1st part Digestion and Absorption by Dra.

Bringas
Transcribed by: Marjorie Driz
Transport Nutrients- mean of absorption
Lumen of intestinal tract- digest into small pieces then we transport into the lumen-going to the cell-bloodstream
Purpose of transporting into the bloodstream-so that it will travel to the liver.
Basic steps of Digestion
1. Mechanical Breakdown of food-Mastification
2. Chemical digestion-used of enzymes
(enzymes as scissors)
(covalent bond-bond which is very strong
o Cannot be broken down easily thats why we need enzymes.
o Enzymes will work at specific pH (acidic or basic pH).
o Ex. Pepsin is needed to digest protein. The inactive form of Pepsin is Pepsinogen. The
Hydrochloric acid will convert the pepsinogen into its active form- pepsin.
o Pepsin will be activated in the stomach because it will require very low pH
o Other enzymes such as amylase works at neutral pH, it can be found in the saliva, pancreatic
juice.
o Bile acids- synthesized in the liver
Stored in the gallbladder.
Precursor of bile acids: cholecystokinin.
If you have enough cholesterol in the liver, this will be converted into bile acids, and
stored in the gallbladder
If you will eat fatty foods, your gallbladder will contract and releases the bile acids.
Bile acids emulsify fats!
Fatty foods are nonpolar. In this form, fats cannot be absorbed since they will avoid the water. This is in
contrast with the fluid in the digestive tract, which are water-based. So you need an agent that will
emulsify or mixed this fatty globule with water .
This will open up the fat globule increasing the surface area.
Example: a crampled paper, before you tear it up, you need to open it, (increasing the surface area). By
this time, the fat globules will be easier to digest.
Emulsification by bile acids is a prerequisite for fat digestion
Transport is a magic word for absorption of nutrients.
Our purpose when we eat is to break down the bigger molecules into its simplest form.

Review:
1. Carbohydrates
Basic unit of carbohydrates are glucose, galactose and fructose, which is made up of 6 Carbon Molecules.

Glucose- alpha glucose-means that the hydroxyl group (OH) is written below the plane in the first carbon. While in
Beta form, the hydroxyl group (OH) is above the plane. (Remember the alpha and beta linkage?

Galactose
*take note:
Glucose: OH group (hydroxyl group is linked at the 2nd, 4th and 5th carbon.
Galactose: OH group (hydroxyl group is linked at the 2ndand 5th carbon.
Fructose: OH group (hydroxyl group is linked at the 4th and 5th carbon.
*Glucose and Galactose are aldehyde. Notice the first Carbon. This is their functional group.
Fructose is a ketone. Meaning their functional group is not found on the first carbon. (For fructose, the functional group
is found at the 2nd carbon.)
Glucose and Galactose can be isomerized. They are epimers at the 4th carbon. Notice that in 4th carbon of glucose, the
hydroxyl group (OH) is found at the left side while the hydroxyl group (OH) of galactose is found at the right side.

Disaccharides- joined by Glycosidic bond.

Disaccharide

Unit 1

Unit 2

Bond

Sucrose (table sugar, cane sugar, beet sugar,

or saccharose)

Glucose

Lactose (milk sugar)

Galactose Glucose (14)

Maltose (Malt sugar)

Glucose

Fructose (12)

Glucose (14)

Hydrolysis of Disaccharides (enzymes)

General term: Disaccharase
1. Sucrose- Sucrase (Product: glucose and fructose)
2. Lactose Lactase (product: glucose and galactose)
3. Maltose- Maltase (product: glucose and glucose)
(*sucrase, lactase and maltase, amylase or any enzymes that will be responsible in breaking the bonds are all
classified as hydrolases. (remember the classification of enzymes)
Polysaccharides1. Starch- storage form of glucose in the plant

2 Forms
Amylose- (long chain of glucose molecules/ polymers of glucose)
o Linear starch

Enzymes: Amylase- cleaved only at the alpha 1-4. Amylase cannot break the disaccharides. (remember the
specificity of an enzyme ) know the substrate, add the -ase

Amylopectin- consist of linear (a 1-4 linkage) and branching portion (a 1-6 linkage)
Branched starch

Glycogen is the same as Amylopectin but you will find this in animals

2. Cellulose-

This one is different in such a way that Carbon 1 is projected upward while Carbon 4 is projected downward. You
call this as Beta 1-4 linkage . You will find that in your fiber, Cellulose. The enzyme is called CELLULASE.

Triglycerides/ LIPIDS/ triacylglycerol

Simplest form: fatty acids and glycerol
Fatty acids: an acid of carboxylic group with a long chiro-carbon chain. Chain of carbon with hydrogen. (hydrocarbon)
Glycerol alcohol- 3 carbon each of which has a hydroxyl (-OH) group bound to it. It is an alcohol.
What happens during the dehydration? Removal of water will give us ester linkages. (what is an ester? just compare
the structure of a carboxylic acid (COOH or C=OH) and an ester (COOR or C=OR). (R can be a carboxylic acid). In ester
linkages, we will attach the oxygen (O) into another carboxylic acid forming now the triglycerides.
Bond: Ester bond

Enzymes: Lipase

Lipase is only specific to the 1st and 3rd ester linkages. Cannot attack the 2nd group.
Upon hydrolysis, the product will be 2 Fatty acids. What is left is Carbon 2-monoacylglycerol .
Proteins (polypeptide)- made up of longer chains of amino acids (simplest form) bond together by peptide bond.

*the most important structure of the protein molecule is the presence of the amino group (NH3) and the
carboxylic group (COOH). When joined together by peptide bond, one oxygen (O) of the carboxylic acid will bind to the
hydrogen of the next amino group. The end result will be the released of water molecule and formation of the peptide
bond.
Terminal right end: Amino group (NH3)
Terminal left end: Carboxylic group (COOH).
Enzyme Aminopeptidase- cleaved at the terminal right end (amino group)
Carboxypeptidase-cleaved at the terminal left end (carboxylic group)
*Both Amino and Carboxypeptidase are exopeptidases. (Outside). All other enzymes that you will meet that will digest
proteins are endopeptidases.

CHOLESTEROL (Cyclopentanoperhydrophenanthrene)

Cholesterol ester- the cholesterol will be attached to another group

Enzymes: Cholesterol esterase

Steatorrhea
High fat diet, cholesterol will come after with it. What happens, even there is a production of HMG COA
enzymes it will not be effective anymore. Ang dami mong enzymes pero mas sobrang daming substrates. The enzymes
now will be inacapable to convert the substrates into products. The excess cholesterol will be lodge in the gallbladder.
Because of supersaturation, and it will be stagnant in the gallbladder. It will result in the formation of gallstonescholelithiasis. If you continue to intake high fat diet, it will result to the inflammation of the gallstone (cholelithisis).
Because you cannot digest the fat anymore, it will be excreted in the stool, causing now the steatorrhea.
Cystic fibrosis- defect in the transport of sodium and chloride, the defect will be on the sweat. The sweat (puno
ng asin) becomes a very thick mucous blocking the pancreatic duct. The pancreas wont released the necessary enzymes
needed for digestion leading now to general maldigestion/malabsorption.
Lactose intolerance, there is diarrhea, lack lactase. Or lactase stops digestion.

No digestive enzyme in the colon

Acid from the stomach, bile from the liver
Pancreas secretes the bicarbonates and some enzymes
o Hormones:
o Stomach-gastrin
o Small intestine- cholecystokinin (chole-gallbladder); this is the hormone which stimulates the gallbladder to
contract and released bile; also called pancreozymin. A hormone which stimulates the pancreas to
o Secretin- stimulates the pancreas to released bicarbonate.

Infection in the small intestine-malabsorption

Mouth- Esophagus- stomach- small intestine (duodenum-jejunum-ileum)

Production of Hydrogen Chloride in the Parietal Cells.

CO2, which is very prominent in the plasma will enter into the cell with water. The enzyme carbonic anhydrase will
catalyze the reaction into carbonic acid (H2CO3) and water. The carbonic acid will dissociate into bicarbonate
(HCO3) and Hydrogen ion (H). HCO3 will be transported back into the plasma (resulting in the alkaline shift) in
exchange with the chloride ions.
How Hydrogen will be transported out of the cell?
It is through the mechanism of Hydrogen Potassium Pump with the used of ATP. The ATP will bind in the ATP binding
site, changing the configuration of the protein, making the H diffused out of the cell in exchange of K ion.
The chloride will be diffused out with the positive hydrogen ion forming now the hydrochloric acid.
Gastrin, acetylcholine, histamine signals the HCl synthesis. (Application: antacids such as H2 blocker: Ranitidine)
(PPI: Proton Pump Inhibitor: Omeprazole block the ATP binding site as competitive inhibitor, it will change the
configuration of the protein so it will not transport the H protons out. The end result, no HCL production.
Functions of HCL
Kills microorganism
Denatures or open up the protein
Activates pepsinogen into pepsin
PROENZYMES
Also called zymogens, they are inactive enzymes
Why is it we cannot have the digestive enzymes active all the time? It can cause negative effect in our body
example, the case of acute pancreatitis where the pancreatic enzymes will caused the autodigestion in the
pancreas.
Examples of zymogens:
o Trypsinogen
o Chymotrypsinogen
o Pepsinogen
o Caspases
o Proelastase
o Prolipase (lahat ng may pro/sinogen)

Enterokinase/ Enteroptidase- highly specific protease activates trypsinogen to trypsin. Active trypsin will
attack other zymogens such as proelastases, chymotrypsinogen and procarboxypeptidase as well as
trypsinogen itself.

TO activate pancreatic enzymes, we have secretagogues

Secretagogues
o Substances which causes another substance to be secretaed
o Acetylcholine, histamine, serotonin gastrin, cholecystokinin/pancreozymin
Signaling pathway that will help the formation of zymogens
o Enzymes are proteins produced by the ribosomes.
o Signal pathway
Coming from ribosome-stay inside the cell
With a signal peptide- bind to Rough ER go to Golgi Apparatus formed vesicles
A protein which has a single sequence must leave the cell, while a protein which do not have a
single sequence must stay inside the cell
o Digestive enzymes have signal peptide because they are bound for exocytosis.
Receptor for secretagogues
When they bind they stimulate Phospholipase C and Adenylate Cyclase C to stimulate the ER to form
more zymogens and eventually secreted out by the Calcium released.
Absorption

Transport of nutrients from the lumen of the GI tract across the cells and through the blood vessels.
o 2 pathways:
Transcellular-nutrient goes through the cell
o Paracellular-nutrient goes in between the cell

Luminal
More microvilli; (brush border) for absorption of nutrients
More digestive enzymes are present

Contraluminal/basolateral
Few microvilli
More on Na released, Na/K ATPase

Na/K Pump ATPase

Cleaved ATP releases energy. The released of energy transport Na and K.

Contraluminal in location
Why Na cannot accumulate inside? It will caused hypopolarization of the cell, attracting the water
inside the cell. The cell will burst. To counter that, you have the pump!

With the used of ATP and cleaving it, it releases high energy and organic phosphate and ADP. The
high energy phosphate will attach to the ATP binding site to change the configuration of the protein to another shape
(figure A and B). Pag nagbago ang shape ng protein lalabas si Na papasok si K.
To go back into the original configuration, you remove the Phosphate from the ATP binding site. Removal of that will
change the configuration into ATP binding site again.

FATS

Not soluble in the blood (not soluble in water/nonpolar)

Instead of passing into the blood, it will pass thorough the lymph in the form of lipoprotein (chylomicrons)
CHYLOMICRONS-carries fat in the diet/ exogenous fats
Other lipoproteins- HDL (good cholesterol) LDL (bad cholesterol-lodges in the arteries causing atherosclerosis)
VLDL LDL transport endogenous (synthesize in the liver) fats from the liver to the tissues.
HDL is the most dense and the lowest triacylglycerol and the highest protein content.
o Transport fats from tissues from the blood back to the cholesterol
LDL- has the highest content of cholesterol and its esters
Monosaccharides, amino acids enters into the portal vein

Fats-short chain-very easy to absorb

o

Long chain- more capable for the beta oxidation (where for every 2 Carbon of fatty acids it will give 1 acetyl
COA-for ATP production in Krebs cycle)