Rad Safety Manual

RadiationSafety
Manual
(RevisedMarch2010)
UpdatedJanuary2015
StanfordUniversity
VeteransAffairsPaloAlto
HealthCareSystem
EnvironmentalHealthandSafety,StanfordUniversity,StanfordCalifornia

RadiationSafetyManual
(RevisedMarch2010)
UpdatedJanuary2015
StanfordUniversity
VeteransAffairs
PaloAltoHealthCareSystem
EnvironmentalHealthandSafety,StanfordUniversity,StanfordCalifornia
CREDITS
This Radiation Safety Manual was developed by the Health Physics staff of Stanford
University. The Radiation Safety Manual is published and copyrighted by Stanford
University.
For more information and updates on health and safety, visit the EH&S website:
http://web.stanford.edu/dept/EHS/prod/
RadiationSafetyManual
PREFACE
TABLEOFCONTENTS
PART1THESCIENCEANDTECHNOLOGYOFIONIZINGRADIATION
Sourcesofionizingradiation
Radioactivity
Propertiesofradioactivityandunitsofmeasure
Electronicsourcesofionizingradiation
Interactionsofparticulateradiationwithmatter
Interactionsofphotonswithmatter
Measurementofradiationandaunitofexposure
Biologicaleffectsofradiationandunitsofdose
ALARApolicy
Generalworkplacesafetyguidance
Referencesforadditionalinformation
1
2
9
10
12
13
14
19
23
23
26
PART2REGULATIONSFORTHESAFEUSEOFIONIZINGRADIATION
27
10CFRPart19Notices,Instructions,andReportstoWorkers;Inspections
10CFRPart20StandardsforProtectionAgainstRadiation
10CFRPart35MedicalUseofByproductMaterial
Title17CaliforniaCodeofRegulations
Responsibilities
Wordsofcaution
27
28
31
31
31
32
PART3ADMINISTRATIVEANDTECHNICALPROCEDURES
33
General
ControlledRadiationAuthorizations(CRAs)forradioactivematerials
Reviewandapprovalofapplications;amendments
Humanuseclinicalproceduresandresearch
ControlledMachineAuthorizations(CMAs)forradiationdevices
Settinguptheradioactivematerialslaboratory
Settinguptheradiationdevicelaboratory
Signsandlabels
Personnelmonitoring
Orderingandreceivingradioactivematerial
Useandtransferrecords
Surveys
RadioactiveWaste
ProblemsRelatedtoRadioactiveWastes
RADIATION SAFETY MANUAL (REVISED MARCH 2010)
33
34
39
40
41
43
44
46
46
48
48
50
52
57
I
58
Responsetospills,losses,andotherincidents
PART4APPENDICES
62
Glossary
Safetydatasheetsforcommonlyusedradionuclides
SafetyDataSheet
Reportsapplicabletotheinstitutionaluseofradiation
10CFRPart20AppendixCQuantitiesoflicensedmaterialrequiringlabeling
ConversionTables
SignsandLabels
Forms
Index
63
69
70
79
81
91
92
95
106
LISTOFFIGURES
Figure1.1Typicalbetaspectra
Figure1.2Maximumrangeofbetaparticles
Figure1.3Typicalgammarayspectrum
Figure1.4Xrays
11
Figure1.5Thephotoelectriceffect
13
Figure1.6Comptonscatter
13
Figure1.7Asimplegasdetector
15
Figure1.8Thecharacteristiccurveforgasdetectors
15
Figure1.9Halfvaluelayerforphotonenergiesfrom10keVto100MeV
15
Figure1.10Typicalfilmbadge
17
Figure1.11SourcesofradiationdoseintheUnitedStates
21
Figure2.1Radiationsymbol
29
LISTOFTABLES
Table1.1Maximumenergyandhalflifeofselectedbetaemitters
Table1.2factor,halflife,photopeak,andhalfvaluelayerforselectedgammaemitters
Table1.3Standardworkrulesforradiochemicallaboratories
25
Table2.1Doselimitsforadultworkers,minorworkers,andmembersofthepublic
29
Table2.2PostingRequirements
30
Table3.1QLMquantities
34
Table3.2ControlledRadiationAuthorization(CRA)quantitiesandterms
38
Table3.3Actionlevelsforremovablecontamination
51
Table3.4Approximatedetectionefficienciesforsomecommonradionuclidesanddetectors
52
II
THE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF IONIZING RADIATION
Part1 THESCIENCEANDTECHNOLOGYOFIONIZING
RADIATION
Thediscoveryofxraysin1895,andradioactivityin1896,providedtwofundamentalfoundationstones
fortherevolutioninphysicalsciencethatoccurredinthetwentiethcentury.However,thefieldof
radiationscienceissufficientlyspecializedthatitmayonlybementionedinpassingatthe
undergraduatelevel.
Thispartisaprimerontheoriginsofionizingradiation,itsinteractionwithmatter,itsmeasurement,its
potentialforadversehealtheffects,andthemeasuresusedtoensureasafeworkplace.Therearealso
manyuniquecharacteristicsrelatedtoradioactivityandionizingradiation;thosethatareimportantto
radiationsafety,specificallytime,distance,shielding,andcleanlinessintheradiochemistrylab,willbe
examined.Foradditionalinformation,consultthereferenceslistedattheendofthispart.
Therearemanytermsofartspecifictoionizingradiationandouradministrativestructuretoensureits
safeuse.ThesetermsaredefinedintheGlossaryinPart4.
SOURCESOFIONIZINGRADIATION
Weareconstantlyexposedtoionizingradiationinboththenaturalandthemoderntechnological
environment.Thissectiondescribesthesourcesofionizingradiationusedintheresearchandteaching
environment.
Radiochemicals
Theevolutionofmedicalresearchandpatientcareoverthelastfiftyyearswas
madepossibleinlargepartbytheuseofradioactiveatomstolabelmolecules.
Thistechnologyprovidesasimplemethodbywhichachemicalcompoundcanbe
marked,observed,andmeasuredasitisprocessedbyasimplecellcultureora
humanbeing.Thereareapplicationsthroughoutthelife,physical,and
engineeringsciences.
Thequantityofanaturallyoccurringanalytecanbemeasuredwithisotope
dilutionanalysis.Similartechnologiespermitthestudyof,forexample,solubility
constantsofslightlysolublesalts.Environmentalsamplescanbeanalyzedusing
radiometrictitrationorbymeasuringnaturallyoccurringradiotracers.
SealedSources
Manydevicesusesealedradioactivesourcesbecausetheyprovideaconvenient,
inexpensivesourceofionizingradiation.Sealedradioactivesourcesareoften
madebyencapsulatingthesaltormetalofaradionuclideinaweldedmetal
containerwhosesizetypicallyrangesfromsmallerthanapencilleadtothesizeof
agolfball.Theencapsulationensuresthattherewillbenoradioactive
contaminationofthelaboratory.Alphasealedsourceshaveanopenwindow
constructionwiththesourcematerialbondedtothesurfaceofasilverfoil
mountedintherecessoftheplasticdisc.Sealedsourceapplicationsrangefrom
lowactivityalphasourcesthatareusedinhomesmokedetectorsthroughhigh
activity,selfshieldedirradiatorsthatpermitthestudyofdoseeffects.
XrayMachines
Anyelectronicdevicethathasfastmovingelectronsisapotentialsourceof
ionizingradiation.Oneisthediagnosticxraymachine.Firstusedin1896,it
permittednoninvasiveimagingofinternalhumanstructures.Today,intheUS
alone,diagnosticradiologyaccountsfortwothirdsofourdosefrommanmade
sources.
XrayDiffraction
andXray
Fluorescence
Becausetheirwavelengthiscomparabletothelatticeseparationincrystals,xray
diffractionunitscanbeusedtostudythearrangementofatomsincrystals.Xray
fluorescencepermitsthechemicalanalysisofasamplebecauseeachelementhas
auniquefluorescentspectrumwhoseintensityisproportionaltothatelements
concentrationinthesample.Bothtechniquesrequirenarrow,intensexray
beams.
HighenergyXray Highenergyxraymachines,operatinginthe4MVto25MVenergyrange,are
usedtotreatmanyillnesses,andveryhighenergyparticleacceleratorsareused
machinesand
particle
byphysiciststounderstandtheinternalstructureoftheelementaryparticles.
accelerators
Electron
Microscopes
Althoughtheyareelectronicdevices,electronmicroscopesdonotnormally
presentaradiationhazardduetotheirengineeringdesignandoperating
parameters.Microscopistswhouseuraniumsaltswhenexaminingbiological
specimensshouldobservehazardouschemicalprecautions.Personsusing
uraniumsaltsmustworkunderacontrolledradiationauthorization(CRA)and
submittheirprotocoltotheirHealthPhysicistforreviewandguidanceregarding
disposal.SeeDataSheetsinPart4,Appendices.
CabinetXray
machines
Cabinetxraymachinesareenclosed,selfshielded,interlockedirradiation
chambers.Themachinecanonlyoperatewhenthechamberdoorissecurely
closed.Theexposureratesateverylocationontheexteriormeetstherate
specifiedforuncontrolledareas.
RADIOACTIVITY
Radioactivityisthespontaneousemissionofchargedparticlesorphotonsbyanatomicnucleusthatisin
anunstableconfiguration.Thiseventiscalledanucleartransformation,adecay,oradisintegration.
Eachdecayeventinvolveslossofmassorcharge.Thereareavarietyofradioactivedecaymodes.One
ofthebestsourcesofinformationondecaymodesistheChartofNuclidespublishedbytheKnolls
2
AtomicPowerLaboratory.Decayschemesforselectedisotopesalsoappearinmanytextsandreference
books.Foramorecompleteintroductorydiscussion,seeAlpench.3,Hendeech.3,Turnerch.3,or
Bushbergch.14.
Alpha
Thealphaparticleissimplyaheliumnucleus,comprisedoftwoprotonsandtwo
neutrons.Itisassociatedwiththeradioactivedecayofelementsofhighatomic
number.Forexample,
226Ra222Rn+4
Eachalphaparticlehasachargeof+2andamassof4.Mosthaveaninitialkinetic
energyofabout5MeV.Theyarefrequentlyaccompaniedbyhighenergygamma
rays.Almostallradionuclidesthatdecaybyalphaemissionhaveatomicnumber
greaterthan83(bismuth).SeeKranech.8.
Propertiesof
particles
Becauseoftheir+2chargeandrelativelylowvelocity,alphaparticlesaredensely
ionizing,depositinganenormousamountofenergyateachcollisionwithan
attenuatingatom.Thus,theylosealloftheirkinetic,ionizingenergyafter
travellingaveryshortdistanceinanymedium.Athinpieceofpaper,orthelayer
ofdeadcellsonyourskinsurface,willcompletelyattenuateabeamofalpha
particles.Therefore,alphaparticlesposenoexternalhazard.However,if
ingested,theycandeliveraverylargeradiationdosetotissue.Forexample,
radiumisinthesamecolumnoftheperiodictableofelementsascalcium,andisa
boneseeker.Ingestionofradiumcancauseaverylargeradiationdosetoblood
formingcells.
Beta
Thebetaparticleisanelectronthathasbeenejectedfromaneutronrichnucleus.
Itdiffersfromanelectrononlybecauseitisaproductofradioactivedecay.This
leadsustoobservethattheneutronisessentiallyaprotonwithanattached
electron.Duringtheradioactivedecayevent,theneutronrevertstoaproton,an
energeticelectronandaneutrinothatescapesthenucleus.Forexample,
14
Themaximumkineticenergyofthebetaparticle,inthisexample0.156MeV,can
rangefromaslowas0.019MeVfora3Hdecaytoashighas1.7MeVfora32P
decay,or3.3MeVfora214Bidecay.Thehigherenergyparticlesaremore
penetrating.SeeTable1.1forotherexamplesofbetaemitters.
C14N+0 (0.156 MeV) +
Unlikethediscreteenergiesobservedforalphaparticlesandgammarays,the
averagekineticenergyofallbetaparticlesfromagivenisotopicsampleisabout
onethirdthemaximumenergythatispossibleforthatisotope.SeeFigure1.1.
Themaximumandaveragearecharacteristicfortheisotope.Foralowenergy
betaparticle,wemightaskwherethemissingenergyhasgone.Toexplainthis,
Paulipostulatedtheexistenceofanewparticle,theneutrino(),emitted
simultaneouslyandsharingtheenergyofthedecayeventwiththebetaparticle.
Neutrinoshavelittlemassandnocharge,anddonotfrequentlyinteractwith
matter.
Propertiesof
particles
Aswithalphaparticles,betaparticlesarecompletelyattenuatedbysmall
thicknessesofcommonmaterials.SeeFigure1.2.Therefore,theydonotposean
externalsourceofradiationdose.EvenahighenergybetaparticlefromaP32
decayeventcanonlypenetrateabout8millimetersoftissue.Ourradiation
sensitiveorgansaretypicallyatleast12to25millimetersbelowtheskinsurface.
However,abetaemittercancauseradiationdoseifingested.SeealsoKranech9,
andShapiroPartII.
Alowatomicnumbermaterialsuchasplasticisusedforshieldingabetaemitter.
Thedoseratefromapointbetasourcewithenergygreaterthan0.5MeVis:
X(rad/hr)=(2.7x105A)/r2
WhereXisthedoseratemeasuredinrad/hr,AisactivityinCi,andrisdistancein
cm.Forexample,thebetadoserateat3cmfroma1mCivialofP32is:
2.7x105x0.001/[3]2=30rad/hr
Positron
Afewisotopes,suchas11C,13N,and18F,decaybypositronemission.Apositron,
theantiparticleofabetaparticle,isemittedbyaprotonrichnucleus.Ithasthe
samemassasanelectron,butcarriesapositivecharge.Duringthedecayeventa
protonconvertstoaneutronandapositiveelectron,orpositron,whichisejected
fromthenucleus.Thepositrontypicallytravelsnotmorethanafewmillimeters
beforeannihilatingwithanelectrontoyieldtwo0.511MeVphotons.That
interactionrepresentsaconversionofmasstoradiantelectromagneticenergy.
Radionuclide
EmaxinMeV
Halflife
H3
0.019
12.3y
C14
0.156
5730y
P32
1.710
14.3d
P33
0.249
25.4d
S35
0.167
87.4d
Cl36
0.709
3E5y
Ca45
0.257
163d
Kr85
0.687
10.8y
Sr90*
0.546
28.6y
Y90*
2.28
64.1h
*Sr90andY90areaparentdaughterpair,andare
inequilibriuminasource.
Table 1.1 MAXIMUM ENERGY AND HALFLIFE OF SELECTED BETA
EMITTERS.Theaverageenergyofbetaparticleisaboutonethirdofthe
maximum.
FIGURE1.1TYPICALBETASPECTRA.Betaspectrademonstratetwocharacteristics:maximumbetaparticleenergy;theaverage
betaparticleenergy(typicallyaboutonethirdofthemaximum).
FIGURE 1.2 MAXIMUM RANGE OF BETAPARTICLES AS A FUNCTION OF ENERGY IN THE VARIOUS MATERIALS INDICATED.
FromRadiologicalHealthHandbook,p.122.
BetaGamma
Mostbetaemittersdecaytoanexciteddaughterstatethatreleasesexcess
energyfromthenucleusasagammaray.Agammarayissimplyahighenergy
photonemittedbyanucleusduringitstransitionfromahigherenergyexcited
statetoalowerenergyunexcitedstate.Gammaraysarealwaysprecededbya
chargedparticledecay,mostcommonlyabetaevent.Forexample,
137
Cs137mBa+0(1.176MeV)
Ba137Ba+0(0.662MeV).
137m
Althoughtheseconddecay,calledanisomerictransitionfromthemetastable
statetothegroundstate,hasahalflifeof2.54minutes,weseldomchemically
separatethe137mBadaughterfromthe137Csparent.Thus,itisnotuncommon
tocolloquiallyrefertoa.662MeVcesium137gammaray,althoughitinfact
emanatesfromametastablebariumnucleus.SeeKranech.10.
FIGURE 1.3 TYPICAL GAMMA RAY SPECTRUM. The spectrum of gamma rays emitted by a given
isotopehavedistinct,characteristicenergypeaksthatpermitidentificationoftheisotope.Thisis
Cs137spectrumtakenwithaNaI(TI)detector.
Isomerictransition
Ifametastabledaughterissufficientlylonglived,itcanbechemicallyseparated
fromtheparent,thusyieldingapuregammaemitter.Themostimportant
exampleis
99
Mo99mTc+0(1.214 MeV)
99m
Tc99Tc+0 (0.142 MeV)
Thehalflivesofthereactionsare2.7daysand6.0hoursrespectively.Thusitis
possibletochemicallyseparate99mTcfromitsparentsampleof99Mo,yieldinga
puregammaemittersamplewithahalflifeof6.0hours.Tc99misthe
radionuclideofchoicefornoninvasivenuclearmedicineimaging.
Radio
nuclide
Factor
Half
life
E
(MeV)
E
%
HVL
mmPb
I125
2.75
60.1d
.027
113
0.03
Co57
1.512
270.9d
.122
86
0.15
Tc99m
0.612
6.02h
.140
90
0.3
I131
2.83
8.0d
.364
82
3.0
Cs137
3.82
30.0y
.662
89
6.5
Mo99
1.13
66h
.140
91
7.7
Co60
13.7
5.3y
1.17,1.33
100
13.5
Ra226*
0.121
1600y
0.186
0.9
TABLE1.2FACTOR,HALFLIFE,PHOTOPEAK,ANDHALFVALUELAYER(HVL)FORSELECTEDGAMMA
EMITTERS.E,thegammaenergyisbasedonthehighestpercentageabundance;thegammaenergyis
basedonthehighestpercentageabundanceE%.Ra226*,HVLmmPb=7.4withdaughterproducts.
The gamma factor indicates dose rate in R/hr at 1 cm from a 1 mCi point source. Its units are R
cm2/mCihr. It can be used to calculate the dose rate at a distance from a point source of the
radionuclidebyusingtheequation:
X=(Ao)/r2
WhereXisthedoserate;AisactivityinmCi; isthegammafactor;andrdistanceincm.
Forexample,thedoserateat10cmfroma2mCisourceofCo57is:
2
2
X=2mCix(1.512Rcm /mCihr)x(10cm) =0.03024R/hr.

Thehalfvaluelayer,orHVL,isthethicknessofshieldingmaterialneededtoreducetheexposurerate
byhalf.
Internal
conversion
Ifanexcited,metastablenucleusgoestoitsgroundstatebytransferringits
energytoavalenceelectronthatisejected,theprocessiscalledinternal
conversion.Thisisobservedmorefrequentlyinheavynuclei;gammadecayis
thepreferredmodeforlighternuclei.
Electroncapture
Someprotonrichradionuclidesdecaybyelectroncapture.Anorbitingelectron,
usuallyfromtheKshell,entersthenucleusandcombineswithaprotontoyield
aneutron.Itsvacancyisfilledbyacascadingvalenceelectron,whichreleasesits
excessenergyasacharacteristicxray.Alternatively,theexcessenergycan
causetheejectionofavalenceelectron,calledanAugerelectron.
Spontaneous
fission
Afewverymassivenuclei,suchasCf252,candecaybyspontaneousfission.
About97%ofCf252atomsdecaybyalphaemission.Theremaining3%ofthe
neutronrichnucleisplitintotwolighternuclei,withthereleaseofanaverage
3.8neutronsperfissionevent.
Neutrons
Smallneutronsourcescanbefabricatedbymixinganalphaemittersuchas238Pu
or241Amwith9Be,whichhasalooselyboundneutron.Thenuclearreactionis:
4
+ 9Be12C+1n
Thesesourcesarecommonlyusedinphysicsandanalyticalchemistry
experimentswhenalowfluxneutronsourceisneeded.
PROPERTIESOFRADIOACTIVITYANDUNITSOFMEASURE
Characteristic
decayscheme
Themodesandcharacteristicenergiesthatcomprisethedecayschemeforeach
radioisotopearespecific.Ifinstrumentationissufficientlysensitive,itispossible
toidentifywhichisotopesarepresentinasample,oralternatively,tomeasure
onlytheradioisotopeofinterestwithinasamplecontainingseveral
radioisotopes.
Halflife(T1/2)
ProbablythebestknownpropertyofradioactivityisthehalflifeT1/2.Afterone
halflifehaselapsed,thenumberofradioactivedecayeventsinasampleperunit
timewillbeobservedtohavereducedbyonehalf.ThedecayrateoractivityAt
atanytimetcanbedescribedmathematically:
At=A0e.693t/T
e.693isequalto,andtheexponentt/T1/2describesthenumberofelapsed
halflives.Therefore,tandT1/2mustbeexpressedinthesameunit.For
example,thehalflifeofI131is8.0days.Ifavialwerelabeled"29mCiat1pm
June3,"theactivityinthevialat1amJune6is:
29mCie.693(2.5/8.0)=23mCi
Alternatively,ifnisthenumberofelapsedhalflives,then:
At=A0(1/2)n
29mCi(1/2)0.31=23mCi
Halflivesrangefrombillionthsofasecondtobillionsofyears.Thehalflifeis
characteristicoftheradioisotope,andcannotbeinferred.Thehalflifeis
includedwiththedescriptionofthedecayscheme.
Decayconstant() Thenumberofdecayeventsinasampleperunittime,oractivityA,is
proportionaltothenumberofradioactiveparentatomsNinthesample;A=
N.Forexample,thedecayconstantfor99mTcis0.115/hour.Thehalflifeis
relatedtotheisotopesdecayconstant;=.693/T1/2.Thus,wecanalsowrite
thedecayequation:
At=A0et
Forexample,ifavialcontains100mCiofTc99mat7am,theactivityat7pmis:
100mCie0.115/hrx12hr=25mCi
Whenusinganyoftheseequations,besurethatthesameunitoftime,whether
hoursoryears,isusedtomeasurebothhalflifeT1/2,ordecayconstant ,and
elapsedtimet.
Measuresof
activity(A)
Thenumberofdisintegrations,ordecayevents,ornucleartransformations,ina
sampleperunittimeisitsactivityA.Twocommoninformalunitsare
disintegrationspersecondanddisintegrationsperminute.
Curie(Ci)
TheUSunitofactivityisthecurie(Ci).Onecurieis2.2x1012disintegrationsper
minute,or3.7x1010disintegrationspersecond.Commonmultiplesarethe
millicurieandmicrocurie.
Becquerel(Bq)
TheSIunitofactivityisthebecquerel(Bq).Onebecquerelis1disintegrationper
second.Thecommonmultipleisthemegabecquerel.Notethat1mCi=37MBq.
ELECTRONICSOURCESOFIONIZINGRADIATION
Productionofx
rays
Radioactivityisnottheonlysourceofionizingradiation.Electronsareemitted
byafilamentheatedwithanelectriccurrent;theprocessiscalledthermionic
emission.Iftheelectronsarethenacceleratedthroughanelectricpotentialof
severalkVtoseveralMV,andthenstoppedinstantlyinahighatomicnumber
metaltargetanode,someoftheirkineticenergycanbeconvertedtohighenergy
photonscalledbremsstrahlungradiation,fromtheGermantermforbraking
radiation.Thisradiationismorecommonlyknownasxrays.However,mostof
thekineticenergyisconvertedtoheat.
Forelectronsincidentonathicktarget,thefractionFofenergyconvertedtox
raysisapproximately:
F=7x104ZEk
Zistheatomicnumberofthetarget,andEkistheacceleratingvoltageinMV.
Therefore,a1MVelectronbeamacceleratedtoatungsten
(Z=74)targetwillbeabout5%efficientintheproductionofxrays.
F=7x104x74x1=0.052
Theother95%ofthekineticenergyoftheelectronsisconvertedtoheat.
10
Becausexrayproductionisdirectlyproportionaltotheatomicnumberofthe
targetandtheacceleratingvoltageofthedevice,reducingbothvariablescan
dramaticallyreducethexrayoutputofadevice.Thisexplainswhyelectron
microscopes,cathoderaytubes,andtelevisiontubesarenotsignificantsources
ofxrayexposure.Althoughtheyalsohaveaheatedfilamentandabeamof
acceleratedelectrons,thetargetisalowZmaterial,andacceleratingvoltages
aretypically20kVto50kV.Becausethemaximumxrayenergycannotexceed
theacceleratingvoltage,mostofthexraysproducedcannotpenetratetheglass
envelopeusedtocontainthevacuum.
Xrayspectra
Anxrayspectrumiscontinuous,withenergiesrangingfromnear0keVtothe
maximumappliedvoltage.Intensityspikesatenergiesthatarecharacteristicof
themetalusedtomakethetargetaresuperimposed.SeeFigure1.3.This
processformsthebasisforradiographicinternalimaginginmedicine.Itisalso
usedextensivelyincrystallographystudies.
FIGURE1.4XRAYS.(a)xraysareproducedwhenanelectronloseskineticenergywhileinteractingwithatargetnucleus.(b)x
raysdemonstrateacontinuousbremsstrahlungspectrumwithspikesthatarecharacteristicoftheanodetargetmaterial,inthis
casetungsten.Themaximumxrayenergy,whenexpressedinkeV,isequaltothevoltageappliedbetweenthecathodeand
anode,inthiscase120kV.Theaveragexrayenergyisaboutonethirdofthemaximum.
Xraydiffraction
andxray
fluorescence
Aspecialwordofcautionisappropriateforthosewhouseanalyticalxray
devices.Althoughthebeamisnarrow,itsintensitycanbe500radspersecond
atthesample,and10,000radspersecondatthexraytubewindow.Justafew
minuteshandlingasamplewiththebeamoncouldcauseulcerationthatcan
onlybetreatedbyamputation.
Thedoserateforyourunitcanbecalculated:
X(rad/sec)=50xV(kV)xI(mA)xZtarget/[r(cm)]2x74
Forexample,thedoserateat2cmfromacoppertargetoperatedat80kVand
11
100mAis:
50x80x100x29/(2)2x74=39000rad/sec
Forafurtherdiscussion,seeHealthPhysics.15(6):481486,December1968.
Neutrons
Neutronscanbecreatedbybombardingtargetswithhighenergyphotons:
+ 9Be8Be+1n,
oracceleratedchargedparticles,forexampledeuterons:
2
d+3He4He+1n
INTERACTIONSOFPARTICULATERADIATIONWITHMATTER
Alphaparticles
Thealphaparticle,comprisedoftwoprotonsandtwoneutrons,isverymassive,
hashighkineticenergy,andachargeof+2.Duetoitsrelativelylowvelocity,it
leavesadensetrackofionizationscausedbycoulumbicinteractions.Analpha
particlecanpenetrateabout3cmofair,butonlyafewmicronsoftissue.
Betaparticles
Thebetaparticleisahighspeedelectron,withachargeof1,ejectedfroma
nucleus.Thebetaparticlesfromagivenisotopehaveacontinuousspectrumof
energythatischaracterizedonlybythemaximumenergyassociatedwiththe
isotope.Dependingonthemaximumenergy,betaparticlescanpenetrateafew
micronstoafewcentimetersoftissue.Theyalsoleaveamoderatelydensetrack
ofionizationscausedbycoulumbicinteractions.
Liketheelectronicdevicesdescribedabove,betaparticleswillproducexrays
whenabsorbedbyatarget.Thefractionofbetaenergyconvertedtoxraysis
approximately:
4
F=3.3x10 ZEmax
Zistheatomicnumberofthetarget,andEmaxisthemaximumbetaenergyin
MeV.ThisrelationshipexplainswhyweuselowZmaterialstoshieldbeta
sources.Thereislessbremsstrahlungproduction.
Neutrons
12
Dependingontheirsource,neutronscanrangeinenergyfromashighastensof
MeVto0.015eV.Becausetheyareuncharged,theyinteractprimarilyby
physicalcollisionwithabsorbernuclei.Thecollisionsarecharacterizedby
conservationofmomentumandkineticenergy,andarecalledelastic.
INTERACTIONSOFPHOTONSWITHMATTER
Gammaraysand
xrays
Gammaraysandxraysarebothformsofelectromagneticradiation.Theydiffer
onlyintheirsource.Agammarayemanatesfromthenucleusofaradioactive
atom.Anxrayemanatesfromoutsidethenucleusofaradioactiveatom,or
fromanelectronasitchangesdirectionwhenpassinganatomicnucleus;this
lattertypeofxrayiscalledbremstrahlung.Allarecollectivelyreferredtoas
ionizingphotons
Photon
interactions
Becauseitisnotcharged,aphotondoesnotinteractbycoulumbicforce,but
ratheronlybyinteractionwithanelectron.Thetwomostcommonformsof
interactionarethephotoelectriceffect,.Figure1.5,andComptonscattering,
Figure1.6
Theprobabilityoftheseeventsdependsontheabsorbingmediumandthe
photonenergy.Thephotoelectriceffectpredominatesforlowenergyphotons
(lessthan100keV).ItsprobabilityincreasesdramaticallywithZ.TheCompton
effectpredominatesformoderatetohighenergyphotons(morethan100keV).
SeeHendeech4.Thesefactsdriveourselectionofshieldingmaterials.
FIGURE1.5THEPHOTOELECTRICEFFECT.Thephotonis
completelyabsorbed.ItsenergyEliberatesanelectronbound
withenergyEB,andprovidesitwithkineticenergyEK.
Mathematically,E=EEB
FIGURE1.6COMPTONSCATTER.Anincidentphotonwithenergy
E1 liberates an orbiting electron, yielding a recoil electron with
kinetic energy EK and a lower energy scattered photon with
energyE2Mathematically,E1=EK+E2
13
Otherinteractions
Lowenergyphotonscanalsointeractbycoherentscattering.Highenergy
photonscanalsointeractbypairproductionandphotodisintegration.Coherent
scatteringisgenerallynotofinterestinradionuclidelaboratorysettingandwill
notbediscussed.Highenergyinteractionsareofinterestinshieldinghigh
energyaccelerators.
Attenuation
ThereductionofintensityIofaphotonfluxiscalledattenuation.The
mathematicsofattenuationofionizingphotonsinanabsorberisidenticaltothe
mathematicsofhalflife.However,weusethetermsthicknessx,halfvaluelayer
HVL,andlinearattenuationcoefficientinplaceoftimet,halflifeT1/2,and
decayconstant.Ifonehalfvaluelayerofshieldingisadded,thedoseratewill
bereducedbyonehalf.Forashieldingthicknessx,theintensitycanbe
describedmathematically:
Ix=I0e.693x/HVL
e.693isequalto,andtheexponentx/HVLdescribesthenumberofhalfvalue
layers.Alternatively,ifnisthenumberofhalfvaluelayers,then:
Ix=I0(1/2)n
Halfvaluelayerstypicallyrangefrommillimeterstocentimeters,dependingon
theenergyoftheradiationandtheelementalcompositionoftheattenuating
medium.Glass,concrete,steel,lead,anddepleteduraniumareallcommonly
usedasshielding.SeeFigure1.9.
Asnotedbeforeforhalflifeanddecayconstant,thehalfvaluelayerandlinear
attenuationcoefficientarerelated:=.693/HVL.Thus,wecanalsowrite:
Ix=I0ex
Whenusingeitherequation,besurethatthesameunitofthickness,whether
centimetersormillimeters,isusedtomeasurebothHVLandattenuation
constant,andappliedthickness.
MEASUREMENTOFRADIATIONANDAUNITOFEXPOSURE
Therearesevenbasicmethodsusedintheinstitutionalsettingformeasuringionizingradiation.The
methodselecteddependsonthetypeandamountofradiationtobemeasured,therequisitesensitivity,
thetimeavailableforthemeasurement,andequipmentcost.
Gasdetectors
14
Oneoftheoldestmethodsofmeasuringionizingradiationisthegasdetector.A
simpledesignwouldbecomprisedofnomorethanananodeandcathodethat
defineavolumeinspace,avoltagesupply,andanammeter.SeeFigure1.7.
FIGURE1.7ASIMPLEGASDETECTOR.A
simplegasdetectoriscomprisedofan
anode,cathode,voltagesupply,and
ammeter.
Characteristic
curve
Gasdetectorsdemonstrateacharacteristiccurveofsignalstrengthasafunction
ofappliedvoltage;seeFigure1.8.Inallcasesthesignalisinitiatedwhenaphoton
orchargedparticleionizesagasmoleculeinthedetectorvolume.
FIGURE1.8THECHARACTERISTICCURVE
FORGASDETECTORS.Theexactshapeof
thiscurvewouldbedifferentforeach
detectordesign,butthefivedifferent
regionswouldbeobserved.Theyare:I
recombination;IIionization;III
proportional;IVGM;andVcontinuous
discharge.
FIGURE1.9HALFVALUELAYER
FORPHOTONENERGIESFROM
10 KEV TO 100 MEV. SEE
HANDBOOK
OF
HEALTH
PHYSICS AND RADIOLOGICAL
HEALTHCHAPTER6.
15
Recombination
Iftheappliedvoltageisverylow,afteranionizationevent,thenegatively
chargedelectronandthepositivelychargedionwillbeelectrostaticallyattracted
toeachother,andwillrecombine.Therewillbenosignalfromthedetector.
Ionization
Iftheappliedvoltageisjustsufficienttocollectallthereleasedelectronsonthe
anode,andprovidereplacementelectronsfromthecathode,weobservea
currentthatisproportionaltotheexposurerate.Agasdetectoroperatedinthis
modeiscalledanionizationchamber.RefertoKnollch.5.
Ionizationchambersurveymetersareusedtomeasureexternalradiationdose
ratetoindividualsatlevelsofabout0.1milliremperhourorgreater.Theiruse
atlowerdoseratesislimitedduetothesmallelectricalsignal.Theinstrument
cangivefalselowreadingsifusedtomeasureintensepinholebeamssuchasa
leakfromanxraydiffractionunit,orintensepulsedradiation,suchasfroman
accelerator.
Small,electricallychargedpocketionizationchambersareusedtomeasure
wholebodydoseforindividualswhooccasionallyworkinaradiationarea,or
whomaybeexposedtoahighdoseratewhileperformingaspecialtask.
Roentgen,a
measureof
exposure
TheionizationchamberinFigure1.7leadsustothefirstwelldefinedunitof
radiationexposure,theroentgen(R).Theroentgenwasoriginallydefinedasthe
amountofionizingxrayexposurethatwouldliberate1electrostaticunitof
negativeorpositivechargepercubiccentimeterofair.Nowconsidered
obsolete,itisapproximatelyequivalenttoaradoraremofradiationdose.
Thoseunitsarediscussedlater.
Proportional
counter
Iftheappliedvoltageisincreased,ratherthancollectinganelectricalcurrent,
eachindividualionizingparticlecancauseacascadeofsecondaryionizingevents
thataredetectedasanelectricalpulse.Theprocessiscalledgasmultiplication.
Themagnitudeoftheelectricalpulseisproportionaltotheenergyoftheparticle
thatinitiatedthesignal.Thus,forafixedappliedvoltage,thesignalfroma4.9
MeV241Amalphaparticlewillbealmostthreetimeslargerthanthesignalfroma
1.8MeV32Pbetaparticle.SeeKnollch.6.
Proportionalcountersarecommonlyusedformeasuringenvironmentaland
laboratorycontaminationsurveysamples.
GeigerMueller
(GM)tubes
16
Ifthevoltageisincreasedfurther,anindividualparticlecancauseacomplete
ionizationofthegasinthedetector.Anyionizingparticle,whetherhighorlow
energy,whetherchargedoruncharged,thatinteractswiththedetectorgas
generatesalargeelectricalpulse.Adetectoroperatedinthismodeiscalleda
GeigerMueller,orGMdetector.AGMinstrumentcanbecomeparalyzedand
giveafalselowreadingincontinuoushighdoseratefieldsorpulsedfields.See
Knollch.7.
GMtubesarecommonlyusedassurveyinstrumentdetectorsbecausethe
completeinstrumentisrelativelyinexpensive,lightweight,andrugged.Note
that,althoughaGMsurveyinstrumentmayhaveamilliremperhourexposure
scale,thecalibrationisvalidonlyfortheradiationsourceusedtocalibratethe
instrument,usuallyCs137.Dependingonthetypeofradiationencounteredin
thelaboratoryanditsenergy,thisinstrumentmayindicatelowtofiveorten
foldhighwhenusedtomeasuredoserates.Thus,itmustbecalibratedforthe
radionuclideofinterestifaccuratemeasurementsareneeded.
GMsurveymetersareoftenusedtoconductcursorycontamination
measurements.Themeterindicates"countsperminute";contaminationaction
levelsareexpressedin"disintegrationsperminute."BecausetheGMdetectoris
energysensitive,readingsmustbecorrectedforthedetectionefficiencyforthe
radionuclideofinterest.TypicalefficienciesareprovidedinTable3.4.
Continuous
discharge
Ifthevoltageinthegasdetectorwereincreasedfurther,thepositivechargeon
theanodewouldpullelectronsoffthecathodeandtherewouldbeacontinuous
signalwhetherionizingradiationwerepresentornot.Thisisreferredtoas
continuousdischarge.Adetectoroperatinginthisregioncannotbeusedasa
measuringtool.
Film
Theearliestradiationdetectorwasphotographicfilm.Theunexpected
darkeningofphotographicplatesledWilhelmRoentgentothediscoveryofx
raysin1895.Anionizingparticledisruptsthesilverbromidecrystalsinthefilm
emulsion,allowingthesilvertobeprecipitatedontothefilmsubstrateduring
processing.Agreaterradiationdosetoanareaoffilmresultsinadarkerimage.
Filmisusedformedicalimaging;seeBushbergch.9and13.Itisalsousedinfilm
badgetomeasurepersonalwholebodydose.Asmallfilmsandwichedbetween
metalandplasticfiltersinaplasticholderprovidesapersonalmonitorthatcan
measurepenetratingandnonpenetratingdose.SeeFigure1.10.Theamountof
darkeningundereachfiltersandwichisafunctionofdose.Onlyhigherenergy
penetratingradiationwilldarkenthefilmwithinthemetalsandwich;betadose
willdarkenthefilmintheopenwindowofthebadge.SeeCemberch.9.
FIGURE1.10TYPICALFILMBADGE.Thefilmbadgeiscomprisedofaplasticholder,metalfilters,
andafilmpacketwithslowandfastemulsions.
17
Thermo
luminescent
dosimeters(TLDs)
Somecrystals,suchasLiF,storeionizingradiationenergywhenvalenceelectrons
aremovedtohigherenergytrapswithinthecrystalmatrix.Thetrapped
electronsarereleasedbyheatingthecrystal.Whentheyreturntothelower
valenceenergylevel,thedifferenceinenergyisreleasedasvisiblelight.The
amountofvisiblelightreleasedisproportionaltotheradiationdoseabsorbedby
thecrystal.Theprocessiscalledthermoluminescentdosimetry.
TLDscanbeusedtomeasurepatientdoseindiagnosticradiologyandradiation
therapy.Theyarealsousedasextremitydosimeterstomeasurefingerdosefor
individualshandlingsmall,highactivitysourcesorasapersonalmonitor.
Scintillation
Counting
Somedetectorsconvertaparticlesenergytovisiblelightthatcanbemeasured
withaphotomultipliertube(PMT).Thisiscalledscintillationcounting.To
measurenonpenetratingbetaradiation,thesampleismixedwithaliquid
scintillantcalledacocktail.Tomeasurepenetratingphotonradiation,asolid
statecrystaldetectorisused.Ineithercase,thechargedparticles,whetherbeta
particlesinliquidscintillationcountingorthephotoelectronsandcompton
electronsinxrayorgammarayanalysis,interactwiththeorbitalelectronsof
thescintillatortocreateflashesoflight.SeeKnollch.8.
LiquidScintillation
counting(LSC)
Tomeasuresampleswithbetaemitterssuchas3H, 14C,35S,32P,and33P,the
sampleisaddedtoavialofliquidscintillationcocktailcomprisedofsolventand
scintillant.Thevialisthenmechanicallyloweredintoalighttightchamberthat
hastwoPMTsthatdetecttheindividualscintillationevents.
NaI(Tl)
Tomeasuresampleswithgammaemitterssuchas125Ior99mTc,thesamplecan
beplacedbesideaNaI(Tl)crystalthatisopticallycoupledtoaPMT;theentire
assemblyisenclosedinanaluminumenvelopetokeepoutroomlightand
humidity.Theenergyoftheincidentgammarayisconvertedtoaflashoflightin
thecrystal.ThePMTdetectstheindividualscintillationeventsandtheirrelative
intensities.
cpmanddpm
Manytypesofradiationdetectionormeasurementinstrumentsindicate"counts
perminute";actionlevelsareusuallyexpressedin"disintegrationsperminute."
Becausealldetectorsareenergyandgeometrydependent,cpmreadingsmust
becorrectedforthedetectionefficiencyfortheradionuclideofinterest.
Mathematically,
dpm=cpm/efficiency.
TypicalefficienciesareprovidedinTable3.4.
18
BIOLOGICALEFFECTSOFRADIATIONANDUNITSOFDOSE
Shortlyafteritsdiscovery,itwasrecognizedthationizingradiationcanhaveadversehealtheffects.See
Alpen,Introduction.Inthissectionweexaminetheradiationdosethatisanaturalpartofour
environment,andthetypesofhealtheffectsassociatedwithlargeacuteexposuresandwithlowdose
ratechronicexposure.
Basiclawof
radiobiology
Earlyintheuseofionizingradiation,harmfuleffectswereobservedinindividuals
whohadbeenexposedtolargeandrepeateddoses.In1906Bergonieand
Tribondeaudevelopedahypothesis,sincetermedtheBasicLawofRadiobiology,
regardingbiologicaleffectsofradiation:Biologicaleffectsaredirectlyproportionalto
themitoticindexandthemitoticfutureoftheexposedcell,andinversely
proportionaltothedegreeofdifferentiation.Mitosisreferstothenaturaldivisionof
acellnucleusduringcellreproduction;differentiationreferstothecell'sdegreeof
specializationtoperformaspecificfunctionintheorganism.
Cellsensitivity Followingthislaw,themostsensitivecellsincluderapidlydividing,undifferentiated
stemcellssuchaserythroblasts,intestinalcryptcells,primaryspermatogonia,and
basalcellsintheepidermis.Rapidlydividingcellsthataremoredifferentiated,
includingintermediatestagespermatogoniaandmyelocytes,arelesssensitivethan
undifferentiatedcellsbutarestillquiteradiosensitive.Irregularlydividingcellssuch
asendothelialcellsandfibroblastsdemonstrateintermediatesensitivity.Cellsthat
donotnormallydividebuthavethepotentialfordivision,suchasparenchymalliver
cellsarerelativelyradioresistant.Nondividingcelllinessuchasmusclecells,nerve
cells,matureerythrocytes,andspermatozoaarethemostradioresistant.Somecells
thatwouldbepredictedtoberesistanttodamagebecausetheydonotundergo
divisionandaredifferentiated,suchasthelymphocytesandova,arenonetheless
quiteradiosensitive.
DNAasthe
target
AllthesecellsappeartobeaffectedbecauseofDNAlesionsanddoublestrand
breaks.Thetargetinthelymphocytesandovaappearstobelipoproteinstructuresin
thenuclearcellmembraneratherthanintheDNAitself.Damagecanbeproduced
directlybytheinteractionoftheradiationwiththebiochemicaltarget,orby
interactionsofthefreeradicalsOH,eaq,andHthataretheionizationproductsof
waterwhichhaveunpairedelectrons,withtheDNAorothertargets.SeeTurnerch.
13.
Age,species,
and
fractionation
Otherfactorsaffectradiosensitivity.Asexpected,radiosensitivityisgreatestduring
thefetalstageandbecomesprogressivelysmallerthroughadolescenceand
adulthood.Differentspeciesdemonstratedifferentradiosensitivities.Alargeacute
dosedeliveredatoncewouldhaveagreatereffectthanthesamedoseadministered
overtimeasincrementalfractions.
RadandRem
TheUSunitofdoseistherad;itisthedepositionof100ergsofionizingenergyper
19
gramoftargetmaterial.TheUSunitofdoseequivalentistherem;forx,gamma,
andbetaradiationitisnumericallyequaltothedoseinrad.Bothareapproximately
equaltotheexposureinroentgen.Thereareradtoremcorrectionfactorsashighas
twentytoaccountforthegreaterradiationdamagecausedbyalphaparticles,
neutrons,andhighenergyprotons.
Grayand
Sievert
TheSIunitsfordoseanddoseequivalentarethegray(Gy)andsievert(Sv).1Gy=
100rad.1Sv=100rem.Thecentigrayequaltooneradandthemillisievertequalto
100milliremsarecommonlyused.
Average
natural
background
dose
Theamountofradiationanindividualreceivesiscalledthedoseequivalentandis
measuredinrems.TheaverageindividualintheUnitedStatesaccumulatesadose
equivalentof0.3remfromnaturalsourceseachyear.Figure1.11.
Variationsin
natural
background
Naturalbackgroundradiationlevelsaremuchhigherincertaingeographicareas.A
doseof1remmaybereceivedinsomeareasonthebeachatGuarapari,Brazilin
about9days.SomepeopleinKerala,Indiagetadoseof4remseveryyear.Inthe
US,thedosefromnaturalradiationishigherinsomestates,suchasColorado,
Wyoming,andSouthDakota,primarilybecauseofincreasedcosmicradiationathigh
elevationsandnaturalhighconcentrationsofuraniumandthoriuminthesoil.
Radiationdosecanalsobereceivedfrombrickstructures,fromconsumerproducts,
andfromairtravel.
MedicalDose
Manypeoplereceiveadditionalradiationformedicalreasons.Asoftheyear2006,
approximately400millionxrayradiographyexaminationsareperformedinthe
UnitedStates.Atypicaltwoviewchestxrayleadstoaneffectiveexposureofabout
20mRem.CTexaminationsdelivermuchhigherdosesthanstandardxrays.A
typicalwholetrunkCT(chest,abdomenandpelvis)canbe1.5rem.
Aclinicallyobservablebiologicaleffectthatoccursdaystomonthsafteranacute
radiationdoseisadeterministiceffect.Examplesareskinreddeningorswelling,
(alsoknownas epilation,orhematologicdepression.Deterministiceffectsrequireadosethatis
nonstochastic greaterthanathreshold,typicallygreaterthantensorhundredsofrad.Doselimits
aresetsothatoccupationalexposureswillnotcausedeterministiceffects.Examples
effects)
aredoselimitsforthelensoftheeye(15remeachyear)andforanysingleorgan(50
remeachyear).
Deterministic
effects
20
FIGURE1.11SOURCESOF RADIATIONDOSEINTHEUNITEDSTATES.FromNCRP160,Fig1.1.Percent
contributionofvarioussourcesofexposuretothetotalcollectiveeffectivedose(1,870,000personSv)
andthetotaleffectivedoseperindividualintheU.S.population.
Deterministiceffectsarepossiblewhenusingelectronicdevicessuchasxray
diffractionunits(XRDs)orlinearaccelerators.AnXRDbeamissufficientlyintenseto
causeskinburnsandulcerationthatultimatelyrequireamputation.Thebroadbeam
ofalinearacceleratorcouldcausecataractsoralethalwholebodydosewithin
minutes.Thusitisimperativethatinterlocksandothersafetyfeaturesneverbe
bypassed.
Stochastic
effects
Radiationdosecanincreasethechanceofcontractingacancer.Thisisanexampleof
astochasticeffect.Theincreaseinchanceisassumedtobeproportionaltothedose,
anditisassumedthereisnominimumthreshold.Thesetwoassumptionsleadusto
lowworkerandpublicdoselimits.Scientistsdisagreeonwhetherthisconservative
linearnonthreshold,orLNT,modelisthebestmathematicalrepresentationofthe
riskofcancerinduction.ThenormalincidenceoffatalcancerinanaverageNorth
Americanpopulationsampleof10,000individualsisabout2000.Ifeachindividualin
thesamplewereexposedtoa1remwholebodydose,itisestimatedtherewouldbe
about4additionalfatalcancers.SeeBEIRVch.35.
Tissue
weighting
factors
Insettinglimitsfordosestoindividuals,theLNTmodelalsohasbeenusedtodevelop
afactorthatcomparesthecancerriskofdosetoanindividualorgantocancerriskof
dosetothewholebody.Thisisofinterestwhenasingleorganreceivesdoseafter
ingestionofradioactivity,orwhenyourbodytrunkisshieldedwithaleadapronbut
21
thehead,neck,andarmsareexposed.Whentheorgandoseinradismultipliedby
thetissueweightingfactor,theproductistheeffectivedoseoreffectivedose
equivalentinrem.Thisallowsasingle,riskbasedadditivedosequantitytobeused
tolimitandrecordallexposuresfrompenetratingradiationfromoutsidethebody
andradioactivityinsidethebody.
Hereditary
effects
Ahereditaryeffectisonetransmittedtooffspringduetotheirradiationoftheparent
eggorspermcells.Although,ithasbeenestimatedbasedonexperimental
organismsthatthechanceofaseverehereditaryeffectisbetween0and0.00006per
rem,theUNSCEAR2001Reportonthehereditaryeffectsofradiationemphasized
thatnoradiationinducedhereditarydiseaseshavesofarbeendemonstratedin
humanpopulationsexposedtoionizingradiation.Thenormalchanceofabirth
defectis0.03,aboutonefourthofwhichisconsideredofgeneticorigin.
Basisfordose
limits
Radiation,likemanythings,canbeharmful.Alargedosetothewholebody(suchas
600remsinoneday)wouldprobablycausedeathinabout30days;butsuchlarge
dosesresultonlyfromrareaccidents.Controlofexposuretoradiationisbasedon
theassumptionthatanyexposure,nomatterhowsmall,involvessomerisk.The5
remworkerdoselimitprovidesalevelofriskofdelayedeffectsthatisconsidered
acceptablebytheNRC.Thedoselimitsforindividualorgansarebelowthelevelsat
whichbiologicaleffectsareobserved.Thustherisktoindividualsattheoccupational
exposurelevelsisconsideredtobeverylow.However,itisimpossibletosaythatthe
riskiszero.SeeICRP60,Sec.5.Thusourgoalistokeepallradiationdoseaslowas
reasonablyachievablebelowthelimits;seethediscussiononp.23.
Doselimitfor
radiation
workers
Asaradiationworker,youmaybeexposedtomoreradiationthanthegeneralpublic.
CaliforniaandtheNuclearRegulatoryCommission(NRC)haveestablishedabasic
doselimitforalloccupationallyexposedadultsof5remseachyear.
Doselimitfor
minorsand
public
Becausetherisksofundesirableeffectsmaybegreaterforyoungpeople,individuals
underage18arepermittedtobeexposedtoonly10percentof5rem,theadult
workerlimits.
Thelimitformembersofthegeneralpublicis0.1rem.
Doselimitfor
pregnant
workers
TheNationalCouncilonRadiationProtectionandMeasurementshasrecommended
that,becausetheyaremoresensitivetoradiationthanadults,radiationdosetothe
unbornthatresultsfromoccupationalexposureofthemothershouldnotexceed0.5
rem.CaliforniaandtheNRChaveincorporatedthisrecommendationintheirworker
doselimitregulations.SeeTable2.1.
Itisyourresponsibilitytodecidewhethertheexposureyouarereceivingfrom
penetratingradiationandintakeissufficientlylow.ContactHealthPhysicsto
determinewhetherradiationlevelsinyourworkingareascouldcauseafetusto
receive0.5remormorebeforebirth.HealthPhysicsmakesthisdeterminationbased
22
onpersonnelexposuremonitorreports,surveys,andthelikelihoodofanaccidentin
yourworksetting.Veryfewworkpositionswouldrequirereassignmentduring
pregnancy.
Ifyouareconcernedaboutexposurerisk,youmayconsideralternatives:
a)
If you are pregnant, you may ask to be reassigned to areas involving less
exposure to radiation. Approval will depend on the operational needs of the
department. Note, however, that no employer is required to provide a work
environmentthatisabsolutelyfreeofradiation.
b)
You could reduce your exposure, where possible, by decreasing the amount of
timeyouspendintheradiationarea,increasingyourdistancefromtheradiation
source,andusingshielding.Increasedconcernforlabcleanlinesswillreducethe
chanceofuptake.
c)
Youcoulddelayhavingchildrenuntilyouarenolongerworkinginanareawhere
theradiationdosetoyourfetuscouldexceed0.5rem.
d)
Youcancontinueworkinginthehigherradiationareas,butwithfullawareness
thatyouaredoingsoatsomesmallincreasedriskforyourfetus.
Discuss these alternatives with your supervisor and Health Physics. A pregnancy
declarationformappearsinPart4,Appendices.Thereisadditionalinformationinthe
discussionofdoselimitsinPart2ofthismanual.
ALARAPOLICY
Compliancewithdoselimitsensuresthatworkinginaradiationlaboratoryisassafeasworkinginany
othersafeoccupation.Thegoaloftheradiationsafetyprogramistoensurethatradiationdoseto
workers,membersofthepublic,andtotheenvironmentisaslowasreasonablyachievable(ALARA)
belowthelimitsestablishedbyregulatoryagencies.Theprogramalsoensuresthatindividualusers
conducttheirworkinaccordancewithuniversity,state,andfederalrequirements.
Intheprefacetothismanual,managementhascommittedtoanALARApolicy.
GENERALWORKPLACESAFETYGUIDANCE
Education,
training,and
procedures
Safeuseofhazardousmaterialsintheworkplacedependsonthecooperationof
individualswhohavebeeneducatedinthescienceandtechnologyofthematerials,
whohavetechnicaltrainingspecifictotheirapplication,andwhofollow
administrativeandtechnicalproceduresestablishedtoensureasafeandorderly
workplace.
Security
Nomatterwhatsourceofradiationyouworkwith,onewaytoenhancesafetyisto
23
allowaccessonlytothosewithbusinessinthearea.Ifyouseeunfamiliarindividuals
inthearea,itisimportanttoquestionthemorcallsecurity.Regulatoryagencies
considerahighdegreeofsecuritytobeanimportantcompliancematter.
Time
Thelesstimewespendaroundapotentiallyhazardousmaterial,thelesstherisk.If
youarenotneededinaworkarea,orifyourtaskcanbedoneelsewhere,leave.
Distance
Increasingourdistancereducestheriskfromanypotentiallyhazardousmaterial.
Forgammaradiationsources,thedoserategoesdownrapidlywithdistance.
Mathematically,I2/I1=r12/r22.Thisiscalledtheinversesquarelaw.
Forexample,ifthedoserateis100mrem/hourat5cmfromapointsource,youcan
calculatethedoserateat20cmfromthesource:
I20cm/I5cm=(5cm)2/(20cm)2
I20cm=(100mrem/hr)x(5cm)2/(20cm)2
I20cm=6.2mrem/hr
Whenworkingwithhighenergybetaandgammaemitters,remotehandlingtools
candramaticallyreduceyourhanddose.
Shielding
Ifthesourceisahighenergybetaorgammaorxrayemitter,shieldingwillreduce
thedoserate.Forbetaemitters,usealowatomicnumbermaterialsuchasplastic.
Forgammaandxrayemitters,highatomicnumbermaterialssuchassteelorlead
arepreferred.However,rememberthatsteelandleadposetheirowndropand
earthquakehazards.Leadisalsoatoxicmaterial;usegloveswhenhandlingitand
washwhenyoufinish.Contactthehazardouswastestafftodisposeofleadshielding
thatisnolongerneeded.
Clean,orderly
laboratories
Mostlaboratoriesdonotuseamountsofradiochemicalsthatposeanexternaldose
risk.However,areacontaminationcanhappenevenwhenmaterialsarecarefully
handled.Haveintheworkareaonlythosethingsneededforthetaskathand.Wear
glovesandlabcoat,andwashyourhandsafterworking.Useabsorbentcountertop
papertoholdspills.
General
guidance
SomedetailedguidanceonlaboratorysafetymeasuresisprovidedinTable1.3.
Unless,duetospecialcircumstances,yourgrouphasreceivedanexception,you
mustfollowtheguidanceinthattable.
Planahead
Thinkaboutwhatyouaregoingtodo.Whatcangowrong?Whatcandistractyou?
Haveyoureviewedthelaboratoryprotocol?Areallthesuppliesthatyouneedat
hand?Haveyoucheckedlaboratoryandprotectiveequipmenttoensuretheyare
workingcorrectly?Haveyoupracticedtheentireprocedurewearingyourprotective
clothingandusingthetoolsyouneed?Areyouwearinggloves,coat,andimpervious
shoes?Doyouknowwherethesafetyshowerandeyewashare?
Doyouknowwhatyouaredoing,andwhy?
24
Beforeyoubegin
OnlyindividualswhohavecompletedStanfordradiationsafetytrainingmayuse
radioactivematerials.
Reviewthechemical,radiation,andhandlinghazardsprecautionsandsafety
guidancebeforeyoupreparefortheexperiment.
Orderonlyapprovedradiochemicalsandquantities.Logreceipts.Completely
updatethestoragelogatleastannually.
Storematerialstocauseminimaldoseinworkareas.Shieldphotonandhigh
energybetaemitterssothatthedoserateat30cmislessthan2mR/hrforlow
occupancyareas,or0.2mR/hrforhighoccupancyareas.Providesecondary
containment.
Donotstorefoodorbeveragesinworkareas,oruserefrigerators,hotplates,or
ovensthatareusedforradioactivematerialswork.
Eatanddrinkonlyatdeskorloungeareas.Nofoodorbeveragesareallowedin
VAPAHCSlaboratories.
Preparingforthe
experiment
Setupinawellventilatedworkarea.UseafumehoodforvolatilessuchasI125
andS35.
Keeptheworkareaclean,neat,anduncluttered.
Providesecondarycontainmentforspills.
Useplasticbackedabsorbentpadsortraystocoverworkareas.
Donotpipettebymouth.Usemanipulators.
Wearyourdosimeter(e.g.,filmbadge)andringifassigned.
Keepasurveymeternearbywhenusingmillicuriequantitiesotherthantritium.
UseapancakeGMforbetaemittersandaNaI(Tl)forphotonemitters.
Duringthe
Wearimperviousshoes,gloves,labcoat,andsafetyglasses.
experiment
Openanddispensereagentsbehindasplashshield.
Usecappedtubesincentrifugesandagitators.
Useactivatedcharcoaltoabsorborganicvaporsinincubators.
Afterthe
Labelindividualcontainersbeforeplacingtheminstorage.
experiment
Changebenchcoverstoavoidcrosscontamination.
Surveyglassware,apparatus,andcentralfacilityappliances.Decontaminate
beforereleasingforhouseuse.
Segregatewaste.Solidifyiodineliquids.Treatpathogens.Logdisposals.
Spillsor
accidents
Immediatelyreportinjuriesorpersonnelcontaminationtoyoursupervisorand
HealthPhysics.
Promptlyreport>QLMspillstoHealthPhysics.
TABLE1.3STANDARDWORKRULESFORRADIOCHEMICALLABORATORIES.
25
REFERENCESFORADDITIONALINFORMATION
Thispartisintendedonlyasaprimeronionizingradiation.Thefollowingstandardtextsprovidemore
informationonthetopicspresentedhere.AdditionalpublicationsfromtheNationalCouncilonRadiation
ProtectionandMeasurements,theInternationalCommissiononRadiologicalProtection,theNational
AcademyofSciences,andtheNuclearRegulatoryCommissionarelistedinPartIV,Appendices.Allare
availableforreviewinHealthPhysics
Alpen
Alpen,E.L.RadiationBiophysics.EnglewoodCliffs:PrenticeHall;1990.
BEIRV
CommitteeontheBiologicalEffectsofIonizingRadiations,NationalResearch
Council.HealthEffectsofExposuretoLowLevelsofIonizingRadiations.
Washington:NationalAcademyPress;1990.
Bushberg
Bushberg,J.T.,etal.TheEssentialPhysicsofMedicalImaging.Baltimore:
Williams&Wilkins;1994.
Cember
ChartofNuclides
Cember,H.IntroductiontoHealthPhysics.NewYork:PergamonPress;1983.
KnollsAtomicPowerLaboratory
Hendee
Hendee,W.R.,andRitenour,R.E.MedicalPhysicsImaging.
3rded.St.Louis:MosbyYearbook;1992.
ICRP60
InternationalCommissiononRadiologicalProtection.1990Recommendationsof
theInternationalCommissiononRadiologicalProtection.Oxford:Pergamon
Press;ICRPPublication60;Ann.ICRP21(13);1991.
Knoll
Knoll,G.F.RadiationDetectionandInstrumentation.2nded.
NewYork:JohnWiley&Sons;1989.
Krane
Krane,K.S.IntroductoryNuclearPhysics.NewYork:
JohnWiley&Sons;1988.
NCRP
NationalCouncilonRadiationProtectionIonizingRadiationExposureofthe
PopulationoftheUnitedStates(ReportNo.160,2009)
RadiologicalHealth
Handbook
BureauofRadiologicHealth.RadiologicalHealthHandbook.Rockville:
DepartmentofHealth,Education,andWelfare;1970.
Shapiro
Shapiro,J.RadiationProtection:AGuideforScientistsandPhysicians.3rded.
Cambridge:HarvardUniversityPress;1990.
UNSCEAR2001
Report
UnitedNationsScientificCommitteeontheEffectsofAtomicRadiationUNSCEAR
2001ReporttotheGeneralAssembly,withScientificAnnexHereditaryeffectsof
radiation
Turner
Turner,J.E.Atoms,Radiation,andRadiationProtection.2nded.NewYork:John
Wiley&Sons;1995.
26
REGULATIONS FOR THE SAFE USE OF IONIZING RADIATION
Part2 REGULATIONSFORTHESAFEUSEOFIONIZING
RADIATION
Duringitsfirstfiftyyearsofuse,ionizingradiation,whetherfromxraytubesorradioactivematerials,was
appliedinavarietyofresearch,medical,industrial,andconsumerproductsandservices.Someapplications
werewellfoundedandsomewerefrivolous.Someofbothresultedininjuryordeathtoradiationworkers
andmembersofthepublic.
Bythe1960s,thestateandfederalregulatoryframeworksgoverningradiationwereestablished.Theirgoal
wastoprovideadequateassuranceofpublichealthandsafetyinthepresenceofionizingradiation.Today,
theuseofionizingradiationisoneofthemoststringentlyregulatedactivitiesinoursociety.
TheoriginaljurisdictionovermostradioactivematerialswasvestedbyCongressintheAtomicEnergy
Commission(AEC),thepredecessoroftheNuclearRegulatoryCommission(NRC).TheNRChastransferred
regulatoryauthorityoverradioactivematerialstoseveralofthestates,includingCalifornia,byagreement
betweentheNRCandthestate.TheNRCretainsregulatoryauthorityoverfederalfacilities,includingtheVA.
TheregulationsthatapplytotheuseofionizingradiationareinTitle10,Parts19,20and35oftheCodeof
FederalRegulationsandinTitle17oftheCaliforniaCodeofRegulations.Thecompletetextsareavailablefor
reviewinHealthPhysics.RelatedportionsoftheUnitedStatesCodearealsoavailableforreview.
InsomecasesCaliforniahasadoptedNRCregulationsbyreference,andinsomecasesithasissued
regulatorytextthatissimilartoNRCtext.Ithasalsoissuedregulationsonxraymachines,whicharenot
regulatedbyNRC.
Thispartsummarizestheregulatoryrequirementsthatapplytotheinstitutionaluseofradiation,usingthe
NRCregulationsasanoutline.Rememberthatlicensedocuments,supportingcorrespondence,andorders
imposeadditionalrequirementsthatarespecifictothelicensee.
10CFRPART19NOTICES,INSTRUCTIONS,ANDREPORTSTOWORKERS;
INSPECTIONS
Part19
Informed
worker
10CFRPart19Notices,instructions,andreportstoworkers;inspections.Thispart
establishesrequirementsfornoticesinstructions,andreportsbylicenseesto
individualsparticipatinginlicensedactivities,andoptionsavailabletothose
individualsinconnectionwithinspectionsoflicensees.
Notices
19.11Postingofnoticestoworkers.TheregulationsaresummarizedonformsRH
2364andNRC3,whichmustbeposted.Youmayexaminetheregulationsandany
correspondencerelatingtolicensedactivities.CallHealthPhysicstomakean
appointment.
27
Instruction
19.12Instructionstoworkers.Anyonewhoworksinarestrictedareamustbe
providedtraininginradiationsafety,beinstructedtoobserveregulationsand
operatingprocedures,andtoreportunsafeconditions.
Dosimetry
19.13Notificationsandreportstoindividuals.Atanytimeyoumayrequestacopy
ofyourradiationexposurehistory.Indicateifyouwantanupdatedreporteach
year.Ifdosimetryisrequiredbyregulationsratherthanprovidedinresponsetothe
projectdirector'srequest,youwillbegivenareporteachyear.
Inspections
19.14Presenceofrepresentatives...,19.15Consultationwithworkers...,19.16
Requestsbyworkersforinspections.TheNuclearRegulatoryCommission(NRC)
andCaliforniaDepartmentofHealthServices(DHS)conductinspectionsoflicensed
activities.Youmaytalkwiththeinspectorprivatelyifyouwant.Ifyouhave
identifiedaradiationsafetyproblemanddonotbelieveithasbeenproperlydealt
with,youmayrequestaninspection.
10CFRPART20STANDARDSFORPROTECTIONAGAINSTRADIATION
Part20Safety
standards
ALARA
20.1101Radiationprotectionprograms.Theradiationprotectionprogram
ensurescompliancewithregulations.Itsgoalistoensurethatdosesto
workersandmembersofthepublicareaslowasreasonablyachievable
(ALARA)belowstateandfederallimits.
Doselimits
20.1201,20.1207,20.1208,and20.1301.Doselimits forworkersand
thepublic.Doselimitshavebeenestablishedforadultworkers,minor
workers,declaredpregnantwomen,andmembersofthepublic.Thelimits
areinTable2.1.
28
Table2.1DOSE
LIMITSFORADULT
WORKERS,MINOR
WORKERS,
DECLARED
PREGNANTWOMEN,
ANDMEMBERSOF
THEPUBLIC.Thedose
isthesumofthe
bodydosimeterdeep
doseplusinternal
effectivedose
equivalentfrom
ingestedorinhaled
radionuclides.
Internaldoseis
uncommoninthe
institutionalsetting.
Ourgoalistokeep
radiationdosebelow
10%oftheselimits.
Wholebodydose
inoneyear
Other
limits
Adultworkers
5rem
Lens15remeachyear.Skin,
organ,extremities
inoneyear:50rem
Minorworkers
10%ofAdultLimit
10%ofAdultLimit
Declared
pregnantwoman
0.5rem
fetaldose
50milliremfetaldoseeach
month.Skin,lens,
extremities:sameasadult
worker
Members
ofthepublic
0.1rem
2mreminonehour
Surveys
20.1501Surveys.Surveysmustbemadetodemonstratecompliancewiththe
regulationsandtoevaluatethepotentialforradiologicalhazardthatmaybe
present.
Security
20.1801Securityofstoredmaterial.Radioactivematerialincontrolledor
unrestrictedareasmustbesecuredfromunauthorizedremoval.
Radiationsymbol
20.1901.Cautionsigns.ThestandardradiationsymbolappearsinFigure2.1.Itis
magenta,purple,orblackonayellowbackground.
FIGURE2.1RADIATIONSYMBOL.Itis
magenta,purple,orblackonayellow
background.
29
Postingrequirements20.1901and20.1902 Postingrequirements.Theappropriatepostingdependson
thedoserateoramountofradioactivityintheareaorcontainer.Thresholdsare
providedinTABLE2.2.
TABLE2.2POSTING
REQUIREMENTS.
AppendixBisin10CFR
Part20;DACmeans
derivedairconcentration.
AppendixCisin10CFR
Part20;Quantitiesof
LicensedMaterial
RequiringLabeling;the
completeAppendixCisin
PartIV,Appendices.
Condition
Posting
5mremin1hourat30cmfrom
thesourceorshieldsurface
Caution,
RadiationArea
100mremin1hourat30cmfromthe Caution,
sourceorshieldsurface
HighRadiationArea
500radsin1hourat1mfromthe
sourceorshield
GraveDanger,
VeryHighRadiationArea
AirconcentrationsexceedingtheDACin Caution,
AppendixB
AirborneRadioactivityArea
Useorstorageoftentimesthequantity Caution,
inAppendixC
RadioactiveMaterial
Labeling
requirements
20.1901,20.1904,and20.1905Labelingrequirements.Containerswithgreaterthan
AppendixCquantitiesmustbelabeledwiththeradiationsymbol,thewords"Caution,
RadioactiveMaterial,"andappropriateprecautionaryinformationsuchasradionuclide,
activity,date,doserateataspecifieddistance,andchemicalform.
Packagereceipt,
opening,and
disposalofempty
containers
20.1906Receivingandopeningpackages.Allnonclinicalradioactivematerialsmust
beshippeddirectlytotheHealthPhysicsInspectionStation(SeePart3Orderingand
receivingradioactivematerialforfurtherinformation).Afterdeliverytothelaboratory,
reviewthesafetyinstructionsprovidedbyHealthPhysicsandinspectthepackagefor
leakageandcorrectnessofcontents.Ifapackageappearsdamaged,promptlycontact
HealthPhysicsandmonitorfordoserateandcontamination.Ifcertainthresholdsare
exceeded,HealthPhysicsmustnotifythecarrier,theDepartmentofPublicHealthand
theNuclearRegulatoryCommission.
Ifyoureceivematerialdirectlyandithasnotbeeninspected,informHealthPhysics
promptly,andifrequested,bringthepackagetotheInspectionStation.
Beforediscardingemptycontainersandshippingpackages,surveythemtoensurethat
theyarenotcontaminated.Thenremoveordefaceallradiationlabelsandwords.This
assuresthatifthepackagegetsoutofthehousewastestreamitwillnotbemistaken
foraradiationsource.
30
Waste
20.2001,20.2003,20.2005Wastedisposal.Radioactivewastecanonlybedisposed
ofbytransfertoawastecontractor,decayinstorage,releaseineffluents,ordischarge
tothesanitarysewer
Records
20.2101Units.Recordsmusthavemeasuresrecordedinunitsormultiplesofcurie,
rad,andrem(e.g.,mCi,dpm).
Reports
20.2201,20.2202,20.2203Reportsandnotifications.Certaintypesofevents
requirepromptreportingtoregulatoryauthorities.Ifthereisatheft,loss,morethana
minorspill,accidentalrelease,orinjuryinvolvingradioactivematerial,reportit
promptlytoHealthPhysics.
Precaution
Whenmakinganeventreport,donotsimplyleavearecordedmessageoranoteon
someone'sdoor.TalkwithamemberofHealthPhysicsorEH&S,yourprojectdirector,
orthedepartmentchair.Thisassuresthattherewillbeprompt,appropriatefollowup.
10CFRPART35MEDICALUSEOFBYPRODUCTMATERIAL
Thereareextensiveregulationsgoverningmedicaluseandhumanresearch.Theycovergeneral
administrativeandtechnicalrequirements,andprescribedetailedprecautionsforspecificdiagnosticand
therapeuticclinicalprocedures.Becausetheyapplyonlytoradiology,nuclearmedicine,andradiation
therapy,theywillnotbefurtherdiscussedhere.
TITLE17CALIFORNIACODEOFREGULATIONS
Californiaimposesadditionalrequirementsforxrayinstallations.TheserequirementsarenotunderNRC
jurisdiction.TheradioactivematerialsrequirementsarecomparabletoNRC'sbyproductmaterials
requirements.
Thereareadditionalengineeringandsurveyrequirementsforxrayinstallations.Becausetheyapply
primarilytothedesignofproposedinstallations,theywillnotbediscussed.
Itisimperativethatyoudonotbypasssafetyfeatures,andthatyoureportsafetyfeaturesthatdonotappear
tobeworking.
RESPONSIBILITIES
Safeuseofionizingradiationrequiresthecooperationofmanyindividualsandcommittees.Their
responsibilitiesaredescribedbelow.
Principal
investigators
EachPrincipalInvestigator(PI)orprojectdirectorisresponsibleforensuring
individualsaretrainedtodotheirtaskssafely,supervisingthem,makingthelab
availableforinspectionatanyworktime,andensuringthattheprojectismanaged
inaccordancewiththeapplication,theadministrativeandtechnicalrequirements
31
inthismanual,andtheHazardsEvaluation.
ThePIbearstheadditionalresponsibilityofsettinganexamplefortheproject
staff.Appropriateattentiontodetails,suchasstrictadherencetostandardwork
rules,accuratesurveyrecords,andtimelyreturnofdosimeters(e.g.,filmbadges)
canaffecttheworkenvironmentandtheattitudeofindividuals.
Individualusers
Eachindividualuserisresponsibleforfollowingtheproceduresinthismanualand
instructionsfromsupervisorsandHealthPhysics,andreportingpossiblesafety
problemsandincidents.
Administrative
Panelon
RadiologicalSafety
TheAdministrativePanelonRadiologicalSafety(APRS)overseestheentire
institutionalradiationsafetyprogramforbothStanfordandVAPAHCS.Italso
reviewsapplicationsthatareoutsidethejurisdictionofthelocalcontrol
committees.
LocalControl
Committees
EachLocalControlCommittee(LCC)isresponsibleforreviewingapplicationsinits
jurisdictiontoprovideassurancethattheworkcanbedonesafelyandin
accordancewiththerequirementsinthismanualandtheHazardsEvaluation.
Therearetwolocalcontrolcommittees:NonHumanUseRadiationSafety
Committee(NHRSC)andClinicalRadiationSafetyCommittee(CRSCo)forhuman
useapplications.TheRadioactiveDrugResearchCommittee(RDRC)isasubsetof
CRSCo.ThesecommitteesalsooverseeVAPAHCSprojects.
HealthPhysics
HealthPhysics,adivisionoftheStanfordUniversityDepartmentofEnvironmental
HealthandSafety(EH&S),istheinstitutionalradiationsafetyprogram.Italso
providesradiationconsultation.TheRadiationSafetyOfficer,whoisidentifiedon
theradioactivematerialslicense,isthemanagerofHealthPhysics.
WORDSOFCAUTION
Compliancewith
requirements
Theprivilegetouseionizingradiationinmedicalcare,research,andteachingis
grantedtoStanfordandVAPAHCSbythestateandfederalgovernments.Health
Physicstriestoprovideuserstheflexibilityneeded,consistentwithestablished
policyandregulations.Theremaybesomeadministrativeortechnical
requirementsthatmaynotappearnecessaryinsomecases.However,non
compliancejeopardizesnotonlyyourproject,buttheentirecommunity.
Falsificationof
recordsisa
criminaloffense
Donotfalsifyrecords,ormisleadastateorfederalinspector.Thereare
institutionalandcriminalpenaltiesforsuchactions.Theycanhavesevereadverse
effectonyouracademicorprofessionalcareer.
Ifyouhavemadeamistake,requestassistancetocorrectit.Ifyouhavefailedto
makeasurveyorrecordofuse,notethatintherecord;donotfabricaterecords.
32
ADMINISTRATIVE AND TECHNICAL PROCEDURES
Part3 ADMINISTRATIVEANDTECHNICALPROCEDURES
Workerandpublicsafety,andorderlyconductofdaytodaybusiness,requireavarietyofadministrativeand
technicalprocedures.
Administrativeprocedures,usuallycharacterizedbyapplicationforms,supportingdocumentation,approvals,
andotherpaperwork,helpassurethatlaboratoryactivitiesarecarefullyconsideredforreasonableness,
safety,costandbenefit,andcompliancewithinstitutionalpolicyandregulatoryrequirements.Theyarenot
designedtoimpedeyourwork;theirpurposeistoprotectindividualsandtheinstitutionfromaccidents.
Technicalprocedures,usuallycharacterizedbyphysicalmeasurementsorstepbystepinstructions,assure
thatpotentiallyhazardousmaterialsordevicesarecarefullyusedandstored.
AllusesofionizingradiationontheStanfordcampusaresubjecttoreviewandapprovalbythe
AdministrativePanelonRadiologicalSafety(APRS).Thereviewassuresthatprojectscanbeconducted
safely.TheRadiationSafetyOfficer(RSO)managesthehealthphysicsprogram
Thispartdescribestheprocessforobtainingpermissiontouseionizingradiation,andapplicablesafety
measures.
GENERAL
ProjectDirectors
ProjectDirectorsmustqualifyasPrincipalInvestigators(PI).Thisprivilegeislimited
tofacultyorcertainseniorresearchassociates,ortheirequivalentsattheVAPAHCS
andtheotherinstitutesoperatingundertheuniversitylicense.
Accessforinspection HealthPhysicstypicallyschedulesinspectionstoavoidinterruptingthelaboratory
calendar.HoweverHealthPhysicsmusthaveaccesstolaboratoriesatanytimeto
observeworkandperformradiationsurveys.
Security
Regulatoryagenciesrequireahighdegreeofsecuritytopreventunauthorizedaccess
toanduseofradiationsources.AtStanford,radiochemicalstocksolutionsand
sealedsourcesgreaterthanClevel(seeTable3.2)mustbestoredunderlock.In
newopenarchitecturebuildings,suchasCCSRorClark,allstockvialsmustbestored
underlock.AtVAPAHCS,alllicensedmaterial,whetheritisstock,inuse,orwaste,
mustbestoredunderlock.Radiationdevicesmustbelockedoutattheconsole.Do
notpropsecuritydoorsopen.
Liquidscintillation
cocktail
TheAPRSrecommendsbiodegradableliquidscintillationcocktail(LSC).Special
applicationandauthorizationisrequiredfornonbiodegradablecocktail.Ifitanon
biodegradablecocktailisnecessary,explainwhyintheapplicationsectionthat
discussesmaterialsorinstrumentation.
Mixedwaste
Discardingmixedradiologicandchemicalhazardouswasteisexpensive.Makeevery
efforttoreduceoreliminateitsgeneration.Specialauthorizationisrequiredpriorto
generatingmixedwaste.Seepages36,55,and58.
33
PermittingproceduresforradioactivematerialsrequireaControlledRadiation
Permitting
Authorization(CRA)issuedbyaLocalControlCommittee(LCC).
proceduresfor
radioactivematerials
TherearetwoLCCs.TheClinicalRadiationSafetyCommittee(CRSCo)reviewsall
proceduresthatinvolveadministrationofionizingradiationtohumans.TheNon
HumanUseRadiationSafetyCommittee(NHRSC)reviewslaboratoryuseof
radiochemicalsandradiationproducingmachineswithinStanfordandVAPAHCS.
Ci
Ci
Ci
H3
1000
Co57
100
Tc99m
1000
C14
100
Co60
In111
100
F18
1000
Ni63
100
Sn113
100
Na22
10
Zn65
10
I123
100
P32
10
Zn69
1000
I125
P33
100
Ga67
1000
I131
S35
100
Se75
100
Xe133
1000
Cl36
10
Rb86
100
Cs137
10
Ca45
100
Sr85
100
Hg203
100
Cr51
1000
Y88
10
Tl201
1000
Fe55
100
Y90
10
Ra226
0.1
TABLE 3.1 QLM QUANTITIES. This table provides the quantities of licensed material (QLM)
requiring labeling for the most commonly used radionuclides. For other radionuclides, use the
valuesinAppendixCof10CFRPart20;itisduplicatedinPart4,Appendices.
CONTROLLEDRADIATIONAUTHORIZATIONS(CRAS)FORRADIOACTIVEMATERIALS
General
ToobtainaControlledRadiationAuthorization(CRA)thePImustsubmitaCRA
applicationandobtaintheapprovaloftheappropriateLCCortheAPRS.All
radioactivematerialsmustbespecified.
Applicationformat
SendanapplicationtoHealthPhysicsthatprovidesthefollowinginformation.Ifthe
followinginstructionsarenotclear,ifyouneedassistance,orifyouhavespecial
circumstances,pleasecall.Youmaysubmitahardcopy,fax,oremail.Foran
applicationformgotohttp://radforms.stanford.edu
Facilities
1.a.Facilities.Identifythedepartment,andlistreceiving,storage,work,andwaste
areas.Facilitiesmustbeadequateforthesafeuseofthematerials.Benchesmust
haveimpervioussurfaces;secondarycontainmentisneededbothinworkand
storageareas;floorsmustbesealedandwaxedifunsealedradioactivematerialsare
34
handled.Materialsmustbesecuredagainstunauthorizedremoval;materialsin
commonuseareasmustbelockedwhenunattended.
AlistofroomsisemailedouteachquarterforupdatingbytheHealthPhysics
contact.
Ventilation
1.b.Ventilation.Describeenhancedventilation,fumehoods,andbiological
containmenthoods.Thesemustbeworkingandfumehoodsmustbecheckedwithin
thelastyearforflowrate,typically100to180feetperminuteandwiththeproper
sashheightmarked.Anexternallyexhaustedbiosafetycabinetisrequiredforusing
volatileiodineinconjunctionwithpathologicalorinfectiousagents.
Personnel
2.Personnel.IdentifytheProjectDirector,seniorstaffmemberswhowilldirectly
supervisetheproject,andotherpersonnelparticipatingintheproject.Identifythe
individualwhowillserveasHealthPhysicscontact;thisindividualcoordinatesdayto
dayradiationsafetyactivitiessuchasroomsurveysandreports.Noteifindividuals
underage18willbeinthelab.
ForthePI,keysupervisors,andHealthPhysicscontact,provideworktelephone,fax,e
mail,mailcode,department,buildingandroom,andSUNetIDifavailable.
Listsofpersonnel,inventory,assignedrooms,sealedsourcesandinstrumentsare
mailedouteachquarterfortheHealthPhysicscontacttoupdate.
Proposedmaterials 3.Materials.Foreachradionuclidethatwillbeused,provide:radionuclide;chemical
forms;maximumquantitytobeusedperexperimentandfrequencyofexperiments;
maximumquantitytobeobtainedperorder;andmaximumtobepossessedatany
time.Forscintillationcocktails,pleaseprovideinformationonwhetheritis
biodegradable,recommended,orhasotherhazardsassociatedwithit.Seepage56.
Characterizevolumesasmillilitersorliters,andidentifyotherhazardousmaterialssuch
astoxicchemicals,corrosives,orpathogensthatmightbemixedwithradioactivity.See
thefollowingwebsitetoidentify.
http://nonhazardouswaste.stanford.edu
Proposeduses
4.Laboratoryprocedure.Characterizethestepsinthelaboratoryprocedurebyusing
theformWorksheetforRadiochemicalProtocols.
Appendcopiesoftheexperimentalprotocols.Lookforprocessesthathavecaused
problemsinthepast:inadequatesecondarycontainment,longtermheating,failed
automatictimers,violentvortexmixing,expansionduringheating,containmentduring
centrifuging.
Performacoldrunwithmockmaterialstoensurethatyoucanperformmanipulations
withgloves,handlingtools,andshieldinginplace.
Deliberateintroductionofradionuclidesintotheenvironmentforinvestigational
35
purposesrequiresissuanceofaspeciallicensebytheCaliforniaDepartmentofHealth
onanexperimentbyexperimentbasis.Toinitiatethisprocedurediscussthe
environmentalimpactandincludeanestimateofriskstothepopulationthatmaybe
exposed.ConsultHealthPhysicsfordetails.
Workrules
5.Workrules.StatethatyouwilladheretothestandardworkrulesinTableI.3.If
specialcircumstancesmakethoseworkrulesinappropriate,callHealthPhysics.Inyour
applicationyouwillhavetoexplainwhytheyareinappropriate,andsubmitalternative
workrulesforreview.
Waste
6.Waste.Normalradioactivewasteserviceisincludedinoverheadcharges.Projects
thatgeneratelargevolumesofradioactivewaste,ormixedwastethatmustbedisposed
ofthroughaspecialbroker,orforprojectswhodonotcontributetoStanfordUniversity
overheadwillbebilledforwasteservices.
Generationofmixedradioactiveandhazardouschemicalwastemustbeapprovedby
theLCCbeforeitisgenerated.Allchemicalmaterialsareconsideredhazardousunless
specificallytestedorotherwisereviewedagainstspecificcriteria.Anexplanationon
howtodeterminewhetherachemicalisnonhazardouscanbefoundunderAqueous
waste,p.53Ifyoumustgeneratemixedwaste,explainwhythewastemustbe
generated.Describealternativeresearchmethodsthathavebeenexplored,andexplain
whytheyarenotsuitableforthisproject.
Instrumentsand
equipment
7.Radiationmeasurementandsafetyequipment.ReviewTable3.4underSurveys,
p.50,todeterminewhichinstrumentsareappropriate.Listinstrumentsthatare
available.Eachprojectmusthavesuitabledetectionandmeasurement
instrumentation;sharingispermitted.ConsultwithHealthPhysicsifyouneed
assistance.
Identifyanysafetyequipmentthatwillbeusedsuchassplashshields,trays,orremote
handlingequipment.Shielding,particularlystackedleadbricks,andheavyequipment
shouldbesecuredforearthquakes.Largevolumesofliquidwastemusthavesecondary
containment.
Trainingand
experience
8.TrainingandExperience.Ifthisisaninitialapplication,provideinformation
regardingtheprevioustrainingandexperienceofeachPIanduser.Trainingand
Experienceformsareavailableonlineatradforms.stanford.edu,ormaybecopiedfrom
Part4,Appendices.
TrainingandexperienceareevaluatedbyHealthPhysics.Thosewithlittleorno
experienceandpreviousformalcourseworkinradiationprotectionmustcompletean
eighthourcoursethatisofferedbyHealthPhysics.Thosewhohavereceived
comparabletrainingandhavelaboratoryexperiencemustcompleteanopenbook
examinationonbasicprinciplesandinstitutionalprocedures.
Onthejobtraining Inadditiontothecourseorexamination,thePIorsupervisormustprovidespecificon
36
(OJT)
thejobtrainingforeachuseroneachprotocol.Thetrainingmustincludesurvey
techniques,recordkeepinginthelabandareviewofwasterequirements.Onthejob
trainingformsareprovidedforeachuseraftercompletionofRadiationSafetyTraining.
TrainingmustbeloggedonOJTformsandfiledinthelabsRadioisotopeJournal.
Refreshertraining
EachprojectmustholdastaffmeetingfollowingaCRArenewalatwhichradiation
safetytopics,includingthecontentsoftherenewalHazardsEvaluation,arereviewed.
TheHazardsEvaluationwillincludeanagendaandsignatureblockfordocumentingthe
meeting.ThesignedagendamustbefiledintheRadioisotopeJournal.
Concurrentreview
9.Ifapplicable,confirmthattheprojecthasalsobeensubmittedforbiohazardsand
animalcarereview.Aprojectcannotbeginuntilallcommitteeswithjurisdictionhave
approvedit.
37
Clevel
Blevel
Alevel
Quantity/Vial
200x
10,000x
>10,000x
AppendixC,QLM
AppendixC,QLM
AppendixC,QLM
Initialterm
1year
1year
1year
Approval
RSO
LCC
APRS
Renewalterm
2years
2years
1year
Documenteduser
labsurveys
monthly
monthly
aftereachuseon
UserSurveyLog;
completeweekly
Usersurveysof
storageareas
quarterly
quarterly
quarterly
Usersurveysin
sharedworkareas
aftereachuseon
UserSurveyLog;
completemonthly
aftereachuseon
UserSurveyLog;
completemonthly
aftereachuseon
UserSurveyLog;
completeweekly
HPsurveys
atStanford
every4months
every3months
monthly
HPsurveys
atVAPAHCS
every3months
every2months
everytwoweeks
HPmay
observe
no
firstuse
firstuseand
newpersonnel
TABLE3.2CONTROLLEDRADIATIONAUTHORIZATION(CRA)QUANTITIESANDTERMS.ThistabledefinestheCRAcategories,which
providethebasisfordocumentedsurveyfrequencyandrenewalterm.Usersshouldconductsurveysatthecompletionofeach
experiment;thesedonotrequirearecordunlesstheexperimentisdoneinasharedworkarea.QuantitiesofLicensedMaterials
(QLM)arefoundin10CFRPart20,AppendixC,whichisduplicatedinPart4,Appendices.
38
REVIEWANDAPPROVALOFAPPLICATIONS;AMENDMENTS
Review
TheassignedhealthphysicistwillvisitbeforepreparingaHazardsEvaluation,which
iscountersignedbytheRSOordesignate,andreturnedtothePI.Allaffected
projectstaffmustreviewandsigntheHazardsEvaluationbeforeitisfiledinthe
RadioisotopeJournal.
Approval
TheRSOapprovesClevelCRAs;aninformationcopyissenttotheLCCchairman.
TheapplicationandhazardsevaluationforBandAlevelCRAsarecirculatedtothe
appropriateLCCforapprovalviafax.Anymembercanrequestthatthecommittee
convenetodiscussitemsofconcern.Theinitialtermofanapprovalisoneyear.
Shortlyaftertheprojecthasbegunoperationthehealthphysicistwillvisittoensure
thatadministrativeandtechnicalprocedureshavebeenimplemented.
Amendmentsand
Renewals
Substantiveamendmentsundergothesameapplication,review,andapproval
processthatisappliedtonewapplications.Nonsubstantiveamendments,and
renewalsofCRAsthathaveagoodsafetyrecord,aresubjecttothesame
administrativeprocess,butareapprovedbyasinglememberoftheLCCorAPRSin
thenameofthechairman.
Nonsubstantiveamendmentsincludeaddingradionuclidesorchanginginventory
limitsthatdonotchangetheC,B,orAlevelcharacterizationoftheCRA,oradding
laboratoryproceduresthataresimilartothosealreadyapproved.HealthPhysicswill
addAppendixCQLMquantitiestoaCRAbasedonatelephonerequest.
Renewalperiod
Projectsthatdonotinvolvehumansubjectsandthathaveverygoodsafetyand
compliancerecordsareusuallygivenatwoyearrenewal.
Recoveryplan
Projectswithsignificantorrepeatedsafetyornoncomplianceviolationsreceive
shortterm,provisionalrenewalsandenhancedsafetyoversight.Ifsignificant
problemsareuncoveredduringanyvisit,thePIwillberequiredtomeetwiththeLCC
toexplainwhytheproblemsoccurred.ThePIandtheLCCwilldeveloparecovery
plantocorrecttheproblemsandtoavoidrecurrence.
Planahead
Theadministrativeprocessofpreparinganapplicationandhazardsevaluationfor
approvalcanbelengthy.ThePIcanfaxdocumentstoreduceturnaroundtime.
However,committeememberswillnotinterrupttheirworkschedulesto
accommodatetheneedsofthePI.Itisessentialthattheworkscheduleprovide
adequatetimeforsafetyreview.
Inspection
DuringthetermoftheCRA,HealthPhysicswillconductperiodicsurveysandan
inspectionattheendofthetermtoassuresafetyandcompliance.
39
Deficiencies
Duringtheinspection,deficienciesmightbeuncovered.Deficienciesthatare
occasionallyobservedinclude:incompleteroomsurveys;lackofonthejobtraining;
incompleteuserecords;inadequatesecurityofradioactivematerials;violationsof
wastehandling;labelinganddisposalregulations;evidenceoffoodorbeveragesin
laboratoryworkareas;orinadequateattentiontoworkrules.Deficienciesmustbe
corrected.Failuretocorrectdeficiencies,andpreventtheirreoccurrence,
jeopardizestheinstitutionallicense.
Suspensions
Whennecessary,duetooverexposure,injurytopersonnel,surveydatathatindicate
thatcontinuedoperationposesanunacceptablerisk,falsificationofrecords,or
multipleoruncorrecteddeficiencies,theRSOmayrestrict,modifyorterminatethe
CRApendingreviewbytheappropriateLCCortheAPRS.
Moving,
modifications,or
termination
ProjectDirectorsmustnotifyHealthPhysicsatleastthirtydaysbeforechanging
laboratoryfacilitiesorterminatingaproject.Allradioactivesourcesmustbe
properlytransferredordisposedof.Rooms,facilitiesandapparatususedbythe
projectmustbedecontaminatedsowhenmeasuredbyHealthPhysics,theymeet
thestandardsforuncontrolledareas.Whensurveyshavebeencompleted,Health
Physicswillremovesignsfromroomsandequipment,takecustodyofproject
radiationsafetyrecords,andterminatetheproject,ifappropriate.NotethatPIsor
departmentsareresponsibleforcostsofdecommissioning.
HUMANUSECLINICALPROCEDURESANDRESEARCH
AtStanfordtheoversightofhumansubjectresearchinvolvingradiologydevicesandradioactivematerialsisa
functionoftheClinicalRadiationSafetyCommittee(CRSCo)LCCwhichischarteredbytheFoodandDrug
Administration.AtSHSandVAPAHCS,allusesofradionuclidesinhumansregardlessofquantityorpurpose
mustbeapprovedbyCRSCo.Researchprotocolsinvolvinghumansubjectsmustalsobeapprovedby
StanfordsInstitutionalReviewBoard(IRB).Reviewsmaybeconductedconcurrently.Inmostcases,
accordingtoIRBprocedures,onlymedicalfacultyandVAstaffphysiciansmayapply.
Consultation
SafetypoliciesandinstructionsforclinicaluseofradiationsourcesatSHSand
VAPAHCSareavailablefromHealthPhysics.Additionally,GuidanceforPreparing
ResearchProposalsInvolvingIonizingRadiationinHumanUseResearch,provides
informationonadministrativeproceduresandinformedconsentlanguage.The
HealthPhysicsMedicalGroupisavailabletoassistprotocoldirectorsdesigning
studieswithradiation.Earlyconsultationwillhelpassurethattheproposalwillbe
approvedonthefirstreview.
Application
Allprotocolsinvolvingboth"research"or"clinicalinvestigations"and"human
subjects"mustbesubmittedbytheelectronicHumanSubjects"eProtocol"system
andbereviewedandapprovedbytheIRBbeforerecruitmentanddatacollection
maystart.ApplicationsforHumanSubjectswhichincludetheuseofradiationare
forwardedtotheHealthPhysicsMedicalGroupforreview.Humansubjectprotocols
arethenapprovedbytheStanfordClinicalRadiationSafetyCommittee(CRSCo).If
40
theresearchrequiresRadioactiveDrugResearchCommittee(RDRC)reviewas
specifiedbyFDARDRCregulations21CFR361.1,anadditionalapplicationfrom
HealthPhysicsmustbecompleted.
Reviewandapproval YourapplicationmustbereviewedbytheHealthPhysicsMedicalGroupandmay
needtobecirculatedtoindividualmembersoftheCRSCo/RDRCcommitteefor
evaluationandapproval.ConsultwiththeHealthPhysicsMedicalGroupifyouhavea
timesensitiveneed.
Humanuseresearchapprovalsarecontingentoncontemporaneousapprovalbythe
StanfordUniversityResearchComplianceOfficeonHumanSubjectResearch.
Renewal
Mosthumanuseapprovalsareforoneyear.
Amendments
TheprojectdirectorisresponsibleforinformingHealthPhysicsofchangesin
procedures,personnel,ormodificationsthatmightaffectradiationsafety.
CONTROLLEDMACHINEAUTHORIZATIONS(CMAS)FORRADIATIONDEVICES
AControlledMachineAuthorization(CMA)isrequiredforanyelectronicdevicethatemitsionizingradiation.
Inthehealthcaresetting,radiographicandfluoroscopicunitsarethemostcommonexamples.Xray
diffractionunits,cabinetxraymachines,andacceleratorsmaybefoundintheuniversityresearchsetting.
Thefollowinginstructionsweredevelopedfortheprojectsthatdonotinvolveadministrationofionizing
radiationtohumans.Ifyouhaveahumanuseproject,consultwithHealthPhysicstodeterminethe
appropriateinformationtosubmit.
Applicationto
obtainorfabricate
adevice
Beforeyouacquire,fabricate,ormodifyaradiationproducingdevice,submitthe
followinginformationinamemorandumtoHealthPhysics.
1.Descriptionofthedevice.Specifythetypeandmanufacturer,energyload,
andlevelsofradiationanticipated.Indicatetypicalenergies,beamcurrents,
workloadinhoursperweekandadescriptionofhowthedevicewillbeused.
Submitthemanufacturersbrochureandacopyofyourpurchaserequest.
Provideinformationaboutinterlocksystems,warningdevices,andinstalled
monitoringsystems.
2.Procedures.Includeacopyofoperatingandsafetyprocedures.These
proceduresshouldbeposted.Describehowthedeviceissecuredagainst
unauthorizeduse.
3.Sketchofthefacility.Includeshieldingcalculationsandspecifications,and
beamdirections.Specifyoccupantsofadjacentareas,includingareasaboveand
below.Ifportableshieldingistobeused,describeit.HealthPhysicswillprovide
assistancewithshieldingcalculations.
4.Monitors.Indicateportablemonitoringinstrumentsthatareavailable.Each
41
projectmustprovidenecessarysurveyinstruments.Indicatethetypeof
personalmonitoringdevices,suchasfilmbadgesorfingerdosimetersthatwill
beused.ForXRDs,onlyfingerringsarerequired.
5.Trainingandexperience.Provideabriefbutexplicitresumeoftheproject
directorspertinenttrainingandexperience.ForthePIandradiationsafety
contact,providedeskphone,fax,andemailinformation.Noteifminorswillbe
inthelab.Eachindividualusermustcompleteappropriatexraydeviceradiation
protectiontrainingbeforeusingthedevice.Eachindividualusermustalso
completehandsontrainingfromapersonexperiencedintheuseofthexray
device.Anyonewhoperformsorsupervisesxrayproceduresonhumansmust
holdaCaliforniaDepartmentofPublicHealthcertification.
ConditionalApproval ThereviewandapprovalprocessisasdescribedearlierforCRAs.However,
initiationofworkiscontingentonapreusesurvey.Researchinvolvinghuman
subjectsmustbeapprovedbytheCRSCo.
Preusesurvey
Dependingonthetypeofdevice,therewillberadiationsurveysandchecksof
warninglightsandinterlocks.Thedetailsofthisinspectionarespecifictothe
device.Aftershielding,warningdevices,andinterlocksareshowntobeinorder,
thefinaloperatingapprovalisissued.Properpostingandlabelingarealso
confirmedduringthepreusesurvey.Aconsolewarningstatement,listof
authorizedusers,standardoperatingprocedures,andemergencyproceduresare
requiredtobeposted.
Cabinetxray
machines
Cabinetxraymachinesareenclosed,selfshielded,interlockedcabinets.The
machinecanonlyoperatewhentheopeningissecurelyclosed.Theexposure
levelsateverylocationontheexteriormustmeetthelevelspecifiedfor
uncontrolledareas.Donotoperateamachineiftheinterlocksappeartobe
malfunctioning.Alloperatorsmustbetrainedintheproperoperationofthe
deviceandbecertifiedbyHealthPhysicsinradiationsafetyassociatedwiththe
device.Personaldosimetrymayberecommendedforsomeoperators.
Electronmicroscopes Duetotheirdesignandoperatingvoltage,electronmicroscopesdonotnormally
presentaradiationhazard.Operatorsdonotneedpersonaldosimeters.Health
excepted
Physicsperformsaradiationsurveyeverytwoyears,afteralteration,repairor
movementofthemicroscope,orwhenrequestedbytheprojectdirector.Electron
microscopesshouldnotbemodifiedinanywaytoincreasetheradiationoutputor
reducetheshielding.
ThesedevicesarelabeledCautionthisequipmentproducesionizingradiation
whenenergized.
Microscopistswhouseuraniumsaltswhenexaminingbiologicalspecimensmust
receivetrainingandbelistedonaCRAbeforeorderingorusingradioactive
42
materials.
Medicaland
veterinaryxray
machines
Medicalradiographicunitsareusedforinternalimagingofpatientsandresearch
subjects.Dependingonthedesign,theyarecapableofmakingstillradiographicor
realtimefluoroscopicimages.Ineithercaselocalizeddosesofmorethan1remto
anearbyoperatorandseveralreminthebeamarereadilyattainable.Therefore,
trainingandexperienceanddevicesafetycriteriaarestringent.
Registrationrequired AllradiationproducingmachinesatStanfordwhetherforresearchorclinicaluse
mustberegisteredwiththeStateofCaliforniawithinthirtydaysafteracquisition.
HealthPhysicsregistersmachinesonbehalfoftheowner;theusersdepartment
paystheassociatedregistrationfee.ContactHealthPhysicspriortoordering.The
registrationfeeisbilledafterinitialregistration,andthereaftereverytwoyears.
Thisfeeisdueaslongasthemachineisintheuserspossession,evenifitis
inactiveorbroken.PleasenotifyHealthPhysics(33201)ifthemachineisbeing
sold,transferredorscrapped.Weneedtonotifythestateofthenewuser,orofits
dismantling,otherwisetheusersdepartmentwillcontinuetobebilledforthe
registrationfee.
SETTINGUPTHERADIOACTIVEMATERIALSLABORATORY
RadioisotopeJournal EachCRAgroupmustmaintainaRadioisotopeJournal.Binderswillbefurnishedby
HealthPhysicstofileandkeepallrequiredrecords.TheRadioisotopeJournalmustbe
accessibletoallpersonswhoworkwithradiationsourcesandmustbeavailablefor
inspectionatanytime.
General
considerations
Theworkareashouldprovidesufficientspaceforsupplies,work,andwaste.Surfaces
shouldbeeasilycleaned.Reducecontaminationbykeepingtheworkareafreeof
unnecessaryitems.Theareashouldbesecuredwhennotsupervised.
Foodandbeverages Donotconsume,store,heat,orrefrigeratefoodorbeveragesinradioactivematerials
workareas.Thiswouldprovideadirectrouteforingestion.Donotdiscardcontainers
inworkareas
orwrappingsinlaboratorytrashcansasitmaybeassumedfoodandbeverageswere
consumedinthelaboratory.
Stanfordfoodand
beveragepolicy
Storageorconsumptionoffoodorbeverageinanylaboratoryworkareais
discouraged.However,theStanfordlicenseallowsconsumptionoffoodand
beveragesindeskareaswithinlaboratoryrooms.Thedeskareamusteitherbefree
standingandatleastonemeterfromtheradioactiveworkarea,orphysically
separatedfromcontiguousworksurfacesbyaphysicalbarrier.Thedeskareamustbe
postedwithagreennoticereadingNORADIOACTIVEMATERIALSAREPERMITTEDIN
THISAREA.
43
TheVAPAHCSradioactivematerialslicensedoesnotallowtheconsumptionorstorage
VAPAHCSfood
andbeveragepolicy offoodorbeveragesinalaboratoryroom.TheNRCconsidersemptyfoodcontainers
orwrappingstobeevidenceofuse.Foodandbeveragesmayonlybestored,
refrigerated,heated,orconsumedinhallways,offices,lounges,orconferencerooms.
Recordsretention
Allrecordsgeneratedovertheprecedingthreeyearsshouldbekeptonhandforstaff
review.
OldrecordsthatweresubmittedtoorreceivedfromHealthPhysics(Dosimeter
reports,quarterlyupdates,HealthPhysicssurveys,CRAsandamendments,waste
logs,instrumentcalibrationsdonebyStanford,andinformationsheetsor
newsletters)canbediscarded.HealthPhysicshastheoriginalrecordsonfile.
OldrecordsthatwerecreatedbytheprojectstafforoutsideStanford(dailyuselogs,
usersurveys,onthejobtrainingrecords,userincidentreports,surveyinstrument
calibrationsbycontractors)shouldberetainedindefinitelyinthelab.Theycanbe
transferredtoHealthPhysicsifstoragespaceisnotavailable.HealthPhysicswill
takecustodyofthemwhentheCRAisterminated.
ContactHealthPhysicsforarecordsreviewbeforetransferringordiscardingrecords.
SETTINGUPTHERADIATIONDEVICELABORATORY
Thefollowingguidanceappliestolaboratoriesthatarenotadministeringionizingradiationtohumans.If
yourapplicationinvolvesspecialcircumstances,pleaseconsultwithHealthPhysics.
Radiationdevice
OperatingLog
KeeparecordofresultsofradiationsurveysperformedbyHealthPhysics,repair
companies,andlaboratorystaff.Whenperformedbythelaboratorystaff,specifythe
date,thepersonmakingthesurvey,theinstrumentusedandthelocationandlevels
ofradiation.
1. Uselogwithenergy,current,otherparameters,date,andusersname.
2. Devicecalibrationrecords.
3. Surveys,safetybulletins,accidentreports,correctiveefforts,repairs,and
modifications.
4. Startup,use,andshutdownproceduresandprecautions.
Operating
requirements
44
Eachentranceoraccesspointtoahighradiationareamustbe:
1. Equippedwithacontroldevicethatuponentrytotheareareducesthedeep
doselevelofradiationtolessthan100milliremperhourat30centimetersfrom
theradiationsourceorfromanysurfacetheradiationpenetrates;
2. Equippedwithacontroldevicethatenergizesaconspicuousvisibleoraudible
alarminsuchamannerthatindividualsaremadeawareoftheentry;or
3. Maintainedlocked,exceptduringperiodswhenaccesstotheareaisrequired,
withpositivecontrolovereachindividualentry.
Dosimetry
required
Both federal and state regulations require personal dosimetry for individuals who
enter high radiation areas.
Signs and labels
Necessary signs and labels depend on the dose rate around the device. See Table II.2
and the appendices for more information.
Precautions for
analytical xray
devices
Xray diffraction and xray fluorescence units pose a special radiation hazard. They
have a onemillimeter diameter beam that has a very high dose rate. Some
operators who changed or adjusted samples while the beam was on have received so
much radiation dose that their fingers had to be amputated.
These accidents are generally attributable to careless work habits and inadequate
instruction. An extract from the 1989 Stanford Radiation Safety Manual,
http://web.stanford.edu/group/glam/xlab/Safety/SafetyManual.pdf , and a training
film entitled The TwoEdged Sword are available for training xray diffraction
machine operators.
1. All operators must be certified by Health Physics and receive operational safety
instructions from the project director. Use only procedures approved by the
manufacturer or alternate procedures approved in the CMA.
2. Wear a finger dosimeter.
3. When aligning the camera by eye, be sure that the machine is turned off or that
the viewing is done through a properly designed lead glass viewing window.
4. Be sure that the machine is turned off before changing samples. Check the kV
and mA meters and the warning light.
5. After turning the unit on, measure the exposure rate at the table edge. It should
be less than 0.2 millirem per hour.
6. Use shielding to ensure that the above limits are satisfied. Do not remove or
modify the manufacturers shielding.
7. Maintain direct surveillance of the machine, unless the area is secured.
Machines should be kept in a locked room.
8. Check safety apparatus, shutter, warning lights, survey meter, and shields for
proper function monthly. Report any malfunction to the PI. Do not operate a
machine with a safety defect. Lock out and tag out the device until the problem
is corrected.
9. If any changes are made in the machine that might affect radiation output, call
Health Physics for a survey.
10. Promptly report any accidental exposures or potential injuries to Health Physics
and the project director.
11. Maintain a log of all operations.
12. Never put any part of your body in the beam. Exposure to the primary beam for
even a fraction of a second can cause severe damage to tissue.
Interlocks and
warning lights
Interlocks and warning lights are essential safety features. Do not bypass them
without Health Physics review and approval of alternate safety measures.
45
SIGNSANDLABELS
Signsandlabelsprovidehazardinformationandwarningstoyourcoworkers,supportstaff,andemergency
responders.Asignisanoticethatappliestoanareaofuseoraworkarea;alabelappliestoanappliance,
container,shield,pipe,orotherequipment.BothareillustratedinPartIV,Appendices.Signsareavailable
fromHealthPhysics.
Signs
RoomsandworkareasarepostedbasedonthecriteriainTable2.2.Any
informationspecifictothearea,suchasuser,telephonenumber,andinventory
shouldbekeptuptodate.Therearespecialsignageandlogrequirementsfor
projectsthathouseanimalsinDLAM.
Labels
Avarietyoflabelsareusedtodifferentiatecleanandpotentiallycontaminated
surfacesanddevices,andradiationmachines.
PERSONNELMONITORING
Thepurposeofpersonnelmonitoringistoprovideearlynoticeifyourexposureisnotbelowthelimitsand
ALARA.Themonitoringprogramalsoprovidesapermanentrecordofyourexposure.
Typesof
dosimeters
Therearetwoprimarytypesofdosimeterswornbypersonswhoworkwithor
nearsourcesofradiation.Thefilmbadgeisfilmwrappedinlighttightpaperand
ismountedinplastic.Badgesarecheckedperiodically,andthedegreeof
exposureofthefilmindicatesthecumulativeamountofradiationtowhichthe
wearerhasbeenexposed.Thermoluminescentdosimeters(TLDs)arecrystalline
solidsthattrapelectronswhenexposedtoionizingradiationandcanbe
calibratedtogiveareadingofradiationlevel.Filmbadgesaremostoftenwornby
hospitalstaffpotentiallyexposedtoxraysorresearchersworkingwithhigher
energybetaemitters.TLDsaremostoftenwornbypersonsexposedtoavariety
ofisotopessuchasfoundinnuclearmedicineorthecyclotronfacility.All
dosimetersareprocessedbyacontractor.Theyarecollectedthefirstweekof
everywearperiod.Mostmonitorscanreadaslowas10millirem.
Monitoring
required
Theregulationsrequiremonitoringforanyworkerwhomightexceed10percentof
theapplicablelimit,andanyworkerenteringahighorveryhighradiationarea.
Monitorsareusuallyrecommendedforprojectsauthorizedto5millicuriesof
photonorhighenergybetaemitters,andXRDoperators.Dosimetrywillbeissued
whenevaluationestablishesaneedfortheuseofthismonitoringtechnique.
RequirementswillbestatedintheHazardsEvaluation.SeeTable2.1forthedose
limits.
RecordsofPrior
Exposure
46
Eachindividualhavingapreviousorongoingradiationexposurehistorywith
anotherinstitutionisrequiredtosubmitanAuthorizationtoObtainRadiation
ExposureHistoryform.
Use
Bodybadgesandfingerringsarewornwherethehighestexposureisexpected;rings
arewornunderneathglovestoavoidcontamination.Ifyouaresuppliedbothtypes,
wearbothwheneveryouareworkingwithradiation.HealthPhysicscanprovide
alternativeguidanceinunusualsituations.
Precautions
Donotwearfornonworkexposuressuchasadentistsoffice.
Storebadgesinasafelocationwhennotinuse,awayfromsun,heat,sourcesof
radiationorpotentialdamage.Protectbadgesfromimpact,puncture,or
compression.
DonotstoreExtremity(finger)ringsinlabcoatpockets.Storingringsinthelabcoat
pocketmayexposetheringstoradiationmeasuredbythewholebodybadge.Rings
aretomeasurehandexposuresonly.
Amissingorinvaliddosimeterreadingcreatesagapinyourradiationdoserecord
andaffectsthemonitoringprogramsabilitytoprovideaccurateexposurereadings.
ForamissingdosimeteraLost/DamagedDosimeterReportisrequired.
ALARALimits
AdministrativeALARALimitsTable
DosimetryType
RegulatoryLimit
LevelI(Monthly)
LevelII(Accumulated)
WholeBody
5,000mrem/yr
100mrem(EDEforxray)
1,000mrem(EDEforxray)
Lensoftheeye
15,000mrem/yr
300mrem
3,000mrem
Skinand/orExtremity
50,000mrem/yr
1,000mrem
10,000mrem
LevelIwillbereportedtotheindividual.LevelIIrequiresaninvestigationandwillbe
reportedtotheappropriatecommittee.(RefertoHPM5.5)
Bioassays
Individualswhohandlelargeamountsofvolatileradionuclidesmayberequiredto
participateinabioassaymonitoringprogram.
Ifyouroutinelyhandleonemillicurieormoreofradioactiveiodine,youarerequired
tocometoHealthPhysicstohaveyourthyroidmonitoredforuptake.Thethyroid
measurementshouldbewithin72hoursfollowingexposureandevery2weeksif
routineworkcontinues.Thebioassayshouldnotbesoonerthan6hours.
ThebioassayrequirementforeachprojectisdescribedintheHazardsEvaluation.
Notethatthyroidblockingagentswillnotbepermitted.
Ifyouhandlemorethan100millicuriesoftritium,youarerequiredtosubmitaurine
sampletoHealthPhysicsseventofourteendaysaftertheexperiment.Thesample
willbemeasuredfortritiumcontent.Pleasemakearrangementswithhealthphysics
priortobeginningwork.
BioassaysmayalsobeorderedbytheRSOafteraspill,anunusualevent,ora
procedurethatmightresultinanuptake.
47
ORDERINGANDRECEIVINGRADIOACTIVEMATERIAL
Orders
Orderallradionuclideshipmentsfordeliverytothefollowingaddress:
HealthPhysicsInspectionStation(CRA#)
StanfordMedicalCenterReceiving
820QuarryRoad,Rm.H0321
PaloAlto,CA94304
StanfordpurchasesmustbemadeonlinethroughOracleasaStandardRadioactive
order.DonotuseUniversityRapidPurchaseOrdersorUniversityPurchasingCard
(PCard)forradioactivematerials.OrderonlythroughProcurementServicesor
VAPAHCSSupplyService.TheCRAnumberontherequisitionmustbeincludedwhen
ordering.
Ifthevendorrequestsacopyoftheradioactivematerialslicense,forwardthe
requesttoHealthPhysics.
Receiptand
inspection
Whenthepackagearrives,HealthPhysicscheckstheexteriorforcontaminationand
doserate,logsthereceipt,andcheckstoensureyouareauthorizedtoreceivethe
radionuclideandamount.HealthPhysicswillthenhaveyourpackagedeliveredto
yourlab.Youmayarrangetopickupapackageifitisurgentlyneeded.
Inspectand
storepromptly
Promptlyinspectthepackageforleakageandcorrectnessofcontents.Besurethat
youremoveeachitemonthepackinglist,andcarefullysiftthroughdryiceand
packingpeanuts.Safetyinstructionsmaybeprovidedwiththepackage.Toensureit
willnotbemisplaced,storeallitemspromptlyafterinspection.
Removepackage
labels
Afteryouremovetheradioactivematerialfromthepackage,removeordefaceany
radioactivematerialslabelsbeforediscardingtheempty,uncontaminatedpackage
tohousewaste.
Directdelivery
Ifyoureceivematerialdirectlyandithasnotbeeninspected,informHealthPhysics
promptly,andifrequested,bringthepackagetotheInspectionStation.Special
arrangementsfordirectdeliveryofradioactivematerialsfromthesuppliertothe
usermustbeapprovedbytheRadiationSafetyOfficer(RSO)casebycase.
USEANDTRANSFERRECORDS
DailyUseLogs
AfterapackageofradioactivityhasbeeninspectedbyHealthPhysics,aDailyUsage
Logisattached.Makeanentryeachdaythatthematerialisused.Youmayusea
differentformorformatifalltherequiredinformationisincluded.Keepthelogsin
theRadioisotopeJournalorpostthemontherefrigeratororstoragecabinet.Donot
keeptheselogsinyourindividuallaboratorynotebook.
Sealedsource
storageanduse
Ifseveralsealedsourcesareinuse,theyshouldbekeptinacentrallocation.Sources
beingusedinexperimentsmustbesecured,properlyshielded,andlabeledwiththe
48
radionuclide,activity,anddate.Theuselogshouldidentifyeachsource,datesof
removalandreturn,anduser.Ifsourcesaremovedtootherauthorizedlocations,
theuselogshouldindicatethisalongwiththedateandthenameoftherecipient.
Sealedsource
inventory
ASealedSourceInventorythatisemailedquarterlylistsallsealedsources.The
responsibleindividualmustpersonallyexamineeachsourcetoensureitisonhand
andinitsproperplace.Verifythelocationofthesourcesandreturntheformto
HealthPhysics.FileacopyintheRadioisotopeJournal.
Leaktesting
Mostsealedsourcesmustbeleaktestedtwiceeachyear.HealthPhysicsprovides
thisservice.Requestaleaktestwhenyoureceiveanewsealedsource,before
transferringittoanotherCRA,beforeshippingittoavendor,orifitappears
damaged.
AnInventorySummaryformforunsealedradioactivematerialsisemailedeach
Radionuclide
InventorySummary January,April,July,andOctober.Theformsmustbefilledoutshowingdispositionof
materialstothenearestmicrocurie.UsetheDailyUseLogasthesourcedocument.
Youcanremoveitemsthathavegonethroughtenhalflivesandcontainlessthan
onemicrocurie.Ifyouhaveaccumulatedaninventoryofshortlivedstockvials,you
mayhavetodecaycorrecttheentriestoavoidgoingoveryourinventorylimit.
Indicatetheprimaryviallocationifdifferentfromthelocationlisted.When
completingtheOctoberinventoryyoumustalsophysicallyexamineeachcontainer
toensureitslocationandlabelingareaccurate.
FaxtheformstoHealthPhysicsbythedatespecified.Ifithasnotbeenreceivedby
theduedate,yourincomingpackageswillbeheldattheInspectionStationuntilthe
formsaresubmitted.FileacopyofeachsummaryintheRadioisotopeJournal.
Transfertoanother TransfersofradioactivematerialsfromoneCRAtoanothermustbereportedto
HealthPhysicswiththequarterlyInventorySummaryreport.Beforetransferring
CRA
radioactivematerialoutsideyourCRA,verifythatthepersonreceivingthematerialis
anauthorizeduseroftheCRA,andthatthematerialandactivityiswithinthelimits
oftheCRAyouaretransferringthematerialto.
Transferreport
IfthetransferexceedstentimestheAppendixCQLM,printandcompleteatransfer
formavailableathttp://radforms.stanford.edu.Placetheoriginalandonecopyinto
yourRadioisotopeJournalandprovidetherecipientwithtwocopies.Boththe
transferorandrecipientmustattachacopyoftheformtotheirrespectivequarterly
InventorySummaryreport.
Offcampustransfer HealthPhysicsistheonlycampusgroupauthorizedtoshipradioactivematerialsoff
campus.Forfurtherdetailsandassistance,calltheInspectionStation.
Toensuresafetyandcompliancewithtransportationregulations,allshipmentsof
radioactivematerialsfromthecampusmustbepreparedunderHealthPhysics
supervision.TheshippingcontainermustmeettheappropriateUSDepartmentof
49
Transportationspecifications.ThepackagemustnotbesealeduntilHealthPhysics
completesitsinspection.
Notethatcarryingradioactivematerialwithyouorinyourcheckedairplaneluggage
isforbiddenunderFederalAviationAdministrationregulations.
SURVEYS
Thepurposeofaphysicalsurveyistoidentifypotentialproblems,suchaspoorstorageorhandlingpractices,
beforetheyactuallyposeahazard,andtodemonstratethatcontaminationlevelsanddoseratesarewell
belowlimits.Surveysshouldbedonethefirstweekofeachmonthtoassuretheyarenotinadvertently
omitted,andmustbedoneaftereachuseinsharedworkareas.
Removable
contamination
surveys
Removablecontaminationsurveyshelpidentifyareaswhereradioactivityhasbeen
spilled.Countertops,sinks,floors,refrigerators,centrifuges,fumehoods,and
telephonehandsetsshouldallbeconsideredforinclusion.Takeasampleby
makinga100cmlongwipeofthesurfacewithasmallpieceofpapertowelora
filterpaper.Countthesampleonthesameequipmentusedtocountyour
experimentalsamples.ThisisnormallydoneonaLiquidScintillationCounter.
Instrumentsurveys Appropriateinstrumentsurveys(e.g.,GMforhighenergybetas,NaI(Tl)forlow
energygammas)helpidentifyareaswhereradioactivityhasbeenspilledorwhere
itisinadequatelyshielded.Surveybenchsurfaces,yourhands,clothing,and
shoes.Mostresearchersuseasurveyinstrumentwithaspeaker,whichresponds
morequicklythanthemeterneedlemovement.Performabatterycheck,and
useeitheraradioactivechecksourceoraknownradiationareatoconfirmthe
instrumentisworkingbeforeyoubegin.Movethedetectorslowlytoallowthe
instrumenttimetorespond.
ActionLevel
Ifyoufindoccasionallyoccupiedareaswithapenetratingdoserategreaterthan2
milliremperhour,orcontinuouslyoccupiedworkareaswithapenetratingdose
rateactionlevelgreaterthan0.2milliremperhour,correctiveactionisrequired.
ConsultwiththePIorHealthPhysics.
Records
HealthPhysicswillsupplyasurveyformthatincludesaroomsketch.Seeexample
intheAppendices.Eachsurveyrecordmustinclude:
Asketchofthelab,
Locationsofsamplepoints,
Measurementsinmrem/hrordpm/100cm2,
Identificationoftheinstrumentationused,
Backgroundandefficiencyintheinstrumentation,
Surveyorsname,and
Date.
Iftheinstrument(liquidscintillationcounter)doesnotcalculateandprintdpm,
50
butratherprintsjustcpm,youmustdeterminethecountingefficiencytoensure
thecountsperminuterateisbelowthecleanupthresholdinTable3.3in
dpm/100cm2.TypicalcountingefficienciesarenotedinTable3.4.Document
surveysbycompletingusersurveyformsandenterintotheSweepsProgram,
http://radsurvey.stanford.edu.Thesesurveysmustbeperformedandentered
intotheSweepsProgramthefirstweekofthemonth.
Buildingand
equipment
repair
Beforeanypotentiallycontaminatedareasorequipment,suchasaglovebox,
hood,refrigerator,sink,orpipelineisturnedoverforrepair,itmustbesurveyed.
CallHealthPhysics.Theequipmentwillbesurveyed,delabeled,andmarked
Clearedforrepairorreleasetouncontrolledarea.
Equipmentdisposal NotifyHealthPhysicspriortodisposalofanyradiationdevice.Specialprecautions
areneeded,andthestatemayrequirenotification.
(Note:actionlevelsare
indpm/100cm2)
Materialswith
App.CQLM
100Ci1
Materialswith
APP.CQLM
<100Ci2
All
alpha
emitters
Unrestrictedareas
(e.g.,desk,hallways)
2,000
200
20
Restrictedareas
(e.g.,workareas,
equipment)
20,000
2,000
200
H3,C14,F18,P33,S35,Ca45,Cr51,Fe55,Co57,Ni63,Cu64,Zn65,Ga67,
Se75,Rb86,Sr86,Tc99m,In111,Sn113,I123,Tl201.
TABLE3.3ACTION
LEVELSFORREMOVABLE
CONTAMINATION.This
tableprovidesthreshold
valuesthatrequire
correctiveactionif
exceeded.Actionlevels
areindpm,notcpm.
SeeTable3.4.Call
HealthPhysicsif
removable
contaminationismore
thantentimestheaction
levelinunrestricted
areas
Na22,P32,Cl36,Fe59,Co60,Zn69,Y88,Y90,Cd109,I125,I131,Cs137.
51
Radionuclide
LSC
Pancake
GM2
NaI(Tl)
Meter3
NaI(Tl)
Well4
H3
20%
na5
na5
na5
C14,S35,P33
50%
10%
na5
na5
Cr51,Co57,Tc99m,I
125
30%
1%
50%
50%
P32
100%
50%
na5
na5
LSC1:LiquidScintillationCounter
PancakeGM2:HandheldsurveymeterwithpancakeGMdetector
NaI(Tl)3:HandheldsurveymeterwithwelltypeNaI(Tl)crystal
NaI(Tl)4:MultichannelanalyzerwithwelltypeNaI(Tl)crystal
na5:notapplicableforthisgroupofradionuclides
TABLE 3.4 APPROXIMATE DETECTION EFFICIENCIES FOR SOME COMMON RADIONUCLIDES AND
DETECTORS. This table provides the approximate detection efficiency for the common radionuclide
measurementmethods.MultiplytheactionlevelfromTable3.3bythedetectionefficiencytocalculate
theinstrumentcpmthatindicatesneedforcorrectiveaction
RADIOACTIVEWASTE
Itisvitallyimportantthatyouhaveaccuratedataconcerningtheisotopesandactivitypresentinyourwaste.
Safedisposalofradioactivewasteisexpensive.Whendesigningalaboratoryprocedure,minimizewaste
generationandmixedwastestreamsasmuchaspracticable.
Definition
Radioactivewasteincludesanyitemsthatcontainradioactivitythatisdistinguishable
abovebackgroundlevelsusinganinstrumentthatissensitiveforthenuclide,and
thatissetonitsmostsensitivescale,andwithnointerposedshielding.
Detectinglowenergy Manyradioactivewastes,suchasH3,C14,S35,andI125arenotreadily
detectablewithGMsurveyinstruments.Hence,itemsthatareintheworkarea
radionuclides
wheretheseorsimilarunsealedmaterialsarepresentmustbeassumedtohave
beencontaminatedunlesstheyaresurveyedbyanacceptablealternativemethod.
Forwastecontaminatedwithlowenergybetaemitters,makesmearsurveysand
measurethemwithaliquidscintillationcounter.ForI125,useaNaI(Tl)scintillation
detectortosurveypotentiallycontaminateditems.Ifthisisimpractical,ourpolicyis
toassumethatthesurfaceiscontaminatedanddiscarditasradioactivewaste.
Decontamination
52
Dishdetergent,windowcleaner,vinegar,bubblebath,waterlesshandcleaner,or
ovencleanerareallsuitableforcleaningsurfacecontamination.Usemildproducts
forskincontamination.
Halflifecategories
Separateallradioactivewastesbyhalflifesothatshorthalflifematerialscanbeheld
fordecayfollowedbyincinerationratherthandisposalbyburial.
Radioactive
wastecontainers
andlogsheets
Allwastecontainersmustbelabeledwiththeradiationsymbolandasignreading
CautionRadioactiveMaterials.Foreachdisposallog,notetheradionuclide
quantityinmicrocuries,dateofdisposal,andyourinitials.
DonotusecontainersotherthanthoseprovidedbyHealthPhysicsToensure
radioactivewasteisdistinguishablefromhousewaste.
Drywasteboxes
Placeonlydry,nondecomposablewastessuchasgloves,paper,andglasswareinDry
WasteBoxes.Donotputanyliquids,cappedvials,leadshields,animals,bedding,or
scatintothecontainer.Wastethatemitsmorethan2mrem/hrat30cmmustbe
shielded.Donotshieldindividualitemsinthebox;shieldtheentirecontainer.Also,
bagwastecontaminatedwithvolatilematerials,especiallyiodine,priortodisposal.
Waste
removal
Whenacontainerisalmostfull,faxacopyofthewastelogtoHealthPhysics.Be
suretheroomnumberandCRAnumberareontheform.Leavethepinkcopyofthe
logonthebox.Thiswillservetoidentifythecorrectboxduringthepickup;itcanbe
usedasalogforadditionaldisposalspriortopickup.
Sharps
Discardsharps,suchaspipettes,syringesandneedles,brokenglass,razorblades,
andscalpelbladesintosharpscontainersbearingtheradiationwarninglabelandlog
sheet.UseseparatecontainersforisotopesotherthanC14andH3.Fordisposal,
thefullcappedsharpscontainermaybeplacedinadrywasteboxcontainingthe
sameisotope.Enterthecontentsofthesharpscontainerontothedrywastelog
sheet.Forseparateremovalofsharpscontainers,faxthelogsheettoHealthPhysics.
Largeitems
Largenoncombustibleitemssuchascontaminatedequipmentshouldnotbeplaced
inaDryWasteBox.CallHealthPhysicsforassistanceinthedisposalofsuchitems.
ScintillationVials
Seepage56.
Aqueouswaste
Materialthatisreadilysolubleinwatermaybedisposedofintothesanitarysewer
systemwithadequateflushing,providedthat:
ThematerialisnotchemicallyhazardousorcontainingbiohazardousmaterialofBSL
2orabove,oritisnotmedicalwasteotherthanpatienturineorfeces.Seethe
followingwebsitestoidentify:
https://nonhazardouswaste.stanford.edu
http://med.stanford.edu/school/HS/biosafety/bac.html
Contactthemanageroftheenvironmentalprotectionprogramforguidance(725
7529);and
Thequantityperlaboratory,perday,doesnotexceedtheQLMquantity.Disposalof
largerquantitiesofradioactivewastesviathesewermustbereviewedandhavethe
53
writtenapprovalofHealthPhysics;and
Logeachdisposalofradioactivitytothesanitarysewerwiththedate,activity,form
andyournameontheDailyUseLogintheRadioisotopeJournal;theproperly
completedDailyUseLogentriesconstitutethewastedisposalrecord.
HealthPhysicswillpostsinksusedfordisposalofradioactivewasteswithproper
warningsignstoalertplumberswhoservicethesinks.Useonesinkfordisposalof
radioactivematerialsineachlaboratory.
Humanexcretafrom Humanexcretacontainingradioisotopesmaybedisposedofinthesanitarysewer
system.
nuclearmedicine
procedures
Cementkits
Ifyouaregeneratingsmallvolumesofliquidwastethatcannotbedisposedinthe
sanitarysewer(seeAqueouswasteabove),orderacementkit.Thismethodof
disposalisrequiredforradionuclideswithaQLMvalueof1microcurieorless,except
forI125andI131whichhavesewerlimitsof100microcuriespermonthperproject.
Cementcansholdaboutoneliter.Useadifferentkitforeachindividualradionuclide.
Theinstructionsforuseareprovidedwiththekit.Forremovaloffilledcementkits
faxthelogsheettoHealthPhysics.
Ifusingacementkitformixedwastetrainingisrequired.ContacttheManagerof
EnvironmentalPrograms(7257529).
Combinedradiologicalandbiohazardous(BSL>2)and/ormedicalwastematerials,
Radiologicaland
biohazardous(BSL>2)otherthanhumanexcreta,mustbedeactivatedpriortodisposalasradioactive
and/ormedicalwastewaste.Theprojectstaffshouldreviewthepotentialmethodsofdisinfectingwith
54
HealthPhysics.Thedeactivationmethodsmustbedescribedbytheprojectand
reviewedandapprovedbytheappropriatecommittee.Methodsincludeautoclaving
ortreatingwithchemicalssuchasformalin,carbolicacid,orbleach.Notethat
wasteswithI125orI131maybeespeciallydifficulttodeactivatebecauseheatand
strongbleachesmaydriveofftheradioiodinevapors,presentingairbornehazardsor
contaminatingequipment.
Radiologicalandnon Nonbiohazardousbiological(BSL1)ornonmedicalwastecombinedwithradioactive
biohazardousand/orwastemustbehandledasradioactivewasteinaccordancewithCalifornia
nonmedicalwaste regulations.
ForBSLlevels,checktheBiosafetydatabaseat:
http://med.stanford.edu/school/HS/biosafety/bac.html
Liquids.Followguidanceforpermissibledisposalinthesanitarysewer;thisrequires
approvalofHealthPhysicsduringtheCRAreviewprocess.Donotautoclave
combinednonbiohazardousbiologicalradioactiveliquidwaste.Donotbleachor
chemicallytreatcombinednonbiohazardousbiologicalradioactivewasteto
inactivatethebiologicalorganismspriortodisposal.
Solids.Disposeofnonbiohazardousbiologicalradioactivewasteasradioactive
waste.Segregatecombinedbiologicalradioactivewastefrombiologicalwastethat
wouldberedbagged.
Sharps.UseonlythesharpscontainersprovidedbyHealthPhysics.Donotdiscard
combinedbiological(BSL1)radioactivesharpsinasharpscontainerthatdoesnot
havetheradiationsymbol.
Forthesafetyofwastehandlers,pleasespeciallyannotatedisposalofwastesthat
havebeentreatedforpathogensorinfectiousagents.
Mixedwasteisdefinedaswastethatcontainsradioactivityandchemicalwastesas
definedinEPAandCaliforniaregulations(corrosiveflammable,oxidizer,air/water
reactive,toxic).Thesemixedwastesneedtobespeciallyidentifiedandhandled.
Generationofmixedwastesmustbeapprovedbytheappropriatelocalcontrol
committeebeforeitisgenerated.See:http://mixedwaste.stanford.edu
Californiahazardouswasteregulationsprohibitdisposalofchemicalmaterialstothe
Radiologicaland
hazardouschemical sewerunlesstheyhavebeenshowntobenonhazardous.EH&Shasreviewedmany
waste
chemicalmaterialssuchasbuffersandsaltstodetermineifsanitarysewerorhouse
wastedisposalisallowable.Checkthe"NonhazardousWasteList"at:
MixedWaste
https://nonhazardouswaste.stanford.edu
Searchinstructionswillhelpyoudetermineifthechemicalislistedandtherefore
nonhazardous.Becarefultoreviewtheconditions;manymaterialsarenon
hazardousonlybelowacertainconcentration.
Ifyouhaveamaterialthatisnotonthelistbutyoubelieveittobenonhazardous,or
ifthematerialcanbemadenonhazardouswithsimpleinlabtreatment,callthe
RadiologicalWasteProgram.Theremaybeadditionalapplicabledataortesting
methods.EH&Swillmakethedetermination.Treatmentsmustbedocumentedin
yourRadioisotopeJournal.
55
Ifthehalflifeislessthan15days,thematerialmaybestoredfordecayandthen
treatedaschemicalwaste.
Mixedwastes,withpriorapproval,likehazardouschemicalwastesmaybe
accumulatedinthelaboratoryforamaximumof9months.Submitapickuprequest
at8months.
Decayinstorage
Decayinstorageisonewaytohandlewastewithshorthalflives.Tostore
radioactivityfordecayinthelab,theCRAapplicationmustspecifytheareasusedto
storewastes,aswellasthemethodsusedtomonitordecayedwastes.Decayin
storageinthelabislimitedtoradionuclideswithhalfliveslessthan15days.
Decayinstoragerequiresthatwastesbestoredaminimumof10halflives,then
surveyed.Thesurveymustshowthattheradiationisindistinguishablefrom
background.Allradiationwarninglabelsmustberemovedorobliteratedbefore
disposingofwasteintohousewaste,ortochemicalwasteifitbeganasamixed
waste.FilestoragelogsandsurveysintheRadioisotopeJournal.
Scintillationvials
TheRadiologicalWasteprogramprovides5gallonbucketsforliquidscintillation
vials.TheStanfordHazardousWasteLabelmustbecompletedanddatedwhenfirst
placinganitemintothebucket.Differentsolventsmaybeaddedtothesame
bucket,butyoumustaddthenameofeachsolventtothelabel.Atradenamemay
beusedi.e.Readysafe,Cytoscint,Optiphase.Notethat,underCalifornia
environmentalregulations,evenenvironmentallysafecocktailscannotbereleased
tothesanitarysewer.
Sendorfax(7233759)thecompletedrequesttoRadioactiveWasteforpickup
whenthepailisfullor8monthsold.
Thefollowingradionuclidesareapprovedforuseinscintillationvials.H3andC14
maybecombinedinthesamebucket.
H3,C14,Na22,P32,P33,S35,Cl36,Ca45,Cr51,Co57,Fe59,Zn65,Ga67,
Ge68,Se75,Rb86,Cd109,In111,I125,I131,andHg203.
Ifyouneedtoperformliquidscintillationcountingforotherradionuclides,consult
withHealthPhysics.
VialDisposalCost
Reduction
Scintillationvialsnotcontaminatedwitharadioisotopemaybemanagedaschemical
wasteprovidingaconsiderablemonetarysavings.Pleaseseparatethevials
containingradioactivecontaminationfromthosethatdonotanddisposeof
accordingly.
Carcasses,bedding, Certainfreezershavebeenidentifiedascollectionpointsforcarcasses,bedding,and
scat.ThesearelocatedintheResearchAnimalFacilityRoomRAF061CandDorfor
andscat
imagingisotopeswithhalflivesoflessthan3daysatClarkS035.Forotherareas,call
56
HealthPhysicsat7233201.
Ifanimalshavebeenetherized,letthecarcassesairoutthoroughlyinafumehood
beforeplacingtheminthefreezerstoavoidtheriskoffireorexplosionfromthe
etherfumes.
Discardcontaminatedbedding,carcasses,andscat,segregatedbythehalflife
category,intodoubleplasticbags.Inrespectofpublicsensitivities,pleaseusean
opaqueouterbag.Tagallanimalwasteontheoutsideofthebagindicatingisotope,
activity,dateofdisposal,andaccountnumbertobecharged.Tagsareavailableat
thefreezer.Also,fillinthelogsheetonthefreezerdoor.
Note:Alwaysusethelogsheetsprovidedwiththewastecontainers.
Radioactivewastechargesareincludedinlaboratoryoverhead.However,pleasebe
Chargesfor
radioactivewasteat carefulthatyoudonotneedlesslycreatewaste,ormixnonradioactivewasteinto
Stanford
thewastestream.Projectsthatgenerateextraordinaryamountsofwastemaybe
billedextra.
PROBLEMSRELATEDTORADIOACTIVEWASTES
Experienceovertheyearshasidentifiedseveralincorrectpracticesthatcauseadditionalcostandtime.
IncompleteWaste
Logsheets
Theincorrectdocumentationorsegregationofwasteorincompletelabelingmay
resultinthemismanagementofmaterialsandpotentialviolations.
Radioactivewastein Surveyitemsinandaroundradioactivematerialworkareaspriortodisposingofthe
nonradioactivetrash itemsintononradioactivewaste.Ifradioactivewasteisimproperlyreleasedtoa
cans
sanitarylandfill,itwilldemonstratealossofcontrolinthelaboratory.Thiscanresult
inacitation,acivilpenalty,andapressreleasebytheregulatoryauthority.
Mixedhalflife
categories
ExternalradiationreadingsfoundonboxeswhoselogshaveonlyH3orC14entries
indicatesthatcategorieshavebeenmixed.Properlysegregatethematerialsbyhalf
lifecategoryandlogthematerialsbeingdisposedofatthetimeofdisposal.
Secondary
containment
Placeallcollectionbottlesinsecondarycontainment,suchasabeakerorbucket.
Keepbottlewasteinawellventilatedareasuchasafumehood.Observefiresafety
practices.
Boxflapsandbox
shields
Donotpushwasteboxflapsdownintothebox,thismakesretrievaloftheflap
difficult,andincreasesthepotentialforcontaminatingthebox,yourhands,andthe
lab.Donotforceaboxintoashield;itisdifficulttoremovewhenitisfull.Health
Physicscanidentifymanufacturerswhoseshieldseasilyaccommodateourwaste
boxes.
57
Mixedwaste
Disposalofmixedhazardouswasteisagrowingproblemhereandelsewhere.
Specialpermissionisrequiredpriortogeneratingmixedwaste.Pleasemakeevery
efforttosegregatehazardouswastestreamssuchasreactivechemicalsand
biologics.
Nonradioactive
waste
AttheVAPAHCS,surveyallregularnonradioactivewastetoensureitisfreeof
contamination.Thenplaceitinthecorridorforpickup.
RESPONSETOSPILLS,LOSSES,ANDOTHERINCIDENTS
Purpose
Incidentresponseproceduresaredesignedtobringanoutofcontrolsituationtoa
conditionthatwillminimizetherisktoworkersandthepublic.Proceduresdirected
towardscontainingthesourceoftheriskarenotmeanttorecoverthesituation,
butrathertokeepthesituationfromgettingworse.Proceduresforpersonnel
decontaminationaredesignedtoremoveasmuchcontaminationaspossible
withoutdamagingthecontaminatedskin.
Assistance
Ifyouneedassistancetobringanincidentundercontrol,orguidanceonhowto
recoverfromit,callHealthPhysics.Telephonenumbersareonthebackcover.
Incidentrecords
Afteryouhaverecoveredfromanincident,determineitscauseandeffects.
Considerwhetherprocedures,equipment,facilities,ortrainingshouldbemodified
toreducethechanceofrecurrence.FilearecordofthisintheRadioisotopeJournal
sothatotherscanlearnfromyourexperience.
Surface
decontamination
Dishdetergent,windowcleaner,vinegar,bubblebath,waterlesshandcleaner,or
ovencleanerareallsuitableforcleaningitems.
SkindecontaminationCarefullyremovecontaminatedclothing.Whencleaningskin,rinsegenerously,use
mildsoaps,andtakecaretonotabradethesurface.Simplysoakingskininamild
detergentsolution,vinegar,orbubblebathmayremovemostcontamination.
Responseprocedures Therearetendifferentincidentresponseproceduresprovidedonthefollowing
pages.Selecttheonethatismostappropriatedependingonthephysicalformand
sourcestrengthoftheradiationsource.
58
1. Notifypersonsintheareathataspillhasoccurred.
2. Preventthespreadofcontaminationbycoveringthespillwithabsorbentpaper.
3. Cleanupthespillusingdisposableglovesandabsorbentpaper.Carefullyfold
theabsorbentpaperwiththecleansideoutandplaceinaplasticbagfor
transfertoaradioactivewastecontainer.Alsoputthecontaminatedglovesand
(Note:seeseparate
anyothercontaminateddisposablematerialinthebag.
discussionbelowfor
4. Withalowrangeradiationdetectorsurveymeter,surveytheareaaroundthe
spillsinvolving
spill,yourhands,clothing,andshoesforcontamination.Washcontaminated
positronemitters)
skin.Allpersonnelcontamination(e.g.shoes,skin,clothing)mustbereported
toHealthPhysicsviaphonecall.
5. ReportthespilltothePI.
Smallspills:liquids
andpowdersless
thantheQLM
quantity
1. Notifypersonsintheareathataspillhasoccurred.
Moderatespills:
liquidsandpowders 2. Preventthespreadofcontaminationbycoveringthespillwithabsorbentpaper.
1000xtheQLM
3. Cleanupthespillusingdisposableglovesandabsorbentpaper.Carefullyfoldthe
quantity
absorbentpaperwiththecleansideoutandplaceitinaplasticbagfortransfer
toaradioactivewastecontainer.Alsoputthecontaminatedglovesandany
othercontaminateddisposablematerialinthebag.
4. Withalowrangeradiationdetectorsurveymeter,surveytheareaaroundthe
spill,yourhands,clothing,andshoesforcontamination.Washcontaminated
skin.Allpersonnelcontamination(e.g.shoes,skin,clothing)mustbereportedto
HealthPhysicsviaphonecall.
5. ReportthespilltoHealthPhysicsviaphone.
Largespills:liquids 1. Clearthearea.Orderallpersonsnotinvolvedinthespilltovacatetheroom.
andpowdersmore 2. Ifyoucandoitsafely,preventthespreadofcontaminationbycoveringthespill
than1000xtheQLM
withabsorbentpaper,butdonotattempttocleanitup.Topreventthespread
quantity
ofcontamination,limitthemovementofallpersonnelwhomaybe
3.
4.
5.
6.
Spillproceduresfor
positronemitters
doserate<5
mrem/houratone
meter
contaminated.
Shieldthesourceifpossible.Thisshouldbedoneonlyifitcanbedonewithout
furthercontaminationorasignificantincreaseinyourradiationexposure.
NotifyHealthPhysicsimmediately.
Withalowrangeradiationdetectormeter,surveyyourhands,clothing,and
shoesforcontamination.Washcontaminatedskin.
HealthPhysicswillsupervisethecleanupofthespill.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Notifypersonsintheareathataspillhasoccurred.
Surveythespilltodeterminethedoserate.
Preventthespreadofcontaminationbycoveringthespillwithabsorbentpaper.
Cleanupthespillusingdisposableglovesandabsorbentpaper.
Withalowrangeradiationdetectorsurveymeter,surveyyourhands,clothing,
shoes,andtheareaaroundthespillforcontamination.Washcontaminatedskin.
6. ReportthespilltothePI.
59
Spillproceduresfor
positronemitters
doserate<20
mrem/houratone
meter
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Surveyallwhoareleavingtheareaforcontamination.
Ifpersonnelarecontaminated,washthecontaminatedareawithmildsoapand
water,andcontactPIorHealthPhysicsimmediately.
Ifthespillissmallinareaplaceabsorbentpadandleadbrickatthesametime
onthespill.
Ifthespillistoolargeinareatobecoveredbyaleadbrick,contactHealth
Physicsimmediately.
Aftercovering,surveythespillareaagain.Ifthedoserateisbeloworequalto5
mremperhourat30cmfromtheshieldsurface,labelthetopofthebrickwith
thenuclideandtimeofday.Allowthespilltodecayinplace.Ifthedoserateis
greaterthan5mremperhourat30cm,thenaddadditionalshieldingtoreach
thislevel.
ReportthespilltothePIandHealthPhysics
Spillproceduresfor
positronemitters
doserate>20
mrem/houratone
meter
1.
2.
3.
4.
Orderallpersonsnotinvolvedinthespilltovacatethearea.
Surveyallwhoareleavingtheareaforcontamination.Removeallcontaminated
clothing.
5. Ifpersonnelarecontaminated,washthecontaminatedareawithmildsoapand
water,andcontactHealthPhysicsimmediately.
6. Ifthedoserateislessthan100mremperhouratonemeterandthespillis
smallinareaandcanbecoveredbyaleadbrick,thenplaceabsorbentpadand
leadbrickatthesametimeonthespill.
7. ReportthespilltothePIandHealthPhysics
Spillproceduresfor
positronemitters:
WhenisHealth
Physicspresence
required?
1. Ifthespillistoolargeanareatobecoveredbyaleadbrick.
2. Ifthedoserateisgreaterthan100mremperhour.
3. Ifpersonnelarecontaminated.
EnsurethereisnoentryintotheareauntilHealthPhysicsarrives.
Stucksourcesin
irradiators
1. Jigglethehandletoreturnthesourcetothestoredposition.
2. Activatethemanualoffcontrol.
3. Ifareamonitorsarealarming,stayoutofthebeamandclosethedoor.Donot
attempttoremoveyoursamples.
4. Orderallpersonstoleavetheroom.
5. Securetheroomtoprevententry.
6. NotifythePIandHealthPhysicsimmediately.
60
Loss,theft,or
disappearance
ofradioactive
materialsora
radiationdevice
1. Askcoworkersiftheyknowwherethematerialis.
2. Iftheydontknow,promptlycallHealthPhysics.Giveyourname,theCRA
number,andadescriptionofthemissingmaterial.
3. Continuetolookforthematerialandinterviewcoworkerspendingarrivalof
HealthPhysics.
Unusualevents
Althoughtheremayormaynotbepersonnelexposure,otherunusualevents,such
asunexpectedorwidespreadcontamination,missingorunexpectedpackages,
missingorextrawaste,indicateapossiblebreakdowninadministrativeortechnical
procedures.CallHealthPhysicsforassistance.
61
APPENDICES
Part4 APPENDICES
Theappendicesareacollectionofintramuralandpeerreviewedinformationgenerallyapplicableto
institutionalradiationsafety.Ifyouhavesuggestionsforadditionalinformationthatshouldbeincludedhere
pleasecontactHealthPhysics.
Glossary
Safetydatasheets
Theglossaryiscomprisedoftermsofartfrom10CFRPart20,other
63
referenceworks,andacronymsspecifictoStanfordandVAPAHCS.
Thedatasheetsprovidebasicinformationonsomecommonlyused
69
radionuclides.ThedatasheetsweredevelopedatStanfordbasedon
informationinreferenceworks.Datasheetsfortheradionuclidesyou
useareinyourRadioisotopeJournal,amorecompletesetisonour
website:http://radsafetysheets.stanford.edu
79
preparationofthismanual.Thoseapplicabletoinstitutionaluseof
ionizingradiationarelisted.TheNationalCouncilonRadiation
ProtectionandMeasurements(NRCP)wascharteredbyCongressto
provideexpertguidanceonradiationprotection;itsreportsare
considerednationalvoluntarystandards.TheNationalResearch
Councilprovidesexpertservicestothegovernment,thepublic,andthe
scientificandengineeringcommunities.TheInternationalCommission
onRadiologicalProtection(ICRP)providesguidanceonfundamental
principlesofradiologicalprotection.TheUSNuclearRegulatory
Commission(NRC)istheleadfederalagencyonradioactivematerials
safety;itpublishesRegulatoryGuidesonmanytopics.Allthereports
andguidesareavailableforreviewinHealthPhysics.
Eachradionuclidepresentsadifferentrelativehazardduetoitshalf
81
lifeanddecayscheme.10CFRPart20AppendixC,QLMQuantitiesof
licensedmaterialrequiringlabeling,providesthebasisforcategorizing
radionuclidesaccordingtorelativehazard.Itisthefoundationforour
QLMquantitiesinTable3.1.
ReportsandGuides Fourorganizationshavepublishedreportsthatwereusedinthe
10CFRPart20
AppendixCQLM
Quantities,
ConversionTable
Signsand
labels
Forms
Index
Signsandlabelsareusedtoprovideinformationtoradiationworkers
andthosewhomightenterthelaboratoryoccasionally.Thereisa
specialpurposeforeachone.
Theseformsareusedtodocumentreceipt,use,transfer,anddisposal
oflicensedmaterial,surveys,andincidents.
Thekeytermsusedinthismanualareincluded.
Phone,fax,email, ManyHealthPhysicsadministrativematterscanbehandled
electronically.Ifyouhaveaquestion,pleasecall.
andwebsites
62
92
95
106
backcover
GLOSSARY
GLOSSARY
Note:Termsthatareinstitutionspecificaremarked(Stanford)or(VAPAHCS).
absorbeddose
Theenergyimpartedbyionizingradiationperunitmassofirradiatedmaterial.The
unitsofabsorbeddosearetheradandthegray(Gy).
activity
Rateofdisintegration,transformation,ordecayofradioactivematerial.Theunitsof
activityarethecurie(Ci)andthebecquerel(Bq).
ALARA
Acronymforaslowasreasonablyachievable.Makeeveryreasonableeffortto
maintainexposurestoradiationasfarbelowthedoselimitsasispracticalconsistent
withthepurposeforwhichtheactivityisundertaken,takingintoaccountthestateof
technology,theeconomicsofimprovementsinrelationtobenefitstothepublichealth
andsafety,andothersocietalandsocioeconomicconsiderations,andinrelationto
utilizationofionizingradiationinthepublicinterest.
AnnualLimiton
Intake(ALI)
Theamountofaradionuclidethatwouldresultinacommittedeffectivedose
equivalentof5rems,oracommitteddoseequivalentof50remstoanorganortissue.
See10CFRPart20AppendixB.
A&MM
Acquisition&MaterialsManagement(VAPAHCS).
APLAC
AdministrativePanelonLaboratoryAnimalCare(Stanford).
APRS
AdministrativePanelonRadiologicalSafety(Stanford).Otherorganizationsmayuse
RadiationSafetyCommitteeorRadiationControlBoard,forexample.
areaofuse
Aroomorsuiteinwhichradioactivematerialsisused.Itmayhaveoneormorework
areas.
background
radiation
Radiationfromcosmicsources;naturallyoccurringradioactivematerials,including
radon(exceptasadecayproductofsourceorspecialnuclearmaterial)andglobal
falloutasitexistsintheenvironmentfromthetestingofnuclearexplosivedevices.
Backgroundradiationdoesnotincluderadiationfromsource,byproduct,orspecial
nuclearmaterials,ordevicesregulatedbytheNRCorDHS.TheaverageUnitedStates
annualradiationexposurefromnaturalsourcesisabout310millirem(3.1millisieverts
ormSv).
becquerel(Bq)
1nucleartransformationpersecond(s1).
bioassay
Thedeterminationofkinds,quantitiesorconcentrations,and,insomecases,the
locationsofradioactivematerialinthehumanbody,whetherbydirectmeasurement,
calledinvivocounting,orbyanalysisandevaluationofmaterialsexcretedorremoved
fromthehumanbody.
63
GLOSSARY
CCR
CaliforniaCodeofRegulations.
CFR
CodeofFederalRegulations.
controlledarea
Anarea,outsideofarestrictedareabutinsidethesiteboundary,accesstowhichcan
belimitedbythelicenseeforanyreason.
cpm
Countsperminute.Mostradiationdetectorsdisplaythenumberofeventsdetected
perunitoftime.Thiscanbeconvertedtoameasureofactivityindpmbydividingby
thedetectionefficiency.
CRA
ControlledRadiationAuthorization(StanfordandVAPAHCS).Thepermitissuedbythe
APRSorRSOthatallowstheuseofionizingradiation.
CRSCo
ClinicalRadiationSafetyCommittee(Stanford).
curie(Ci)
Aunitofactivity.3.7x1010nucleartransformationspersecond,3.7x1010becquerels,
or2.22x1012nucleartransformationsperminute.Thetermnucleartransformationsis
oftenreplacedbythetermdisintegrations.
DAC
DerivedAirConcentration.Theconcentrationofagivenradionuclidethat,ifinhaled
continuouslyduringtheworkyear,wouldcauseadoseof5rem.
deepdose
Thedosefromexternalwholebodyexposureatatissuedepthof1cm.
deterministic
effect
Healtheffects,theseverityofwhichvarieswiththedoseandforwhichathresholdis
believedtoexist.Radiationinducedcataractformationisanexampleofa
deterministiceffect.Alsocalledanonstochasticeffect.
CDPH
CaliforniaDepartmentofPublicHealth.TheCaliforniaagencythatregulates
radioactivematerialsandradiationdevicesatnonfederalfacilitiesinthestate.
DLAM
SchoolofMedicine,DivisionofLaboratoryAnimalMedicine(obsolete).Nowthe
DepartmentofComparativeMedicine.
doseor
radiationdose
Generictermthatmeansabsorbeddose,doseequivalent,effectivedoseequivalent,
committeddoseequivalent,committedeffectivedoseequivalent,ortotaleffective
doseequivalent,asdefinedelsewhereinthisglossary.
dpm
Disintegrationsperminute.Ameasureofactivity.Seecurie.
DTSC
DepartmentofToxicSubstanceControl.TheCaliforniaagencythatregulates
hazardousmaterialsotherthanradiation.
effectivedose
equivalentor
effectivedose
Thesumoftheproductsofthedoseequivalenttoeachorganortissueandmultiplied
bytheirrespectivetissueweightingfactors,andthenaddedtotheexternalwhole
bodydose.
64
GLOSSARY
EPA
USEnvironmentalProtectionAgency.
exposure
Beingexposedtoionizingradiationortoradioactivematerial.
externaldose
Thatportionofthedoseequivalentreceivedfromradiationsourcesoutsidethebody.
extremity
Hand,elbow,armbelowtheelbow,foot,knee,orlegbelowtheknee.
FDA
USFoodandDrugAdministration.
gray(Gy)
SIunitofabsorbeddose.Onegrayisequaltoanabsorbeddoseof1joule/kilogram
(100rads).
Hazards
Evaluation
AdocumentpreparedbyHealthPhysicsthatanalyzesthepotentialriskofaproject
andimposessafetymeasures(Stanford).Otherorganizationsmayusetheterms
license,authorization,orpermit.
Highradiation
area
Anarea,accessibletoindividuals,inwhichradiationlevelscouldresultinanindividual
receivingadoseequivalentinexcessof0.1rem(1mSv)in1hourat30centimeters
fromtheradiationsourceorfromanysurfacethattheradiationpenetrates.
housewaste
Officeandloungewastesuchaspaperandfoodcontainersthatarenormallydiscarded
inasanitarylandfill(Stanford).
ICRP
InternationalCommissiononRadiologicalProtection.
ionizingradiation Alphaparticles,betaparticles,gammarays,xrays,neutrons,highspeedelectrons,
highspeedprotons,andotherparticlescapableofseparatingatargetatomintoan
electronandapositiveion.Asusedinthismanual,radiationdoesnotincludenon
ionizingradiation,suchasradioormicrowaves,orvisible,infrared,orultravioletlight.
IRB
InstitutionalReviewBoard(NationalInstitutesofHealth).Acommitteethatreviews
andapprovesresearchprojectsthatinvolvehumansubjects.TheStanfordUniversity
AdministrativePanelonHumanSubjectsperformsthisfunction.
LCC
LocalControlCommittee(Stanford).TheLCCoverseesradiationsafetywithina
departmentorschool.SeeCRSCoandNHRSC.
LPCH
LucilePackardChildrensHospital.
monitoring
Themeasurementofradiationlevels,concentrations,surfaceareaconcentrationsor
quantitiesofradioactivematerialandtheuseoftheresultsofthesemeasurementsto
evaluatepotentialexposuresanddoses.
NCRP
NationalCouncilonRadiationProtectionandMeasurements.Anonprofitcorporation
charteredbyCongresstodisseminateradiationprotectionguidance.
65
GLOSSARY
nonstochastic
effect
Obsolete.Seedeterministiceffect.
NRC
USNuclearRegulatoryCommission.Thefederalagencythatregulatestheuseof
radioactivebyproductmaterials,sourceandspecialnucelarmaterials.TheNRCs
regulatorymissioncoversthreemainareas:Reactors,MaterialsandWaste.Itdoes
nothaveauthorityinCalifornia,exceptatfederalagencies;authorityovernonfederal
organizationswastransferredtoCDPH.
occupationaldose Thedosereceivedbyanindividualinarestrictedareaorinthecourseofemployment
inwhichtheindividualsassigneddutiesinvolveexposuretoradiationandto
radioactivematerialfromlicensedandunlicensedsourcesofradiation,whetherinthe
possessionofthelicenseeorotherperson.Occupationaldosedoesnotincludedose
receivedfrombackgroundradiation,asapatientfrommedicalpractices,from
voluntaryparticipationinmedicalresearchprograms,orasamemberofthegeneral
public.
photon
Aquantumofradiantenergy.Inthismanual,thetermusuallymeansgammaraysorx
rays.
PO
PurchaseOrder.
publicdose
Dosereceivedbyamemberofthepublicfromexposuretoradiationandtoradioactive
materialreleasedbyalicensee,ortoanothersourceofradiationeitherwithina
licenseescontrolledareaorinunrestrictedareas.Itdoesnotincludeoccupational
doseordosesreceivedfrombackgroundradiation,asapatientfrommedicalpractices,
orfromvoluntaryparticipationinmedicalresearchprograms.
QLM
10CFR20AppendixCQuantitiesofLicensedMaterialrequiringlabeling.Seepage
IV.23.
qualityfactor
Amodifyingfactorusedtoconvertdoseinradtodoseequivalentinrem.Forx,beta,
andgammaradiationitsvalueis1.
rad
Specialunitofabsorbeddose.Oneradisequaltoanabsorbeddoseof100ergs/gram
or0.01joule/kilogram.100radsequal1gray.
radiationarea
Anarea,accessibletoindividuals,inwhichradiationlevelscouldresultinanindividual
receivingadoseequivalentinexcessof0.005rem(0.05mSv)in1hourat30
centimetersfromtheradiationsourceorfromanysurfacethattheradiation
penetrates.
RAF
ResearchAnimalFacility(Stanford).
RDRC
RadioactiveDrugResearchCommittee(FoodandDrugAdministration).TheRDRCis
charteredbytheFoodandDrugAdministrationtoreviewandapprovebasicresearch
66
GLOSSARY
projectsinvolvingtheadministrationofradioactivedrugstohumansubjects.CRSCo
providesthisservice.
rem
Thespecialunitofanyofthequantitiesexpressedasdoseequivalent.Thedose
equivalentinremsisequaltotheabsorbeddoseinradsmultipliedbythequality
factor.Formostformsofradiation,oneremisnumericallyequaltooneroentgenor
onerad.Onesievertequals100rems.
restrictedarea
Anarea,accesstowhichislimitedbythelicenseeforpurposeofprotectingindividuals
againstundueriskfromexposuretoradiationandradioactivematerial.
roentgen(R)
Thespecialunitofradiationexposure.Theamountofexposurethatliberatesoneesu
ofchargeperccofair.Formostformsofradiation,oneroentgenisnumericallyequal
tooneremoronerad.Althoughconsideredobsolete,thistermanditsabbreviation
arestillcommonlyused.
RSC
RadiationSafetyCommittee.ThisserviceisprovidedbytheAPRSandtheLCCs.
RSO
RadiationSafetyOfficer.Theindividualresponsibleformanagingtheradiationsafety
orhealthphysicsprogram.
Safetydatasheet AonepageinformationsheetdevelopedatStanfordthatprovidesdecayschemeand
precautionsforasingleradionuclide.
(SDS)
SHS
StanfordHealthServices.AseparateinstitutionalentitythatincludestheStanford
HospitalandClinic.
sievert(Sv)
SIunitofanyofthequantitiesexpressedasdoseequivalent.Thedoseequivalentin
sievertsisequaltotheabsorbeddoseingraysmultipliedbythequalityfactor.1
sievertequals100rems.
SLAC
SLACNationalAcceleratorLaboratory
stochasticeffects Healtheffectsthatoccurrandomlyandforwhichtheprobabilityoftheeffect
occurring,ratherthanitsseverity,isassumedtobealinearfunctionofdosewithout
threshold.Hereditaryeffectsandcancerincidenceareexamplesofstochasticeffects.
SHC
StanfordHospitalandClinic.
Survey
Anevaluationoftheradiologicalconditionsandpotentialhazardsincidenttothe
production,use,transfer,release,disposalorpresenceofradioactivematerialorother
sourcesofradiation.Whenappropriate,suchanevaluationincludesaphysicalsurvey
ofthelocationofradioactivematerialandmeasurementsorcalculationsoflevelsof
radiation,orconcentrationsorquantitiesofradioactivematerialpresent.
tissueweighting
factor
Aweightingfactorforanorganortissuerelatingtotheproportionoftheriskof
stochasticeffectsresultingfromirradiationofthatorganortissuetothetotalriskof
67
GLOSSARY
stochasticeffectswhenthewholebodyisirradiateduniformly.
unrestrictedarea Anarea,accesstowhichisneitherlimitednorcontrolledbythelicensee.
VAPAHCS
VeteransAffairsPaloAltoHealthCareService.
VMO
VeterinaryMedicalOfficer(VAPAHCS).
VMU
VeterinaryMedicalUnit(VAPAHCS).
VSC
VeterinaryServiceCenter(Stanford).
workarea
Aportionofaroomorlaboratorysuitewhereradioactivematerialsarestoredor
handled.Itisusuallyasinglecountertop.
worker
Anindividualengagedinactivitiesthatarelicensedbyaregulatoryagencyand
controlledbyalicensee.Classificationasaworkerdoesnotrequirean
employer/employeerelationship.Volunteers,studentsonclinicalrotation,residents,
staff,faculty,andvisitingscientistsandphysicianswhosedutiesincludeworkin
radiationorradioactivematerialsareasareconsideredworkers.
68
SAFETY DATA SHEETS
SAFETY DATA SHEETS FOR COMMONLYUSED RADIONUCLIDES

Introduction
Health Physics has prepared safety data sheets (SDS) for many radionuclides.
They provide information about the physical properties of the nuclide such as
decay mode, energy, halflife, QLM quantity, and decontamination information.
Safety data sheets for the most commonly used radionuclides are provided.
Home page
Other materials used at Stanford are listed on the EH&SHealth Physics home
page:
http://web.stanford.edu/dept/EHS/prod/researchlab/radlaser/index.html
Additional sources
of information
The Health Physics library has reference works on a variety of radiation safety
topics. It is available for your use during work hours.
69
SAFETY DATA SHEETS
RADIONUCLIDE SAFETY DATA SHEET

NUCLIDE: H-3
FORMS: SOLUBLE, EXCEPT GAS
_________________________________________________________________________________
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS:
HALF-LIFE: 12.35 years
TYPE DECAY: betamaximum energy 0.0186 MeV
Hazard category:
C- level (low hazard): > up to 25 mCi per item to 200 mCi possession
B - level (Moderate hazard): > 25 mCi per item to 10 Ci possession
A - level (High hazard): > 10 Ci
EXTERNAL RADIATION HAZARDS AND SHIELDING:

Because of its low energy, the vial holding the isotope will provide sufficient shielding to stop the betas.
If skin is contaminated with tritium, betas will not be able to pass the dead layer of skin. However, H-3
will cause a radiation dose if absorbed into body through cuts in skin or by ingestion.
HAZARDS IF INTERNALLY DEPOSITED:

The Annual Limit of Intake (ALI) based upon a whole body dose of 5 rem per year or upon the
maximum recommended (N.C.R.P.) dose to the hematopoietic or spermatogonial stem cell nuclei (from
DNA precursors) is as follows:
Whole body
80 mCi (inorganic, soluble) based upon NRC ALI
Stem Cell Nuclei
3.5 mCi (CdR)
Stem Cell Nuclei
7 mCi (other DNA and RNA precursors)
DOSIMETRY AND BIOASSAY REQUIREMENTS:

Film badges and dosimeter rings are not appropriate for monitoring H3 exposure.
Routine urine assays are required after handling 100 millicuries or more of H3. See Radiation Safety
Manual Part III.18 for particulars. Spot checks may be required after spills or contamination incidents.
SPECIAL PROBLEMS AND PRECAUTIONS:

1.
2.
Always wear protective gloves to keep contamination from skin. Change gloves often.
Since the H3 beta particles have very low energies, the use of G.M. or other survey meters is
3.
precluded. Smear surveys are required.

All waste in a H3 work area is considered to be contaminated. Keep work areas free of unnecessary
items. Segregate wastes to those with H3 and C14 only.
4.
Limit of soluble waste to sewer is 1000 microcuries/ day per lab; and limit of H3 labeled DNA
precursors to sewer as waste is 100 microcuries per day. If the DNA precursors are denatured prior
to disposal, the sewer limits would be the same as for soluble forms.
4/98
70
SAFETY DATA SHEETS

NUCLIDE: C-14
_________________________________________________________________________________
HALF-LIFE: 5730 years
TYPE DECAY: betamaximum energy: 0.156 MeV
Hazard category:
C- level (low hazard): > up to 20 mCi

B - level (Moderate hazard): > 20 mCi to 1.0 Ci
A - level (High hazard): > 1.0 Ci

The maximum range of these betas is ~1 ft in air and 0.0065 in (0.17 mm) in glass. The external hazard of
this isotope is minimal, e.g., the glass vial holding the isotope will provide sufficient shielding to stop
the betas. If skin is uniformly contaminated with C14, 1 microcurie/ cm2 will deliver a dose of 1,100
mrems/hr to basal cells of the skin. (Porter Consultants to NRC)

The Annual Limit of Intake (ALI) which will result in a whole body exposure of 5 rem or maximum
recommended doses (by the NCRP) to hematopoietic or spermatogonial stem cell nuclei is as follows:
Whole body
2 mCi (compounds)

Film badges and dosimeter rings are not appropriate for monitoring C14 exposure.
Urine assays may be required after spills or contamination incidents.

1.
3.
Always wear protective gloves to keep contamination from skin. Change gloves often.
C14 beta particles have very low energies. G.M. survey meters are not very efficient at such
energies. Smear surveys required.
All waste in a C14 work areas is considered to be contaminated. Keep work areas free of
4.
unnecessary items. Segregate wastes to those with H3 and C14 only.

Limit of soluble waste to sewer is 100 microcuries/ day per lab.
2.
9/98
71
SAFETY DATA SHEETS

NUCLIDE: P-32
FORMS: ALL SOLUBLE
_________________________________________________________________________________
HALF-LIFE: 14.28 days
Hazard category:

B - level (Moderate hazard): > 2 mCi to 100 mCi
A - level (High hazard): > 100 mCi

The dose rate at 10 cm from an unshielded 1 mCi (dried sample) of P32 (assuming no backscatter or self
absorption in the source) is 2.7 rads per hour; the dose at 1 cm is 270 rads per hour. Dose rates vary
directly with activity and over short distances inversely with the square of the distance from the source.
Maximum ranges of these betas are 20 feet in air, 1/3 inch in water and tissue and 1/4 inch in plastic.
A spill of 1 Ci of P32 on 1 cm2 skin will deliver a dose of 9200 mrads/hr to the basal cells of the
epidermis. (Porter Consultants for NRC)

The Annual Limit of Intake (ALI) (based upon NRC) which would deliver 5 rems to the whole body is
600 Ci.

Film badges and dosimeter rings are usually required if 5 millicuries are handled at any one time, or if
millicurie levels are handled on a frequent (daily) basis. Urine assays may be required after spills or
contamination incidents.

1. Work behind low Z shielding, preferably transparent materials. Survey frequently. Change gloves
often.
2. Segregate wastes to those with half-lives < 19 days.
3. Limit of soluble waste to sewer is 10 microcuries/ day per lab.
4. P32 tends to attach to ferrous materials and to glass, weak HCl ( ~ 0.1 N) can facilitate removal
from glass and from some impervious surfaces.
9/98
72
SAFETY DATA SHEETS

NUCLIDE: P-33
FORMS: ALL SOLUBLE
_________________________________________________________________________________
Hazard category:


The maximum range of these betas is ~ 19 inches in air and 0.009 inches (0.23 mm) in glass. The external
hazard of this isotope is minimal, e.g., the glass vial holding the isotope will provide sufficient shielding
to stop the betas. If skin is uniformly contaminated with P33 , 1 microcurie/ cm2 will deliver a dose of
3,200 mrems/ hr to basal cells of the skin. (Porter Consultants to NRC based upon 0.257 MeV (max.)
beta particles.)

The Annual Limit of Intake (ALI, based on NRC) which would deliver 5 rem to the whole body is 6
mCi. Note: The hazards from ingestion or internal deposition of P33 in labeled nucleotide bases may be
greater than for inorganic phosphates.

Film badges and dosimeter rings are of marginal value (inappropriate) for monitoring P33 exposure.

1. Always wear protective gloves to keep contamination from skin. Change gloves often.
2. P33 beta particles have low energies. G.M. survey meters efficiency for such energies is about 10%.
Smear surveys are usually required. (If meter is approved for C14 measurements, it may be used.)
3. All waste in a P33 work areas is considered to be contaminated, unless proved to be clean by
appropriate monitoring techniques. Keep work areas free of extraneous items. Segregate wastes to
those with half-lives from 19 days to less than 65 days.
4. Limit of soluble waste to sewer is 100 microcuries/ day per lab.
4/98
73
SAFETY DATA SHEETS

NUCLIDE: S-35
_________________________________________________________________________________
Hazard category:


The maximum range of these betas is 43 cm in air, 0.5 mm in plastic and 0.17 mm in glass. The external
hazard of this isotope is minimal; the vial holding the isotope will provide sufficient shielding to stop the
betas. If skin is uniformly contaminated with S35, 1 microcurie/cm2 will deliver a dose of 1,200 mrad/hr
to basal cells of the skin. (Porter Consultants to NRC).

Although the external hazard associated with S35 is small, it is important to avoid ingestion and/ or skin
contamination. Many S35 compounds are volatile or degrade giving off volatile products. Open vials
and work in fume hoods.
The Annual Limit of Intake (ALI, based upon the NRC values) that would result in an effective dose
equivalent of 5 rem/year is 10 mCi. (Note: A lower ALI is used for insoluble, inorganic sulfides and
sulfates- 6 mCi.)

Film badges and dosimeter rings are not appropriate for monitoring S35 exposure.

2. S35 beta particles have very low energies. GM survey meters are about 10 % efficient at such
energies. Smear surveys are generally required.
3. S35 compounds frequently are volatile or produce volatile products; open and handle in a fume hood.
When incubating samples use activated charcoal.
4. All waste in a S35 work area should be considered to be contaminated unless proven to be clean by
appropriate monitoring techniques. Keep work areas free of unnecessary items. Generally it is very
difficult to survey the items because of self-shielding. Segregate wastes to those with half-lives from
65 to less than 90 days.
5. Limit for soluble waste to sewer is 100 microcuries/ day per lab.
3/10
74
SAFETY DATA SHEETS

NUCLIDE: Cr-51
FORMS: ALL SOLUBLE
____________________________________________________________________________________
TYPE DECAY: e- capture

gamma: 0.320 MeV (9% )
X-rays: 0.005 - 0.026 MeV
auger e-: 0.005 MeV (76 %)
Hazard category:

B - level (Moderate hazard): > 200 mCi to 10 Ci
A - level (High hazard): > 10 Ci

The exposure rate at 1 cm from 1 mCi is 164 mR/hr. The exposure rate varies directly with activity and
inversely with the square of the distance. The tenth value of lead for this radiation energy is 0.7 cm.

The Annual Limit on Oral Intake (ALI) of Cr51 corresponding to a whole-body guideline gamma
exposure rate of 5 rem/year is 40 mCi.

Film badges and dosimeter rings usually required if 5 millicuries are handled at any one time or 1
millicurie level is handled on a frequent (daily) basis.

1.
When 5 millicuries are used or stored, use lead shielding. Survey frequently. Handle stock solution
vials in shields or use tongs or forceps.
2.
Survey frequently with a GM monitor. Change gloves often.
3.
Segregate wastes to those with half-lives from 15 days to less than 60 days.
4. Aqueous wastes may be disposed to the sewer system in amounts of up to 1 mCi daily per lab.
4/98
75
SAFETY DATA SHEETS

NUCLIDE: I-125
FORMS: INORGANIC OR FREE IODINE
_________________________________________________________________________________
HALF-LIFE: 60 days
Hazard category:
TYPE DECAY: e- capture

Gamma rays 0.035 MeV (7 % )
X-rays 0.027-.031 MeV (140 % )
C- level (low hazard): > up to 200 Ci
B - level (Moderate hazard): > 200 Ci to 10 mCi
A - level (High hazard): > 10 mCi

Exposure rate at 1 cm from 1 mCi is 1.5 R/hr. (Exposure varies directly with activity and inversely with
square of distance from materials.)
Amount of lead required to reduce the exposure rate by a factor of 10 (1 TVL) is approximately 0.1 mm.
1/8 inch of glass would reduce the exposure rate by half. Leaded rubber gloves (0.1 mm lead = 1 TVL)
are available from Health Physics.

Contamination on the skin or inhalation will result in internal deposition. Iodide solutions are easily
oxidized and the elemental iodine will become airborne. Ingestion of 40 Ci, or inhalation of 60 Ci,
will result in the thyroid receiving Annual Limit of Intake (ALI),
Blocking the uptake of radioiodine with the stable nuclide is not permitted. WORK IN PROPER FUME
HOODS. (See Radiation Safety Manual, Part 3).

Badge and ring dosimeters are usually required if 5 millicuries are handled at any one time or if
millicurie levels are handled frequently (daily basis). Arrange for a thyroid survey within 24-72 hours
after the first procedure; thereafter, every three months.

1.
GM survey meters have a poor efficiency of detection for I-125. Survey by smear tests or use NaI(Tl)
Scintillation probes.
2. Segregate wastes to those with half-lives from 19 to less than 65 days. Assume items in work areas
are contaminated unless cleared with a NaI scintillation survey meter. Wrap all waste items in plastic
bags prior to placing them in waste.
3. Limit soluble waste to sewer is 100 Ci / month per lab.
4. Wear double gloves. Change gloves often.
5. See separate Radiation Safety Data Sheet for non-volatile or non-cleaving compounds.
4/98
76
SAFETY DATA SHEETS

NUCLIDE: F-18
FORMS: ALL SOLUBLE
_________________________________________________________________________________________
HALF-LIFE: 109.74 min.
Hazard category:
TYPE DECAY: EC e+
gamma: 0.511 MeV (193 %)
C- level (low hazard ) : up to 100 mCi

B - level (Moderate hazard) : > 100 mCi to 10 Ci
A - level (High hazard) : > 10 Ci

The gamma exposure rate at 1 cm from 1 mCi is 6.95 R/hr. The exposure rate varies directly with activity
and inversely as the square of the distance. The 1/10 value layer in lead is 1.6 cm.
The annual limit on oral intake (ALI) of F-18 corresponding to a whole-body guideline gamma exposure
rate of 5000 mrem/year is 50 mCi.

Film badges and dosimeter rings are required for all usage of F-18.

1.
F-18 syringe shields must be used prior to injection.
2.
Store stock material and filled syringes in lead pigs.
3.
Unnecessary exposure to personnel and other patients should be minimized by increasing distance
from the patient while he is waiting to be scanned. The gamma exposure rate at 1 meter from a
patient containing 5 mCi of F-18 will be approximately 2.5 mR/hr.
4.
Segregate wastes with those with half-lives less than 4 days (e.g. Tc-99m).
5.
Aqueous wastes may be disposed to the sewer system in amounts of up to 1000 uCi daily per lab.
02/10
77
SAFETY DATA SHEETS
RADIONUCLIDESAFETYDATASHEET
NUCLIDE:CU64
FORMS:ALLSOLUBLE
_________________________________________________________________________________________
PHYSICALCHARACTERISTICS:
HALFLIFE: 12.701 HOURS . TYPEDECAY:ECe+
gamma:0.511MeV(38.6%)
beta:0.578MeV(37.2%)
Hazardcategory:
Clevel(lowhazard):upto100mCi
Blevel(Moderatehazard):>100mCito10Ci
Alevel(Highhazard):>10Ci
EXTERNALRADIATIONHAZARDSANDSHIELDING:
Thegammaexposurerate1cmfrom1mCiis1/32R/hr.Theskindosefor1uCiovera10cm2areais13
mrad/hrforgammasand320mrad/hrforbetas.Theexposureratevariesdirectlywithactivityand
inverselyasthesquareofthedistance.The1/10valuelayerinleadis17mm
HAZARDSIFINTERNALLYDEPOSITED:
Theannuallimitonoralintake(ALI)ofCu64correspondingtoawholebodyguidelinegamma
exposurerateof5000mrem/yearis10mCi.
DOSIMETRYANDBIOASSAYREQUIREMENTS:
FilmbadgesanddosimeterringsarerequiredforallusageofCu64
SPECIALPROBLEMSANDPRECAUTIONS:
1. StoreCu64behind2inchthicklead(Pb)bricks.
2. Usetoolstoindirectlyhandleunshieldedsourcesandpotentiallycontaminatedvessels;avoiddirect
handcontact.
3. Segregatewasteswiththosewithhalfliveslessthan4days.
4. Aqueouswastesmaybedisposedtothesewersysteminamountsofupto1000uCidailyperlab.
5.Alwayswearprotectiveglovestokeepcontaminationfromskin.Changeglovesoften.
02/10
78
REPORTS AND GUIDES
REPORTSAPPLICABLETOTHEINSTITUTIONALUSEOFRADIATION
TheNationalCouncilonRadiationProtectionandMeasurements(NCRP)wascharteredbyCongressto
disseminateradiationprotectionguidance.Ithaspublishedreportsonavarietyoftopics.Thereportsare
availableforreviewatHealthPhysics.
111.
DevelopingRadiationEmergencyPlansforAcademic,MedicalorIndustrialFacilities(1991).
107.
ImplementationofthePrincipleofAsLowAsReasonablyAchievable(ALARA)forMedicalandDental
Personnel(1990).
105.
RadiationProtectionforMedicalandAlliedHealthPersonnel(1989).
100.
ExposureoftheUSPopulationfromDiagnosticMedicalRadiation(1989).
99.
QualityAssuranceforDiagnosticImaging(1988).
83.
TheExperimentalBasisforAbsorbedDoseCalculationsinMedicalUseofRadionuclides(1985).
73.
ProtectioninNuclearMedicineandUltrasoundDiagnosticProceduresinChildren(1983).
70.
NuclearMedicineFactorsInfluencingtheChoiceandUseofRadionuclidesinDiagnosisandTherapy
(1982)
65.
ManagementofPersonsAccidentallyContaminatedwithRadionuclides(1980).
58.
AHandbookofRadioactivityMeasurementProcedures.SecondEdition(1985).
57.
InstrumentationandMonitoringMethodsforRadiationProtection(1978).
54.
MedicalRadiationExposureofPregnantandPotentiallyPregnantWomen(1977).
37.
PrecautionsintheManagementofPatientsWhoHaveReceivedTherapeuticAmountsof
Radionuclides(1970).
30.
SafeHandlingofRadioactiveMaterials(1964).
8.
ControlandRemovalofRadioactiveContaminationinLaboratories(1951).
TheNationalResearchCouncilprovidesexpertservicestothegovernment,thepublic,andthescientificand
engineeringcommunities.
BEIRV:HealthEffectsofExposuretoLowLevelsofIonizingRadiation.
TheInternationalCommissiononRadiologicalProtectiondevelopsreportsthatprovidefundamental
principlesofradiologicalprotectionforusebyregulatoryandadvisoryagenciesatthenational,regional,and
internationallevels.Becauseofthedifferingconditionsthatapplyinvariouscountries,itdoesnotprovide
regulatorytext.
79
REPORTS AND GUIDES
ICRP60:RadiationProtection1990RecommendationsoftheICRP.
TheUSNuclearRegulatoryCommission(NRC)issuesregulatoryguidesthatdescribemethodsof
implementingcertainregulationsorevaluatingspecificproblems,orthatprovideguidance.
8.9
AcceptableConcepts,Models,Equations,andAssumptionsforaBioassay
Program(1993)
8.10
OperatingPhilosophyforMaintainingOccupationalRadiationExposure
ALARA(1977)
8.13
InstructionConcerningPrenatalRadiationExposure(1987)
8.18
InformationRelevanttoEnsuringThatOccupationalRadiationExposuresatMedicalInstitutionsWill
BeAsLowAsReasonablyAchievable(1982)
8.23
RadiationSafetySurveysatMedicalInstitutions(1981)
8.29
InstructionConcerningRisksfromOccupationalRadiationExposure(1981)
8.32
CriteriaforEstablishingaTritiumBioassayProgram(1988)
8.34
MonitoringCriteriaandMethodstoCalculateOccupationalRadiationDoses(1992)
8.36
RadiationDosetotheEmbryo/Fetus(1992)
8.37
ALARALevelsforEffluentsfromMaterialsFacilities(1993)
10.5
ApplicationsforTypeALicensesofBroadScope(1980)
10.7
GuideforthePreparationofApplicationsofLicensesforLaboratoryandIndustrialUseofSmall
QuantitiesofByproductMaterial(1979)
10.8
GuideforthePreparationofApplicationsforMedicalUsePrograms(1987)
80
QLM QUANTITIES
10CFRPART20APPENDIXCQUANTITIESOFLICENSEDMATERIALREQUIRING
LABELING
Radionuclide
QLM
Radionuclide
Quantity
(Ci)
QLM
Radionuclide
Quantity
(Ci)
QLM
Quantity
(Ci)
Hydrogen3*
1,000 Calcium41
100 Iron55
100
Beryllium7
1,000 Calcium45
100 Iron59
10
1 Calcium47
100 Iron60
Beryllium10
Carbon11
Carbon14
1,000 Scandium43
100 Scandium44m
1,000 Cobalt55
100
100 Cobalt56
10
100 Cobalt57
100
Fluorine18
1,000 Scandium44
Sodium22
10 Scandium46
Sodium24
100 Scandium47
100 Cobalt58
Magnesium28
100 Scandium48
100 Cobalt60m
Aluminum26
10 Scandium49
Silicon31
1,000 Titanium44
Silicon32
1 Titanium45
10 Cobalt58m
1,000
100
1,000
1,000 Cobalt60
1 Cobalt61
1,000
1,000 Cobalt62m
1,000
Phosphorus32
10 Vanadium47
1,000 Nickel56
100
Phosphorus33
100 Vanadium48
100 Nickel57
100
Sulfur35
100 Vanadium49
1,000 Nickel59
100
Chlorine36
10 Chromium48
1,000 Nickel63
100
Chlorine38
1,000 Chromium49
1,000 Nickel65
1,000
Chlorine39
1000 Chromium51
1,000 Nickel66
10
Argon39
1,000 Manganese51
1,000 Copper60
1,000
Argon41
1,000 Manganese52m
1,000 Copper61
1,000
Potassium40
100 Manganese52
100 Copper64
1,000
Potassium42
1,000 Manganese53
1,000 Copper67
1,000
Potassium43
1,000 Manganese54
100 Zinc62
100
Potassium44
1,000 Manganese56
1,000 Zinc63
1,000
Potassium45
1,000 Iron52
100 Zinc65
10
81
QLM QUANTITIES
Radionuclide
QLM
Radionuclide
Quantity
(Ci)
Zinc69m
QLM
Radionuclide
Quantity
(Ci)
QLM
Quantity
(Ci)
100 Arsenic78
1,000 Krypton87
1,000
Zinc69
1,000 Selenium70
1,000 Krypton88
1,000
Zinc71m
1,000 Selenium73m
1,000 Rubidium79
1,000
Zinc72
100 Selenium73
100 Rubidium81m
1,000
100 Rubidium81
1,000
100 Rubidium82m
1,000
Gallium65
1,000 Selenium75
Gallium66
100 Selenium79
Gallium67
1,000 Selenium81m
1,000 Rubidium83
100
Gallium68
1,000 Selenium81
1,000 Rubidium84
100
Gallium70
1,000 Selenium83
1,000 Rubidium86
100
1,000 Rubidium87
100
Gallium72
100 Bromine74m
Gallium73
1,000 Bromine74
1,000 Rubidium88
1,000
Germanium66
1,000 Bromine75
1,000 Rubidium89
1,000
Germanium67
1,000 Bromine76
100 Strontium80
100
Germanium68
10 Bromine77
1,000 Strontium81
1,000
Germanium69
1,000 Bromine80m
1,000 Strontium83
100
Germanium71
1,000 Bromine80
1,000 Strontium85m
Germanium75
1,000 Bromine82
100 Strontium85
Germanium77
1,000 Bromine83
1,000 Strontium87m
Germanium78
1,000 Bromine84
1,000 Strontium89
10
Arsenic69
1,000 Krypton74
1,000 Strontium90
0.1
Arsenic70
1,000 Krypton76
1,000 Strontium91
100
Arsenic71
100 Krypton77
1,000 Strontium92
100
Arsenic72
100 Krypton79
1,000 Yttrium86m
1,000
Arsenic73
100 Krypton81
1,000 Yttrium86
100
Arsenic74
100 Krypton83m
1,000 Yttrium87
100
Arsenic76
100 Krypton85m
1,000 Yttrium88
10
Arsenic77
100 Krypton85
1,000 Yttrium90m
82
1,000
100
1,000
1,000
QLM QUANTITIES
Radionuclide
QLM
Radionuclide
Quantity
(Ci)
Yttrium90
Yttrium91m
Yttrium91
10 Molybdenum99
1,000 Molybdenum101
10 Technetium93m
QLM
Radionuclide
Quantity
(Ci)
100 Rhodium103m
1,000 Rhodium105
QLM
Quantity
(Ci)
1,000
100
1,000 Rhodium106m
1,000
1,000
Yttrium92
100 Technetium93
1,000 Rhodium107
Yttrium93
100 Technetium94m
1,000 Palladium100
100
Yttrium94
1,000 Technetium94
1,000 Palladium101
1,000
Yttrium95
1,000 Technetium96m
1,000 Palladium103
100
100 Palladium107
10
100 Palladium109
100
Zirconium86
Zirconium88
100 Technetium96
10 Technetium97m
Zirconium89
100 Technetium97
1,000 Silver102
1,000
Zirconium93
1 Technetium98
10 Silver103
1,000
Zirconium95
10 Technetium99m
1,000 Silver104m
1,000
100 Silver104
1,000
Zirconium97
100 Technetium99
Niobium88
1,000 Technetium101
1,000 Silver105
100
Niobium89m(66min)
1,000 Technetium104
1,000 Silver106m
100
Niobium89(122min)
1,000 Ruthenium94
1,000 Silver106
Niobium90
Niobium93m
Niobium94
100 Ruthenium97
10 Ruthenium103
1,000
1,000 Silver108m
100 Silver110m
10
1 Ruthenium105
1,000 Silver111
100
Niobium95m
100 Ruthenium106
1 Silver112
100
Niobium95
100 Rhodium99m
1,000 Silver115
1,000
Niobium96
100 Rhodium99
100 Cadmium104
1,000
Niobium97
1,000 Rhodium100
100 Cadmium107
1,000
Niobium98
1,000 Rhodium101m
1,000 Cadmium109
Molybdenum90
100 Rhodium101
10 Cadmium113m
0.1
Molybdenum93m
100 Rhodium102m
10 Cadmium113
100
Molybdenum93
10 Rhodium102
10 Cadmium115m
10
83
QLM QUANTITIES
Radionuclide
QLM
Radionuclide
Quantity
(Ci)
Cadmium115
100 Tin127
QLM
Radionuclide
Quantity
(Ci)
QLM
Quantity
(Ci)
1,000 Tellurium123
100
Cadmium117m
1,000 Tin128
1,000 Tellurium125m
10
Cadmium117
1,000 Antimony115
1,000 Tellurium127m
10
Indium109
1,000 Antimony116m
1,000 Tellurium127
Indium110(69.1min)
1,000 Antimony116
1,000 Tellurium129m
Indium110(4.9h)
1,000 Antimony117
1,000 Tellurium129
Indium111
100 Antimony118m
1,000 Tellurium131m
1,000
10
1,000
10
Indium112
1,000 Antimony119
1,000 Tellurium131
100
Indium113m
1,000 Antimony120
(16min)
10
Antimony120(5.76 d)
1,000
Antimony122
100
Antimony124m
1,000
Antimony124
1,000
Antimony125
1,000
Antimony126m
1,000
Antimony126
100
Antimony127
1,000
Antimony128
100 (10.4min)
1,000 Tellurium132
10
Indium114m
Indium115m
Indium115
Indium116m
Indium117m
Indium117
Indium119m
Tin110
Tin111
Tin113
Tellurium133m
100
100
Tellurium133
1,000
Tellurium134
1,000
Iodine120m
1,000
100
1,000
10
Iodine120
100
Iodine121
1,000
Iodine123
100
Iodine124
10
Iodine125*
Iodine126
100
1,000
100
100
1,000
Tin117m
100 Antimony128(9.01 h)
100 Iodine128
1,000
Tin119m
100 Antimony129
100 Iodine129
Tin121m
100 Antimony130
1,000 Iodine130
10
1
Tin121
1,000 Antimony131
1,000 Iodine131*
Tin123m
1,000 Tellurium116
1,000 Iodine132m
100
Tin123
10 Tellurium121m
10 Iodine132
100
Tin125
10 Tellurium121
100 Iodine133
10
Tin126
10 Tellurium123m
10 Iodine134
1,000
84
QLM QUANTITIES
Radionuclide
QLM
Radionuclide
Quantity
(Ci)
QLM
Radionuclide
Quantity
(Ci)
Quantity
(Ci)
Iodine135
100 Barium126
Xenon120
1,000 Barium128
Xenon121
1,000 Barium131m
Xenon122
1,000 Barium131
100 Praseodymium138m
1,000
Xenon123
1,000 Barium133m
100 Praseodymium139
1,000
Xenon125
1,000 Barium133
100 Praseodymium142m
1,000
Xenon127
1,000 Barium135m
100 Praseodymium142
100
Xenon129m
1,000 Barium139
1,000 Praseodymium143
100
Xenon131m
1,000 Barium140
100 Praseodymium144
1,000
Xenon133m
1,000 Barium141
100
Xenon133
1,000 Barium142
1,000
Xenon135m
1,000 Lanthanum131
1,000 Neodymium136
1,000
Xenon135
1,000 Lanthanum132
100 Neodymium138
100
Xenon138
1,000 Lanthanum135
1,000 Neodymium139m
1,000
Cesium125
1,000 Lanthanum137
10 Neodymium139
1,000
Cesium127
1,000 Lanthanum138
100 Neodymium141
1,000
Cesium129
1,000 Lanthanum140
100 Neodymium147
100
Cesium130
1,000 Lanthanum141
100 Neodymium149
1,000
Cesium131
1,000 Lanthanum142
1,000 Neodymium151
1,000
Cesium132
100 Lanthanum143
1,000 Promethium141
1,000
1,000 Cerium134
100 Promethium143
100
10 Cerium135
100 Promethium144
10
1,000 Cerium137m
100 Promethium145
10
Cesium134m
Cesium134
Cesium135m
1,000 Cerium144
QLM
100 Praseodymium136
1.000
1,000
Cesium135
100 Cerium137
1,000 Promethium146
Cesium136
10 Cerium139
100 Promethium147
10
Cesium137
10 Cerium141
100 Promethium148m
10
Cesium138
1,000 Cerium143
100 Promethium148
10
85
QLM QUANTITIES
Radionuclide
QLM
Radionuclide
Quantity
(Ci)
QLM
Radionuclide
Quantity
(Ci)
1,000 Dysprosium166
QLM
Quantity
(Ci)
Promethium149
100 Gadolinium145
Promethium150
1,000 Gadolinium146
10 Holmium155
1,000
Promethium151
100 Gadolinium147
100 Holmium157
1,000
Samarium141m
1,000 Gadolinium148
0.001 Holmium159
1,000
Samarium141
1,000 Gadolinium149
100 Holmium161
1,000
Samarium142
1,000 Gadolinium151
Samarium145
100 Gadolinium152
Samarium146
1 Gadolinium153
Samarium147
100 Gadolinium159
10 Holmium162m
100 Holmium162
10 Holmium164m
100 Holmium164
100
1,000
1,000
1,000
1,000
Samarium151
10 Terbium147
1,000 Holmium166m
Samarium153
100 Terbium149
100 Holmium166
100
Samarium155
1,000 Terbium150
1,000 Holmium167
1,000
Samarium156
1,000 Terbium151
100 Erbium161
1,000
Europium145
100 Terbium153
1,000 Erbium165
1,000
Europium146
100 Terbium154
100 Erbium169
100
Europium147
100 Terbium155
1,000 Erbium171
100
1,000 Erbium172
100
Europium148
10 Terbium156m(5.0 h)
Europium149
100 Terbium156m(24.4 h)
Europium150(12.62h)
1,000 Thulium162
1,000
100 Terbium156
100 Thulium166
100
1 Terbium157
10 Thulium167
100
100 Terbium158
1 Thulium170
10
Europium152
1 Terbium160
10 Thulium171
10
Europium154
1 Terbium161
100 Thulium172
100
Europium150(34.2y)
Europium152m
Europium155
10 Dysprosium155
1,000 Thulium173
100
Europium156
100 Dysprosium157
1,000 Thulium175
1,000
Europium157
100 Dysprosium159
100 Ytterbium162
1,000
Europium158
1,000 Dysprosium165
1,000 Ytterbium166
100
86
QLM QUANTITIES
Radionuclide
QLM
Radionuclide
Quantity
(Ci)
Ytterbium167
1,000 Hafnium181
QLM
Radionuclide
Quantity
(Ci)
QLM
Quantity
(Ci)
10 Tungsten187
100
1,000 Tungsten188
10
Ytterbium169
100 Hafnium182m
Ytterbium175
100 Hafnium182
0.1 Rhenium177
1,000
Ytterbium177
1,000 Hafnium183
1,000 Rhenium178
1,000
Ytterbium178
1,000 Hafnium184
100 Rhenium181
1,000
Lutetium169
100 Tantalum172
1,000 Rhenium182(12.7h)
1,000
Lutetium170
100 Tantalum173
1,000 Rhenium182(64.0h)
100
Lutetium171
100 Tantalum174
1,000 Rhenium184m
Lutetium172
100 Tantalum175
1,000 Rhenium184
Lutetium173
10 Tantalum176
Lutetium174m
10 Tantalum177
1,000 Rhenium186
100
Lutetium174
10 Tantalum178
1,000 Rhenium187
1,000
Lutetium176m
Lutetium176
Lutetium177m
Lutetium177
1,000 Tantalum179
100 Tantalum180m
10 Tantalum180
100 Tantalum182m
100 Rhenium186m
100 Rhenium188m
10
100
10
1,000
1,000 Rhenium188
100
100 Rhenium189
100
1,000 Osmium180
1,000
Lutetium178m
1,000 Tantalum182
10 Osmium181
1,000
Lutetium178
1,000 Tantalum183
100 Osmium182
100
Lutetium179
1,000 Tantalum184
100 Osmium185
100
Hafnium170
100 Tantalum185
1,000 Osmium189m
1,000
Hafnium172
1 Tantalum186
1,000 Osmium191m
1,000
Hafnium173
1,000 Tungsten176
1,000 Osmium191
100
Hafnium175
100 Tungsten177
1,000 Osmium193
100
Hafnium177m
1,000 Tungsten178
1,000 Osmium194
Hafnium178m
0.1 Tungsten179
1,000 Iridium182
1,000
Hafnium179m
10 Tungsten181
1,000 Iridium184
1,000
Hafnium180m
1,000 Tungsten185
100 Iridium185
1,000
87
QLM QUANTITIES
Radionuclide
QLM
Radionuclide
Quantity
(Ci)
QLM
Radionuclide
Quantity
(Ci)
QLM
Quantity
(Ci)
Iridium186
100 Gold198
100 Lead199
1,000
Iridium187
1,000 Gold199
100 Lead200
100
100 Lead201
1,000
1,000 Lead202m
1,000
Iridium188
100 Gold200m
Iridium189
100 Gold200
Iridium190m
1,000 Lead202
10
100 Lead203
1,000
1 Mercury193
1,000 Lead205
100
Iridium192m(1.4min)
10 Mercury194
1 Lead209
1,000
Iridium194m
10 Mercury195m
100 Lead210
0.01
1,000 Lead211
100
100 Lead212
1
100
Iridium190
Iridium192(73.8d)
Iridium194
1,000 Gold201
100 Mercury193m
100 Mercury195
Iridium195m
1,000 Mercury197m
Iridium195
1,000 Mercury197
1,000 Lead214
Platinum186
1,000 Mercury199m
1,000 Bismuth200
1,000
Platinum188
100 Mercury203
100 Bismuth201
1,000
Platinum189
1,000 Thallium194m
1,000 Bismuth202
1,000
Platinum191
100 Thallium194
1,000 Bismuth203
100
Platinum193m
100 Thallium195
1,000 Bismuth205
100
1,000 Thallium197
1,000 Bismuth206
100
1,000 Bismuth207
10
1,000 Bismuth210m
0.1
Platinum193
Platinum195m
Platinum197m
100 Thallium198m
1,000 Thallium198
Platinum197
100 Thallium199
1,000 Bismuth210
Platinum199
1,000 Thallium200
1,000 Bismuth212
10
Platinum200
100 Thallium201
1,000 Bismuth213
10
Gold193
1,000 Thallium202
100 Bismuth214
100
Gold194
100 Thallium204
Gold195
10 Lead195m
Gold198m
88
100 Lead198
100 Polonium203
1,000
1,000 Polonium205
1,000
1,000 Polonium207
1,000
QLM QUANTITIES
Radionuclide
QLM
Radionuclide
Quantity
(Ci)
QLM
Radionuclide
Quantity
(Ci)
QLM
Quantity
(Ci)
Polonium210
0.1 Protactinium227
10 Neptunium239
100
Astatine207
100 Protactinium228
1 Neptunium240
1,000
Astatine211
10 Protactinium230
.01 Plutonium234
10
Radon220
1 Protactinium231
0.001 Plutonium235
1,000
Radon222
1 Protactinium232
1 Plutonium236
0.001
Francium222
100 Protactinium233
100 Plutonium237
100
Francium223
100 Protactinium234
100 Plutonium238
0.001
Radium223
0.1 Uranium230
0.01 Plutonium239
0.001
Radium224
0.1 Uranium231
100 Plutonium240
0.001
Radium225
0.1 Uranium232
0.001 Plutonium241
0.01
Radium226
0.1 Uranium233
0.001 Plutonium242
.0001
Radium227
1,000 Uranium234
0.001 Plutonium243
1,000
Radium228
0.1 Uranium235
0.001 Plutonium244
0.001
Actinium224
1 Uranium236
0.001 Plutonium245
100
Actinium225
0.01 Uranium237
100 Americium237
1,000
Actinium226
0.1 Uranium238
100 Americium238
100
Actinium227
0.001 Uranium239
1,000 Americium239
1,000
Actinium228
1 Uranium240
100 Americium240
100
100 Americium241
0.001
100 Americium242m
0.001
Thorium226
10 Uraniumnatural
Thorium227
0.01 Neptunium232
Thorium228
0.001 Neptunium233
1,000 Americium242
10
Thorium229
0.001 Neptunium234
100 Americium243
0.001
Thorium230
0.001 Neptunium235
100 Americium244m
Thorium231
100 Neptunium236(1.15105y)
Thorium232
100 Neptunium236(22.5 h)
Thorium234
Thoriumnatural
100
0.001 Americium244
10
1 Americium245
1,000
10 Neptunium237
0.001 Americium246m
1,000
100 Neptunium238
10 Americium246
1,000
89
QLM QUANTITIES
Radionuclide
QLM
Radionuclide
QLM
Quantity
(Ci)
Radionuclide
Quantity
(Ci)
Quantity
(Ci)
Curium238
100 Berkelium250
Curium240
0.1 Californium244
Curium241
1 Californium246
1 Fermium252
Curium242
0.01 Californium248
0.01 Fermium253
Curium243
0.001 Californium249
0.001 Fermium254
10
Curium244
0.001 Fermium255
Curium245
0.001 Fermium257
0.01
Curium246
0.001 Mendelevium257
10
Curium247
0.1 Mendelevium258
0.01
Curium248
Curium249
Berkelium246
1,000 Anyalphaemitting
radionuclidenotlistedabove
100 ormixturesofalphaemitters
ofunknowncomposition
100
Berkelium247
0.001
Berkelium249
0.1
Berkelium245
10 Einsteinium254m
QLM
100 Einsteinium254
0.001 Anyradionuclideotherthan
alphaemittingradionuclides
0.001 notlistedabove,ormixturesof
betaemittersofunknown
composition
Einsteinium250
100
Einsteinium251
100
Einsteinium253
0.1
1
0.01
0.01
*H3INTHEFORMOFLABELEDDNA
BASESISLIMITEDTO100uCi/DAY.
*100uCiOFI125ANDI131CANBE
DISPOSEDOFTOTHESEWERWITHPRIOR
APPROVALOFHEALTHPHYSICS.
90
CONVERSION TABLES
RADIATION
GUIDETOSIUNITS
DOSE
AMOUNT
TEMPERATURE
PRESURE(Pascal)
1Pa=1.45x104psi
rem
sievert
curie
becquerel
Celsius
Fahrenheit
0.1mrem
1Sv
1pCi
37mBq
3000C
5432F
1mrem
10Sv
27pCi
1Bq
2500C
4532F
1MPa=145psi
100Sv(0.1
mSv)
1nCi
37Bq
2000C
3632F
SPEED
10mrem
100mrem
1mSv
27nCi
1kBq
1500C
2732F
1m/s~2mph
500mrem
5mSv
1Ci
37kBq
1000C
1832F
VOLUME
1rem
10mSv
27Ci
1MBq
800C
1472F
1m=10
5rem
50mSv
1mCi
37MBq
600C
1112F
1cc(cm)=1m
10rem
100mSv
27mCi
1GBq
400C
752F
1cc~ 1gramwater
25rem
250mSv
1Ci
37GBq
200C
392F
3785cc/gal7.48gal/ft
50rem
500mSv
27Ci
1TBq
100C
212F
AREA
100rem
1Sv
1kCi
37TBq
50C
122F
6
1km=10 m
27kCi
1PBq
0C
32F
1m~11ft
1MCi
37PBq
17.8C
0F
ABSORBEDENERGY
100rad=1Gy(gray)
SIUNITSPREFIXES:
18
6
6
Eexa10 Mmega10 micro10
15
3
9
Ppeta10 kkilo10 nnano10
PreparedByU.S.NRCAEOD/IRB1/90
Ttera1012ccenti102ppico1012
Ggiga109mmilli103
91
SIGNS AND LABELS
SIGNSANDLABELS
MostofthesesignsandlabelsareavailablefromHealthPhysics.Besurenamesandtelephonenumbersare
uptodate.
Workarea.Markbench
topsandothersurfaces
whereopenradiochemicals
arehandled.Redon
yellow.
Generalnotice.Markthe
doorstoareaswhere
devicesandradiochemicals
arehandledorstored.Red
onyellow.
Appliances,hoods,and
cabinets.Markequipment
thathasheld
radiochemicals.Redon
yellow.
92
SIGNS AND LABELS
Deskarea.Markareas
dedicatedtoofficework
wheretherewillbeno
radiochemicals.Blackon
green.
Sinkfordisposal.Markthe
insideofthecabinetdoor
ofasinkthathasbeen
usedforradiochemical
disposal.Redonyellow.
Animalcages.Mark
individualcagesorcage
racksifanimalshavebeen
administered
radiochemicals.Redon
yellow.Alsoposttheroom
withananimalcare
instructionform.
93
SIGNS AND LABELS
Electronicequipment.
Labelthecontrolpanel.
Burgundyonyellow.
Xraydiffractionunits.
Labelthecontrolpaneland
thesamplechamberdoor.
Redonyellow.
94
FORMS
FORMS
Thissectionprovidescommentsonfrequentlyusedforms.Ifafullsizedblankisprovidedyoumay
photocopyit.
Training
StatementofTrainingandExperience
96
OnTheJobTraining CompletionofRadiationSafety
Form
97
ProtocolWorksheet WorksheetforRadiochemicalProtocols
98
Pregnancy
DeclarationofPregnancy
Monitoring
RadiationDosimetryServiceRequest
100
LostDosimeterReport
101
AuthorizationtoObtainRadiationExposureHistory
102
Laboratory
UserRadiationSurveyReport
103
RadioisotopeUseLog
104
TransferofRadioactiveMaterial
105
99
95
FORMS
STATEMENTOFTRAININGANDEXPERIENCEFORUSEOF
RADIONUCLIDESANDRADIATIONDEVICES
Instructions:Allindividualsmustcompleteformalradiationsafetytrainingbeforeusingionizingradiation.
Thetrainingthatisrequireddependsonthetypeandamountofmaterialstobeused,andtheindividuals
currenttrainingandexperience.MostindividualsmustattendaneighthourcoursegivenbyHealthPhysics,
andthenbeprovidedonthejobtrainingbythelaboratorysupervisor.Youwillreceivespecificinstructions
afterHealthPhysicsevaluatesyourtrainingandexperience.Ifyouhaveanyquestions,pleasecallHealth
Physicsat7233201.FaxthiscompletedformtoHealthPhysicsat7230632.CompleteALLfields!
(CRA#)CONTROLLEDRAD.AUTH
>>REQUIRED!<<
LAST NAME
M OR F
POSITION*
MAILCODE
SUNetID
BUILDINGANDROOM
DEPARTMENT
EMAILADDRESS
FIRST NAME
MI
WORK PHONE
FAX NUMBER
* POSITION:Faculty,PostDoc;VisitingScientist;Student;Staff
DurationatStanford:30days<6months>6months
Whatsourceswillyouusehere:unsealedradiochemicals
irradiatorXRF
medicalxray
sealedradioactivesources
nonmedicalxray
XRD
cabinetxray
TRAININGANDEXPERIENCEWITHRADIATIONSOURCES
INSTITUTION
BEGAN(MM/YY)
ENDED(MM/YY)
INSTITUTION
BEGAN(MM/YY)
ENDED(MM/YY)
OFFICE USE ONLY
ESTIMATETHENUMBEROFCLASSROOMCONTACTHOURSFOREACH
TOPIC
Topic
Hours
CLASS
COMPQ
PROQ
XRD
Regulationsandstandards
SCORE
DATE
BY
___SHP
___OJT
NOTES___/___/___
Monitoringandsurveymethods
CDREQS___/___/___
Physicsofionizingradiationandradiationunits
Bioeffectsofionizingradiation
Radiationhazardsandprotectionmethods
NOTETYPICALRADIONUCLIDESYOUHANDLEDANDLENGTHOFEXPERIENCEINTHEAPPROPRIATEBOX,
E.G.H35DAYS;11256MONTHS;CS1373YEARS
TYPEOFS OURCES
SEALEDSOURCESOR
MICROCURIES
MILLICURIES
CURIES
KILOCURIES
NEUTRONEMITTERS
UNSEALEDBETAAND
GAMMAEMITTERS
WHATDEVICESHAVEYOUUSED: XRD selfshieldedirradiator XRF medicalxray nonmedical

xraycabinetxray______________________________
____________________________________
Signature
96
____________________
Date
FORMS
ONTHEJOBTRAININGFORM(OJT)
HealthPhysics
StanfordUniversity
(650)7233202
fax(650)7230632
Date:
Memoto:
CRA:
Department:
From:
TrainingCoordinator
HealthPhysicsTrainingCoordinator
Subject:
CompletionofRadiationSafetyTrainingfor___________________
Thisindividualcompletedformalradiationsafetyorientationon(dateoftraining).Thistwoday,eight
contacthourcoursewasdesignedforscientistsusingradioactivematerialsinthebiochemistryenvironment.
Itprovidedacondensedsurveyofradiationsafetyfundamentals.Thecourse,comprisedoftwofourhour
sessionstaughtbytwoseniorhealthphysicsstaff,provided3hoursphysics,1hourbiology,2hourshazards
andprotection,1hourregulations,and1hourmonitoring.Studentswereevaluatedbymultiplechoice
homeworkaftersession1andmultiplechoiceopenbookquizaftersession2.
WillyoupleasecompletethetrainingbyprovidingOnTheJobtraininginalltheindicatedtasks,plus
demonstrationofeachradioactivematerialsprotocolthisindividualwillperform.Documentthistrainingon
thisform,andfileitinyourRadioisotopeJournalatTab6.
Pleasecallforadditionalinformationonirradiatortraining.
on
Trainingwasprovidedby
Orderingradioactivity
Receiving,checking,andstoringnewmaterial
Defacingpackages
RadioisotopeUseLogandWasteLog
Labsurveys
Personnelmonitoring
ProjectrecordsandtheRadioisotopeJournal
Nuclide
Ci/run
ProtocolTitle
Date
Instructor
97
FORMS
WORKSHEET FOR RADIOCHEMICAL PROTOCOLS

Instructions: Please complete a separate worksheet for each radiochemical protocol. The purpose of the worksheet is
to identify hazardous or regulated chemicals, operations, and waste streams that might pose safety problems or
unanticipated costs. Attach an abstract or copy of the protocol. If this is an amendment to an existing CRA, you may fax
this completed form and that attachment to Health Physics at 7230632.
PI LAST NAME
FIRST NAME
DEPARTMENT
MI
EMAIL
CI PER EXPT
NUCLIDE
CRA NUMBER
MAIL CODE
CI IN VIAL*
PHONE
CHEMICAL FORM
FAX
PHYSICAL FORM
Powder
Liquid
Solid
Gas
VOLATILE
Yes
No
*At Stanford, if >100 QLM, vial must be locked. At VAPAHCS, all vials must be locked.
PROTOCOL TITLE
SIMPLE HANDLING
Ls
Weighing
Pipetting
Type _______________________________________
PROCESSING THAT MIGHT GENERATE MIST, VAPOR, OR SPILL
mLs
Open flame heating

Stirring
Vortex mixing for
minutes
hours
Heating to _______ C
Centrifuging for
minutes
hours
Chromatography_________________________________
IDENTIFY ADDED HAZARDS
None
Flammable solvent
ANIMALS
SPECIES
None
NUMBER
Toxic
Corrosive
Reactive
Pathogen _______________________
Applied for animal committee approved on _____ _____ _____

GRAMS
EACH
CI ADMIND
CI AT
EUTH
EUTH
CAGES CLND
Ether
CRA staff
____
VSC
CI IN URINE
48 HRS: ___
7 DAYS:___
CI IN SCAT
48 HRS:___
7DAYS:___
Where will animals be housed; who will care for them: _________________________________________________
Where will carcasses and excreta be disposed: _________________________________________________________
PROTECTIVE ITEMS THAT WILL BE USED
Shielding type _________________________
Interlab transport container ___________________________
Fume hood in room _____
Splash shield
Dosimetry badges
Rings
Survey meter
GM
Ionization
Nal(TI)
_______________________________________
RADIOACTIVE WASTE GENERATION
Liquid Scintillation Cocktail trade name ________________________________________
Dry waste cubic feet per month ___________
Sharps
Liters per month for solidification __________
MIXED WASTE GENERATION
None
Mark on an attachment, all reagents that are not on the Non
hazardous Waste List at http://web.stanford.edu/dept/EHS/prod/enviro/waste/nohaz.html
_____________________________________
__________________
PI Signature
Date
No followup needed
_______________________________________________________________
______________________________________
Signature
Date
98
___________________
FORMS
DECLARATIONOFPREGNANCY
Instructions:Itisourresponsibilitytoensurethatthedosetoanembryo/fetus,duringtheentirepregnancy,due
tooccupationalexposureofadeclaredpregnantworker,doesnotexceed0.5rem[20.1208].Ourpolicyisto
examineyourworkenvironmentandjobresponsibilitiestoassurethatyouwillavoidsubstantialvariationabove
0.05remeachmonthduringyourpregnancy.Ifyouhavequestions,pleasecallHealthPhysicsat7233201.Fax
thiscompletedformtoHealthPhysicsat7230632.Wewillscheduleaninterviewwithyoutoreviewsafety
measuresandansweryourquestions.
LASTNAME
FIRSTNAME
MI
DELIVERYDATE
STANFORD
VAPAHCS
DEPARTMENT
POSITION*
MAILCODE
PHONE
EMAIL
* POSITION:Faculty,PostDoc;VisitingScientist;Student;Staff
Describethesourcesofradiationthatyoupersonallyworkwithdaytoday.Forradioactivematerials,describethe
radionuclidesandactivities,andhoursofuseeachday.Fordevices,identifythetypeofdeviceandhoursofuse
eachday.Alsodescribethelevelofuseforotherindividualsinyourworkarea.
Inaccordancewith10CFR20.1208,Iamvoluntarilydeclaring,inwriting,thatIampregnant.Iunderstand
thatitismysoleandfundamentalresponsibilitytoinformStanfordHealthPhysics,inwriting,ofmy
pregnancy,itIchoosetodoso.IalsorecognizethatIamnowsubjecttodoselimitrestrictionstoensurethat
occupationalprenatalradiationexposuredoesnotexceed0.5remduringthedurationofthepregnancy.
Signature
Date
R E V I E W 10 CFR 20.1208 A N D R A D I A T I O N S A F E T Y M A N U A L , P A R T 1 .
OFFICEUSEONLY
AttachWearersdoseforthepast12months
Workplaceinterviewscheduledfor
date:______________;
Doyouanticipateachangeinyourworkloadoruses?
Willtherebeachangeincoworkersworkloadoruses?
Noteotherquestionsandanswers
time:_____________;
room:____________
HealthPhysicist
Date
99
FORMS
RADIATIONDOSIMETRYSERVICEREQUEST
Pleasecompleteform&sendwithattachment(s)to:DosimetryCoordinator,HealthPhysics,MC8007orfaxto
HealthPhysicsat6507230632.
Fortheonlineversiongotohttp://radforms.stanford.edu
DEPARTMENT:_________________________________
DATE:____________________
CONTACT(ORPI)RESPONSIBLE
FOREXCHANGINGDOSIMETERS:________________________ PHONE#:_________________
DOSIMETRYACCT.#&LOCATIONCODE:________/________ EMAIL:___________________
START/STOPSERVICEEFFECTIVEDATE:_______________ TYPEOFSERVICE:
XRAY,BETA,GAMMA,NEUTRON
Ifapplicable:CONTROLLEDRADIATIONAUTHORIZATION(CRA)#:____________(example:SMN011)
PLEASEPRINTCLEARLY:
(5)
(1)
(2)
Action
NAME
(Last,First)
(3)
Position
(4)
Gender
(M/F)
DATEOF
BIRTH
HISTORY
None
BODY
BADGE
Attach
RING
SIZE
(SML)
(6)
USE
(1) AllpersonnelworkingunderCRAsmustcompleteformalbasicradiationprotectiontrainingprovidedbyHealthPhysics,andonthe
jobtrainingprovidedbytheproject,PRIORtousingionizingradiation.PleasecompleteaSTATEMENTOFTRAININGAND
EXPERIENCEforeachnewpersonlistedwhowilluseradionuclides,andappendittothisrequest.
(2) Acton: (A)add;
(D)delete;
(C)corrections
(3) Position:(F)faculty;(P)postdoc;(V)visitingscientist;(S)staff;(G)student;(O)other
(4) Gender: (M)Male/(F)Female
(5)Eachpersonhavingapreviousorongoingradiationexposurehistorywithanotherfacility,asrequiredbyregulations,mustsubmitan
AuthorizationtoObtainRadiationExposureHistoryform,ormustcheckNonetoindicatethereisnoradiationexposurehistory.It
iseachpersonsresponsibilitytoinformHealthPhysicsofhistoricalorconcurrentradiationexposuresfromotherfacilities.
(6)Use:
100
(N)notusingradiationbutworksinaradiationlab;(C)radiochemicals;(S)smallsealedsources;
(XRD)xraydiffraction;(XRF)xrayfluorescence;(XRM)xraymedical;(XRN)xraynonmedical;
(XRC)cabinetxray;(XI)Xrayirradiator;(SI)SealedSourceirradiator(O)other
FORMS
LOST/DAMAGEDDOSIMETERREPORT
Instructions:Itisourresponsibilitytoestimateyourdoseifyourdosimeterislostordamaged.Ourestimate
isbasedonyourusualdoseandactivities,andyouractivitiesduringthemonitorperiod.Pleasecompletethe
tophalfofthisformandfaxittoHealthPhysicsat7230632.
LASTNAME
FIRSTNAME
MI
STANFORD
VAPAHCS
DEPARTMENT
POSITION*
EMAIL
PHONE#
CRA/PI
*POSITION:Faculty,PostDoc,VisitingScientist,Student,Staff
DOSIMETRYACCOUNT#
LOCATION#
WBDOSIMETER#_________
WEARPERIOD
RINGDOSIMETER#_________
Describethesourcesofradiationthatyoupersonallyworkedwithdaytodayduringthemonitorperiod.For
radioactivematerials,describetheradionuclidesandactivities,andhoursofuseeachday.Fordevicesidentifythe
typeofdevice,roomnumber,andhoursofuseeachday.Alsodescribethelevelofuseforotherindividualsin
yourworkarea.
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Wasthelevelofusegreater,similarto,orlessthanusual? Greater Similar Less

Tothebestofmyknowledge,Ibelievetheabovestatementsaretrueandtheestimatedradiationdosemaybe
enteredintomyexposurerecord.
_______________________________________
_____________________
Signature
Date
OFFICEUSEONLY
Attachwearersdoseforthepast12months
Telephone Email
Workplaceinterviewconducteddate:____________time:___________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
Milliremtobeassigned:
Deep________ Eye_________ Shallow_________NotifyProcessor:YN
_______________________ _____________
HealthPhysicist
Date
_________________________
RadiationSafetyOfficer
_____________
Date
Distribution:
Original:HPdoserecord
Copy:MonitoredIndividual
Copy:DosimetryContact
101
FORMS
PLEASECOMPLETEFORM&SENDTOHEALTHPHYSICS,FAX:7230632,M/C8007
AUTHORIZATIONTOOBTAINRADIATIONEXPOSUREHISTORY
PURPOSE:
Inordertocomplywithregulationspertainingtoradiationexposure,itmaybenecessaryfor
StanfordUniversitytoobtainyouroccupationalexposurehistoryifyouhavebeenexposed
toionizingradiation.
INSTRUCTIONS: Pleasecompletetheformbelowgivingtheinformationrequested.Listonlythose
organizationswhereyouwereexposedtoradiationsuchthatpersonnelmonitors
(dosimeters)wereworn.Ifyouhaveneverworndosimeterswritenone.
INFORMATION: _____________________________________________________________________________________
Name
____________________________________________________________________________
Soc.Sec.No.
DateofBirth
____________________________________________________________________________
Department
FORMERAFFILIATIONSHAVINGRECORDSOFRADIATIONEXPOSURE
NameofCompanyorInstitution_______________________________________________________________________
DepartmentorDivision:______________________________________________________________________________
Address:__________________________________________________________________________________________
TimeofAffiliation:
From:_____________________
To:_____________________________
IauthorizethereleaseofpastradiationexposureinformationtoStanfordUniversity.
Signature:_____________________________________________
Date:____________________________
NameofCompanyorInstitution:_____________________________________________________________________
DepartmentorDivision:_____________________________________________________________________________
Address:__________________________________________________________________________________________
TimeofAffiliation:
From:_____________________
To:_____________________________
IauthorizethereleaseofpastradiationexposureinformationtoStanfordUniversity.
Signature:_____________________________________________
Date:____________________________
102
FORMS
USERRADIATIONSURVEYREPORT
CRA #: ____________
Building/Room #: ____________
Date: ____________
Use Level: A B C
Contamination Survey (dpm) - Working surfaces and floor areas are smear tested for removable radioactive contamination
in a random fashion. An area of approximately 100 cm sq. is covered by each smear. Results are reported as net
(background corrected) disintegrations per minute (dpm) on the sketch below. Printed results are appended where
appropriate.
Area Survey (mrem/hr) Radiation dose rates are measured at work areas and storage areas. The readings are reported as
millirems per hour (mrem/h) on the sketch below. Except where noted readings are for beta and/or gamma radiation at 1
foot. Known sources of external radiation are noted on the sketch.
Enter the survey date into the Sweeps online system http://radsurvey.stanford.edu, and file the copy in the
Radioisotope Journal.
Area Survey:
(Instrument Used)
Contamination Survey:
Manufacturer:
Manufacturer:
Model:
Model:
Serial Number:
Serial Number:
(Instrument Used)
Date Calibrated:
Background:
Surveyors Name:
Inspection Check
General Lab Deficiencies
a. Rad waste logs current?
b. Rad waste containers over filled or >2mR/hr at 1 foot?
c. Rad waste in the general trash baskets?
d. If A levels on hand, is the isotope secured?
e. Refrigerator and other storage area logs current?
f. Refrigerators/freezers in corridors unlocked?
g. Food and Drink physically separated from contiguous radioactive
work area, or by 1 meter from non-contiguous rad work area?
N/A
Yes
No
Comments
103
FORMS
****RADIOISOTOPEUSELOG****
IfthepackageisCrushed,Wet,orDamaged,IMMEDIATELYsecureitandcallHealthPhysicsat7233201.
Otherwise,continueyourinspectionfollowingtheSafetyInstructions.
CRA:
Vial#:
Nuclide:
Chem.Form:
DateRec.:
Amount:
PurchaseOrder#:
Vendor:
LocationofStorage:
ALWAYSremove/obliterateallRadioactivepackagemarkingsandsurveypriortodisposal.
Amount
OnHand
[uCi]
Amount
Removed
[uCi]
Name
Date
WASTEDISPOSAL
ToHealth
Physics
[uCi]
ToSewer
[uCi]
Other
Explain
[uCi]
LongTerm
Retention[uCi]
TransferTouCi/CRA
#
NuclidesincorporatedintosamplesorintheprocessofanexperimentDisposaldateisindefinite.
Thislogsheetmustbekeptinareadilyretrievablemannerforinspection;andaftertheshipmentis
usedupthisistobefiledinthelabjournalasalongtermrecord.
Takebalancetozeroshowingfinaldisposalofthestockvialto________on_______(date).
104
FORMS
TRANSFEROFRADIOACTIVEMATERIAL
RADIOACTIVEMATERIALTRANSFERANDUSELOG
CHEM.
NUCLIDE:
FORM
FROM
FROM
TO
CRA:
NAME:
CRA:
Amount
OnHand
[uCi]
Amount
Removed
[uCi]
Name
Date
DATE
REC:
WASTEDISPOSAL
ToHealth
ToSewer
Physics
[uCi]
[uCi]
TO
NAME:
Other
Explain
[uCi]
AMOUNT
TRANSFERRED:
TRANSFER
DATE:
LongTerm
Retention
*[uCi]
Transfer To
uCi/CRA#
*NuclidesincorporatedintosamplesorintheprocessofanexperimentDisposaldateisindefinite.
Thislogsheetmustbekeptinareadilyretrievablemannerforinspection,andaftertheshipmentis
usedupthisittobefiledinthelabjournalasalongtermrecordfor3years.
MAKECOPIESFORDISTRIBUTION:
FROMCRA:
Original
RETURNTOHP:OnecopywithQuarterlyInventory.
TOCRA:
RetainonecopyRETURNTOHP:OnecopywithQuarterlyInventory.
105

INDEX
A
absorbeddose63
accelerators2,14,41
accidentalreleasereport31
actionlevels51
activity9,10,49,63,64
AdministrativePanelonRadiologicalSafety33
adversehealtheffects19
AgreementStates27
AirborneRadioactivityArea30
ALARA23,28,63
alphaparticle3,12,16
alphaparticles3
analyticalxraydevices11,45
animals37,46,56,57,94
appendices62
aqueouswaste53
AtomicEnergyCommission27
attenuation14
B
backgroundradiation63
basiclawofradiobiology19
becquerel10,63,92
betaparticles3,4,12,18
BETASPECTRA5
beverage43
bioassay47,63
biohazardousradwaste54
bremsstrahlung10,11,12,13
C
C145,34,51,52,71
cabinetxraymachine41,42
CaliforniaCodeofRegulations27
cancer21,67
cementkit54
characteristiccurve15
chemicalwaste55
clinicalprocedures31,40
ClinicalRadiationSafetyCommittee34,40
CodeofFederalRegulations27
compliance32,40
Comptonscattering13
containers25,53
contaminatedequipment51
contamination16,24,25,48,50,51,52,58,59,60,61,
104
ControlledRadiationAuthorization(CRA)34
conversion factors92
cosmicradiation20
cpm64
Cr5134,51,75
CRA64
CRAquantities38
CRA,amendments39
CRA,application34
CRA,terms39,40
Cu6451,79
curie10,31,63,64
D
dailyuselogs48,105
decayconstant9,14
decayscheme9
decayinstorage31,56
decontamination52,58,69
deficiencies40
deskarea43
deterministiceffect20,21,64
disappearance61
disposal,radiationdevices51
disposal,radioactivity52
distance1,22,24,30
DNA19
doseequivalent19,20,64,65,66,67
doselimits28
doserate,calculation8
dosimeter18,25,31,41,42,46,47,101
dpm64
drywaste53

E
effectivedose21,64
electromagneticradiation13
electroncapture8
electronmicroscopes42
electronmicroscopes,uraniumsalts42
electronicdevice41
emptycontainers30
emptypackages30
environmentalstudies35
equipmentrepair51
excreta53,56,57
exposurehistory28
F
F1834,51,78
fabricatedrecords32,40
fee,radiationmachine43
fetaldoselimit29
filmbadge17,25,31,41,46
food43
forms62,96
freeradicals19
fumehoods25,35,50,56,57,74,77
G
gammafactor8
gammaray7,13
gasdetector14
gasmultiplication16
GeigerMueller,GMdetector16
Glossary63
gray20,63,65,92
Guarapari,Brazil20
H
H35,34,51,52,70
halfvaluelayer8,14,15
halflife5,8,9,53
halflifecategories53
hazardouswaste55
HazardsEvaluation31,39
HealthPhysics32
Hereditaryeffects22
highelevations20
highradiationarea30,44,45,46,65
humanexcreta54
humanuse31,40
HVL8,14
I
I12525,34,51,54,76
I1318,34,51,54
incidentresponse58
injuryreport31
inspections28,32,33
Internalconversion8
inventorysummary49
inversesquarelaw24
iodine25,35,47,53,54,76
ionizationchamber16
ionizingphotons13
isomerictransition7
K
Kerala,India20
L
labeling,quantitiesofmaterialsrequiringlabels82
labels30,46,62,93
lead14,24,36,53
leaktest49
levels,A,B,C39
linearaccelerator21
linearacceleratorsSeeaccelerators
linearattenuationcoefficient14
liquidscintillationcocktail33,35,52
liquidwaste54,55
LocalControlCommittees34
loss61
lossreport31
M
measures,requiredunits31
medicaldose20
medicaluse31
minors29,35
mitoticindex19
Mixedhalflifecategories57
mixedwaste36,52,55
modifications40,41,44
monitoringrequired46
moving40
Q
QLMquantities34,53,62
qualityfactor66,67
N
NaI(Tl)18,25,50,52,76
NationalCouncilonRadiationProtectionand
Measurements62,80
naturalbackground20
naturalsources,dose20
neutronsources8
neutrons3,4,8,12,19
notices27
NuclearRegulatoryCommission(NRC)27,62,66,81
O
occupationaldose66
onthejobtraining36,44,98
operatinglog44
Orderingandreceivingradioactivematerial48
orders27,48
P
P324,5,34,51,52,72
P335,34,51,52,73
packages30,48,49,61,111
pairproduction14
Part19,10CFR27
Part20,10CFR28
pathogen55
personnelmonitoring46
personnel,quarterlyupdate35
photodisintegration14
photoelectriceffect13
photomultipliertube18
pocketionizationchambers16
positron4,59,60
postingrequirements27,30,42
pregnantworker22,28,100
projectdirector31,35,40,41,45
ProjectDirector,qualifications33
proportionalcounters16
provisionalrenewals39
publicdose66
purchases,seealsopackages48
R
rad16,19,21,63,66,92
radiationarea30,47,50
RadiationSafetyCommittee,alsoRSC67
RadiationSafetyOfficer,alsoRSO67
radiationsymbol29
radioactivedecay2,3,9
RadioactiveDrugResearchCommittee40
radioactivewaste52
radioactivity1,2,9,52
radiobiology19
radiochemicals1,25
RadioisotopeJournal43
Recombination16
records31
recordsretention44
records,falsified32,40
recoveryplan39
references26
registrationfees43
RegulatoryGuides62,81
rem16,19,67
removablecontamination50,51,104
reports31,59,60,61,80
responsibilities,individualuser32
responsibilities,PrincipalInvestigator31
responsibilities,workers28
rooms,quarterlyupdate34
S
S355,25,34,51,52,74
safetydatasheets62,69
scintillationcocktailSeeliquidscintillationcocktail
scintillationcounting18
scintillationvials56
sealedsources49
security29,33
sewer31,53,54,55
sewerlimits,I125andI13154
sewer,ReadysafeandCytoscintandOptiphase56
sharps53
shielding8,24
shipment4850
SIUNITS92
sievert20,67
signs30,46,62,93
spills31,59
spontaneousfission8
standardworkrules36
stochasticeffects21
stucksources60
surveyactionlevels51
surveymeters16,50
surveyrecord50
surveys29,38,50
W
waste31,33,34,36,52,55
waste,animals53,56,57
waste,box57
waste,charges57
waste,containers53
waste,decayinstorage56
waste,halflifecategories53
waste,humanexcreta54
waste,I12552,54
waste,insanitarysewer53
waste,infectious54
waste,liquidscintillation56
waste,lowenergybeta52
waste,mixed36,52,55
waste,nonhazardouslist55
waste,nonradioactive58
waste,scintillationvials56
waste,secondaycontaiment57
waste,sharps53
waste,sinks53
workrules36
worker68
worksheet99
T
T1/29
termination40
theft61
theftreport31
thermoluminescentdosimeter18
thyroidblocking47
time24
tissueweightingfactor21
trainingandexperience36,37
transfer49,106
transport49
tritium,seealsoH347,70
xraydiffraction2,11,41,45
xrayfluorescence2,11,45
xrayrequirements31,41,42,43,45
xrayspectrum11
xrays2,10
UNAT77
unusualevents61
uraniumsalts42
uranyl nitrate, uranyl acetate77
uselog48,105
particlesSeebetaparticle
ventilation35
veryhighradiationarea30,46
TelephoneDirectory
Emergencies24hours
7259999
Information
7233201
Newpersonneltraining
7233202
RadiationSafetyOfficer
7251412
Fax
7230632
CRAstatus
7233202
Dosimetersandrecords
7233203
HumanUseMaterials
7251407
Incomingpackages
7235857
Incomingpackagesfax
4984313
Instrumentcalibration
7251411
Inventoryrecords
7233202
Sealedsourceleaktest
7234723
SurveysatStanford
7251411
SurveyatVAPACHS
7251411
Thyroidsurveys
7234723
VAPACHSmaterialsprogram 7233201
Waste
7233765
Wastefax
7233759
xraymachinesmedical
7257530
xraymachinesnonmedical 7234723
ShortcutWebAddressforHealthPhysics
HealthPhysicsHome
Page
OnlineRadiationSafety
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2010)
GuidancePreparing
HumanuseResearch
Proposals
Forms
http://radsafety.stanford.edu
RadiationSafetySheets
http://radsafetysheets.stanford.edu
SWEEPS
http://radsurvey.stanford.edu
http://radmanual.stanford.edu
http://radproprosals.stanford.edu
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RadiationSafety

RADIATION SAFETY MANUAL (REVISED MARCH 2010)

THE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF IONIZING RADIATION

RADIATION SAFETY MANUAL (REVISED MARCH 2010)

THE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF IONIZING RADIATION

RADIATION SAFETY MANUAL (REVISED MARCH 2010)

THE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF IONIZING RADIATION

C14N+0 (0.156 MeV) +

THE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF IONIZING RADIATION

RADIATION SAFETY MANUAL (REVISED MARCH 2010)

THE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF IONIZING RADIATION

RADIATION SAFETY MANUAL (REVISED MARCH 2010)

THE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF IONIZING RADIATION

RADIATION SAFETY MANUAL (REVISED MARCH 2010)

THE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF IONIZING RADIATION

Tc99Tc+0 (0.142 MeV)

RADIATION SAFETY MANUAL (REVISED MARCH 2010)

THE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF IONIZING RADIATION

X=2mCix(1.512Rcm /mCihr)x(10cm) =0.03024R/hr.

RADIATION SAFETY MANUAL (REVISED MARCH 2010)

THE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF IONIZING RADIATION

RADIATION SAFETY MANUAL (REVISED MARCH 2010)

THE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF IONIZING RADIATION

RADIATION SAFETY MANUAL (REVISED MARCH 2010)

THE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF IONIZING RADIATION

RADIATION SAFETY MANUAL (REVISED MARCH 2010)

THE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF IONIZING RADIATION

RADIATION SAFETY MANUAL (REVISED MARCH 2010)

THE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF IONIZING RADIATION

RADIATION SAFETY MANUAL (REVISED MARCH 2010)

THE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF IONIZING RADIATION

RADIATION SAFETY MANUAL (REVISED MARCH 2010)

THE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF IONIZING RADIATION

RADIATION SAFETY MANUAL (REVISED MARCH 2010)

THE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF IONIZING RADIATION

THE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF IONIZING RADIATION

RADIATION SAFETY MANUAL (REVISED MARCH 2010)

THE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF IONIZING RADIATION

RADIATION SAFETY MANUAL (REVISED MARCH 2010)

THE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF IONIZING RADIATION

RADIATION SAFETY MANUAL (REVISED MARCH 2010)

THE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF IONIZING RADIATION

RADIATION SAFETY MANUAL (REVISED MARCH 2010)

THE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF IONIZING RADIATION

RADIATION SAFETY MANUAL (REVISED MARCH 2010)

THE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF IONIZING RADIATION

RADIATION SAFETY MANUAL (REVISED MARCH 2010)

THE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF IONIZING RADIATION

RADIATION SAFETY MANUAL (REVISED MARCH 2010)

THE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF IONIZING RADIATION

RADIATION SAFETY MANUAL (REVISED MARCH 2010)

THE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF IONIZING RADIATION

RADIATION SAFETY MANUAL (REVISED MARCH 2010)

THE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF IONIZING RADIATION

RADIATION SAFETY MANUAL (REVISED MARCH 2010)

REGULATIONS FOR THE SAFE USE OF IONIZING RADIATION

RADIATION SAFETY MANUAL (REVISED MARCH 2010)

REGULATIONS FOR THE SAFE USE OF IONIZING RADIATION

RADIATION SAFETY MANUAL (REVISED MARCH 2010)

REGULATIONS FOR THE SAFE USE OF IONIZING RADIATION

RADIATION SAFETY MANUAL (REVISED MARCH 2010)

REGULATIONS FOR THE SAFE USE OF IONIZING RADIATION

RADIATION SAFETY MANUAL (REVISED MARCH 2010)

REGULATIONS FOR THE SAFE USE OF IONIZING RADIATION