Introduction

Fiber- Reinforced Polymer:

Fiber-reinforced polymer is a composite material made of a polymer matrix reinforced with
fibers.
Composites are combination of two or more materials (reinforcement, resin,
filler, etc.), differing in form or composition on a macro scale.
The
constituents retain their identities, i.e..; they do not dissolve or merge into
each other, although they act in concert. Normally, the components can be
physically identified and exhibit an interface between each other.

Process Description:
Composites are composed of polymers, reinforcing fibers, fillers, and other additives. Each of
these ingredients plays an important role in the processing and final performance of the end
product.
In general terms:
The polymer (Resins) is the glue that holds the composite and influences the physical
properties of the composite end product.
The reinforcement provides the mechanical strength properties to the end product.
The fillers and additives are processing aids and also impart special properties to the end
product.
Other materials include core materials (depending on the application) provide stiffness while
being lightweight.

Material Description:
Polymers:
Polymers are generally petrochemical or natural gas derivatives and can be either
Thermoplastic, or
Thermosetting
Primary function:
To transfer stress between reinforcing fibers and to protect them from mechanical and
environmental damage
Both types of polymers are used in composites and can benefit when combined with reinforcing
fibers.
However, the major volume of thermoplastic polymers is not used in composite form.
In contrast to thermoplastics, thermosetting polymers generally require reinforcing fibers of high
filler loading in order to be used.

Thermosetting polymers are used for the major portion of the composites industry:
POLYESTER
VINYL ESTER
EPOXY
PHENOLIC
POLYURETHANE
Thermoplastic polymers:
ACETAL
ACRYRONITRILE BUTADIENE STYRENE (ABS)
NYLON
POLYETHYLENE (PE)
POLYPROPYLENE (PP)
POLYETHYLENE TEREPHTHALATE (PET)
Properties required are usually dominated by strength, stiffness, toughness, and durability. The
end-user must take into account the type of application, service temperature, environment,
method of fabrication, and the mechanical properties needed.
Proper curing of the resin is essential for obtaining optimum mechanical properties, preventing
heat softening, limiting creep, and reducing moisture impact.
Unsaturated polyesters have the dominant share of this market because of their relatively low
cost, fabrication flexibility and good performance.
Major uses:
Transportation
Construction
Marine
Vinyl esters are epoxy/polyester hybrids that combine some of the better characteristics of each
system.
They have good structural performance and dynamic properties.
Vinyl esters should be considered for higher performance applications than isophthalic polyesters
because they have superior chemical and water resistant properties, better retention of strength
and stiffness at elevated temperatures and greater toughness.
They process like polyesters. Their higher cost is offset by performance improvements.
Epoxy polymers are:
Excellent mechanical properties
Good fatigue resistance
Low shrinkage
Good heat and chemical resistance

Major uses:
FRP Strengthening Systems
FRP Rebars
FRP Stay-in-Place Forms
Epoxy resins should be considered where higher shear strength than is available with polyesters
and the application requires good mechanical properties at elevated temperatures or durability.
Epoxies are used automated manufacturing such as pultrusion, filament winding, resin transfer
molding, and compression molding.
Some epoxies have low ultra-violet resistance and may need special surface protection
Phenolics are experiencing a resurgence of interest in composites because of their fire resistance.
They have low creep and good dimensional stability.
Phenolic resins should be considered when the goal is performance under heat, retention of
properties under fire conditions or low emission of toxic fumes. Characteristics of phenolics
include low flammability, low spread of flame and little smoke.
Mechanical properties are comparable to orthophthalic polyesters. Low shrinkage compared with
polyesters is as characteristic of this resin.
Polyurethane:

Urethanes are available as either thermoplastic or thermosets.

Broad compounding capability covers the range from flexible to rigid systems.
Both foams and solid forms are in use.
They process rapidly, and although higher in cost, are gaining in usage based on
cost/performance. Polyurethanes are used primarily in Reinforced Reaction Injection Molding,
for items such as automotive bumpers and fascia.
A wide variety of polymers are available that can satisfy virtually every conceivable end use
application.
Proper selection requires knowledge of the physical and mechanical properties of the
application and the fabrication process to be used to produce the end products.
Physical Properties of Thermosetting Resins Used in Structural Composites:
Resin
Density
Tensile
Elong.
E-Mod.
Long.Ter
3
Type
(kg/m )
Str.
(%)
(GPa)
m
(MPa)
t ,(C)
Polyesters
1.2
50-65
2-3
3
120
Vinyl esters 1.15
70-80
4-6
3.5
140
Epoxy
1.1-1.4
50-90
2-8
3
120-200
Phenolics
1.2
40-50
1-2
3
120-150

Fiber Reinforcement:
Primary function: To carry load along the length of the fiber, provides strength and or stiffness
in one direction
It can be oriented to provide properties in directions of primary loads.
The most prominent reinforcing fibers in terms of both quantities consumed and product
sales value would be:
ARAMID
BORON
CARBON/GRAPHITE
GLASS
NYLON
POLYESTER
POLYETHYLENE
POLYPROPYLENE
FIBER PROPERTIES DENSITY (g/cm3):
Steel

Alum

2.76

E-Glass

1.99

S-Glass

1.99

Carbon

1.59

Aramid

1.38
0

FIBER PROPERTIES TENSILE STRENGTH:

Alum

20

Steel

60

S-Glass

625

Carbon

530

Aramid

525

E-Glass

500
0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

x103 psi

Steel

0.16

Alum

0.2

E-Glass

4.8

S-Glass

5
1.4

Carbon
Aramid

2.8
0

FIBE
R PROPERTIES STRAIN TO FAILURE:

(%)
Glass has very good impact resistance due to their high strain to failure, when compared to other
fibers. Aramid also has excellent impact resistance; particularly to ballistic impact. Not shown on

this chart is steels ability to have a strain to failure up to 20%. The value shown is the strain at
yield.
FIBER PROPERTIES TENSILE MODULUS:
Alum

10

Steel

29

Carbon

33.5

Aramid

19

S-Glass

12.6

E-Glass

10.5
0

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

106 psi

In this graph, carbon can be shown with several different moduli. For example, 12K carbon
fibers are available with standard or low (33-35 MSI), intermediate (40-50 MSI), high (50-70
MSI), and ultra high (70-140 MSI) modulus. The higher one goes, the more expensive it gets.
The higher modulus is more suitable for aircraft and spacecraft where performance is the main
objective, not cost.

FIBER PROPERTIES CTE Longitudinal:

Alum

12.6

Steel

6.5

E-Glass

S-Glass

2.9

Carbon

0.5

-2 Aramid
-4

-2

10

12

14

x 10-6/0C
Carbon and Aramid fibers can have small or negative coefficients of thermal expansion. It
should be noted that the matrix has a much higher CTE (coefficients of thermal expansion) than
the reinforcement.
The thermal expansion of the composite depends not only on the type of reinforcement and the
type of matrix, but also the geometry of the reinforcement, its volume fraction, and the amount
and type of filler used.
FIBER PROPERTIES THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY:
BTU-in/hr-ft2 - 0F
Concrete

7.5

Alum

1500

Steel

FRP

115

1.5
0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

1400

1600

x10-6/0C

FIBER REINFORCEMENT:
GLASS (E-GLASS):

MOST COMMON FIBER USED

HIGH STRENGTH
GOOD WATER RESISTANCE
GOOD ELECTRIC INSULATING PROPERTIES
LOW STIFFNESS

Many raw materials are used to produce glass. Silica sand is the primary ingredient, accounting
for more than 50 percent of the raw materials. Additional materials that may be used include
limestone, fluorspar, boric acid, and clay, in addition to a variety of metal oxides. The
combination and amounts depends on which type of glass is being produced.
Glass is generally the most impact resistant fiber but also weighs more than carbon or Aramid.
Glass fibers have excellent strength characteristics, equal and higher than steel in certain forms.
The lower modulus requires special design treatment in applications where stiffness is critical.
Processing characteristics required of glass fibers include: chop ability, low static buildup, and
good fiber matrix adhesion. Glass fibers are insulators of both electricity and heat and thus their
composites exhibit very good electrical and thermal insulation properties. They are transparent
to radio frequency radiation; therefore they are used extensively in radar antenna applications.
Glass filaments are extremely fragile, and are supplied in bundles called strands, roving or yarns.
Strands are a collection of continuous filaments. A roving refers to a collection of untwisted
strands or yarns. Yarns are collections of filaments or strands that are twisted together.

Types of Glass Polymer:

E-Glass is electrical resistant glass providing good overall strength at low cost. It accounts for
about 90% of all glass fiber reinforcements. It has good electrical resistance, and it is used in
radomes and antennas because of its radio frequency transparency. It is also used in computer
circuit boards to provide stiffness and electrical resistance.
S-Glass is a high strength, high stiffness glass with good performance in high temperature and
corrosive environments. This type of glass is stronger and stiffer than E-Glass and is used in
more demanding applications were their extra cost can be justified. This type of glass is referred
to R-Glass in Europe and T-Glass in Japan. A lower cost version, S-2 glass is approximately 4070% stronger than E-Glass. S-2 Glass is used in golf club shafts because it provides flexibility
and accuracy for long ball hitting, and it is less expensive than carbon.
C-Glass is a calcium borosilicate glass providing good resistance to corrosive acid environments
such as hydrochloric and sulfuric acid. It is also noted that E-Glass and S-2 Glass have a much
better resistance to basic solutions such as sodium carbonate, compared to C-Glass. C-Glass has
poor high-temperature performance; therefore either E-Glass or S-Glass is used.
ECR-Glass, used in Europe is an alternative to E-Glass in a corrosive environment. They have
similar properties to E-Glass, very resistant to chemical attack and are boron free.
AR-Glass is an alkali resistant glass formulated for use in cement substrates and concrete.
ARAMID (KEVLAR):

SUPERIOR RESISTANCE TO DAMAGE (ENERGY ABSORBER)

GOOD IN TENSION APPLICATIONS (CABLES, TENDONS)
MODERATE STIFFNESS
MORE EXPENSIVE THAN GLASS

Aramid fiber is an aromatic polyimide, organic manmade fiber.

Aramid fibers offer good mechanical properties at a low density with the added advantage of
toughness or damage resistance. They are characterized as having reasonably high tensile
strength, a medium modulus, and a very low density. There is a significant cost difference
compare with glass fibers. Since Aramid are lightweight, they have an advantage in their
strength/weight and stiffness to weight ratios. It should be noted that they have relatively low
compressive strengths.
Aramid fibers are insulators of both electricity and heat. They are resistant to organic solvents,
fuels, and lubricants. Fibers without resin are tough and used as cables or ropes because they do
not behave in a brittle manner as do both carbon and Aramid.

CARBON

GOOD MODULUS AT HIGH TEMPERATURES

EXCELLENT STIFFNESS
MORE EXPENSIVE THAN GLASS
BRITTLE
LOW ELECTRIC INSULATING PROPERTIES

Carbon/graphite fibers combine high modulus with low density and make them very attractive
for aircraft and other applications where weight saved can be directly translated to cost savings
and, therefore, justify their higher material cost.
Carbon fiber is created using polyacrylonitrile (PAN), pitch or rayon fiber precursors.
PAN based fibers offer good strength and modulus values up to 85-90 Msi. They also offer
excellent compression strength for structural applications.
Pitch fibers are made from petroleum or coal tar pitch. Their extremely high modulus values (up
to 140 Msi) and favorable CTE make them the material used in spacecraft applications.
It should be noted that Carbon fiber composites are more brittle than glass or Aramid and can
show galvanic corrosion when used next to metal. A barrier material, such as glass, and
sometimes epoxy, must be used.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF FRP

FRP composites have many advantages over conventional materials . These advantages are
gradually being utilized in the construction industry for infrastructure applications. Some of the
marine and water way applications such as miter gates will greatly benefit by the use of FRPs in
terms of high strength, stiffness, corrosion resistance, ease of installation, simple repair methods,
excellent durability, long service life, minimum maintenance and lower life cycle costs. Some of
the advantages of FRPs are:

1. Light weight: a typical 8" FRP deck including wearing surface weighs 25 psf vs. 120 psf for
a standard 9.5" concrete deck. Reduction in dead load results in an increased live load
capacity with possible elimination of weight restrictions.
2. Rapid installation: FRPs can be fast implemented due to modular, pre-fabricated, and light
weight units that eliminate forming and curing efforts necessary for conventional materials
such as concrete decks or elaborate welding and riveting needed in heavy steel construction.
3. Reduced interruption: low down-time of an in-service structure by employing rapid
installation procedures can lead to lower user costs, lower maintenance, higher safety, and
better public relations.
4. Good durability: excellent resistance to de-icing salts and other chemicals results in
eliminating corrosion, cracking, and spalling associated with steel reinforced concrete.
5. Long service life: large, non-civil FRP structures have performed extremely well in harsh
environments for decades. As an example, FRP bridge decks are expected to provide service
life of about 75-100 years with little maintenance.
6. Fatigue and impact resistance: FRPs have high fatigue endurance and impact resistance.
7. Quality control: shop fabrication of FRP results in excellent quality control with lower
transportation cost.
8. Ease of installation: FRP structural systems or subsystems such as bridge decks have been
used by general contractors or maintenance crew using standard details with installation time
reduction of up to 80%, thus eliminating traffic congestion and construction site related
accident.

th

th

9. Cost savings: structural rehabilitation using FRP costs a fraction (1/15 to 1/10 ) of the
replacement cost and extends the service life by additional 25-30 years. Rehabilitation also
results in less environmental impact and green house gas emissions (Ryszard, 2010).
Similarly, new FRP construction provides superior FRP thermo-mechanical properties and
lower life-cycle costs.

Some of the disadvantages of FRPs are: slightly higher initial costs, limited experience with
these materials by design professionals and contractors, lack of data on long-term field
performance, and absence of full spectrum of codes and specifications similar to conventional
materials.
Merit Comparison and Ratings for FRP and Steel
Property (Parameter)

Merit/Advantage (Rating)

Rating Scale

FRP

Steel

Strength/stiffness

4-5

1: Very Low

Weight

2: Low

Corrosion resistance/

4-5

3: Medium

Environmental Durability

4: High

Ease of field construction

3-4

Ease of repair

4-5

3-5

Fire

3-5

Transportation/handling

Toughness

Acceptance

2-3

Maintenance

5: Very High

Note: Higher rating indicates better desirability of the property

FRP Merits and Suitability of Applications

Parameter
Strength/stiffness

FRP Application
FRP

Application

Very high

aerospace

High

marine, construction, pipes, bridges, reinforcing

bars, automotive

Weight

Very high

aerospace, marine, construction, pipes, bridges,

reinforcing bars, automotive

Corrosion resistance/

Very high

Environmental Durability
Ease of field construction

marine, boat industry, construction industry,

aerospace

High

automotive, leisurely applications

High

buildings, bridges, pavements, kiln linings, wind

mill blades, radomes

Ease of repair

High

bridges, tunnels, underwater piles.

Fire

Very high

aerospace, marine, automotive, blast resistant

FRP construction.

Transportation/handling

Medium

bridge decks, leisure products, marine boats

Very high

shapes, bridge decks, components and assembled

FRP systems

Toughness and impact

High

bullet proof vests, vandalism and graffiti proof

walls.

Acceptance

low

construction and aerospace industries

Low

offshore and fire resistant applications.

FRP Use and Suitability for Marine Applications

Marine/
off-shore
Application
Boating/sports
related
Naval
applications
Off-shore
applications
Hydraulic
structures and
supporting
structural
elements

FRP Suitability
Advantages
moisture resistance, ease of use and
repair, high strength/ stiffness, light
weight, corrosion resistance
high strength/stiffness, light weight,
corrosion resistance, ease of
navigation, longer service life
moisture resistance, ease of use, high
strength/stiffness, corrosion resistance,
ease of construction, longer service
life, minimum maintenance, ease of
repair, fire resistance.
moisture resistance, high
strength/stiffness, light weight,
corrosion resistance, longer service
life, minimum maintenance and ease
of construction.

Examples
boats, seating and storage
compartments, fishing rods etc.
ship decks, aircraft landing
platforms, cabins, gun housings,
walking platforms, rails etc.
piles, retaining walls, pedestrian
walkways, bridges, pavement
panels for oil fields and off-shore
structures, buoys and floats etc.
hydraulic gates, pumps, pipes,
dampers, grating structures, access
structures etc.

STRUCTURAL DESIGN APPROACH FOR COMPOSITES:

FRPs are designed as an externally bonded tension member. They can add shear strength and
flexural capacity and provide confinement or axial tension to existing beams, slabs, walls, or
columns. They are not designed to be stand-alone structural members, but to work in
conjunction with the existing structure. They have been used as part of seismic retrofits, load
capacity increases due to change of use, repair of damage caused by impact or corrosion, and
construction anomalies
The process:
Externally bonded wet layup systems:
These consist of dry fiber sheets that are saturated with resin at the project site. The wet
fibers are then placed on the member to be strengthened and allowed to cure in place.
Once cured, the fiber wrap acts as a tension member, with the force in the direction of the
fibers. The most common types of fibers are glass, carbon, and Aramid; the most common
type of saturating resin is epoxy. The design is based on the properties of the system,
incorporating both the fibers and the matrix.
One of the advantages of using fiber wrap for structural strengthening is that it is light weight
and its installation is low impact small crews can accomplish the work with a typically
small project site footprint. This allows for unique solutions to challenges that sometimes
cannot be solved using traditional materials. For example, slab and beam strengthening
projects can often be installed through existing drop ceilings and around existing HVAC
equipment, minimizing any down time due to having to suspend operations. Strengthening of
shear walls with fiber wrap adds minimal dead weight to a structure, avoiding the problems
associated with transferring new loads down to the foundation. The final application is
usually less than a half inch thick, so egress routes are not disrupted. In general, fiber wrap
can be used to add tension capacity to an existing structural member.

Advantages of FRP in buildings

FRP composites have numerous potential advantages in building construction, including the
following:
Offsite fabrication and modular construction
Better quality control;
Improved health & safety;
Faster build times;
Manufacture can take place concurrently with ground-works on site;
Services can be factory fitted into the structure;
Ability to automate and mechanize production
R reduced mass
Easier, faster and more economic installation smaller cranes required;
Ability to bring larger sections to site, reducing assembly time and cost;
Less disruption during installation;
Reduction in size and cost of supporting structure, foundations, etc;
Reduced energy in transportation to site.
Superior durability
Resistant to atmospheric degradation;
Reduction in maintenance requirements;
Reduction in through-life costs and disruption.
Ability to mould complex forms
New aesthetic possibilities;
Geometrically more efficient solutions.
Special surface finishes and effects
Ability to integrate special finishes and a very wide variety of unusual effects;
Simulation of traditional materials
Such as stone or granite
Improved thermal insulation and lack of cold bridging
Reduction in carbon emissions and
Running costs;
Sustainability;
Low embedded energy;
Possibility of recycling;
Possible use of natural fibers and resins.