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13
13.1
Power Series
Definition
13.2
Examples
(i) an = 1 :
xn : Geometric Series :
if |x| < 1
if |x| > 1
(ii) an = 1/n! :
(iii) an = 1/n :
n
n/1 x /n
: Logarithmic Series :
(iv)
(v)
a2n = 0
a2n+1 = (1)n /(2n + 1)!
13.3
convergent
divergent
:
P x2n (1)n
2n!
:
convergent
divergent
if |x| < 1
if |x| > 1
P x2n+1 (1)n
(2n+1)!
P
an xn0 is convergent, and |x| < |x0 | then
an xn is absolutely convergent.
P
Proof. Chose p such that xx0 < p < 1. As
an xn0 is convergent, an xn0 0, so there exist
N such that
Theorem. If
n
x
6 pn
n > N = |an x | 6
x0
P
Then by Comparison Test with (1, 1, 1, . . . , 1, pN +1 , pN +2 , . . . ),
|an xn | is convergent.
n
|an xn0 |
13.4
P
P
Suppose {|x0 | :
an xn0 convergent} is bounded; then let R := sup{|x0 | :
an xn0 convergent}.
If the set is not bounded, we write R = .
We call this the Radius of Convergence. Why? Well, see below.
Example. With the same examples as above we get R = 1, , 1, , .
13.5
Theorem. Let
:
:
:
:
R=1
R=1
R=1
R=1
:
:
:
:
convergent at 1, 1
convergent at 1, and divergent at 1
convergent at + 1, and divergent at 1
divergent at 1, 1
Note. In the complex case all things are possible is not so trivial.
13.6
(i) Easy case: If lim an+1 /an exists, and = l, then R = 1/l.
Proof. Put un = |xn an |, un+1 /un = |x|an+1 /an l|x|. If l|x| < 1 then convergent, if
l|x| > 1 then divergent. So by the previous theorem, R = 1/l.
P pn
P pn
(ii) Comparison
Test Case:
x , pP
=sequence of primes. By Comparison test,
|x| 6
P n
|x| convergent if |x| < 1. But 1pn is divergent as there are infinitely many primes.
(iii) Cosine/sine etc.
P
2n
Consider (1)n x2n! : note a0 = 1, a1 = 0, a2 = 1/2etc. So Ratio test is not good yet!
Put un := |(1)n x2n /2n!|. Then un+1 /un =
by Ratio Test!
x2
(2n+2)(2n+1)
0 as n . So convergent
13.7
Theorem. Suppose
Note. There are definitions not content-free. We are not just differentiating/integrating a
sumbut a limit!
[Clearly we cant prove these until we develop the theory of differentiation and integration in
HT and TT.]
14
14.1
xn /n! is convergent: so R = .
(ii) Define
exp(x) :=
X xn
n!
(iii) exp(0) = 1
(iv) exp(x + y) = exp(x) exp(y) [proved]
(v) exp(x) = exp(x/2)2 > 0.
(vi) exp(x) > 0 actually.
For x > 0,
exp(x) > 1 + x > 0
for x = t, t > 0,
exp(x) exp(x) = exp(0) = 1
So exp(x) > 0 too.
(vii) x exp(x) 0 as x . [whatever this means. . . ]
Proof. Chose x N, n > . Then for x > 1
exp(x)
exp(x)
xn+1 /(n + 1)!
x
>
>
=
n
n
x
x
x
(n + 1)!
So
0 6 x exp(x) 6
(n + 1)!
x
14.2
and
X x2n+1 (1)n1
(2n + 1)!
are convergent.
(ii) Define
cos x :=
X x2n (1)n
2n!
, sin x :=
X x2n+1 (1)n1
(2n + 1)!
(iii)
cos 0 = 1, sin 0 = 0
(iv)
cos x = cos(x), sin x = sin(x)
(v)
sin(x + y) = sin x cos y + cos x sin y
We identify coefficients of
xr y s
(r+s)!
on both sides.
1
(1)k 22k1
(2k)!
in sin2 x:
1
1
(1)m
(1)km1
(2m + 1)!
(2k 2m 1)!
k1
(1)k X
2k
= (1)
(2k)!
2m + 1
X
m=0
(1)k 2k1
= (1)
2
,
(2k)!
So result will follow from what weve proved about multiplication of Absolutely convergent series.
(vii) Much better:
cos0 (x) = sin x
sin0 (x) = cos x
[Depends of results we have not proved.]
(viii) Define /2 := inf{x > 0 : cos(x) = 0}
(ix) Now establish the periodicity:
cos(x + 2) = cos(x) and sin(x + 2) = sin(x)
5
14.3
Hyperbolic Functions
Define
cosh x :=
Then
cosh x =
X x2n
2n!
, sinh x :=
X x2n+1
(2n + 1)!
exp(x) + exp(x)
exp(x) exp(x)
, sinh x =
2
2
14.4
Define
sec(x) :=
tan(x) :=
1
cos x
sin x
cos x
when x 6= 0 . . .
...
Next term!
14.5
Logarithm
Consider
P xn+1
n+1
14.6
X xn+1
n+1
Binomial Series
The series
( 1) . . . ( k + 1) k
x
k!
has radius of convergence 1 (unless N); its sum, when |x| < 1, is
X
k = 0
(1 + x) .