Human Geography -- Population Dynamics

1) With reference to examples:

a)Discuss the variations of fertility and mortality between EMDCs & ELDCs.
b) Evaluate the impact of governments to influence fertility rates in both EMDCs and
ELDCs.
c) Discuss the factors which affect mortality in EMDCs and ELDCs. Why is Infant
Mortality Rate considered one of the best measures of a countrys socio-economic
progress?
2) With reference to examples, discuss and evaluate the impacts of:
a) internal migration
b) transnational migration
3) Assess the causes of the feminization of labour as well as the impacts of migration on
identity and nationhood.
4a) Discuss the reasons for changes and variations in population composition and
distribution in EMDCs and ELDCs.
b) Assess the economic, demographic, social and political implications of changes and
variations in population structure and distribution.
c) Compare the strategies used in ELDCs and EMDCs in coping with population change.
5a) Describe the different population pyramid types.
b) Discuss the issues of population dependency and how population structure is
influenced by changes in family structure.
c) Critically evaluate the impact of changing population structures on issues related to
the provision of leisure, employment, health and welfare services.
d) Discuss the value and limitations of the population pyramid in predicting population
change.
6a) Discuss the criteria used to measure inequalities on a global or national scale.
b) With reference to examples, discuss the socio-economic differentials that exist
between populations and different ethnic sectors of the same population.
7) With the aid of a diagram, evaluate the effectiveness of the Demographic Transition
Theory to explain population growth in EMDCs and ELDCs.
8) With reference to anti and pro-natal policies in EMDCs and ELDCs,
a) Compare the impacts and effectiveness of these policies.
b) Analyze how population growth is affected by government planning.
9a) Discuss the factors that characterize overpopulation and under population.
b) Discuss the relationship between population growth and resource utilization.
c) Compare resource use in EMDCs and ELDCs and discuss how changes in society
impact resource appraisal.
d) Evaluate the concept of sustainable development and how the hedonist and
conservationist approaches impact population change and resource use.

1a) Discuss the variations of fertility and mortality between EMDCs

& ELDCs.
Population terms Fertility
1. Crude birth rate (CBR): total number of births over a period of time (usu. 1
year) per 1000 people in a given population.
a. Calculated by number of live births divided by total population,
multiplied by 1000.
b. In the DTM, the reference numbers are
Stag
CBR
e
35 and
1
fluctuating
35 and falling
2
slowly
3 Falling to 20
16 and
4
constant
c. Generally CBR lags behind CDR in falling
d. Rate of natural increase = BR + net migration DR
2. Postpartum abstinence: decreased probability of conception after a
pregnancy and birth. Helps to control BR. Occurs because:
a. Menstruation does not follow immediately
b. Breast-feeding
c. Need to space out childrens ages for health reasons or policy (e.g.
in China with the population policy)
d. Societal or superstitious beliefs
3. Gestation: the 9-month period of pregnancy (conception <--> birth)
4. Total fertility rate (TFR): average number of children born to a woman
throughout her entire reproductive years (15-49 years of age).
a. Calculated by adding up the number of children divided by the
number of women, for each age group; i.e. the number of children
born to mothers aged 15 divided by the total number of women
aged 15, added to the number of children born to mothers aged 16
divided by the total number of women aged 16, and so on. These
averages are again averaged, to give the TFR.
5. Replacement rate/level: extent to which a population can replace itself. A
TFR of 2.1 is taken to be replacement rate, as 2 children replace their
parents exactly, with a bit left over to make up for premature deaths.
a. TFR higher than 2.1 shows high population growth
b. TFR lower than 2.1 shows that population growth may be slowing

6. Age-specific fertility rate: average number of children born to an average

woman of a specific age
7. Fecundity: the potential reproductive capacity of population.
a. Fecundity can increase or decrease in a population according to
several factors. For instance, in famines, fecundity has been shown
to decrease. This implies that in times of hardship populations
reduce birth rate to ensure survival.
8. Zero population growth: constant population for a given year, i.e. sum of
births, deaths and migration is zero. Not realistic, but some countries may
approximate a situation of zero population growth.
9. Dependency Ratio (not really fertility but nowhere else to shove it):
measure of populations ability to support itself
a. Calculated by number of young dependents (below 15) and number
of old dependents (above 64) divided by number of economically
active people (15-64).
b. A ratio of 1:1 is a benchmark between low and high dependency
ratios
c. 1: anything below 1 is a low DR, and 1: anything above is a high DR
Population terms Mortality
10. Morbidity: the state of being diseased. A high incidence of morbidity
may lead to high mortality.
11. Epidemic: the outbreak of a contagious disease that spreads rapidly,
affecting large numbers in a community
12. Pandemic: epidemic over a wide area, crossing international
boundaries and affecting large numbers of people globally
13.

Mortality: incidence of death in a population, usually measured by CDR

14. Crude death rate (CDR): total number of deaths over a period of time
(usu. 1 year) per 1000 people in a given population.
a. Calculated by number of deaths divided by total population,
multiplied by 1000.
b. In the DTM, the reference numbers are
Stag
CBR
e
35 and
1
fluctuating

2 Falling to 20
15 and falling
3
slowly
12 and
4
constant
15. Infant mortality rate (IMR): number of infants who die before age 1 per
thousand live births, excluding abortions and stillbirth.
a. Calculated by number of deaths below 1 in a year, divided by
number of live births in the same year, multiplied by 1000
b. Reflects the state of health services and nutritional status of a
population and is used as an indicator of socioeconomic
development
16.

Life expectancy: average number of years a person can expect to live

a. Calculated based on the sum of all ages at death, divided by total
number of deaths for a year.

Fertility Variables
Global trends
Fertility decline
Contrast between LDCs and DCs
a. LDCs average above 3 (e.g. India 3.3, Zambia 6.1)
b. DCs average below replacement (e.g. UK 1.7, Singapore 1.2)
Variables affecting fertility
1. Intercourse variables
a. Age of entry into marriage (stable sexual unions)
i. LDCs: marriage almost universal
ii.
DCs: late marriages or not marrying
b. Interruption of stable sexual unions (e.g. death of spouse,
separation and divorce)
i. DCs: more divorce
c. Exposure within unions
i. Postpartum abstinence
Breastfeeding for a few years is normal
Cultural or social prohibition of coitus during lactation
ii.
Periodic abstinence
Seasonal migration for employment
2. Conception variables
a. Voluntary
i. Contraception: more common in DCs, less in LDCs.
ii.
Assisted fertility e.g. IVF: almost exclusively DCs because of
high cost, accessibility

b. Involuntary
i. Subfecundity from disease and malnutrition:
lower libido, less production of sperm and less ovulation.
More in LDCs than DCs
3. Gestation variables
a. Abortion rates
i. DCs: some higher than others
ii.
LDCs: some have high abortion rates from widespread use of
ultrasound scans and favouring boys over girls (e.g. India,
China)
b. Miscarriage
i. Older mothers = increased risk
ii.
Malnutrition
iii.
Health care services
4. Other
a. Social value of children
i. DCs: may be seen as burden to career, lifestyle
ii.
LDCs: seen as form of security, labour (esp. agrarian
societies)
b. Womens status
i. More highly-educated women with jobs tend to have fewer
children
ii.
In LDCs women may not have a choice if their husbands
want more children
c. Cost of living
d. Degree of urbanisation causing mindset shift
e. Role of govt demographic policies
f. Age-sex structure
g. Religion
Mortality Variables
Global trends
Increase
Lower in LDCs (avg 64 years) than DCs (avg 75 years)
Mortality decline in DCs
o Economic development and rising income levels
o Improved public health
o Social reform (e.g. old-age pension, health insurance, healthcare)
o Advances in medicine typically available to DCs first
Mortality decline in LDCs
o Drastic decrease in IMR
IMR used as index of general medical conditions and
socioeconomic development

Mortality differentials
Class differentials
As income and education increases, DR decreases
Ethnicity
Minorities may be economically disadvantaged
E.g. African-Americans in the USA have a higher rate of heart disease,
diabetes, AIDS and violent death
Gender
Women live longer than men, and gap is widening
Men more likely to smoke or drink, face occupational hazards, take part in
high risk activities than women
DCs: women more informed about preventive health measures
LDCs: women place family before themselves, death of female children
higher than male children because of common preference for sons
Age differentials
Infant deaths
o Poor natalcare
o Poor health of mothers (socioeconomic circumstances)
Young adults
o Accidents, homicide and suicide
Old age
o Illness e.g. heart disease, cancer
Urban vs. rural
Past: mortality levels in cities higher
o Overcrowding
o Poor sanitation
o Infectious diseases from travellers
Now: mortality levels in cities lower than rural areas
o Better healthcare/easier access
o Improved urban conditions
o Higher wages in cities
Epidemics and Pandemics
HIV-AIDS
o Extensive in southern and East Africa has contributed to SSA
being the only region where life expectancy has fallen in last decade
o Less extensive in other countries, spreading more slowly
Kenya was the first African country to develop policies for population control
In the last 20 years the FR has fallen8.0% to 4.4%
Contraceptive use has increased7% to 39%
These improvements have been achieved by

1. Increasing the availability of contraception and family planning

services, even in remote rural areas
2. Increasing education and information services on family planning
and contraception, e.g. a national campaign on TV, radio soapopera programmes and radio broadcasts in urban markets dealing
with these issues
3. Increasing training programmes for health workers
4. Trying to improve maternal health and infant mortality rates
5. Social developments to improve the education and status of girls
and women.
b) Evaluate the impact of governments to influence fertility rates in
both EMDCs and ELDCs.
ELDC China, One child policy
1. Prevent china from overpopulation
2. Prevent depletion of global and
national resources
Probably raised SOL with birth rates
fallen from 5.8 to 1.9 / family
3. Female infanticide
Preference for males
Females seen as less useful
Parents kill when their first child is a
female
Abort their baby when they suspect
it is a girl
4. Gender imbalance

1996: 118 boys for every 100

girls

Not enough women for the

man to wed
5. Ageing population

Young coupled sandwiched

between 4 aged parents and 1
offspring

High dependency ratio makes

it difficult for couples to be less well
off

DR decreasing due to longer

life expectancy
Uses fear to carry out policy
Besides slowing the large pop

EMDC Singapore, pro natal

policy
1. Stop at 2 Campaign very
successful
Legalize abortion and
voluntary sterilization
Financial disincentive for
those with more children
Smaller family unit
Success also due to the
improving economic
conditions
2. Have 3 more if you can
afford it
3. Baby bonus scheme
However policy is not working
A encouraging not forced
policy
After all still a personal choice

Impact of govt policy was too

successful in 1970

growth also generate other

problems
Realize that perhaps it would have
been more devastating if such a
policy was not implemented
Come up with other policy to deal
with the problems generated

Too successful resulted in the

difficult implementation of the
reverse trend policy

c) Discuss the factors which affect mortality in EMDCs and ELDCs.

Why is Infant Mortality Rate considered one of the best measures of
a countrys socio-economic progress?
Factors affecting Mortality
Demographicage and sex are closely tied to mortality rates
Infant mortalitykey measure of a societys quality of life
o High mortality in the early age groupslowers the average life
expectancy
General mortality declineslife expectancy will increase
Death rates can be higher in more developed countries such as
Swedentend to have healthier environments and better medical
servicesa large proportion of more developed countries are in the older
ages
Sex differentials in mortality
o Women have lower death rates than men at every
agecombination of social, behavioral and genetic influences
o Before birth, fewer female than male fetuses die in the womb.
Behavioural factors
Smoking, diet, as well as medical care account for some of the malefemale differences in mortality at adult ages
The diseases that contribute mostwidening mortality gap between the
two sexes cardiovascular diseases and lung cancercigarette
consumptionmore men than women smoke.
Advances in medical technology
Health benefitshigher incomes, better nutrition, and public sanitation
measures, especially waste disposal systems and water treatment
Socio-economic variables
Occupation, financial circumstances, and educationdirectly affect
standards of living and life styles
Influence mortality rates through factors such as diet, housing and access
to welfare services
Largely occurred on a global scale mortality declines in ELDCs and
EMDCs alikerate of decline has been relatively slower in ELDCs

Government policies
Play an important role in the fertility rate of a countryto enhance or
decrease fertility rates
Chinas One Child policy intended to reduce birth ratesusing
disincentives such as a loss of social benefits or fines if a couple has more
than one child
Singapore had different approach to its antinatalist policies in the
1960sincentives such as housing and education benefits were offered
encourage people to have smaller families.
In 1980s family-friendly employment ease the burden of work and
family responsibilitiesencourage couples to have more children
Policies contend with long-standing traditions and beliefsdifficult to
achieve the specific goals
Effectiveness of population policiesdependent on mindset changes
In some countriesreligion also plays a major role in the fertility
patterns
Political factors
Ethnic cleansing and genocide, wars, riots, terrorism and sectarian
violencesubstantial loss of lives, and hence dramatically high rates of
mortality.
An example of genocide was the Holocaust which saw the Nazis' assault
on the Jews between 1933 and 1945. Six million Jews were murdered.
Epidemic and pandemic
Epidemic widespread in a particular place at a particular time
Pandemicdisease so widespread that it affects the whole world, or a
whole continent, or a whole country
Improvement in public health and medical advancesspread of infectious
diseases declined significantlynot likely to lead to epidemics
Recent health scares such as SARS and the avian flu have taken on a
global charactermotivated the international community to make special
effort in preventing these from developing into full-blown epidemic
Severity and spread is the HIV/ AIDS pandemicaffected countries all
around the world devastating toll on population and health over the last
20 yearsfourth leading cause of death worldwide
Has overwhelmed public health systems in heavily affected
countriesseriously stretched health care providers, infrastructure, and
budgets beyond capacity
Although found in most countriesELDCs are more constrained
financiallyprevention and treatment programs tend to be rather
inadequate, small-scale and fragmented
Lack of access to treatmentsignificant issueexpensive nature of the
drugstaken for a long period of time

Price of antiretroviral drugs have dropped dramaticallyvast majority of

people living with HIV in ELDCs will still not have access to such
medicinemortality rates caused by AIDS in the future will be substantial
Spreads quickly in ELDCsno knowledge of how to prevent, testing
facilities, prostitution, migration

Eastern and southern Africa

Estimated crude death rates50%-500% higher than they would be in
absence of HIV/AIDS
Reversed the hard-won gains in infant survival and life expectancy
Botswanalife expectancy at birth was close to 60 years before AIDS took
hold
o In 2002average life expectancy down to 33.9 years and
fallingand by 2010, average life expectancy is projected to be
26.7 years
Supresses the human bodys natural immune systemtriggered an
upsurge in previously rare infections and malignanciesexplosive TB
epidemic around the world
Countries find themselves having to cope with the AIDS pandemicother
infectious diseases that may become widespread
HIV/AIDS tends to strike the young and sexually activeAIDS deaths have
also distorted the age and sex profiles of the populations in heavily
affected communities and countriesaffect population growthsocial and
economic health of these areas
Infant Mortality Rate
Considered one of the best measures of a countrys socio-economic
progress income and education, both at the societal and individual
levelsclosely associated with infant mortality
The infant mortality rate is commonly usedgeneral indicator of
socioeconomic well-being and of general medical and public health
conditions in a country
Richer countries can provide the basic ingredients for infant
survivalclean water, sanitary surroundings, adequate food and shelter,
and access to health care services
A large portion of infant mortalityinfectious and communicable diseases,
which sanitary practices and an adequate diet do much to prevent
At the individual levelmothers (and fathers) with higher income and
educationpossess knowledge of sanitary behaviors and the money for
adequate food, as well as to take their babies to a health service if
needed

2a) With reference to examples, discuss and evaluate the impacts

of: internal migration
Internal level migration occurs within the boundaries of a country
1) rural-urban 2) urban-rural 3) inter-urban 4) inter-rural 5) intra-urban
migrations
1.

Rural-urban migration
Countryside towards towns and cities within the country
Push and pull factors
Prominent in many ELDCs todaystrong flows to major cities such as
Beijing and Shanghai in China, Rio de Janeiro in Brazil and Mumbai and
Kolkata in India
The attraction of job opportunities, perceptions of getting rich fast, and
the attraction of such cities that cause people to migrate from the
countrysideusually long-term movements.

Indonesia
Profile of migrants movingrural regions of Sumatra to Jakartaunskilled
labourers and poor peasants
The push factorslack of jobs (decline in agriculture), medical facilities
(only small clinics), education (primary schools) and utilities (e.g.
electricity, piped water) and low sanitation in the rural areas
The pull factorsspecialized medical facilities which were readily
available, better communication links that is, internet access etc, and
good transport networks and middlemen, high salary in the city.
The impacts of the migrants
o 25-30% of urban demographic growthrural to urban migrants
o 1992,the world bank estimated 25% of rural households in
Indonesia had at least one family member working for part of the
year in an urban area
o Drain on government funds and city's resourcesMigrants had no
kin or village network to rely on for social supportlook for help
from government education and healthcare subsidies
2. Urban to rural migration
Opposite of rural-urban migration
Usually
found
in
EMDC
cities,counter-urbanization
is
happeningAmerican small towns
ELDCstransmigration policy in Indonesia is a planned, forced movement
of people from the city to the countryside.

Indonesias Transmigration
From Jakarta to relatively undeveloped areas
Use of incentives such as plots of land and monetary contribution
Aim to encourage resettlementspread development benefits to other
parts of the country
3. Inter-urban migration
Migrants move from one urban centre to another
Typical in countries which are mostly built up
Singapore
People move because of work or family-related reasons
Movements of people between housing estatesrelocate to be near a
school a child is studying in, staying nearer to family members or to be
near ones workplace
4. Inter-rural migration
Migrants move from one part of the countryside to another
Common in ELDCsagricultural societies where the search for land and
resources
Variation in economic development across regions is a primary motive for
migration
Important implications for future generationssuffer from the same
debilitating lack of opportunities and low productivitycannot settle down
Elderly and women are left to fend for themselves in the source
areasmigrants, consisting mostly malesunable to fully utilize the
resources in the source areasleading to underpopulation.
There will be overcrowding in the destination areasputting pressure on
the landcompetition for space and resources
Employers prefer to hire migrant labourconsidered to be cheaper and
more docile than local labourregional imbalances and employers would
hire labour at the lowest available cost
Employers will prefer employing migrants than local labour competition
of jobs.

Vietnam
Movement of rural migrants from Red River deltaCentral Highlands of
Vietna
Migrants need to gain access to natural resourcesachieve greater
economic security for the families
Forests are converted to agricultural landcash crops such as coffee and
pepper are grown

India, Gujarat region

The migrants were mostly plantation workers
Unable to cultivate sufficient crops for themselves/to produce crops for
extra income drought-prone conditionsinfertile agricultural lands
Move to the climatically better-endowed districtsyield better returns
The sending regionsAmreli, Kachchh, Surendranagar and Rajkot
Receiving regionsJunagadh, Kheda and Mehsana.
Whole families of tribals from the Dang district of South Gujarat migrate
for six to eight months to work in the sugar factories in the
plainschildren being unable to enrol in schools
Intra-urban migration
Suburbanization in EMDCs
Migrants move from one area to another area within the city
Movement of people typically from the city centreoutskirts of the
cityaway from the noise, pollution and unpleasant sights of the city
centre
Fairly common in EMDCs, in cities such as Chicago and London
2b) With reference to examples, discuss and evaluate the impacts
of: transnational migration
International migration refers to movement of people across countries or
regions.
International migrantsasylum seekers, refugees
Transnational nature
Put down roots in a host country, maintain strong homeland ties
Belong to religious and political movements that span the globe
Different from international migration
Movements have become more transitional (less permanent) and more
unrestrictedskilled migrants whose economic and social status provides
more opportunities for them.
Also increasingly moving to other important city statesSingapore and
Hong Kong as well as to less developed countriesMalaysia, Thailand and
Taiwan
Country
Reasons for
migration

Thailand (receive)
Thailand is located near
Myanmar
Similar country backgrounds
(religion, status)Easier to

Myanmar (sending)
Instability in
Myanmar due to
repressive
government

adapt to Thailands lifestyle

Thailand government willing
to accept refugee camps

Positive
consequenc
es of
migration

Economic
Increase in manpower
Cheaper labour attract FDI

Negative
consequenc
es of
migration

Social
Influx of illegal immigrants
Resentment from the locals
Disrupt locals way of life
Discrimination of locals
against the immigrants
o Immigrants have no
jobtherefore no income
o Live in slums
o Poor living conditions
o Increase in the number of
crimes
Economic
Increased competition for
jobs
Strain countrys
resourcesset up refugee
camps
Health
Spread of diseases in
slums/camps (e.g.
tuberculosis)
Environmental
To set up camps, land has to
be clearedIllegal
loggingheavy flooding and
mudslides

Disparities in level
of economic
development and
wage levels, thus
go to Thailand for
job opportunities
and better living
conditions
o Family poverty
o Lack of social
services (edu,
health)
Economic
Remittance

Social
Decrease in
population
Brain drain in
country
Economic
Decrease in
manpower
Decrease in
countrys income
Displaced persons
are not permitted
to work legallyno
regular
incomemove
back to Myanmar

Country
Reasons for
migration

Positive
consequenc
es

America
High demand for labor in
USAavailability of
unskilled and low-paid jobs
that unwilling to take up
Need to send remittances
back to Mexicoease
situation in poverty-stricken
homes
Higher and better standard
of living
Better health care due to
specialization
Better housing and
education
Better paid jobseven in
unskilled, low-paid jobs,
migrants earn more in a
month than they could in a
year in Mexico
Seasonal employment on
farmsthe need for extra
labor during harvest periods
US currency of greater
valuea monthly income of
US$1000 (~$11,000 pesos)
can buy one a decent lower
middle class living in Mexico

Valuable source of social

capitalties between
people from both nations
are strengthened

Beneficial for US
economymigrants play an
important role in the US
workforce

Mexico

Economic
crisishigh
unemployment in
Mexico

Need for better,

steadier income

Low standard of
living nation
mainly
concentrated by
rural elite; land
degradation
caused by overuse
of fragile lands
force people to
abandon rural
lifestyles and
farms (leads back
to unemployment)

Poor health
services

Mexican
migrants benefit
from better paid
jobsmore
financial stability
Migrants
families
experience
improved standard
of
livingremittance
s sent home help
to ease poverty,
and help maintain
financial stability
for a decent life

Negative
consequenc
es

Deterioration of health
conditionsrate of
tuberculosis per 100,000 in
1995:
US border states, 13.3;
US, 8.7
Mexican border states,
32.6; Mexico, 12.1
Security issuesillegal
migrants trying to cross
border
Resentment from local
Americanseconomic
recession resulted in
serious
unemploymentAmericans
think Mexican migrants
taking up their jobs
Mexican culture taking
over in CaliforniaSpanish
is a widely spoken in
Mexican culturemany
Spanish shops set up in
California

Decrease in
Mexicans returning
home
Cost of
livesillegal
migrants shot
while trying to
cross border
Too many
elderly, women,
and children left
behind in
Mexicohigh
dependant
population
Illegal migrants
fighting for
rightssocial
unrest

Refugees
Person who owing to a well-founded fear of being persecuted for reasons
of race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group, or
political opinion, is outside the country of his nationality, and is unable to
or, owing to such fear, is unwilling to avail himself of the protection of that
country
Forced to move from his place of residencefear that is instilled in him
from external events that threatens his sense of living
Asylum seekers
Voluntary migrants who make their way to another country far away from
their native country illegal means
Travel under the pretextbeing repressed in their countriesdemand for
asylum based on the reasoning that their relations are present in the
receiving country
Usually travel to EMDCs where they perceive a better life would exist for
them

3) Assess the causes of the feminization of labour as well as the

impacts of migration on identity and nationhood.
Feminization
Refers to not only the increase of women in the workforcealso the
increase of forms of employmentpreviously assigned solely to women
(low wages, part-time or temporary, and without benefits)
More women entered the workplace in developing countries in the
1990sdeteriorating employment opportunities for menwomen workers
were challenged by unequal treatment
Still a widespread segregation of the genders in different occupations
Women have higher rates of part-time employment
Earn less than men do for the same work
Face a glass ceiling that prevents upward mobility in their organization
Causes
o Increase literacy
o Depleting labour forceneed women
o Government policies, feminist movement
o Aging population
o Demands of modern lifestylerequire both husband and wife to
work
Australia
One in three women are non-permanent employees
Paid 21 percent less than permanent employees
Without benefits like holiday and sick leave
Canada
40 percent of employed women hold precarious jobs
Korea
Rate is even higher where 69 percent of women are engaged in
precarious work
Nationhood and identity

Who we are and how we identify ourselvesbased on our perceptions of

the place we live in
Developments for example of ethnic enclaves, new restaurants,
influences of new kinds of musicdilute local culture
In many countriesincreased migrant flowupset local dominant groups
of unwelcoming of these new influences
Migrants are seen to threaten established practicesupset social
cohesion and law pollute the existing ways of life in society
Stereotypes of migrants aboundPost September 11, many Muslims
living in the U.S. were prejudiced againstassociated with the terrorists of
the tragedy (Mosques have been defaced, businesses have been
vandalized and many South Asians, Muslim or not, have been attacked).
This has resulted in policies which exclude migrants of specific races,
religions or social groups in order to protect the original settlers
A classic example is the reservation of places of employment of
Bumiputras in Malaysia.
o Admission to government educational institutions
o Qualification for public scholarships, positions in government and
ownership in business
o Certain percentage of new housing in any development has to be
sold to Bumiputra owners
o Housing developers are required to provide a minimum 7%
discount to Bumiputra buyers of these lots

Singaporeans in China
3 strategies were used in order for these migrants to maintain ties with
Singapore
a) Use of citizenship rules to keep Singaporeans bound to the nation state
dual citizenship is only allowed up to the age of 21.
b) Efforts by the Singapore International Foundation to keep Singaporeans in
touch with Singapore Publication of a bi-monthly magazine and newsletter
featuring activities organized by Singaporeans overseas and distribution of
tapes of local programmes, organization of camps etc
c) Continued use of public rhetoric which constructs globalization as a
necessary evil to guard against rhetoric and ideology used to highlight the
dangers of globalization and not being tied to national roots
Singaporeans in China themselves get together to celebrate their national
identity celebration of festivals and customs (CNY, National Day), import
of Singaporean food and maintaining practices like setting aside 20% of
salary for savings (like the CPF)
Such migrants develop a hybrid culture mixing Singaporean and Chinese
traditions and practices
Their stay in China has helped them recover their Chinese cultural roots
but at the same time enhance their national affiliations with Singapore.

Immigrants in USA
Up to a million immigrants joined a day of nationwide actionprotest
against immigration reform in 2006
Mass rallies were staged across the US immigrants boycotted work or
school and avoided spending moneyshowing their worth to the
economy
Called A Day Without Immigrantsprotest comes as Congress wrestles
with reform of immigration laws
About 11.5 million illegal immigrants live in the USLatino-originFour
out of ten have been in the US five years or lessMany work in
agriculture, transport and construction.
Migration policies have always been a key issue for governments worldwide
Border control policies have been stepped upmore transitory nature
of migration
Imminent threat of terrorism
Each country takes a multi pronged approach which includes
1) policing illegal immigration
2) welcoming skilled migrants
3) tightening controls on the acquisition of citizenship
4) encouraging citizens of the country to stay
Singapore
Strict policy on illegal migrants
Raids are continually conducted throughout the island
Intensive checks are carried out at all points of entry- car checks, X Ray
machines, high speed patrol boats
Places a strong emphasis on skilled citizenship
Through various study schemes for examplegive overseas students
scholarships to study in Singaporehope that they would eventually
make Singapore their homecontribute to the economic development of
the country
For Singapore citizens who work overseas, newsletters about current news
in Singapore are sent to them so that they maintain a link to their home
country.
Impacts of migration
1.

Environment
Sending and receiving regionsPop sizeresources utilized
Sendingless stress on environment, receivingstress on resources
However less true today-->globalization allows resources to be shifted

2. Economy
Sending regions (-ve)
o productivity in sending areas decline
o resulting in economic slowdown in these areas
Receiving
o influx of labour force may boost productivity
No direct links situation may change over time
Sending areaexperience a slowdown improve laterremittance
Receiving areasunderemployment or labour surplus
Development most affected by movement of skilled labour
3. Population size
ImmediateReducing population in sending areas but increasing the
number in receiving areas
Medium termboth areas lies in its influence on birth rates
o Sending areas will encounter a fall in birth ratemigrants tend to be
males in search of jobs
o Whole families migratereceiving areas may experience a boost in
birth rates instead.
Sex ratio of the areas
4. Cost to the societies
R-U migrantsforced to live in substandard houseslack of financial
resources or the high cost of rental in urban centres.
The need to adjust to an urban way of livingexact its toil on the
migrantsmay not be able to cope
Tensions may rise from residents in urban centresresent the unpleasant
sight of squatters or an influx of people
5. Spread of diseases throughout a country
HIV epidemic in Northern Thailand. Chiang Mai ProvinceHIV infection
rate of 44%
The main transmissionsex workers who are visited by migrant workers
There is a great disparity of wealthurban and rural areasagricultural
industry is in sharp decline decline in the socio-economic importance of
villages
Labour shortages in manufacturinghigh rural-urban outflow of female
migrants
Migration is circulatory and seasonalemployment is temporary in
nature help the diffusion of HIV
Upon return to their villages spread the HIV virus to their spouses or
childre
Male migrant workers who visit sex workerscontribute to the spread

5. Cultural effect
With migrationspatial diffusion of languages and religions
Positively,enriching to the lives of both migrants and nativesinteract
and understand each other
Only possible in countriescultural assimilation takes place e.g. America
In places where one dominant cultural group is presentintegration
rather than assimilation is the norm
Cultural conflictsany one dominant cultural groupdecides not to
accept other cultures and views them as beneath them
Unsurprising to hear of racial riots in countries such as UK, particularly in
secondary cities and towns.
6. Political effect
The arrival of migrants to an areaproblems to both migrants and natives
Politicians who are in charge of these areasface problems if the locals
and migrants do not mix well with each other
New York and London,inability to live in harmony togetherresidential
segregation occurs
Little Sicily in Chicago Chinatowns are present in many major cities in
Europe and America
Conflicts over migrants can magnify and present themselves at different
placesFrench elections 2002migrants and asylum seekers became the
main focus of the government and the people

4a) Discuss the reasons for changes and variations in population

composition and distribution in EMDCs and ELDCs.
Reason for changes and variations in population composition
BR, DR, Natural Increase
o Health care standards
o Pro or anti natal policies
o Availability of contraceptives
o Epidemics or pandemics
o Wars
o Feminization of workforcedecreasing BR
o Culture/religion
Age-Sex Ratio
o Migrationof males or young etc
o Aging population
o Low BR or high DR etc
Ethnic cleansing
Standards of livingnot affordable to all
Reason for changes and variations in population distribution
Migration
o International
o Transnational
o Internal
Counter urbanisation
Rural-urban migration
R-R or U-U migration
o Forced migrationcan be by government
Inequalities in development/growth/urbanization

Push pull factors of migration

Epidemics
Government planning policies
Difference in level of edu/access to birth control, family planning

b) Assess the economic, demographic, social and political

implications of changes and variations in population structure and
distribution.
Economic Effect
High birth rates and death rateslow development of economic
levelcater to the growing needs of childcare centres
Effects of Feminization of workforce
Migration
o Sending regions (-ve)
o productivity in sending areas decline
o resulting in economic slowdown in these areas
o Receiving
o influx of labour force may boost productivity
o No direct links situation may change over time
o Sending areaexperience a slowdown improve laterremittance
o Receiving areasunderemployment or labour surplus
o Development most affected by movement of skilled labour
o Increasing Income disparity
Demographic Effect
Demographic structure
High birth ratesbroad base
Low ratenarrow
High death ratelow percentage of population above a certain age-group
Low death ratehigh life expectancy of a country
Migration
o ImmediateReducing population in sending areas but increasing the
number in receiving areas

o Medium termboth areas lies in its influence on birth rates

o Sending areas will encounter a fall in birth ratemigrants tend to be
males in search of jobs
o Whole families migratereceiving areas may experience a boost in
birth rates instead.
o Sex ratio of the areas
Social Effect
High birth rate and low death rate,aging populationstrain on the
working population
Working populationsupport growing number of elderlyand decreasing
number of population that can support them in future
Not enough men to serve in army
Social stratificationblack whites, social enclaves, rich poor
Migration
o For R-U migrantsforced to live in substandard houseslack of
financial resources or the high cost of rental in urban centres.
o The need to adjust to an urban way of livingexact its toil on the
migrantsmay not be able to cope
o Tensions may rise from residents in urban centresresent the
unpleasant sight of squatters or an influx of people
o Enhance speard of diseases
o Children of migrants grow up without parental guidiance
Political Effect
The arrival of migrants to an areaproblems to both migrants and natives
Politicians who are in charge of these areasface problems if the locals
and migrants do not mix well with each other
New York and London,inability to live in harmony togetherresidential
segregation occurs
Little Sicily in Chicago Chinatowns are present in many major cities in
Europe and America
Conflicts over migrants can magnify and present themselves at different
placesFrench elections 2002migrants and asylum seekers became the
main focus of the government and the people
Loss of national identity
Resource management
c) Compare the strategies used in ELDCs and EMDCs in coping with
population change.
Case Study: Japan

Women are marrying and having babies at an increasingly later age.

1.38 children on average in 1998, one of the lowest in the world.
Deaths are expected to exceed 10,000 and inward migration will not make
up the difference
Japan is not very generous in its provision of maternity leave. The amount
of maternity leave allowed in Japan was 14 weeks; the same as in
Germany and Sweden (Germany and Sweden had the shortest leave
among the EU countries.)
60% of the regular wage was guaranteed in Japan during the maternity
leave.
Length of parental leave is 1 year and cash benefit is from 40% to 80% of
the wage

Case Study: EU
It is stipulated that a minimum of 14-weeks maternity leave legally
guaranteed in EU Member States, the maximum duration of leave allowed
to mothers varies from country to country.
Furthermore, the interruption of employment for childbirth naturally
entails the loss of earnings for female employees.
It is therefore necessary, when conducting an international comparison of
levels of maternity support, to pay attention not merely to the length of
maternity leave, but also to the level of wage compensation given during
the leave.
a minimum of three months leave by law.
Denmark showed the longest amount of leave granted at 28 weeks
Wage compensation is 82% for the 1st month and 75% for the remaining
period
Length of maternity leave is 13 weeks. In addition, child care leave for 26
weeks.
Cash benefit is 2,846DKK per week. 1,710DKK per week (during child care
leave)
length of parental leave is 13 weeks. In addition, child care leave for 26
weeks.
2,846DKK per week. 1,710DKK per week (during child care leave)
Case Study: Norway
baby Boom after WWII
lasted till 1970s where TFR was 2.5 while at the same time other Nordic
countries was below 2 (Fig 1)
Family policies not merely pro natalist but also concerned with gender
ideologies and pro family settings

Right to paid leave dates back as far as 1956

Those who did not work receive lump sum payment of 3900 euros (2002)
Paid leave extended from 12 to 18 week in 1977
job guarantee for one year
1987: maximum leave of 52 weeks with 80% income given (42 weeks full
pay in 1993) still in practice
Fathers may take 2 weeks unpaid paternity leave after birth
daddy quota extended to four weeks to ensure involvement of both
parents
80% response rate
cash given to parents who do not use publicly subsidized health care
subsidised day care for children above

Case-Study: China

In 1999, estimated population of 1.24 billion, 21% of the world's

population.

High birth rate in the 1950s was a response to the state philosophy that 'a
large population gives a strong country' and people were encouraged to
have as many children as possible.

Every 3 years, China's population increased by 55 million.

State family planning programmes were introduced in the 1970s.

By 1975, average family size had fallen to 3 children but the state still
regard this as too many.

The state later decided in 1979 to introduce 'one chid per family policy'

Inducements to have only one child include free education, priority

housing, pension and family benefits.

If more than one child is born, there'll be fines of up to 15% of the family's
income imposed. No free education, housing priorities and etc.

Marriageable age of men was set at 22 and for women at 20, with couples
having to apply to the state for permission to marry and, later, to have a
child.

Couples who had > 1 child were subjected to economic penalties; women
pregnant for 2nd and subsequent times were often forced to have abortion
and persistent offenders might be offered sterilisation

workplaces and homes were subjected to visits from family-planning

officials

infamous granny police would try to ensure that families under their
charge did not break the rules

contraceptive advice and devices were pressed upon the people

5a) Describe the different population pyramid types.

Things to comment about in pop pyramid
1. % of young, working adult and old, and dependency ratio
2. Socio-economic situation (DTM)
3. BR
4. DR and IMR or under-5 mortality rate U5MR)
5. Life expectancy
6. Sex ratio
7. Migration patterns only if 2 regional pyramids are shown
1.

Stationary (irregular, concave pyramid)

stage 1 of DTM
% of young>working adults>old
A less developed countryregularly tapering because healthcare is not
extremely advanced yet
Agrarian societylabour needs
High BR (board base)pop remains small due to high DR (extremely
tapered towards end, concave pyramid)low natural increase

2.

Progressive (pyramid)

3.

High DR and IMRvery narrow top as compared to middle and

basebroad base with successively narrower upper levelslow
standards of nutrition, healthcare and sanitation
Low life expectancyshort pyramidabove 65, very short bars
Generally balanced sex ratio

stage 2 of DTM
% of young>working adults>old
Developing countrybroad base pyramidbetter healthcare
Agrarian/industrializing societylabour needs but less and agarain
High BR (broad base) and natural increaserapidly increasing pop due
to decreased DR
Decreasing DR and IMRexpansive pyramidhigh healthcare
standardsreligionno contraceptives used
Low but increasing life expectancy, better as compared to pyramid in
stage 1 of DTM
Generally balanced sex ratio

Intermediate (steep pyramid)

4.

Stationary/slow growth

5.

stage 2/3 of DTMtransitional country

% of working adults>young>old
Developing countrybroad and stable base and growing toppretty
advanced healthcare
Industrialized country, can be agrarian too but not entirely
High BR and natural increasereligion, baby boom, healthcare, lack of
monitoring etc
Low DR and IMRbroad stable base, middle and relatively broader top
Relatively high life expectancy
Generally balanced sex ratio

Stage 4 of DTMdeveloped country with long historybetween

progressive and regressive
% of working adults>young>old
Developed country
Low BR and natural increaseno changes in BR for past few years
Low DR and IMR
Long life expectancy

Regressive (beehive, negative growth)

stage 5 of DTMdeveloped country

% of working adults>young=old
Developed countrywide middle and narrow top and bottom
Dominantly service and commerce orientated
Decreasing BR and Natural increasenarrow basesmaller than
middlehigh dependency ratio
Low DR and IMRtall pyramid, base is not tapered
Long life expectancy
More females aged above 65healthier lifestyles than males

6b) With reference to examples, discuss the socio-economic

differentials that exist between populations and different ethnic
sectors of the same population.
Health, income and education is also unevenly distributed within countries
(both EMDCs and ELDCs). The distribution is dependent on the social,
political and economic strength of various social groups. Essentially,
inequalities are present between ethnic groups as well as between genders.
This discrimination affects the access and the availability of resources (jobs,
food, shelter etc)
Health
An individuals healthaffect employment capabilities, excellence in
education, ability to care for family.
Inequalities in healthinequalities in other dimensions
Health of children across countries varied according to mothers education
level, rural or urban residence, parents socio economic status,
Affects ability to access health services (e.g. immunization) IMR is one
way in which health is measured
Poor people and ethnic minoritiesreceiving lower quality care

Poor are usually ethnic minorities.

Disparities also exist in EMDCs (e.g. African American population in USA)
Disabled people are more likely to be poorprevented from access to
school, income but requires higher income to achieve same standard of
living as an able bodied person.
Within countries health development differs between urban and rural
areas.

Education
Access to educationdiffers between genders.
Particularly in less developed countries & poorer districts within
EMDCswomen are less likely to be educated or have access to
educational opportunities.
Established system of patriarchywomans role is viewed as reproductive
rather than productive
In poorer villages, girls as young as 13 are married offbecome
motherslittle incentive as well as opportunities for educational
development.
If she engages in any form of workmenial domestic jobs or part time
unskilled workgets paid very little.
Income
Income levels are also dependent on health and education capabilities.
Ethnic minorities tendearn the least amount of moneydo more menial
jobs.
7) With the aid of a diagram, evaluate the effectiveness of the
Demographic Transition Theory to explain population growth in
EMDCs and ELDCs.
Effectiveness
1. Provides a good basis for population forecasting
2. Allow govt to plan ahead to create prompt and effective measures to
control pop
3. Way to understanding the population changes that happened in different
countries in the past
4. Basis of comparison between countries
5. Portrays the changes in population structure
6. Took into the account at the time period model was formulated
7. General pattern population growth is adhered by countries
Limitations

1. Not all countries follow this pattern, as government policies can results in
different population structure.
2. Within a country, regions or states within the country may not exhibit the
same pattern
3. Future stages where the birth and death rates could differ markedly again.
Not able to pinpoint the future for country currently in stage 5.
4. Anomalies can exist. E.g. Baby bloom after the two major world wars in
many EMDCs is unaccounted for
5. The movement of refugees and migrants of various types are not factored
in, is a closed system
6. Time scale is compressed
Countries that start industrialization later experience a population
explosion at a faster pace than EMDCs in the past
Experience falling birth rates within a shorter period of time as well
EMDCs
Population diffusion differ in regions, when examine at micro-level using
journals, diaries and other forms of information apart from national and
provisional census, a new light was shed on fertility wand mortality levels
in EMDC
E.g. In France, fertility was low in the rural areas even before
modernization
Before industrialization, family planning was underway therefore use of
family planning can be totally account for the decrease in birth rate
Cultural diffusion played a large part in lowering fertility levels, not just
modernizations, but it was not reflected in the DTM (use of contraceptive
prevention methods)
Fertility decline occurred under wide variety of conditions in EMDCs E.g.
decrease in local wars/ famines, revolution in medicine in the 19th Century
(e.g. antibiotics)
ELDCs
Despite developments and modernization, fertility level will continue to
remain high due to the in-built momentum for growth
E.g. in the case of Cambodia, where in the relatively large birth cohorts of
the late 1980s and early 1990s are now entering their prime childbearing
years
Natural increase will therefore continue for a much longer period of time
and is difficult to halt
Conclusion
Model when applied to countries does not fit entirely
Only a useful reminder to govt to some extent

That pop growth will reach plateau when economic development has
taken place

8a) With references to anti and pro natal policies in EMDCs and
ELDCs, compare the impacts and effectiveness of these policies
Case Study: Singapore
High rates of population growth in the 1950s and 60s post-war years
saw surplus labour
1990s : Declining fertility and rising life expectancy rapid ageing
population
The percentage of aged increased significantly
increasing proportion of aged in a society has many implications to the
government, the society, families and individuals.
Solutions to an aging population:
1. CPF system
Help workers in preparation of retirementhave a sum of money to spend
in their later years
Benefits the well-paidlikely to accumulate large sums of
moneycompared to the poorly paid employees

Aimed at helping everyone accumulate a sum of moneyspent should

the person has no one to depend on
Has its meritsgives a low rate of return (currently 2.6% per annum)
Even when one factors in investments that can be made using CPF
funds rate of return may be insufficient for an individual
Nevertheless this solution helps to alleviate financial difficulties of elderly
to a certain extent

2. Provision of Elderly Facilities

Various elderly facilities are built in anticipation of the worsening of the
ageing problem
Hospices, homes for the aged and elderly aids within flats
These facilities are situated in several housing estatessignificant
proportion of elderly e.g. Toa Payoh, Bukit Merah.
Elderly friendly facilities are also built in buildings e.g. ramps (although
these are also meant for the physically impaired).
3. Raising of Retirement Age
Official retirement age in Singapore has been raised from 60 to 62 years
old
Widespread expectation that the retirement age will be raised again to 65
years old shrinking labour force in recent years
Unless birth rates go up labour force is expected to increase at a slower
rate

4. Foreign Talents
Offset the loss of labour & prevent an erosion of skills relaxed its
immigration policies
Actively encourages foreign talent (i.e. skilled workers) to come to
Singapore to work and livethat these people would apply for permanent
residency.
Hoping to attract commonly makes up the PMT people (Professionals,
Managers and Technicians).
Immigration policy has been relaxed furtherinclude spouses of PMT who
are residing in Singaporeentice people to take up citizenship here.
5. Pro-family Policy
Stop at Two Campaign too successfulreverse the trend through pronatal policies
Have Three or More, if you can afford it

Not been effective all these decadescouples put off having children
(some permanently) or even having fewer (two at most)
New series of measures that are aimed not only at boosting birth rates
but also in helping family life
o Baby Bonus Scheme
o Civil Service changed to a 5-day working week
o All employees who are parents are entitled to two days of childcare
leave
o Tax incentives are also revisedprovided to families who need
childcare options
Success of the 2004 Baby Bonus scheme is yet to be determined

Case Study: China

One of the two largest populations in the world
experienced an astounding increase in births from the 1950s, due to a
socio-economic revolution.
Since the late 1950s, China has embarked on an anti-natalist policy.
1971: Wan-xi-shao policy
Sought to increase the age of marriage and the number of years between
conceptionsdecrease the number of children
This policy was differentiated according to urban or rural populations
However, policy not successful as country was not able to meet basic
needs for education, food & shelter
1979: One Child policy
Rationale: to reproduce less in order to reproduce better
Implemented at the provincial level
Widespread access to family planning methods IUD, sterilisation,
Contraceptive use 1982= 71%, 1990=85%
Between 1970-79, 47 million abortions performed
Lower abortion rates in inland provinces vs wealthier coastal areas
Rules:
o
Marriage age follows later longer fewer policy
o
Receive a 1 child certificate and bonuses which can be cashed in
after 4 years (provided there are no more children or after sterilisation)
o
Receive a monthly allowance of 4 yuan till child is 16 (urban
area) and 40 yuan per year in rural areas.
o
medical expenses are paid for
o
nursery is provided for if you are working
o
free education for the child
o
housing preferences

o
increased pension
o
cheaper grain rations
Penalties:
o Pay everything back if you break the policy
o 10% of monthly earnings forfeited
o No free education/ grain rations at subsidised rates, allocation of
housing

Problems:
It was impossible to keep track of births due to the massive size of China
Minority groups were left out and therefore the success of the policy is
questionable.
Provincial Level of implementation strain on province stores &
inadequate attention given at national level
Abduction & sale of women and children due to the imbalanced sex ratio
as well as the desire for couples to have more than one child.
Little Emperor syndrome: gender preferences, as well as a culture of
doting on the only child. This could have a negative consequence on the
social development of the child.
Young coupled sandwiched between 4 aged parents and 1 offspring=
4+2+1 pyramid.
High dependency structure has made it very difficult for couples to be
financially well off.
Gender Imbalance marriage squeeze in 1980, 20 women for 22 men
Evaluation of success
Policy brought down BR but not in slowing down population increase
Very draconian increase in consumerism & affluence, womens
participation in the workforce, cost of raising children
Decrease of BR in China is ideological whereas in West it is socioeconomic
Websites on Chinas demography
Case Study : Norway
Baby Boom after WWII
Lasted till 1970s where TFR was 2.5 while at the same time other Nordic
countries was below 2
Family policies not merely pro natalist but also concerned with gender
ideologies and pro family settings
Right to paid leave dates back as far as 1956
Those who did not work receive lump sum payment of 3900 euros (2002)

Paid leave extended from 12 to 18 week in 1977

Job guarantee for one year
1987: maximum leave of 52 weeks with 80% income given (42 weeks full
pay in 1993)still in practice
Fathers may take 2 weeks unpaid paternity leave after birth
daddy quota extended to four weeks to ensure involvement of both
parents
80% response rate
Cash given to parents who do not use publicly subsidized health care
Subsidized day care for children above 2

9a) Discuss the factors that characterize overpopulation and under

population.
Overpopulation
Situation where population exceeds the carrying capacity of the region so
there is a fall in the SOL
Typical signs of overpopulation
o Unemployment, underemployment, congestion, pollution,
poverty, breakdown of social services

o SSA countries such as Sudan: starvation & famine common, life

expectancy low, IMR high. Possible indicators are GDP and access
to sanitation/safe water
With increased productivity, SOL may be increased even in a situation of
overpopulation.
Most overpopulation countrieshave resourcesmay not have been fully
exploitedmay not be able to increase their productivitylack of capital,
skills, good governance, or political/ethnic instability.
Possibly the most striking example of the impact of overpopulation is the
deforestation of Easter Island.
Countries experiencing overpopulation: Bangladesh, Ethiopia, the
Philippines
Cities experiencing overpopulation: Bangkok, Jakarta

Underpopulation
Situation where population is too small to fully/effectively utilise its
resources
Any increase in population may not harm a countrys standard of
livingin factan increase in human resources (not the same as
population)may actually increase a countrys ability to harness its
resources and thus increase SOL.
New Zealand which is self-sufficient in pretty much everything, and a
population of 3.5 million.
Underpopulation is hardly as serious a problem as overpopulation
Consequences are not drastic, life-threatening
Mostly DCstend to experience low BRs and DRsmay well experience
ageing populations in the future ability to utilise their resources might
decrease in future.
Countries experiencing underpopulation: Canada, Australia, New Zealand
Optimum Population
Population level which allows maximum utilisation of resources, achieving
highest possible SOL under the conditions
An ideal concept. Countries such as Switzerland and the US approximate
optimum population

c) Compare the resource use in EMDCs and ELDCs and discuss how
changes in society can impact resource appraisal
Changing Uses of Environment: Environmental Policy
Despite the continual efforts in expanding our resource base, it is more
important that we effectively manage the current resources available.

EMDCs and ELDCs have varying success rates in the effectiveness of this
management.
This is because the rate of use of a particular resource is very much
dependent on the local climate, geography and social, economic and
political factors.
In both EMDCs and ELDCs, conservation of the natural environment has
been incorporated into many policies.
The Kyoto Protocol is one such global policy which has been ratified by
many countries (except the USA).
Under this policy, countries are allowed to partake in emissions trading.
Emission trading is a process targeted at reducing or at least maintaining
the emissions of greenhouse gases within a country.
Governments set a cap to regulate carbon emissions and companies who
participate are allocated specific allowances.
If a company produces less than its allowance, it is then allowed to sell
the remaining allowance to another company which requires a surplus.
Similarly, if a company has exceeded its quota, it can buy the excess from
another company.
It is therefore a win-win situation for all. British Petroleum (BP) for
example has apparently successfully reduced its emissions by 10%
between 1998 to 2001.

Background
Info

Management

Las Vegas, Nevada

Water use in Las Vegas
increasing rapidly over
the past 10 years
Water level of Lake Mead
(the source of water) has
dropped 60 feet
The Southern Nevada
water authoritydecided
to implement a wide
range of conservation
measuresbusinesses
and homeowners.
870 litres of water are
consumed per person per
day70% is used
outdoors- to water lawns,
fill pools and wash cars
Laws have been put in
placebanning
homeowners from outdoor
water use on specific days

India
Like Las Vegas, India has a
climate where
temperatures can soar
above 40C
Unlike Las Vegasworlds
second largest population
with the majority of the
population living in poverty
Many local community
projects have been
implemented successfully
across the country, but
there have also been many
problems.

The Swajal Project

Bundelkhand region of
Indias Uttar Pradesh
(UP)supply of reliable

of the week
Golf courses are limited to
using specific amounts of
water per acre of course
Water saving landscaping
Home users fined for
wasteful use of water
Violators can be fined
between US$125-$150
and have their supply
terminated.

Evaluation

These implementations
minimal success
Water use is still
increasing and resources
continue to deplete
Largely due to affluence
of the peoplecan afford
to pay fines
Las Vegas has sought to
build a 555km, US$5
billion pipeline from
central Nevada to meet
its growing needs.
However this has caused
tension and unhappiness
with the residents of
central Nevada
(particularly farmers) who
also require the use of the
resource

piped water
Joint effort on the part of
the Government of Uttar
Pradesh and the World
Bank.
Aimprovide water supply
and sanitation services to
the rural areas of UP and to
improve local livelihoods
through education and
training program
Regulations to limit the use
of water to certain times of
the day
Fines for those who wasted
water or disobeyed
More successful as
compared to Las Vegas as
the people more desperate
for water
While most in Las Vegas
used water to sustain their
luxurious life stylesmatter
of survival to the people in
India
People in Las Vegas take
the government and water
supply for granted
People in India cherish this
source of water and fines
prove to be a better
deterrent for poverty
stricken people in India