

Fracture toughness and crack growth

Corrosion and embrittlement

Environmental stability

Other criteria equally important are the criteria associated with producing the basic material
in the forms required and fabricating the end product at a reasonable cost. These criteria are
as follows

Availability and productivity

Material cost

Fabrication characteristics.

Based on these criteria, Aluminum, steel and titanium alloys shall are selected for use in majority of the airplanes load carrying structures ; while composite materials( honey comb) shall
be incorporated in the manufacture of control surfaces in order to reasonably reduce the
weight of structures. These materials are selected based on their mechanical properties.
Aluminum Alloy
Properties ( Advantages and drawbacks)
It is light( with specific gravity of about 2.7), melting point of 680oC, high heat and electrical
conductivity, and high strength to weight ratio. However, in order to improve the strength
and toughness qualities of aluminum , it will have to undergo high heat treatment which
makes manufacturing difficult and limits its usage to less load bearing structures. The available
alloy for this project has breaking stress of 330MPa
Application
We shall use it in production of the aircraft skin, ordinary fuselage frames, spars and stringers
etc

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Steel Alloy
Properties( Advantages and drawbacks)
It has increased strength compared to aluminum, high wear resistant, corrosion and heat
resistant. It equally has high toughness and excellent fatigue life . However, its relatively high
specific weight limits its usage only to high load bearing member. The available material alloy
for this project has breaking stress of 880MPa.

Application
It shall be used mainly in the manufacture of spars, reinforced fuselage frames and control
surface joints to either wing, horizontal or vertical stabilizers, etc.

Titanium Alloy
Properties( Advantages and drawbacks)
It has better strength to weight ratio and stiffness, and can withstand very high temperatures
( melting point is 1668oC). It is equally more corrosion resistant compared to aluminum and
steel.
However, it is extremely difficult to form, is seriously affected by any impurities that may be
accidentally introduced during forming. Most of all, its very expensive, costing about five to
ten times as much as aluminum.

Application
Due to its high temperature resistance, it shall be used in the manufacture of firewalls, air
ducts, hydro-wires, cowlings of engines, external combustion chamber housing , and skin of
leading edge of the wing.
Its high strength to weight finds its use in manufacture of bolts, landing gear doors and

36

1.8.2 LOAD CARRYING STRUCTURE OF WING

The choice of the load-carrying structure for the wing shall be determined by:

wing configuration availability of hatches in a skin for servicing the equipment

units located in a wing, fuel tanks inside the wings, landing gear struts and wheels,
etc.;

fuselage configuration availability of sufficient volumes for the wing centre section in fuselage;

rigidity requirements.

1.8.2.1 Determination of Load Carrying Structure of Wing

For the approximate choice of the load carrying structure of the wing, two criteria shall be
used

The first is concept of a conventional spar. The cap width of the spar is 0.6 of the wing chord
in reference section. Root chord bo is accepted as such section. Thus , we will have cap thickness as:
tCAP = 0.6 bo
= 0.6 * 9.93 = 5.96m
Cap thickness of the spar is determined by :

y =

(p

S z A 2 m o gz i m w gz A P
n
0 .96 C bo2 P

Where po wing loading at takeoff [N/m2]; S wing area[m2]; zAcoordinate of mean aerodynamic chord of a wing spanwise, m; mmass of cargo located on a wing ,kg, g free fall
acceleration, 9.8m/s2; zi coordinate of the centre of mass for the cargo located on a wing
from a longitudinal axis of the airplane, nP g-load, mW mass of wing, kg; Cairfoil thickness ratio; bo the root wing chord, m; P breaking stress of a material for a spar cap.

37

In order to have a spar thickness and strength capable of withstanding any wing loading, we
shall neglect mass of wing and mass of cargo.
Value of nP for non maneuverable airplanes ranges from 3.4. we shall choose the maximum
value of 4 to ensure survival of airplane under big loading.

Alloyed structural steel with breaking stress P = 880MPis chosen in order to decrease thickness while maintaining strength. From previous project, S= 378.8m2; zA = 12.09m; bo= 9.93m;
C= 0.15, po = 6500N/m2 . Thus spar thickness reduces to

y =

(p

S zA
0 . 96 C b o2
o

(6500 378 .8 12 .09 )

0 .96 0 .15 9 .93 2 880 10 6

= 9.53mm

Generally, if cap thickness value is less than 3mm, then skin thickness will be thin. In this case
its critical stresses of instability will be low ( in a compression zone). Spar type wing will be
more rationally adopted, and bending moment will be basically taken up by spar caps. If thickness is more than 3mm, then the wing skin may be made rather thick and with high critical
stresses of instability. Monoblock-type (stressed-skin type) or torsion- type wing in mass criterion are useful to be applied in this case.

Due to cut-out in the wing for main landing gear and maintenance doors, torsion box type
shall be chosen for the wing design.

Second Approach: The load carrying structure of a wing may be chosen by criterion of load
moment intensity.

Load moment intensity for wing section is determined by the formula:

poS zA
M
=
3
H
1 . 03 (C b o

)
)

38

Where Mbending moment, N/m; H design thickness of airfoil section

If the value of load bending moment intensity doesnt exceed 10.15MPa, in this case spar
type wing shall be more favorable. However, if M/H3 is more than 10...15MPa., monoblock
type of torsion box type wing will be chosen. With the formula above , we shall determine

(6500 378 .8 12 . 09 ) 4
M
=
3
3
H
1 . 03 (0 . 15 9 . 93 )

= 35MPa

Thus, torsion box type of wing shall be the favorable arrangement.

1.8.2.2 Functions of Load Carrying Members in (Torsion Box )Wing.

By definition, torsion box wing type is one where bending moment is taken by both spars
( which are less massive) and top and bottom panels( skin and stringers).

Spar
It is a longitudinal beam taking bending moment Mb( completely or partially), lateral force Q
( completely or partially) and torque Mt (partially) that act on the wing. Considering the beam
type spar which comprises top and bottom caps and web, the cap takes bending moment
while the web takes shear, Q.

Rib

They provide necessary airfoil shape

They take aerodynamic load from skin and stringers and transmit it to spars

They obstruct the approach of top and bottom panels during bending , and is compressed at that moment

They redistribute concentrated loads such as nacelle and landing gear loads to wing
spars and cover panels

They carry inertia loads/pressures in fuel tank sections

Stringers
They are longitudinal members of units, which are bound with a skin and transverse frame-

39

work. They perceive the axial, tensile and compression stresses (together with the skin). They
also perceive local aerodynamic loads together with the skin. Since they are attached to the
wing box in torsion box wings, they also take up bending moments together with skin.

1.8.2.3 Determination of Distance Between Ribs and Stringers

Distance between ribs

The weight of the rib is a significant amount of the total box structure, thus it is important that
we include it in the overall optimization consideration of the wing structure. It is advantageous
to select a larger rib spacing ; for equal structural weight it, leads to cost savings. However, in
order to avoid aerodynamic problems we shall compromise the spacing of the ribs to a value
optimum for structural weight reduction while maintaining the wing contour and its ability to
take loads. Moreover, very short distance is disadvantageous owing to plenty of rivets which
results in quality deterioration of a wing surface, complication in its manufacture and increase
of stress in very big amount.

In general, the distance , a, between the ribs shall be chosen depending on skin thickness and
the sizes of stringer sections. In modern torsion box wings with high specific loading ( po >
4000N/m2 ) with skin thickness (SK = 3...5mm) value a can reach 700...900mm. Thus, a
rational value based on the above conditions for a ,and skin thickness SK = 3mm of the wing
shall be
a = 700mm

Distance between Stringers

In torsion box type wings, the distance between stringers must be taken short (bSTR =
100.180 mm) because in this case the panel carries compressive stresses better. From view
of mass reduction,
bSTR = 175mm

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Rib Arrangement
The ribs in a swept wing may be arranged along the airflow, at an angle to the ram airflow or
perpendicular to one of the spars, aerodynamic central axis, the wing medium line.

Fig 1.8.1

We shall choose the second configuration, i.e., arrangement of the ribs perpendicular to the
front spar.
Advantages of Rib arrangement perpendicular to front spar

The ribs are shorter, bending moments which act on them will be less. Hence their
mass will be less.

A skin mesh which is formed by continuous ribs and stringers will have less diagonal
length. In this case, the critical stress of surface buckling increases.

Angle between the web and cap of the rib will be consistent and similar to the right
41

one. That simplifies manufacturing the rib and attaching the skin to it unlike in parallel
rib configuration to airstream which is complicated in manufacture because of varying
bevel angle. For such rib, it is necessary to manufacture the matrix and punch of very
complicated shape.

Attaching the rib to the longitudinal members is simplified, as it approaches them at

the angle similar to the right one.

Disadvantages

Drag will be more compared to parallel rib arrangement to airstream because of skin
waviness which is caused by non parallel arrangement of rib to airstream.

Reinforced ribs location on the wing

Ribs
10..attachment point for landing gear beam support
13.engine mount attachment
26, 29, 33,37,41, 44, 46...aileron attachment to wing

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43

1.8.3 DETERMINATION OF LOAD CARRYING STRUCTURE OF FUSELAGE

There are three main fuselage load carrying configurations: monocoque, semi-monocoque and
truss types. The fuselage as a beam contains longitudinal members, ordinary frames and bulkheads( reinforced frames), and its external skin. The longerons carry the major portion of the
fuselage bending moment, loaded by axial forces resulting from the bending moment. The
fuselage skin carries the shear from the applied external transverse and torsional forces, and
cabin pressure..

In addition to stabilizing the external skin, stringers also carry axial loads induced by the bending
moment . Frames primarily serve to maintain the shape of the fuselage and to reduce the
column length of the stringers in order to prevent general instability of the structure. Frame
loads are generally small and often tend to balance each other, and as a result, frames are
generally of light structure.

Bulkheads( reinforced frames) are provided at points of introduction of concentrated forces such
as those from the wings, tail surfaces and landing gears. Unlike ordinary frames, the bulkheads
structure is quite substantial and serves to distribute the applied load into the fuselage skin.

A pure monocoque shell is a simple, unstiffened tube of thin skins and as such is inefficient since
unsupported thin sheets are unstable in compression and shear. The major advantage it has is
its simple construction and reduced mass( although this will not give us the load property
required)

44

The truss type is designed as spatial trusses of rigid, right braced type. The caps of trusses, strut,
compression struts, drag struts and flexible straps are included in local load carrying members.
Its main advantage is simplicity of manufacture, convenience of mounting, reviewing and reparing of equipment located in it, etc. However, it has bad aerodynamic shape, low stiffness, low
servce life, impossible use of internal volumes for arrangement of freights etc.

Our high capacity, long range passenger airplane requires good aerodynamic shape in order to
reduce drag and consequently fuel consumption , and long service life . Truss type, however,
doesnt fulfill these conditions.

A structural system composed of a thin skinned shell stiffened by longitudinal stringers which in
turn are supported by transverse frames forms a semi monocoque structure.

Advantages of semi-monocoque structure

It has a high strength to weight ratio, and is well suited for unusual load combination
and location

It has design flexibility and can withstand local failure without failure through load redistribution

It has good aerodynamic shape, long service life and possible usage of internal volumes for equipment and payload.

Disadvantages

If subjected to bending, it will fail on the compression side. The longitudinal stringers
act as columns with an efficient length equal to that of the frames spacing which is
the panel length. Initial failure thus occurs in a single panel and often referred to as

45

panel instability failure.

In general, the following requirements were considered while designing the fuselage structure:
1. Concentrated forces applied to the fuselage main members( longerons, frames,
short longerons, stringers) must be smoothly distributed to the fuselage skin
2. Great concentrated forces ( from engines, tail units, wing, landing gear) must be
transmitted to the skin by main members which are directed in parallel to force.
The forces directed along the fuselage must be transmitted to a skin through
stringers and longitudinal beams. The forces acting crosswise a fuselage must be
transmitted to skin through strong frames
3. Concentrated forces directed under a sharp angle to fuselage axis must be transmitted to the skin through stringers and frames
The semi monocoque structural configuration meets our requirements to a reasonable extent,
hence we shall use it as our fuselage design.
Distance between frames
The distance between frames depends on thickness of a fuselage skin, configuration and mass of
the airplane. On real structures of heavy airplanes , frame pitch is accepted in the limit of
450..500mm
Relying solely on structural mass reduction, we shall choose the upper limit of 500mm
bFR = 500mm
In a big cut out zone, longitudinal reinforced and strong members( strong stringers, short
longerons) are mountes as fringes.

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Reinforced frames location due to cut-outs on the fuselage

Frames:
1 to 111 ..boundary of fuselage pressurization zone
10, 13...entrance door cut out zone
26, 34..nose landing gear cut out zone
31, 34, ...emergency exit door 1 cut out zone
56, 67...wing torsion box cut out zone
64, 79..emergency exit door 2 cut out
67, 79...main landing gear cut out
97,100emergency exit door 3 cut out zone
111, 113, 117, 118 .empennage or tail unit spar attachment

1.8.4 LOAD CARRYING STRUCTURE OF HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL STABILIZERS

Structural members of horizontal and vertical surfaces must be coordinated with each other and
with the structural members of the fuselage.
We shall use a two spar structure considering the relatively lower loadings on them compared
with the wing.
The control surfaces shall be designed according to mono-spar structure with ribs located perpendicular to front spar. The tail section of their control surfaces shall be made of honeycomb
filler for structural mass reduction without compromise to rigidity. Mass is further reduced by
attachment of both vertical and horizontal tails spars in the same strong frame. Auxiliary bending moments shall be eliminated in this case.

Ribs and stringers pitch for horizontal stabilizer

Distance between ribs are determined on same basis as for the wings. In spar type structures,
this distance ranges from 200...300mm. We shall choose optimum distance that will eliminate
47

48

waviness in skin contour without big increase in structural mass

a RIB = 250mm
For the stringers, we have free choice to choose extreme value from the range bSTR =
200...300mm.

bSTR = 300mm
Reinforced ribs in horizontal stabilizer are ribs:
13, 26 and 39 for elevator attachment

Ribs and stringers pitch for Vertical stabilizer

Distance between ribs

aRIB = 250mm
Distance between Stringers

bSTR = 270mm

Reinforced ribs in vertical stabilizer are ribs:

17, 29 and 42 for rudder attachment

1.8.5 DETERMINATION OF LOAD CARRYING STRUCTURE OF LANDING GEAR

The load-carrying structures of the landing gear and the devices of its retraction should provide:

the least mass of the landing gear( in view of reinforcing the cut-outs for landing gear
in the structures of the fuselage or wing

the least volume of the landing gear in retracted position;

Simplicity of the kinematic structure for mechanisms of extension and retraction

Wheel and struts, while retracting the landing gear should not pass though the space
assigned to external devices if they are located

49

50

51

The nose landing gear is such that it would retract towards the nose part. This has two major advantages
1. Mass of strut is less since they are loaded only in tension without the buckling effect encountered in the rear-ward retraction system
2. In the case of landing, gear extends against airstreams. The impart of the airstreams on it
helps to extend it freely without much effort. This is specially useful incase of emergency
landing.
The nose gear are attached on frames 25 and 33 of the fuselage.
The main landing gears located near the wing mid sections, retract towards the fuselage. They
are attached to ribs 7 and 11 of the wing, and are stored on retraction within frames 67 and 79 of
the fuselage.

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53

1.8.6

1.8.7
54

1.9 Conclusion
The take-off mass obtained by the zero approximation method is in good order with those of
Existing prototypes. We can further decrease it by making use of composite materials in certain
units of the plane such as the tail unit control surfaces, ailerons, flaps and some internal
Elements that do not take much loads. With this consideration as well as performance of actual
aerodynamic tests on the model, the external parameters can be slightly modified.

Moreover, width and thickness of the spar cap which was calculated is not final. Since mass
reduction is one of the goals during airplane designing, we shall devote an entire chapter in this
project towards the use of minimum mass method to calculate parameters of the spar.

55