4.

2 Methodology
4.2.1 Groundwater trends
In order analyse how the groundwater levels have changed in Gothenburg
since the beginning of
systematic monitoring, groundwater trend maps were constructed for each
aquifer; the lower
aquifer, the upper aquifer and the bedrock aquifer.
The long term trend of the groundwater level situation was analysed and
groundwater time series
longer than 20 years was used. The analysis is based on a visual evaluation
of the trends, totally 208
observations were analysed. The groundwater time series are first divided
into different categories
decided by the long term trend; Falling trend, Rising trend and No trend, see
Figure 19. Later the
time series were subdivided into different reoccurring features, observed in
the groundwater
observations; Initial value, Variance and Plateau in the beginning or
Plateau in the end. The
Initial value reflects groundwater levels at a high level followed by a drop in
the groundwater table.
The Variance is shown by a change in amplitude in the groundwater time
series. Plateau refers to
a stable groundwater table in the beginning or in the end of the time series,
see Figure 19.
In very few time series, where measurements started before 1970 it could be
observed that the
groundwater level started at a higher level that after the 1970. It is assumed
that this Initial value
may correspond to an undisturbed situation that existed before
constructions of buildings and

tunnels, which according to Fetter (2001) is associated to the lowering of

groundwater levels.

7 Conclusion
Groundwater in urban area is dependent upon several factors and thereby a
complex system.
Groundwater monitoring is an important method to control and analyse the
effects of infrastructure
development on the groundwater level. In terms of water quality, ecosystems
and soil stability it is
important to keep groundwater at a stable level. Both rising and falling
groundwater level may harm
the environment and infrastructure. The hydrological situation of Gothenburg
addresses two
aquifers; one unconfined aquifer in the filling material and one confined
aquifer in the friction
material underneath the clay. The lower confined aquifer is thin and most
likely separated into
several small aquifers. The storativity of the aquifer is low and groundwater
extraction or limited
recharge will allow large changes in the groundwater level over large areas.
This study has concluded that:
v In general, the groundwater levels in Gothenburg area seems to be rising,
following the
common trend of precipitation. In the central parts of the city the
groundwater levels
are obviously recovering from the deep drawdown in the 1970.
v The mechanism of recharge seems to be very fast, shown by a short delay
between
precipitation and groundwater level response.
v The groundwater infiltration areas seem to be close to bedrock outcrop

and/or where
coarser material, connected to the lower aquifer outcrops, shown by high
groundwater
level and steep groundwater gradients.
v Areas where the groundwater level has been lowered shows high
subsidence rate.
v Areas with thick clay shows high subsidence rate.
v Quantifying groundwater recharge using a conceptual model and infiltration
coefficients
gives a rough estimation.

1.1 General background and

motivation
Urban development and new infrastructure will to some extent influence and
change natural
environments and natural processes e.g. subsidence due to external load
from building, groundwater
recharge due to drainage and impermeable soil cover. Groundwater
fluctuations and land subsidence
can cause damage to building and infrastructure, the total subsidence or
settlement is difficult to
estimate and has become a large infrastructural problem worldwide (Budhu &
Adiyaman, 2010;
Maxe & Thunholm, 2007). Good-quality water is one environmental goal in
Sweden with focus on
groundwater and states: Groundwater level should be such that negative
impacts on water, soil
stability and wildlife in adjacent ecosystems do not occur (Naturvrdsverket,
2012). The geology in
Gothenburg is problematic in terms of soil stability and has caused several
geotechnical problems

such as groundwater lowering due to underground constructions and land

subsidence. The Office of
City Planning (SBK) monitors the groundwater level in Gothenburg in attempt
to keep the
groundwater level stable and in order to minimise risks of groundwater level
lowering and in turns
land subsidence. Groundwater is generally reduced in urban areas as a result
of increased surface
runoff from buildings, roads and drainage. However, due to leaking water
supplies and leaking
sewers, groundwater recharge may increase in some regions (Lerner, 1990,
2002).
When planning for new infrastructure it is important to understand the
processes which can lead
to increased or decreased groundwater recharge. The groundwater situation
in urban areas is
complex and it is influenced by several dynamic and heterogenic parameters;
such as climate,
weather, land use, surface infrastructure, soil heterogeneity and artificial
infiltration and pumping.
1.2 Objective and aim
The aim of this study is to investigate relationships between changes in
groundwater recharge,
groundwater level changes and subsidence in Gothenburg. The focus will be
on the impact that the
climate variability has on changes of groundwater levels.
More specifically this study aims at discussing and answering the following
questions:
v How have groundwater levels changed in Gothenburg since the
beginning of systematic monitoring?
v Is it possible to separate the influence of urban development from

influences of climatic variability?

v Analyse the spatial distribution of groundwater levels in
Gothenburg
v Investigate the relation between land subsidence, groundwater
level lowering and clay thickness in Gothenburg
v Investigate the possibilities to quantify groundwater recharge in
Gothenburg