CHILD AND ADOLESCENT

DEVELOPMENT

Lizamarie C. Olegario
U.P. College of Education

86.Teacher Tala always considers the family background of

her students to better understand them. Which principle is
considered here?

a) Maturation precedes certain types of

learning
b) Development rates vary among
individuals
c) Each stage of development has
characteristic traits
d) Development of an organism is the
result of heredity and environment
interaction

Biopsychosocial Perspective on
Development

87. In a research conducted by Jerome Kagan, almost one-third of a

group of children who had an inhibited temperament at 2 years of age
were not unusually shy or fearful when they were four years old. What
does this prove?

a) Development ends after infancy.

b) Latter experiences do not change the
impact of early experiences
c) Development continues after infancy.
d) Early experiences are the sole
determiners in the development of
persons.

Jerome Kagan
At early ages
inhibited children
cling to their mothers and may cry and hesitate when
confronted with unfamiliar persons or events
appear to be timid and shy

Uninhibited or exuberant children

approach new events and persons without hesitation or
trepidation
appear fearless and sociable

These characteristic profiles tended to continue

Malleability
the extent to which temperament can be
influenced or reshaped by later life events
Individual children may change and become
more or less inhibited while the groups of
children remain distinct on average
Temperament and environment both
influence development, although relatively
few researchers have studied the interaction
of these two influences as of the early 2000s.

Jerome Kagan
has shown how different parenting styles can shape a
timid, shy child who perceives the world as a threat
measured babies at 4 months and at school age
The fearful children whose parents (over)protected
them were still timid.
Those whose parents pushed them to try new things -"get into that sandbox and play with the other kids,
dammit!" -- lost their shyness.
A genetic legacy of timidity was shaped by parental
behavior "and these kids became far less fearful

88.Which is/are the basic

assumption/s of behaviorists?
I.
II.

The mind of a newborn child is a blank slate.

All behaviors are determined by environmental events behavior can change as a result of extrinsic motivators
such as incentives, rewards, and punishments.
III. The child has a certain degree of freedom not to allow
himself to be shaped by his environment.
IV. View learners as mechanical responders.
V. Rely on both experiential and discovery learning.
A.
B.
C.
D.

I, II and III
II, III, and IV
I, II, and IV
I, II, III, and V

Assumptions of behaviorism:
1) The primary means of investigating learning
is by observation.
2) Principles of learning apply equally to
different behaviors and to different species of
animals. Behaviorists typically state that
human beings and other animals learn in
similar ways.

Assumptions of behaviorism:
3) Learning processes can be studied most
objectively when the focus of study is on
stimuli and responses. Typically learning is
described as a stimulus and response
relationship, S = R.
4) Internal cognitive processes are largely
excluded from scientific study.

Assumptions of behaviorism:
5) Learning involves a behavior change. Some
behaviorists proposed that if no observable
change happens, then no learning has
happened.
6) Organisms are born as blank slates. Organisms
are not born with any predispositions to be
made in certain ways. Since each organism has a
different experience with the environment, each
will have a different set of behaviors.

Assumptions of behaviorism:
7) Learning is largely the result of
environmental events. Behaviorists tend to
use the term conditioning instead of learning
to reflect this. The most useful theories tend
to be universal ones.
8) The learning of all behavior is best explained
by as few learning principles as possible.

89.Teacher Marissa is convinced that whenever as student performs a

desired behavior, provide him/her reinforcement and soon the student
learns to perform the behavior on his/her own. On which principle is the
conviction based?

a)
b)
c)
d)

Social Cognitivism
Behaviorism
Constructivism
Cognitivism

Learning Theories
Behaviorism:
Discuses behaviors that can be observed. Behaviorism
does not fully consider the thought processes that go on in
the learners mind.
Stimulus and responses as derived from the work of
Pavlov, Watson, Thorndike, Skinner, an Gagne promoted
and experimented in the behaviorism.
Behaviorism is applied in different educational areas
including systems approach, computer-assisted learning,
development of objectives etc.
In instructional design, the curriculum and behavioral
objectives include learning tasks, divided (chunked) into
distinct quantifiable tasks through analysis.

Learning Theories
Cognitivism:
It deals with the internal mental processes of the
mind and how these processes could be used to
endorse effective learning.
The tasks are first analyzed and then broken down
into steps. These chunks of information are then used
to enlarge learning in instructional design curriculum.
Information is then organized and delivered or taught
from the most simple to the most complex depending
on the learners prior schema or knowledge.
Dewey, Piaget, Vygotsky, and Gagne are a few of the
theorists associated with cognitivism.

Learning Theories
Constructivism:
Founded on the premise that, by learners reflecting
on their experiences, and thereafter constructing their
own understanding of their world.
The learners generate their own "rules" and "mental
models," which they use to make sense of their
experiences.
Constructivism principles in instructional design
curriculum are applied in the use of the hypertext and
hypermedia, where the learner can gain access to a
wider area of learning, by controlling what elements
they access.

Phases in a Behaviorist Lesson

Orientation: overview, explains why, etc.

Phases (cont.)
Presentation: explain how to, steps,
demonstrate how to.
Presented in very small steps with mastery of each
step the goal
Numerous examples with teacher demonstrating
correct responses
When difficulty is encountered, additional
explanations and examples given.
Constant evaluation of ALL students
understanding.

Phases (cont.)
Practice phase
Structured practice: whole class led through each step of
the problem with teacher leading and checking for
everyones understanding.
Guided practice: students work on a few examples alone
at their desks. Teacher circulates and monitors, providing
corrective feedback and reinforcement
Independent practice: students given a few examples just
like what had been learned to practice alone. Feedback is
not necessarily immediate (i.e. next day).

90.Miss Cortez is teaching a three-year old boy how to put on his shirt. She might
first rewarded him for placing his right arm in the right sleeve, then the left arm in
the left sleeve, then buttoning the front of the shirt, then tucking into his pants.
This technique is called______________.

a)
b)
c)
d)

Fading
Reinforcement
Chaining
Conditioning

Chaining
the procedure for building chains
Behavior chain
a series of related behaviors
Each provides the cue for the next and the last that produces
a reinforcer.

the reinforcement of successive elements of a

behavior chain
Two chaining procedures
forward
backward chaining

Chaining
FORWARD CHAINING:
start with the first task in the chain

BACKWARD CHAINING:
begins with the last element in the chain and
proceeds to the first element.

Rules for Chaining

Define the target behavior
take notice of all the steps involved
task analysis

Reinforce successive elements of the chain

Monitor Results
Shaping
always moves forward
there is no such thing as backward shaping

91. In behavior modification, schedules of reinforcement can

control target behaviors. The following are examples of fixed ratio
schedule of reinforcement, EXCEPT:

a) For every five targeted appropriate behavior that

occur, reinforcement is delivered.
b) Every time Allan says the magic word please he
is rewarded with a hug by the teacher.
c) When six pages of worksheets are completed
with 90% accuracy, Raphael gets to play his
favorite computer game.
d) After stacking colored bricks following a
pattern with 95% accuracy, the kindergarten
children will have an early access.

Reinforcement Schedules
Fixed Interval Schedules: the target response is
reinforced after a fixed amount of time has
passed since the last reinforcement.
Variable Interval Schedules: similar to fixed
interval schedules, but the amount of time that
must pass between reinforcement varies.
Fixed Ratio Schedules: a fixed number of correct
responses must occur before reinforcement may
recur.

Reinforcement Schedules
Variable Ratio Schedules: the number of
correct repetitions of the correct response for
reinforcement varies.
Variable interval and especially, variable ratio
schedules produce steadier and more
persistent rates of response because the
learners cannot predict when the
reinforcement will come although they know
that they will eventually succeed.

92. Which is not an application of the

cognitive approach to motivation?
Begin lessons with challenging
questions/conflicting events
Explain reasons for studying the topic
Create a supportive classroom climate
Provide clear and prompt feedback on
assignments

Cognitive Approaches to Motivation

Attribution Theory (Weiner)
proposes that every individual tries to explain
success or failure of self and others by offering
certain "attributions."
These attributions are either internal or external
and are either under control or not under control.

Cognitive Approaches to Motivation

Weiners Expanded Attributional Theory
Internal

Stable

External

Controllable

Uncontrollable

Controllable

Long-term
effort

Aptitude

Instructor bias/ Ease/ difficulty

favoritism
of school or
course
requirements

Health on day
of exam
Mood

Chance
Help from
friends/ teacher

Unstable Skills/
knowledge
Temporary or
situational
effort for exam

Uncontrollable

Cognitive Approaches to Motivation

Attribution Theory (Weiner)
In a teaching/learning environment, it is
important to assist the learner to develop a selfattribution explanation of effort (internal, control).

Cognitive Approaches to Motivation

Expectancy Theory (Vroom, 1964) which
proposes the following equation:
Motivation = Perceived Probability of Success
(Expectancy) *
Connection of Success and Reward
(Instrumentality) *
Value of Obtaining Goal (Valance, Value)

Cognitive Approaches to Motivation

Cognitive Dissonance by Leon Festinger (1957)
when there is a discrepancy between two beliefs,
two actions, or between a belief and an action, we
will act to resolve conflict and discrepancies.

93. The teachers role in the classroom

according to cognitive psychologists is to:

a) Make the learning task easy for the

learner
b) Help the learner connect what she/he
knows with new information from the
teacher
c) Dictate what to learn upon the learner
d) Fill the minds of the learner with
information

General educational implications of cognitive

theories:
1. Cognitive processes influence learning.
2. Learning difficulties often indicate ineffective or
inappropriate cognitive processes, especially for
children with learning disabilities, who tend to
process information less effectively.

Teachers need to be aware that all students are trying

to learn something, as well as what they are trying to
learn.

3. As children grow, they become capable of

increasingly more sophisticated thought.

General educational implications of cognitive

theories:
4. People organize the things they learn.

Teachers can facilitate students' learning by presenting

information in an organized manner.
This organization should reflect students' previous
knowledge and show how one thing relates to the other
(i.e., helping students understand and make connections).

5. New information is most easily acquired when people

can associate it with things they have already learned.

Teachers should then show how new ideas relate to

previous learning.

6. People control their own learning.

Ultimately students, not their teachers, determine what

things will be learned and how they will be learned.

Cognitivist Teachers
Teach by presenting information in a way
which calls upon students' previously acquired
knowledge
utilize processing strategies in order to help
students learn information and retain
information once it is learned
mnemonic devices
metaphors and analogies
rehearsal of information

94. One group of psychologists said "Wait until the child is

ready. But who said One can help the child to get ready by
developing pre-requisite skills in an interesting and
meaningful way?

a)
b)
c)
d)

Gagne
Bruner
Ebbinghaus
Kohler

The Process of Education

The Four Themes:
Structure
Readiness for learning
Nature of intuition
Desire to learn

Three Modes of Representation

Enactive
Motor responses to manipulate the environment

Iconic
Use of mental images that stand for certain
objects or events

Symbolic
Symbol system to encode knowledge

Bruners theory on
intellectual development

95. Which principle is observed

by Ausubels schema theory?
a) Learners have stock knowledge of
things based on background
information and experiences.
b) There is no need to provide background
information.
c) Children can be taught how to study.
d) Teachers must presume that learners
know everything.

Ausubels Schema Theory

Two things are necessary for understanding to
occur:
(1) the content must be potentially meaningful,
and
(2) the learner must relate it in a meaningful way
to his or her prior knowledge.

Schema Theory: Ausubel

primary process in learning: subsumption
new material is related to relevant ideas in the
existing cognitive structure

Cognitive structures
represent the residue of all learning experiences
forgetting occurs because certain details get
integrated and lose their individual identity.

Schema Theory: Ausubel

Instructional Application:
1. The most general ideas of a subject should be
presented first and then progressively
differentiated in terms of detail and specificity.
2. Instructional materials should attempt to
integrate new material with previously presented
information through comparisons and crossreferencing of new and old ideas.

96. Everytime Miss Pilar presents a new unit, she

does so with the use of advance organizer. Which
principle does she apply?

a) Provide the correct response on the first

trial
b) Arrange for appropriate practice
c) Arrange materials into appropriate
learning units
d) Assist students to identify meaningful
relationships

Advance Organizers
used to provide support for new information
can "direct your attention to what is important in the
coming material; they highlight relationships among ideas
that will be presented; and remind you of relevant
information you already have" (Woolfolk, 2001, 288).
Types
Expository Organizers: serve to make appropriate prerequisite
knowledge available to the learner by providing new
information
Comparative Organizers: serve to build external connections
with existing knowledge that is relevant to the new information
by reminding the learner about prior knowledge are

97. Gagne delineates 9 external events in sequential instructional

planning. Which are the first and the last in the sequence?

a) Informing students of the lesson objectives

enhancing the retention and transfer of
learning.
b) Stimulating recall of previous learning
assessing student performance.
c) Informing students of the lesson objectives
assessing student performance.
d) Gaining attention enhancing the
retention and transfer of learning.

Gagnes 9 Events of Instruction

1. Gaining attention

Giving learner a stimulus to ensure reception of

coming instruction

2. Informing the learner of the objective

Telling learner what they will be able to do for

the instruction

Gagnes 9 Events of Instruction

3. Stimulating recall of prior learning

Asking for recall of existing relevant knowledge

4. Presenting the stimulus

Displaying the content

5. Providing learner guidance

Supplying organization and relevance to

enhance understanding

Gagnes 9 Events of Instruction

6. Eliciting performance

Asking learners to respond, demonstrating

learning

7. Providing Feedback

Giving immediate feedback on learner's

performance.

Gagnes 9 Events of Instruction

8.

Assessing performance
Providing feedback to learners' more
performance for reinforcement

9. Enhancing retention and transfer

Providing diverse practice to generalize the

capability

98. William Glassers control theory states that behavior is

inspired by what satisfies a persons want at any given time. What
then must a teacher do to motivate students to learn?

a) Make schoolwork relevant to students

basic human needs.
b) Avoid giving assignments.
c) Organize curriculum in a spiral manner.
d) Make teaching-learning interactive.

Control Theory: William Glasser

theory of motivation
behavior is never caused by a response to an
outside stimulus
behavior is inspired by what a person wants
most at any given time: survival, love, power,
freedom, or any other basic human need.

Choice Theory
Five internal needs:
1. To survive.
2. To belong and be loved by others.
3. To have power and importance.
4. To have freedom and independence.
5. To have fun.
Choice aspect: individuals have the power to
change their lives for the better based on the
choices they make

How Control Theory Impacts Learning

Curriculum
Teachers must negotiate both content and
method with students.
Students basic needs literally help shape how and
what they are taught.

Instruction
Teachers rely on cooperative, active learning
techniques that enhance the power of the
learners.

How Control Theory Impacts Learning

Lead teachers make sure that all assignments
meet some degree of their students need
satisfaction

Assessment
Instructors only give good gradesthose that
certify quality workto satisfy students need for
power.
Courses for which a student doesnt earn a good
grade are not recorded on that students
transcript.

The Ten Axioms of Choice Theory

1. The only person whose behavior we can control
is our own.
2. All we can give another person is information.
3. All long-lasting psychological problems are
relationship problems.
4. The problem relationship is always part of our
present life.
5. What happened in the past has everything to do
with what we are today, but we can only satisfy
our basic needs right now and plan to continue
satisfying them in the future.

The Ten Axioms of Choice Theory

6. We can only satisfy our needs by satisfying the
pictures in our Quality World.
7. All we do is behave.
8. All behaviors are Total Behaviors and are made up of
four components: acting, thinking, feeling and
physiology. All Total Behaviors are chosen, but we
only have direct control over the acting and thinking
components.
9. We can only control our feeling and physiology
indirectly through how we choose to act and think.
10. All Total Behavior is designated by verbs and named
by the part that is the most recognizable

How this is done

1) What do you want?
2) What are you doing to achieve what you
want?
3) Is it working?
4) What are your plans or options?

How the Control (Choice) Theory

Impacts Classroom Learning
Students' basic needs literally help shape how
and what they are taught.
Teachers rely on cooperative, active learning
techniques that enhance the power of the
learners.
Instructors only give "good grades"--those
that certify quality work--to satisfy students'
need for power.

Seven Caring Habits

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Supporting
Encouraging
Listening
Accepting
Trusting
Respecting
Negotiating differences

Seven Deadly Habits

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Criticizing
Blaming
Complaining
Nagging
Threatening
Punishing
Bribing, rewarding to control

The Six Conditions of Quality

Schoolwork
1. There must be a warm, supportive classroom
environment.
2. Students should be asked to do only useful
work.
3. Students are always asked to do the best
that they can do.
4. Students are asked to evaluate their own
work and improve it.
5. Quality work always feels good.
6. Quality work is never destructive.

99. Which of the following is NOT true

about Vygotskys scaffolded instruction?
a) Teachers support students until they can
apply the new skills independently.
b) Teachers support gradually increases
until mastery is manifested by student.
c) Responsibility for learning shifts from
teacher to students.
d) Teachers ensure that students have the
necessary support to learn successfully.

Vygotskys Scaffolding Instruction

The scaffolding teaching strategy provides individualized support based
on the learners ZPD (Chang, Sung, & Chen, 2002).
The zone of proximal development is the distance between what children can
do by themselves and the next learning that they can be helped to achieve
with competent assistance (Raymond, 2000, p.176).

a more knowledgeable other provides scaffolds or supports to facilitate

the learners development
facilitate a students ability to build on prior knowledge and internalize
new information
Temporary

As the learners abilities increase the scaffolding provided by the more

knowledgeable other is progressively withdrawn.
Finally the learner is able to complete the task or master the concepts
independently (Chang, Sung, & Chen, 2002, p. 7)

the goal of the educator : for the student to become an independent and
self-regulating learner and problem solver (Hartman, 2002)

Vygotskys Scaffolding Instruction

The scaffolds provided are activities and tasks that:
Motivate or enlist the childs interest related to the task
Simplify the task to make it more manageable and
achievable for a child
Provide some direction in order to help the child focus on
achieving the goal
Clearly indicate differences between the childs work and
the standard or desired solution
Reduce frustration and risk
Model and clearly define the expectations of the activity to
be performed (Bransford, Brown, and Cocking, 2000).

Vygotskys Scaffolding Instruction

Scaffolds may include models, cues, prompts,
hints, partial solutions, think-aloud modeling
and direct instruction (Hartman, 2002)
cooperative learning: students help students
in small group settings but still have some
teacher assistance.

Vygotskys Scaffolding Instruction

According to McKenzie, scaffolding:
clear direction and reduces students confusion
Clarifies purpose helps students understand why
they are doing the work and why it is important
Keeps students on task
Clarifies expectations and incorporates assessment
and feedback examples of exemplary work, rubrics,
and standards of excellence are shown to the
students.
Points students to worthy sources
Reduces uncertainty, surprise, and disappointment

100. Oedipus and electra complexes are reactivated at

this stage but directed toward other persons of
opposite sex. Which stage is this according to Freud?

a)
b)
c)
d)

anal
phallic
latency
genital

Freuds Psychosexual Stages

Oral Stage
The infant's first source of pleasure is oral, deriving from the mouth.
The fundamental requirements are food, security and warmth, so that
development can proceed without hindrance.
Bonding must occur at this stage or the capacity to form emotional
bonds, as an adult, will be severely impaired.

Anal Stage
Tension builds up as bowel and bladder functioning demand attention.
includes the child's first experiences with external regulation of an
instinctual impulse, involving the postponement of the pleasure from
relieving anal tensions
child learns to differentiate between the 'ME versus NOT-ME
child begins to realize that it is a pleasurable experience to manipulate
particular areas of the body, such as the mouth, the anus and the
genitals.

Freuds Psychosexual Stages

Phallic Stage
Oedipus Complex
With a male infant the objective choice is the loved mother,
with jealousy of the father

Elektra complex
The girl develops a love for the father and corresponding
jealousy of the mother

It is in the Phallic Stage that the sexuality of early

childhood reaches its greatest intensity and that male
and female sexuality becomes differentiated.
With careful handling by the parents, these stages are
worked through leaving no ill effects.

Freuds Psychosexual Stages

Latency period
a child's sexual impulses are repressed
The child then realizes that his/her wishes and longings cannot be
fulfilled and will turn away from his/her original desires.
Hence, he/she starts the identification with the parent of the same sex
and this will lead to rapidly evolving sex roles.
the drives are decreased and the libido is transferred from parents to
friends, clubs and leading figures.
The Superego is already present, but becomes more organized and
principled.
Culturally valued skills and values are acquired and feelings of shame,
guilt and disgust arise. The child has evolved from an animal-like
creature with primitive drives to a reasonable human being with
complex feelings.
The child learns to adapt to reality and also begins the process of what
Freud terms "infantile amnesia," the repression of the earliest
traumatic, overly sexual or painful memories.

Freuds Psychosexual Stages

The Genital Stage
The child's energy once again focuses on his
genitals.
Puberty reactivates the early genital impulses
and the person passes into the mature Genital
Stage.

101. According to this prominent psychologist, the person will

always be exposed to two negating some situations which have to
be resolved. He also coined the term identify crisis

a)
b)
c)
d)

Freud
Piaget
Bandura
Erikson

Erik Erikson
IDENTITY IS CENTRAL TO ERIKSON'S THINKING
lived such a crisis in his own life
At a young age found out his father was really his stepfather
Went to art school against his stepfather's wish before
entering psychiatry
Early in life, a negative identity may emerge from having
been shamed, punished, made to feel guilty.

POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE ASPECTS OF STAGE CRISIS

In a healthy solution to a stage crisis, the positive resolution
dominates.
Some contact with the negative aspect is important in
development

TROUBLE AT ONE STAGE NEED NOT RUIN EVERYTHING

Erik Erikson

"EIGHT AGES
1. BASIC TRUST VS. BASIC MISTRUST. (0-2)
2. AUTONOMY VS. SHAME AND DOUBT. (2-3)
3. INITIATIVE VS. GUILT. (4-5)
4. INDUSTRY VS. INFERIORITY (6-12)
5. IDENTITY VS. IDENTITY CONFUSION. (12-18)
6. INTIMACY VS. ISOLATION (19-25)
7. GENERATIVITY VS. STAGNATION. (26-40)
8. EGO INTEGRITY VS. DESPAIR (41-)

102. Emmanuel, a grade 1 pupil plays with his classmates but

cannot accept defeat. According to Piagets theory of Cognitive
Development, this particular behavior is typical for a child who is
undergoing which stage of development?

a)
b)
c)
d)

Concrete operational
Formal operation
Sensorimotor
Pre-operation

Piagets Theory of Cognitive

Development

sensorimotor stage
describes how an infant can experience and react to the world, but
they do not analyse or reflect upon it and lack self-consciousness.

preoperational stage
children think of the world in magical terms, meaning they do not take
into consideration the laws of nature.
Anthropomorphic thinking
giving something which is not a human, human characteristics.

Egocentrism
the belief that the world revolves around you.

concrete operations stage

the child cannot deal with abstractions.

formal operations stage

adolescents are able to see the world for how it really is.

103. Teacher A equally divided the apple juice in two glasses for
her two pupils. One glass is short but stout another long but thin.
Both pupils wanted the long but thin glass believing that it
contained more. What problem was demonstrated?

a)
b)
c)
d)

Limited Social Cognition

Lack of conservation
Rigidity of thought
Semi-logical reasoning

Conservation
The realization that objects or sets of objects
stay the same even when they are changed
about or made to look different.
Achieves conservation of number (age 6),
mass (age 7), and weight (age 9)

104. Research on Piagetian tasks indicates that thinking becomes

more logical and abstract as children reach the formal operations
stage. What is an educational implication of this finding?

a) Learners who are not capable of logical

reasoning from ages 8 to 11 lag behind in
their cognitive development.
b) Engage children in analogical reasoning
as early as preschool to train them
for higher order thinking skills (HOTS).
c) Expect hypothetical reasoning for
learners between 12 to 15 years of age.
d) Let children be children.

Formal Operational Thinking

a person's ability and experiences with the
use of logical operations
can deal with complex verbal propositional
reasoning that is not tied to a personal past
or present experience.
includes reasoning about hypothetical problems
reasoning that is not tied to a personal past or
present experience. As well as reason about the
future without tying it to a personal past or
present experience.

Formal Operational Thinking

Can use theories, models, and hypotheses to create
solutions to problems
Is able to think about his or her own thoughts and feelings
(metacognition) as if they were objects
Reasoning can be independent of content. Can argue on
the logic of an argument (solution or problem)
independent of its content.
Complex problems can be dealt with simultaneously and
systematically by coordinating multiple thinking and
reasoning strategies and or variables to derive solutions.
Can use inductive reasoning by combining similar solutions
to create generalizations, principles, models, and
theories.

Formal Operational Thinking

Have a highly developed understanding of causation.
Can use deductive reasoning
Combinatorial reasoning is thinking that systematically
considers all possible relations of experimental or
theoretical conditions, even though some may not be
realistic.
Identify and control all variables when attempting to
validate a relationship or inference.
Proportional reasoning
Probabilistic reasoning
Can ues correlational reasoning to recognize a comparison
between the number of confirming and disconfirming
cases of a hypothesized relationship to the total number of
cases.

105. Vygotsky claimed that social interaction is

important for learning. What does this imply?

a) Since they are not capable of interaction,

children in the crib have no learning yet.
b) Children learn well by passive
presentation of information.
c) Children learn from adults and other
children.
d) Children are independent problem
solvers.

Vygotskys Social Development

Theory
one of the foundations of constructivism
Major themes:
Social interaction plays a fundamental role in the process
of cognitive development.
The More Knowledgeable Other (MKO)
anyone who has a better understanding or a higher ability level than
the learner
teacher, coach, or older adult, could also be peers, a younger
person, or even computers

The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

the distance between a students ability to perform a task under
adult guidance and/or with peer collaboration and the students
ability solving the problem independently.
learning occurs in this zone

Applications of the Vygotskys Social

Development Theory
promotes learning contexts in which students
play an active role in learning
a teacher should collaborate with his or her
students in order to help facilitate meaning
construction in students
Learning becomes a reciprocal experience for
the students and teacher

to behave in class. He said, When I ask a question, I want you to raise your
right hand, and Ill call on you. Can you all raise your right hands, as I am
doing? Twenty hands went up. All were left hands. Teacher Z is perplexed
when he asks his students to follow his example by raising their right hands;
instead, they raise their left hands. According to developmental theory, why
did this happen?

a) Kohlberg would say students at the

conventional level of moral development
cooperate with peers. If one student raises
his or her left hand, the others follow.
b) Vygotsky would say the students are outside
their zone of proximal development. They
cannot complete the task without assistance.
c) Piaget would say that students are
egocentric, thus unable to consider
another persons point of view.
d) Erikson would say that the students lack the
motor skills necessary to complete the task.

Egocentrism
inability to take another person's perspective
inability to separate one's own perspective
from those of others
Preoperational children believe that everyone
sees what they see, hears what they hear, and
knows what they know.
For example, a child might cover her eyes and
say, "You can't see me!

107. Mr. Ocenar prepared the materials for his laboratory class in
chemistry. He instructed the team leader in every group to start along the
members of the group. Mr Ocenar allows his students to construct their
own knowledge through direct experience and enable them to create
schema. What theory is displayed in the given situation?

a) Lev Vygotskys Social Constructivism

b) Jean Piagets Cognitive
Constructivism
c) Albert Banduras Social Learning
Theory
d) Urie Brofenbrenners Ecological
Systems Theory

Comparison of Social Constructivism & Cognitive

Development Theory

Comparison of Social Constructivism & Cognitive

Development Theory
Similarities
Both theories are based on the premise that cognition is the
result of "mental construction".
They both believe that learning is affected by the context in
which an idea is taught as well as by students' beliefs and
attitudes.
Also, both of them believe that the boundaries of cognitive
growth were established by societal influences.

Comparison of Social Constructivism & Cognitive

Development Theory

Differences
Piaget's theory is most concerned with the mechanisms of
intellectual development and the acquisition of knowledge.

Vygotsky's main contribution was to our understanding of

the way in which culture influences development, through
language and the social and material structure of society.

Comparison of Social Constructivism & Cognitive

Development Theory
Vygotsky's theory differs from that of Piaget in a number of
important ways:
1: Vygotsky places more emphasis on culture
affecting/shaping cognitive development - this contradicts
Piaget's view of universal stages and content of development.
(Vygotsky does not refer to stages in the way that Piaget
does).
2: Vygotsky places considerably more emphasis on social
factors contributing to cognitive development (Piaget is
criticized for underestimating this).
3: Vygotsky places more (and different) emphasis on the role
of language in cognitive development (again Piaget is
criticized for lack of emphasis on this).

Banduras Social Learning Theory

people can learn new information and
behaviors by watching other people
known as observational learning (or modeling)
Basic Social Learning Concepts
1. People can learn through observation.
2. Mental states are important to learning.
3. Learning does not necessarily lead to a
change in behavior.

Bronfenbrenners Ecological
Systems Theory
holds that development reflects the influence
of several environmental systems
five environmental systems:
Micro system: setting in which the individual lives
Mesosystem: relations between microsystems or
connections between contexts.

Bronfenbrenners Ecological
Systems Theory
Exosystem: links between a social setting in which
the individual does not have an active role and the
individual's immediate context
Macrosystem: the culture in which individuals live.
Chronosystem: The patterning of environmental
events and transitions over the life course, as well
as sociohistorical circumstances.

108. Ferdie has a high level of self-awareness. He always spends time

reflecting about his strengths and weaknesses and is able to use
strategies to further improve himself. According to MI, his strength lies in
his_______________.

a)
b)
c)
d)

Emotional intelligence
Intrapersonal intelligence
Interpersonal intelligence
Existential intelligence

Intrapersonal Intelligence
has accurate knowledge of ones dreams,
goals, strengths, limitations, moods, anxieties,
desires, and motivations
Has the ability to act on the basis of selfknowledge, creating environments, guiding
behavior, and making decisions based on an
accurate picture of oneself
makes decisions based on what is right for
himself/ herself
possesses a strong sense of identity and
purpose

Eight criteria or 'signs' of an

intelligence
Potential isolation by brain damage.
The existence of idiots savants, prodigies and
other exceptional individuals.
An identifiable core operation or set of
operations.
A distinctive development history, along with
a definable set of 'end-state' performances.

Eight criteria or 'signs' of an

intelligence
An evolutionary history and evolutionary
plausibility.
Support from experimental psychological
tasks.
Support from psychometric findings.
Susceptibility to encoding in a symbol system.
(Howard Gardner 1983: 62-69)

109. You have pupils in your class whose achievement is

below the grade level they are in. What should you do?

a) Give them the same work as other pupils so

that they wont feel embarrassed.
b) Give them materials on their level and let
them work at a pace that is reasonable
for them.
c) Give the work that is a little above their
achievement level to challenge them.
d) Give them the same work as the other
pupils, anyway they will learn as much as
they are capable of learning.

Brain Research
No two children are alike.
No two children learn in the identical way.
An enriched environment for one student is
not necessarily enriched for another.
In the classroom we should teach children to
think for themselves.

Four Ways to Differentiate Instruction

1. Differentiating the Content/Topic
2. Differentiating the Process/Activities
3. Differentiating the Product : varying the
complexity to demonstrate mastery of the
concepts
4. Manipulating The Environment or Through
Accommodating Individual Learning Styles

110. Considering socio-cultural influences, who can

serve as an effective model for students motivation?
One who is ________.

a) popular and loving

b) not like them in terms of race, sociocultural influences status and cultural
background
c) superior to them in age and position in
life
d) similar to them in terms of race, socioeconomic status and cultural
background

Motivating Students
Make it real
learning activities based on topics that are
relevant to your students' lives
Strategies: using local examples, teaching with
events in the news, using pop culture technology
(iPods, cell phones, YouTube videos) to teach, or
connecting the subject with your students'
culture, outside interests or social lives

Provide choices
sense of autonomy in the learning process

Motivating Students
Balance the challenge
too easy: boredom and message of low expectations
too difficult : undermine self-efficacy and create
anxiety
Scaffolding

Seek role models

If students can identify with role models they may be
more likely to see the relevance in the subject matter
due to differences in gender, age and social circles,
sources of role models can be invited guest speakers,
fellow students or other peers.

Motivating students
Use peer models
Students can learn by watching a peer succeed at a task
someone whom the student identities with

Establish a sense of belonging

higher degree of intrinsic motivation and academic confidence
fostered by an instructor that demonstrates warmth and
openness, encourages student participation, is enthusiastic,
friendly and helpful, and is organized and prepared for class.

Adopt a supportive style

behaviors include listening, giving hints and encouragement,
being responsive to student questions and showing empathy for
students.

Modeling
The process of learning by watching and
repeating a behavior.
This explains the learning of complex
behavior in one or a few trials.
This process implies cognition since we
must remember what we saw and then
repeat it.

Four Conditions for Effective

Modeling to Occur

Attention
Retention
Motor Reproduction
Motivation

Types of Models
Live
Symbolic
image of a real person (TV,movies)
character (Superman, Harry Potter)

Verbal Written instructions or

descriptions of how to act

Characteristics of Effective Models

Competence
Prestige and Power
Gender-Appropriate behavior
Relevance
Identification with the Model Observer

111. The teacher who nurtures the students positive psychosocial nature is
likely to__________.

a) Trace all students background and

coordinate with the guidance center in case
the students have problems
b) Be in class and listen to reasons of
justification when students get into conflict.
c) Provide some practical learning
activities that will develop or foster
harmonious relationships in classroom
d) Remind the students to develop a peaceful
classroom atmosphere so that everyone will
be safe and happy

Positive psychology
encourages individuals to strive to do the best
Positive emotions enable individuals to learn
and work to the best of their ability
Positive emotions are contagious so having a
teacher or student who is positive can help
the other students to be positive and work to
the best of their abilities

Nondirective Teaching

emphasis on harmonious relationships

based on respect, congruence, and empathy
in promoting healthy psychological development
Teacher should have
Empathetic understanding
Congruence: be authentic and genuine
Unconditional positive regard or respect

To create an atmosphere of psychological safety

not judging character or personality
without danger of rejection or condemnation
antidote to previous experiences in which parents, teachers, and other
authority figures acted toward them as if they had no intrinsic value as
a person

Six Critical Life Messages

I Believe in you
I trust you
I know you can handle this
You are listened to
You are cared for
You are very important to me.
Barbara Coloroso

Psychosocial Environment

~POSITIVE~
Warmth
Caring
Supportive
Friendly
Pleasant
Sweet
Encouragement

~NEGATIVE~

Cold & uncaring

Harsh
Punitive
Aloof
Sarcastic
Threatening

Students in Threatening Environments:

Fear making errors
Hope they will not fail or be embarrassed
Pray that if they do the teacher will not
take reprisal against them

Fear has been used to motivate. But, for the

most, achievement is suppressed; pleasure is
nonexistent.
(Charles and Senter, Elementary Classroom Management, 2002 p.48)

The Research Results Suggest:

Classrooms Function best when:
Positive,
Structured,
Reflective Climate full of

Warmth
Support
Pleasant Circumstances
Low Levels of Fear

112. Studies in the area of neurosciences disclosed

that the human brain has limitless capacity. What
does this imply?

a) Pupils can possibly reach a point where

they have learned everything.
b) Every child is a potential genius.
c) Some pupils are admittedly not capable
of learning.
d) Every pupil has his own native ability and
his learning is limited to this native ability.

 Research shows that you begin learning in the

womb and go right on learning until the
moment you pass on. Your brain has a
capacity for learning that is virtually limitless,
which makes every human a potential genius.
~ Michael J. Gelb ~

The human brain has adapted to:

Interact with a complex environment.
Abstract patterns from the complexity in that
environment.
Modify itself so that it functions more
effectively in that environment.
Solve "real" problems it perceives in that
environment.
Attend to that which it finds personally
relevant or interesting.

As we examine today's schools, we

find:
Brains that require complexity being bombarded with
simplified basics.
Brains that require interaction with the environment to
activate their innate processes receiving their "experience"
second hand through the words (and perceptions) of a
teacher.
Brains that have adapted to solve complex problems relevant
to self being denied the opportunity to identify those
problems and forced to solve predefined problems with
predefined answers.

Interactive teaching elements

Orchestrated immersion
Relaxed alertness
Active processing

113. Research says: People tend to attribute their

successes to internal causes and their failures to
external causes. Based on this finding, what should be
taught to students for them to be genuinely motivated to
succeed?

a) Tell them that the research finding when

applied will make them genuinely
motivated.
b) Convince them that genuine motivation is
the only factor that matters for a
person to succeed.
c) Make them realize that failure is a part of
life.
d) Make them realize that both success
and failure are more a function of
internal causes.

Attribution Theory
Important assumption: People will interpret their
environment in such a way as to maintain a positive selfimage.
They will attribute their successes or failures to factors that will
enable them to feel as good as possible about themselves.
When learners succeed at an academic task, they are likely to
want to attribute this success to their own efforts or abilities;
but when they fail, they will want to attribute their failure to
factors over which they have no control, such as bad teaching or
bad luck.

The basic principle of attribution theory as it applies to

motivation is that a person's own perceptions or
attributions for success or failure determine the amount of
effort the person will expend on that activity in the future.

Students will be most persistent at academic tasks

under the following circumstances:
if they attribute their academic successes to
either:
internal, unstable, factors over which they have
control (e.g., effort) or
internal, stable, factors over which they have little
control but which may sometimes be disrupted by
other factors (e.g., ability disrupted by occasional bad
luck);

if they attribute their failures to internal,

unstable factors over which they have control
(e.g., effort).

114. Bruners theory on intellectual development moves

from enactive to iconic and symbolic stages. Applying
Bruners theory, how would you teach?

a)
b)
c)
d)

Begin with the abstract.

Be interactive in approach.
Begin with the concrete.
Do direct instruction.

Bruners Constructivist Theory

The instructor's task is to "translate
information to be learned into a format
appropriate to the learner's current state of
understanding" and organize it in a spiral
manner "so that the student continually
builds upon what they have already learned.

Bruners constructivist theory can be applied to instruction, as Kearsley

(1994b) surmises, by applying the following principles:

Instruction must be concerned with the

experiences and contexts that make the
student willing and able to learn (readiness).
Instruction must be structured so that it can
be easily grasped by the student (spiral
organization).
Instruction should be designed to facilitate
extrapolation and or fill in the gaps (going
beyond the information given).

115. The following terms are related to learning disabilities.

Which of the following pairs is NOT correct?

a)
b)
c)
d)

Dyslexia reading disability

Discalcula disability in math
Dysgraphia perceptual ability
Aphasia loss of language

Learning Disabilities
classification including several disorders in
which a person has difficulty learning in a
typical manner, usually caused by an unknown
factor or factors.
affect the brains ability to receive and process
information

Learning Disabilities
conditions that cause a discrepancy between
potential and actual levels of academic
performance as predicted by the person's
intellectual abilities.
involve impairments or difficulties in
concentration or attention, language
development, or visual and aural information
processing

Dyslexia
type of reading disability
a common disorder that means students see
words and shapes differently than other
students
can make learning to read and write near
impossible without intervention

Dysgraphia
difficulties with handwriting
the inability to write legibly, produce letters
consistently, and remember how to make letters,
or keep the size of letters consistent
many of these students may also be helped,
usually by using a keyboard rather than pen and
pencil for answers
Teachers can also modify curricula so that
students may give answers orally or in multiplechoice form.

Dyscalculia
a math disability can cause such difficulties as
learning math concepts (such as quantity,
place value, and time), difficulty memorizing
math facts, difficulty organizing numbers, and
understanding how problems are organized on
the page
People with Dyscalculia are often referred to
as having poor "number sense

Aphasia
an acquired language disorder in which there
is an impairment of any language modality
may include difficulty in producing or
comprehending spoken or written language
In technical terms, aphasia suggests the total
impairment of language ability, and dysphasia
a degree of impairment less than total

Aphasia
Some people with aphasia have trouble using
words and sentences (expressive aphasia).
Some have problems understanding others
(receptive aphasia).
Others with aphasia struggle with both using
words and understanding (global aphasia).

For more questions

lizamarie.olegario@gmail.com