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Polynomials
Definition
A polynomial over a ring R(Z, Q, R, C) in x is an expression of the form
p(x) = an xn + an1 xn1 + + a1 x + a0 , ai R, for 0 i n.
If an 6= 0, then n = deg p(x) is called the degree of p(x). A non-zero element r R is
a polynomial of degree 0. The zero 0 R is a polynomial and its degree is negative
infinity or undefined. The set of all polynomials over R in x is denoted by R[x].
For any f (x), g(x) R[x].
1. deg(f (x) + g(x)) max{deg f (x), deg g(x)}
2. deg f (x)g(x) = deg f (x) + deg g(x)
Many properties of integers have analogues for polynomials.
Properties
1. Sum, difference and product of polynomials are polynomials.
2. Let f (x), g(x) R[x], we say that f (x) divides g(x) if there exists non-zero
q(x) R[x] such that g(x) = f (x)q(x). If f (x) divids g(x), we say that f (x)
is a divisor of g(x) and write f (x)|g(x).
3. Let f (x), g(x) R[x], then there exists q(x), r(x) R[x] such that f (x) =
q(x)g(x) + r(x) and deg r(x) < deg g(x). (We say that R[x] is a Euclidean
domain.)
1
Another way of stating Fundamental Theorem of Algebra is every complex polynomial p(x) C[x] of degree n can be factorized into product of linear polynomials,
i.e. there exists a, 1 , 2 , , n C such that p(x) = a(x 1 )(x 2 ) (x n ).
Corollary
1. If a polynomial of degree not greater than n has n + 1 distinct zeros, then it
is the zero polynomial.
2. Two polynomials of degree not greater than n are equal if they have the same
value at n + 1 distinct numbers.
unique polynomial p(x) R[x] of degree n such that p(xi ) = yi for all i = 0, 1, , n.
In fact we have
n
X
(x x0 )(x x1 ) (x\
xi ) (x xn )yi
p(x) =
,
\
i=0 (xi x0 )(xi x1 ) (xi xi ) (xi xn )
y x n x2 x
y 0 x0 n x0 2 x0
y 1 x1 n x1 2 x1
..
..
..
..
...
.
.
.
.
y n xn n xn 2 xn
is
= 0.
1
1
1
..
.
Proposition
A rational polynomial p(x) Q[x] takes integer values on all integers if and only if
x
x
x
x
p(x) = a0
+ a1
+ a2
+ + an
0
1
2
n
x
for some a0 , a1 , a2 , , an Z, where xk = x(x1)(x2)(xk+1)
,
k
=
6
0
and
= 1.
k!
0
Symmetric Polynomials
1. If a polynomial p(x1 , x2 , , xn ) in n variables satisfies
p(x1 , , xi , , xj , , xn ) = p(x1 , , xj , , xi , , xn )
for any i 6= j, then p(x1 , x2 , , xn ) is called a symmetric polynomial.
2. The elementary symmetric polynomials of degree k, k = 0, 1, 2, , n, in n
variables x1 , x2 , , xn is defined by
X
k (x1 , x2 , , xn ) =
xi k = x1 k + x2 k + + xn k .
1in
k=0
ank
.
an
()
()
1 ,
5
1 5
.
2
Solving
A2 = 15 and
1
1
Fk = 1 k 2 k
5
5
!k
!k
1
1+ 5
1 5
=
2
2
5
!k
1
1+ 5
1
=
+
2
2
5
where the notation [x] means the largest integer not greater than x.
Example 1
Find all rational polynomials p(x) = x3 + ax2 + bx + c such that a, b, c are roots of
the equation p(x) = 0.
Solution
By Vietas formula
a + b + c = a
ab + bc + ca = b
abc = c
If ab = 1, then c = 2a b and
1 + b(2a b) + (2a b)a = b
2a2 2 + b + b2 = 0
2a4 2a2 + a2 b + a2 b2 = 0
2a4 2a2 a + 1 = 0
Since a is rational, the only solution is a = 1 and (a, b, c) = (1, 1, 1).
Hence the solution of the problem is (a, b, c) = (0, 0, 0), (1, 2, 0) or (1, 1, 1).
Example 2
Given that p(x) is a polynomial of degree n such that p(k) = 2k for k = 0, 1, 2, n.
Find p(n + 1).
Solution
Take
x
x
x
x
,
+ +
+
+
p(x) =
n
2
1
0
n+1
n+1
n+1
n+1
p(n + 1) =
+
+
+ +
0
1
2
n
n+1
n+1
n+1
n+1
n+1
1
+
+
+
+ +
=
n+1
n
0
1
2
= 2n+1 1
Example 3
x + y + z = 1
Given that x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 3
3
x + y3 + z3 = 7
Solution
Let Sk and k be the k-th power sum and symmetric sum of x, y, z. Then by Newton
formula
S1 1 = 0
S2 1 S1 + 22 = 0
S3 1 S2 + 2 S1 33 = 0
1 = 1
2 = 1
3 = 1
Solution
Observe that
y
x+y
x
x+y
y
+ x+y
= 1 and
x
x+y
y
x+y
=
xy
x2 +2xy+y 2
xy
xy
= 1. We know that
x
,
x+y
y k
x k
are roots of t2 t + 1 = 0. Thus Sk = ( x+y
) + ( x+y
) satisfies the recurrence
relation
(
Sk+2 = Sk+1 Sk , k 0
S0 = 2, S1 = 1
!4
X
X
xi
xi xj (xi 2 + xj 2 ) C
1in
1i<jn
Solution
Since the inequality is homogeneous, we may assume that S1 = 1 = 1. By Newton
formula, S4 1 S3 + 2 S2 3 S1 + 44 = 0. Then
!
X
X
X
xi xj (xi 2 + xj 2 ) =
xi 3
xj
1in
1i<jn
j6=i
xi 3 (1 xi )
1in
= S3 S4
= 2 S2 3 S1 + 44
= 2 (1 22 ) + 44 3 1
1
8
1
8
1
4
and
original inequality if and only if two xi are equal and the rest are zero.
Example 6 (IMO 2006)
Let P (x) be a polynomial of degree n > 1 with integer coefficients and let k be
a positive integer. Consider the polynomial Q(x) = P (P (. . . P (P (x)) . . . )), where
11
P occurs k times. Prove that there are at most n integers t such that Q(t) = t.
Solution (by Tsoi Yun Pui)
Denote P (P ( P (x)) ) by Qk (x). If there is at most one integer t satisfying
| {z }
k
Qk (t) = t, then we are done. Otherwise, let s, t be integers such that Qk (s) =
s, Qk (t) = t. As P (x) is a polynomial with integral coefficients, u v | P (u) P (v)
for any integers u, v. So
s t | P (s) P (t) | Q2 (s) Q2 (t) | | Qk (s) Qk (t) = s t,
and hence both s t | P (s) P (t) and P (s) P (t) | s t. This implies that
P (s) P (t) = s t
or
P (s) P (t) = t s.
P (s) s = P (t) t
or
P (s) + s = P (t) + t
i.e.
()