Foundation

UNIT 2 i
Introduction to advanced foundation in construction
Unit 2
TCM 301/05
Advanced Construction
Technology
Introduction
to Advanced
Foundation in
Construction
ii WAWASAN OPEN UNIVERSITY

TCM 301/05 Advanced Construction Technology
COURSE TEAM
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COURSE COORDINATOR
Dr. Chan Yuan Eng
EXTERNAL COURSE ASSESSOR

Professor Badorul Hisham bin Abu Bakar, Universiti Sains Malaysia
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UNIT 2 iii
Contents
Unit 2 Introduction to Advanced
Foundation in Construction
Unit overview
Unit objectives
2.1 Deep basement
Objectives
Introduction
Sheet piling
Contiguous bored pile wall
Diaphragm wall
Control of groundwater
11
Suggested answers to activity
13
2.2 Rigid earth retaining structures
15
Objectives
15
Introduction
15
Types of rigid retaining wall
16
Stability of rigid retaining wall
19
26
2.3 Flexible earth retaining structures
29
Objectives
29
Introduction
29
Types of flexible retaining wall
29
iv WAWASAN OPEN UNIVERSITY

Stability of flexible retaining wall
31
35
Summary of Unit 2
37
Unit practice exercise
39
Suggested answers to self-tests
41
Suggested answers to unit practice exercise
45
Terminology
51
References
53
UNIT 2 1
Unit Overview
elcome to Unit 2 of TCM 301/05 Advanced Construction Technology. In
this unit, you will be introduced to the design and construction of some
substructures which are in-contact with soils.
This unit is organised into two sections:

Section 2.1 covers the common techniques used for basement excavations that
include sheet piling, contiguous bored pile wall and diaphragm wall. Groundwater
control techniques are also covered in this section as the presence of groundwater
normally causes complications during deep excavation.
Sections 2.2 and 2.3 introduce the types of earth retaining structures which can
generally be categorised into rigid and flexible types. The stability and failure
modes of each type of the earth retaining structures are reviewed in these two
sections.
This study unit has been designed to take about 23 hours (four weeks). The actual
time you need depends on your rate of study. Remember to allocate sufficient time
to complete your third assignment.
Unit Objectives
By the end of Unit 2, you should be able to:
1. Describe the design and construction of deep basement construction.
2. Explain the importance of groundwater control in deep basement excavation.
3. Describe and relate the importance of earth retaining structures in deep
basement construction.
2 WAWASAN OPEN UNIVERSITY

UNIT 2 3
2.1 Deep Basement

Objectives
By the end of this section, you should be able to:
1. Describe the functions of sheet piling, contiguous bored pile wall and
diaphragm wall for deep basement construction.
2. Evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of each construction technique
for deep basement construction.
3. Explain the procedures for each technique of deep base construction.
Introduction
Owing to the growing scarcity of land worldwide, the current construction trend has
to shift from ground to sky and deep beneath the earth. Underground construction
becomes inevitable particularly in the urbanised area. For building developments,
the most common type of underground construction is basement. Basement is
defined as an excavation exceeding 4.5m depth. Basements are common in high
rise buildings which normally function as car parks, storage for building services
and even commercial lots (Figure 2.1).
Besides providing additional space for clients, the construction of basement also
reduces the net bearing pressure on the supporting soil through the removal of soil.
Consequently, the building can be founded on a stronger ground thus reduces the
risk of excessive settlement or bearing failure. The construction of deep basement
requires engineered excavations. In this section, we will discuss three common
techniques used for supporting deep basement excavations. The criteria for the
selection of the techniques include size of excavation, ground conditions, presence
of groundwater table, construction cost, speed of work, disturbance to the structures
in the vicinity etc. The control of groundwater is an important consideration in
deep basement construction. Several techniques of groundwater control will also
be reviewed in this section.

Figure 2.1 Deep basement excavation for a commercial building
Sheet piling
Sheet piling is commonly used in construction works where the excavation is
deeper than 1m to prevent cave-in of the surrounding unsupported soil. It creates
a safe and stable work site for workers and also prevents unnecessary collapses of
excavation due to rain and unstable soil.
Sheet pile comprises a thin steel section: 7 30mm thick, and 400 500mm wide.
The steel sections consist of interlocking sheets manufactured through either
hot-rolled or cold-formed process. These sheets are available as Z- or U-shaped
profiles in a variety of sections and lengths (Figure 2.2). They are normally driven
into ground by vibrating. Their use is often restricted in urbanised areas due to
environmental problems such as noise and vibrations.
(a) Z shaped
(b) U shaped
Figure 2.2 Sheet pile sections
The use of sheet piling as a temporary retaining structure for deep excavation
normally requires bracing. Wales and struts are the typical bracing members for a
sheet piling in both longitudinal and transverse directions (Figure 2.3). Figure 2.4
shows the typical construction sequences of a braced excavation. First, sheet piles
are driven into both sides of the excavation. A V-cut initial cantilever excavation is
then made between the supporting structures. Subsequently, wales are installed to
UNIT 2 5
tie up the interlocking sheet piling. Struts are then installed between the supporting
structures. The excavation and installation of struts are repeated for the next level
of depth until the final grade.
The advantages of using sheet pile walls include:
1. Provides high resistance to driving stresses. The sheet pile can be driven
into moderately hard soil.
2. Light weight. Steel material is known for its high strength to weight ratio.
3. Long service life above or below water with modest protection. Due to
the high strength and durability characteristics of steel, very little
protection is required for the sheet piles.
4. Easy to adapt the pile length by either welding or bolting. The required
sheet pile length may vary with site condition. This can be solved easily by
splicing the sheet piles at site.
5. Low cost compared to other types of wall. Due to the relatively simple
installation procedures, the labour and machinery costs for sheet pile
installation are lower than other types of wall.
6. Can be pulled out and reused on several project. Sheet pile for temporary
works can be reused at other sites due to high reuse value of steel.
The disadvantages of using sheet piling walls are:

1. Sections can rarely be used as part of the permanent structure.
Periodical maintenance is required if the sheet pile wall is to be used as a
permanent structure.
2. Installation of sheet piles is difficult in soils with boulders or cobbles.
In such cases, the desired wall depths may not be reached.
3. Excavation shapes are dictated by the sheet pile section and interlocking
elements.
4. Sheet pile driving may cause neighbourhood disturbance. The vibration
and noise generated during pile driving could limit the usage of sheet pile.

Wale
Strut
Wale
Strut
Sheet pile
Cross sectional view
Plan view
Sheet
pile
Strut
Wale
Figure 2.3 Braced sheet piling excavation
Strut/cross-lot
brace
Sheet pile
wall
Figure 2.4 Typical construction sequences of a braced sheet piling excavation
UNIT 2 7
Contiguous bored pile wall

Contiguous bored pile wall is a type of retaining structure formed by a series of
closely spaced (about diameter + 150mm) bored piles. Typically, the piles have
diameters ranging from 500 to 1,200mm. The contiguous bored pile wall provides
a robust solution for forming deep excavations at sites where ground water
retention is not a consideration. It is suitable for basement excavation up to 20m
deep. Alternatively, smaller diameter micro-piles may be sandwiched in between
two adjacent main bored piles to close the gaps between the piles. The gaps are
grouted to form a watertight retaining wall.
Figure 2.5 shows a typical contiguous bored pile wall. The construction of
contiguous bored pile wall is similar to that of normal bored pile used for building
foundations (refer to TBE 203/05 Unit 4, section 4.2). First, the bored piles are
constructed in-situ by excavating a hole of a specified diameter and depth. Next,
reinforcement is installed into the hole, and lastly the pile is concreted. The
contiguous bored piles which are constructed in a series are then connected at the
pile heads by a row of pile cap. The exposed surfaces of these piles are normally
fairly rough in appearance. Thus, in most cases where the bored pile wall is to be
used as an inner wall, some decorative surface should be applied, such as sprayed
concrete or cladding.
Another type of wall which is similar to the contiguous bored pile wall is known
as secant pile wall. The only difference between the two types of walls is the gap
the between the piles. The secant pile wall is constructed in the way that the two
adjacent piles, i.e., primary (hard) and secondary (soft) piles are interlocked into
each other (Figure 2.6). The former is reinforced while the latter is not. The
construction of secant pile is carried out by installing the primary piles and then the
secondary piles are formed in reinforced concrete, cutting into the primary piles. By
using this form of construction, the ingress of water to any subsequent excavation
can be substantially reduced. This type of wall is normally constructed by the
continuous flight auger process (refer to TBE 203/05, Unit 4, section 4.2).
Figure 2.5 Contiguous bored pile wall

Source: http://www.retainingwall-solutions.com/Bathwick.html

Secondary
pile
Primary pile
Secondary
pile
Figure 2.6 Plan view of secant piles

Source: http://www.skanska.co.uk/upload/Sevices/Piling/Datasheets/Bored%20
Pile%20Retaining%20Walls%20Datahseet.pdf
Advantages of using contiguous bored pile wall/secant piles:

1. Low noise and vibration during installation. The piles are constructed
by drilling process. The noise and vibration caused by sheet pile driving
can be avoided.
2. Can be used at sites with low headroom where driving of pile is
impermissible. The hammering process of driven piles normally requires a
high headroom.
3. Low cost and speed construction. No expensive machinery involved.
4. Can be used for excavation in firm and stiff soils. Boring machines with
diamond core bits can be used in stiff soil or even hard rock.
Disadvantages of using contiguous bored pile wall/secant piles:

1. May not be effectively watertight even with the use of grouting/secant
piles. The use of this type of wall for excavation below groundwater table
is normally not advisable.
2. Limitation on the depth of excavation. For deep drilling, the soil at the
wall of drilling hole may collapse.
UNIT 2 9
Diaphragm wall
Diaphragm wall is a type of reinforced concrete wall which is constructed in-situ
by means of deep trench excavation. The unique feature of this technique is the
use of engineered drilling fluid, usually the bentonite slurry to stabilise the ground
during deep excavation. The walls are constructed in discrete panel with thickness
between 300 and 1,200mm. This type of wall is commonly used for retaining very
deep excavations as it can be designed to take very high structural loads. It can also
be used as groundwater barriers.
Figure 2.7 shows the typical construction procedures for a diaphragm wall. The
construction is carried out by excavating the trench using a grab which can either be
mechanically or hydraulically operated. During the excavation process, drilling fluid
(bentonite slurry) is supplied continuously into the trench for exerting hydraulic
pressure against the trench walls and preventing collapse of the unsupported soil.
Diaphragm walls consist of a series of inter-connected panels typically ranging in
length from 3m to 7m. Once a panel is excavated and the drilling fluid is cleaned,
stop ends are installed to provide a defined profiled joint to the next panel. The
next stage of the process is to install reinforcement mesh into the excavated trench.
Subsequently, concrete is poured in one continuous operation through one or
more tremie pipes (depending on panel size) that initially extend to the bottom
of the trench. As the concrete level rises within the panel, the tremie pipes are
progressively lifted. However the discharge end of the tremie pipe always remains
embedded in fresh concrete. After completion of a primary panel, the adjacent
running panel is excavated and the stop end removed to reveal the profiled joint.
The reinforcement mesh is then installed and the subsequent panel is concreted in
a repetitive manner.
The construction procedures of a diaphragm wall may look simple, but the actual
process involves large and expensive machineries, particularly for the continuous
supply of bentonite slurry during the excavation process. For example, bentonite,
silo, mixer, centrifugal pump, desander, slurry tank etc. should be placed beside the
excavation site to supply the bentonite slurry. Therefore, this technique is normally
used for deep and large excavations. It may not be an economic solution for a small
project in view of the expensive and large machineries involved.
Advantages of using diaphragm wall:
1. Can be installed to considerable depth. The continuous supply of
bentonite slurry during excavation process could effectively prevent collapse
of unsupported soil.
2. Reduce construction time of basement.
3. No vibration during installation. No pile driving/hammering process
involved.
4. Economic solution for large deep basement with unstable soil profile.
No temporary support/shoring required.

Disadvantages of using diaphragm wall:

1. May not be an economic solution for small and shallow basement.
Expensive and large machineries are required. A large site is required for
the storage of slurry.
Installation of
reinforcement
Excavation
of panel
Concreting
of panel
Bentonite
feed
Figure 2.7 Construction sequences of diaphragm walls
Web Reference
Please click on the following web link to observe how a diaphragm
wall is constructed.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cT3pYt_NPIc
Activity 2.1
List in point form, the construction procedures of a diaphragm
wall.
UNIT 2 11
Control of groundwater
Control of groundwater is not a technique of basement excavation but it constitutes
important construction and design considerations for a deep basement excavation
particularly for the sites with high groundwater table. The presence of groundwater
table is one of the most important criteria for the selection of the type of wall and
construction method. The information about the groundwater table of a site can
be retrieved from the borelogs through site investigation.
Dewatering is a process of removing water from an excavation. It can be carried
out by lowering the groundwater table by means of pumping or placing pipe lines
to drain out the water before the excavation work. There are four basic methods of
controlling groundwater:
1. Open pumping: Water is permitted to flow into an excavation and collected
in ditches before being pumped away from the excavation site. (Figure 2.8)
2. Predrainage: Lower the groundwater table before excavation by means of
pumped wells, wellpoints, ejectors, and drains (Figure 2.9).
3. Cutoff: The groundwater flow is cutoff by the installations of sheet piling,
diaphragm wall or other watertight wall (Figure 2.10).
4. Exclusion: Water is excluded with compressed air. This technique is
commonly adopted for tunneling work.
Figure 2.8 Open pumping dewatering

Source: http://www.aquatechdewatering.com/contract_dewatering.php

Figure 2.9 Predrainage of groundwater

Source: http://www.aquatechdewatering.com/contract_dewatering.php
Figure 2.10 Diaphragm wall to cutoff groundwater

Source: http://bagtc.com/en/Methods+for+geotechnical+construction/1/
Diaphragm+Walls
It should be noted that open pumping or groundwater lowering may not be

permissible for all permanent structures. This is because such pumping disturbs
the groundwater flow patterns and their velocities increase sharply which may
eventually cause soil liquefaction. It may also cause large settlements of structures
if relatively compressible soils are present. For such construction sites, the use of
watertight wall to cutoff the groundwater flow is a more viable solution.
Self-test 2.1
Summarise the advantages and disadvantages of using sheet piling,
contiguous bored pile wall, and diaphragm wall for deep basement
excavations.
You can find the answers for Self-test 2.1 at the end of this unit.
Compare it with your own answer.
UNIT 2 13
Summary
In this section, you have examined three common techniques used
for deep basement excavations, i.e., sheet piling, contiguous bored
pile wall and diaphragm wall. Sheet piling is the most common
technique used for basement excavation. The main disadvantage
of this technique is associated with the driving process of the sheet
piles in which noise and vibration are unavoidable. Contiguous
bored pile can be used for excavations in firm and stiff soils. The
main disadvantage of this technique is its poor water retention
ability. The diaphragm wall is commonly used for deep and large
excavations. Engineered drilling fluid is supplied during trench
excavation to stabilise the ground. The main disadvantage of this
technique is that it involves expensive machineries. Four techniques
of groundwater control were also reviewed in this section, i.e., open
pumping, predrainage, cutoff and exclusion.
Feedback
Activity 2.1
Trench excavation; drilling fluid is supplied simultaneously
Trench cleaning
Stop ends fixing
Installation of reinforcement meshes
Concrete pouring
Removal of stop ends

UNIT 2 15
2.2 Rigid Earth Retaining Structures

Objectives
1. Describe the types of earth retaining structures.
2. Explain the potential failure modes of each type of earth retaining
structures.
3. Analyse the stability of each type of earth retaining structures.
Introduction
Earth retaining structures are common in a manmade environment. One of the most
popular earth retaining structures is retaining wall. Retaining walls are structures
that support backfill and allow for a change of elevation. For examples, a retaining
wall can be used to retain fill along a slope or it can be used to support a cut into a
slope, as illustrated in Figure 2.11.
Fill
Retaining wall to support a fill
Cut
Retaining wall to support a cut
Figure 2.11 Applications of retaining walls
Retaining wall structures were amongst the first to be analysed using the concept
of mechanics. Prior to the design of any retaining wall, we must first identify all
the forces exerted on the wall. This requires a good understanding of the theories
of lateral earth pressure. Subsequently, the stability of wall can be analysed by
checking the potential failure modes induced by the forces. Stability is defined

as a condition in which a geotechnical system will not fail or collapse under any
conceivable loading (external load, fluid pressure, soil weight etc.). Figure 2.12
shows the possible forces that may affect the stability of a retaining wall.
External loads
Soil weight
Is this retaining
structure stable?
Fluid
Figure 2.12 Forces acting on a retaining wall
Typically, retaining walls can be divided into two main types based on their
deformation behaviour and design concept, i.e., rigid retaining wall and flexible
retaining wall. In this section, we will first discuss the some examples of the rigid
retaining walls. Subsequently, we will examine their potential failure modes and
stability.
Types of rigid retaining wall

It is important to classify earth retaining structures based on the factors that will
govern their selection and use. The selection of appropriate type of wall is based
on the assessments of the design loading, depth to adequate foundation support,
presence of deleterious environmental factors, physical constraints of the site,
cross-sectional geometry of the site both existing and planned, settlement potential,
desired aesthetics, constructability, maintenance and cost.
Rigid retaining walls rely on self-weight of wall, and in some occasions, make use
the self-weight of soil as well, to resist the lateral pressures exerted from the retained
soils. This type of wall is normally constructed from the base of the wall to the
top (bottom-up construction). The walls may also be constructed by using precast
elements. Figures 2.13 2.16 show some examples of rigid retaining walls.
Gravity wall (Figure 2.13) is normally made of unreinforced concrete which is
casted as a rigid block. The self-weight of solid mass of concrete provides a large
vertical stress to resist the lateral pressures of retained soil. This type of wall is most
economical at low wall heights, typically up to 3m.
UNIT 2 17
Backfill soil
Lateral pressures
from backfill soil
Concrete
mass
Figure 2.13 Gravity wall
Cantilever wall (Figure 2.14) is one of the most common types of rigid retaining
walls. It is so named because its individual parts behave like cantilever beams. This
type of wall is generally used to retain soils of 3 5m in height. The main advantage
of using cantilever wall over the gravity wall is that the cantilever wall does not
require large volume of concrete mass to maintain stability. Its stability is derived
partly from the self-weight of the wall, but mostly from the self-weight of the soil
retained. This type of wall is normally constructed by reinforced concrete. The
provisions of reinforcements are important in the cantilever wall design because
the wall is constructed with relatively thin members. The joints and mid-span of
the base and wall form the weak sections which are susceptible to large bending as
a result of lateral pressures from the retained soils.
Figure 2.14 Cantilever retaining wall

Crib wall (Figure 2.15) is one of the oldest types of rigid retaining walls. This type
of wall comprises a series of stacked members creating hollow cells filled with soil
or rocks. Recently, some construction projects utilise recycled crushed concretes
as the filling materials for the crib wall. The crib elements can be constructed
by timber, precast concrete or steel depending on the designate height of the
wall. Crib walls can be economically designed and built for a wide range of wall
heights.
Figure 2.15 Crib wall
Gabions wall (Figure 2.16) is a type of free-draining wall that is constructed by

filling rocks, coarse aggregates or recycled crushed concrete into a basket formed
by galvanised steel mesh. The name Gabions is derived from Italian gabibione
meaning big cage. The main advantage of using Gabions wall is flexibility. Since
the baskets are constructed of galvanised mesh wire filled with rock, the flexibility
of the gabion structure allows it to withstand pressure without deforming, cracking
UNIT 2 19
or breaking as in the case of concrete and other materials. Other advantages

include good drainage, low cost and no advanced technology required. The baskets
normally come in 0.5 1m high, and 2 4m long.
Figure 2.16 Gabions wall
Stability of rigid retaining wall

Before we assess the stability of a retaining wall, it is good that we develop some
understanding on the potential failure modes of the wall. In general, a rigid retaining
wall may fail through four potential failure modes, i.e., sliding, rotation, bearing,
and structural failures (Figure 2.17).
Sliding/
translation
failure
(a)
Rotation
failure
(b)
Deep-seated &
bearing capacity
failure
(c)
Figure 2.17 Potential failure modes for a rigid retaining wall
Structural/
material
failure
(d)

1. Checking for sliding

A retaining wall has a tendency to translate laterally as one rigid unit from
its original position due to the lateral driving forces resulted from the active
earth pressures. Generally, the wall resists the sliding through frictional
resistance developed between the base of wall and soil. To prevent the sliding,
the sliding resistance at the base of wall must be at least 1.5 times greater
than the lateral active earth force:
(FS)T =
T
1.5
Pa
(2.1)
where,
(FS)T = Factor of safety against sliding
Pa = Lateral active earth force pushing against the wall
T = sliding resistance at the base
= Rz tan b
whereby Rz = resultant vertical force
b = interface friction angle between the base of wall and soil,
Let us consider the cases of gravity wall and cantilever wall shown in Figure
2.21. The factor of safety against sliding can be calculated as follows:
(FS)T =
(Ww + Ws) tan b

Pa
(2.2)
where,
Ww = Weight of gravity wall
= con Cross-sectional area of the wall; whereby con is unit weight
of concrete = 24 kN/m3.
Ws = Weight of soil
= Cross-sectional area of the encompassed soil region;
whereby is unit weight of soil, typical between 16 19kN/m3.
UNIT 2 21
It should be noted that the Pa in the Figure 2.18 is a lateral active earth
pressure resulted from the retained soil. The value of Pa can be calculated
by using Rankines theory (1857) or Coulombs theory (1776). However,
these theories are beyond the scope of this module. You may refer to the
geotechnical engineering reference as suggested below if you are interested
to gain more insight about these theories. In this module, you may
conveniently take:
Pa =
1
0.3 H 2
2
(2.3)
where,
H = Height of retaining wall
Gravity wall
Cantilever wall
Figure 2.18 Checking for sliding failure
Reading
The web link below provide explanations on active and passive
earth pressures based on Rankine and Coulombs theories:
http://203.208.166.84/sid/download/CE341/Lecture15_4on1.pdf
2. Checking for rotation

A retaining wall also has a tendency to overturn outward about its toe when
subjects to lateral earth pressures. To prevent the rotation/overturning
failure, the resultant vertical force must lie within middle third of the base
(i.e., B/3 x 2B/3).

Consider the examples shown in Figure 2.19. The horizontal distance

between the resultant vertical force and the toe of the retaining wall (x)
can be calculated as:
x=
Ww xw + Ws xw Pa za
Ww Ws
(2.4)
where
za =
1
H
3
Gravity wall
Cantilever wall
Figure 2.19 Checking for rotation failure
From Figure 2.20, it is obvious that in order to yield B/3 x 2B/3,

the eccentricity of the resultant vertical load, e must be B/6; whereby,
e = |(B/2 x)|
Figure 2.20 Location of resultant vertical force to prevent rotation failure
UNIT 2 23
3. Checking for bearing failure

The soil beneath the base of a retaining wall must be strong enough to
resist the bearing pressures imposed by the retaining wall. It should be
noted that the bearing pressures are not uniformly distributed over the
entire width of the base, but the pressures tend to be higher at one edge
of the base (depending on the position of the resultant vertical force), and
lower at the other edge (Figure 2.21). The maximum bearing pressure
(max) should not exceed the allowable bearing capacity of the soil (qallow):
max qallow
(2.5)
where,
max =
Rz
R e(B/2)
+ z
A
I
(2.6)
whereby,
A = Area of the base of retaining wall (i.e., A = B 1)
I = Second moment of inertia (refer to Section 1.3 of module TBE 203/05)
= (B3 1)/12
Figure 2.21 Checking for bearing failure
4. Checking for structural failure

The checking for structural failure is particularly essential for the cantilever
wall. Figure 2.22 shows the base of a cantilever wall. Checking should be
performed to ensure that sufficient reinforcements are provided in the
wall to resist shear and bending moment along the critical sections a-a,
a-b, and b-b. The checking procedures involve references to certain design
codes, i.e., BS8110, or Eurocode EC2. This is beyond the scope of this
module.

Figure 2.22 Checking for structural failure
Besides the main checking as discussed above, the drainage system in

the backfill soil should also be given great attention when designing a
retaining wall as it will affect the lateral earth pressures acting on the wall.
A poor drainage system would promote accumulation of rain water behind
the wall which will subsequently increase the hydrostatic pressure exerted
on the wall. This may eventually lead to unstable conditions. Two options
to take care of this problem are suggested as follows (Figure 2.23):
a. Provision of weep holes with or without geotextile on the back-face of
wall.
b. Provision of land drain.
Figure 2.23 Typical drainage system behind a rigid retaining wall
UNIT 2 25
Activity 2.2
Figure 2.24 shows a typical concrete gravity wall used to retain
an excavation of 3m high. Check the stability of the retaining

wall against sliding, rotation and bearing failure. Given that the
allowable bearing capacity of the soil beneath the gravity wall
(qallow) = 150 kN/m2 and the interface friction angle between the
base of wall and soil (b) = 20.
1m
3m
Soil
= 17 kN/m3
Concrete wall
con = 17 kN/m3
Figure 2.24
Self-test 2.2
A cantilever wall is used to retain an excavation of 3m high, as
shown in Figure 2.25. Given that the concrete has a unit weight
of 24 kN/m3, the allowable bearing capacity of the soil beneath
the gravity wall (qallow) = 150 kN/m2, and the interface friction
angle between the base of wall and soil (b) = 20. Check the
stability of the retaining wall against sliding, rotation, and bearing
failure.
0.5 m
3m
0.6 m
Soil
= 17 kN/m3
1m
Concrete
Figure 2.25
0.5 m

Summary
In this section, you have examined the common types of rigid
retaining walls including gravity wall, cantilever wall, crib wall
and Gabions wall. Next, the discussions focused on failure modes
and stability of the rigid retaining walls. The rigid retaining wall
should be checked for its stability against sliding, rotation, bearing
and structural failure. The step-by-step calculations for these
checking were demonstrated in the last part of this section.
Feedback
Activity 2.2
1. Checking for sliding:
(FS )T =
T
1.5
Pa
Ww = con Cross-sectional area of the wall

= 24 kN/m3 (3 m 1 m)
= 72 kN/m
Ws = 0
Rz = Ww + Ws
= 72 + 0 kN/m
= 72 kN/m
T = Rz tan b
= 72 kN/m tan (20)
= 26.2 kN/m
UNIT 2 27
Pa =
1
0.3 H 2
2
1
0.3 17 kN/m 32
2
= 22.95 kN/m
(FS)T =
26.2 kN/m
22.95 kN/m
= 1.14 < 1.5
Not adequate!
2. Checking for rotation:

x=
Ww xw + Ws xw Pa za
Ww Ws
72(0.5) + 0 22.95(3/3)
72 + 0
= 0.181 m
e = |(B/2 x)|
= |(1/2 0.181)|
= 0.319 m
B/6 = 1/6
= 0.167 m
e = 0.319 m > B/6 = 0.167 m
3. Checking for bearing failure:

max =
Rz
R e(B/2)
+ z
A
I
72
72 0.319(1/2)
+
11
(13 1)/12
= 209.81 kN/m2
Not adequate!

Given qallow = 150 kN/m2

max = 209.81 kN/m2 > qallow = 150 kN/m2 Not adequate!
The retaining design is not adequate. It will fail through

sliding, rotation and bearing failure. The size of the gravity
wall needs to be increased, i.e., use thickness of 2m or more.
UNIT 2 29
2.3 Flexible Earth Retaining Structures

Objectives
1. Describe the types of flexible earth retaining structures.
2. Calculate and interpret the potential failure modes of flexible earth retaining
structures.
3. Analyse the stability of flexible earth retaining structures.
Introduction
As mentioned earlier, retaining walls can be grouped based on their deformation
behaviours into rigid and flexible types. In this section, our discussion will focus
on flexible retaining wall. Flexible retaining walls rely on the passive soil resistance
and anchors for stability. This type of wall is normally constructed from the top of
the wall to the base (top-down construction).
Types of flexible retaining wall

The examples of flexible retaining walls include sheet pile wall, anchored wall and
propped wall. Sheet pile wall (Figure 2.26) is the simplest form of flexible retaining
wall. In practice, sheet pile walls only serve excavations of limited depth (3 to 5m
or less) because of the large earth pressures and deflections that may develop behind
the wall. Since sheet pile walls derive their support solely from passive pressure
exerted on the embedded portion of the pile, deep penetration is required (as a
rule of thumb, the penetration depth is about 1.5 times the excavation depth).
Sheet pile walls are normally used as a temporary retaining structure and are often
used in excavation projects. They are used to control or exclude earth or water, or
both and allow for permanent works to be proceeded. Steel is the most common
material used for sheet pile walls due to its inherent strength, relative light weight
and long service life.

Height of
excavation
Sheet
pile wall
Penetration
depth
Figure 2.26 Sheet pile wall
Anchored wall (Figure 2.27) is defined as a wall that derives its support from a
combination of interaction with surrounding soil and one or more mechanical device
(anchor) that inhibit motion at an isolated point. An anchored wall is required
when the height of the wall exceeds the height suitable for a normal sheet pile wall
or when lateral deflection of the wall is a consideration. The anchor resists forces
that would otherwise cause the wall to become unstable. This method, though
technically complex, is useful where high loads are expected. Well-constructed anchor
walls undergo less lateral deflection than the normal sheet pile walls and therefore
provide a better control of back slope subsidence.
Figure 2.27 Anchored wall
Propped wall (Figure 2.28) has a similar working mechanism as the anchor wall
except that the mechanical devices (prop/strut) that inhibit the motion of wall is
installed in front of the wall instead of embedded into the retained soil. This type
of wall is normally used in construction sites to serve as a temporary support for a
deep excavation.
UNIT 2 31
Figure 2.28 Propped wall
Stability of flexible retaining wall

Flexible retaining walls are normally made of long slender members such as steel,
concrete or wood. Unlike rigid walls which we normally ignore the small passive
resistance in front of the wall, flexible walls rely dominantly on the passive soil
resistance and anchors for stability. Therefore, flexible retaining walls need to be
embedded deep into the soil to provide sufficient passive resistance to counter the
active pressures.
The potential failure modes for a flexible retaining wall include deep seated failure,
rotation near base, failure by bending, rotation about anchor/prop and failure of
anchor/prop (Figure 2.29). Of these, rotation near base is the most common failure
mode for unbraced sheet pile walls, while rotation about anchor and failure of
anchor are the typical failure modes for anchored walls. Bearing failure is normally
not critical for a flexible retaining wall because the stability of the wall does not
rely on the heavy self-weight of the structure. Deep seated failure is associated with
the global stability of the slope and it is normally checked by the geotechnical
engineers when designing a slope. The bending failure is related to the strength
of the material used for the flexible retaining wall. The steel section should have
sufficient strength to resist the large lateral earth pressures exerted onto the wall.

Figure 2.29 Potential failure modes of flexible retaining walls
Unlike rigid retaining wall, flexible retaining walls are commonly used in situations
where seepage may occur (i.e., water front, deep excavation). Thus, it is necessary
to pay particular attention to seepage-related instabilities. The common methods
used to analyse the stability of flexible retaining wall include factored moment
method (FMM) and fixed earth method (FEM). However, these methods will
not be discussed explicitly in this module as they require strong fundamentals on
geotechnical engineering.
In this chapter, we will focus on the stability of one of the simplest types of flexible
retaining walls only, known as sheet pile wall. As mentioned above, the most common
failure mode for a sheet pile wall is rotation near its base. Thus, it is important to
ensure that the sheet pile wall is penetrated deep enough into the ground to resist
the active lateral earth pressure exerted on the wall.
Figure 2.30a shows a typical unbraced sheet pile wall. There are two lateral earth
pressures (Pa and Pp) exerted on the wall, resulted from the soil in front and behind
of the wall, respectively. The active lateral earth pressure (Pa) is the pressure/
force that causes the wall to fail outward. The value of Pa can be calculated using
Equation 2.3. On the other hand, the passive lateral earth pressure (Pa) is the
pressure/force that resists the outward movement of the wall. The value of Pp can
UNIT 2 33
be conveniently calculated as Pp =
1
1.5 do2. To maintain the stability of
2
the wall, the rotational moment about point O must be balanced, that is:
Pa
1
1
H = Pp do
3
3
(2.7)
where
Pa = Active lateral earth pressure, =
1
0.3 H 2
2
Pp = Passive lateral earth pressure, =
1
1.5 do2
2
H = Height from ground surface to point of rotation O

do = Height from excavated ground surface to point of rotation O
By solving Equation 2.7, we can determine the unknown do. The safe penetration
depth for a sheet pile wall (d ) should be taken as 1.2do, as shown in Figure 2.30b.
Existing
ground surface
Sheet pile wall
H
Excavated
ground surface
do
Pa
Pp
1/3 H
1/3 do
d = 1.2 do
O
(a)
(b)
Figure 2.30 Determining the safe penetration depth of a sheet pile wall
Reading
Please refer to the following web link to read more about the design
procedures of sheet pile wall.
https://www.cedengineering.com/upload/Design%20of%20
Sheet%20Pile%20Walls.pdf

Activity 2.3
Figure 2.31 shows a typical sheet pile wall used to retain an
excavation of 4m high. Determine the safe penetration depth (d )

for the wall.
Existing
ground surface
Sheet pile wall
3m
Soil
= 17 kN/m3
d=?
Excavated
ground surface
Soil
= 17 kN/m3
Figure 2.31
Self-test 2.3
An excavation in soil having unit weight, = 18.5 kN/m3 is to be
carried out at a construction site. The excavation is 5m high and it
will be supported temporarily by a sheet pile wall. Determine the
required penetration depth for the wall.
Summary
In this section, you have examined the types, failure modes and
stability checking for flexible retaining walls. Examples of flexible
retaining walls include sheet pile wall, anchored wall and propped
wall. The potential failure modes for a flexible retaining wall
are deep seated failure, rotation near base, failure by bending,
rotation about anchor/prop and failure of anchor/prop. Of these,
rotation near base is the most common failure mode for the
UNIT 2 35
unbraced sheet pile walls. In the design of the unbraced sheet

pile wall, calculations should be carried out to determine the safe
embedment depth of the sheet pile into ground.
Feedback
Activity 2.3
Pa
1
1
H = Pp do
3
3
Pa =
1
0.3 H 2
2
1
0.3 17 kN/m3 (3 + do)2
2
= 2.55 (3 + do)2
Pp =
1
1.5 do2
2
1
1.5 17 kN/m3 do2
2
= 12.75 do2
2.55(3 + do)2
1
1
(3 + do) = 12.75 do2 do
2
2
0.85(3 + do)3 = 4.25 do3
By trial and error, do = 4.23m

Thus, the safe penetration depth, d = 1.2 do = 1.2 4.23m = 5.08m

UNIT 2 37
Summary of Unit 2
Summary
Soil excavations are inevitable in construction to create a flat
platform for building layout. In this unit, you were introduced to
some common techniques and types of earth retaining structures
to support deep excavation.
You have identified three common techniques used for the
construction of deep basement, i.e., sheet piling, contiguous
bored pile wall, and diaphragm wall. Each technique poses their
own advantages and disadvantages. Besides that, the technique for
controlling groundwater table was also discussed as groundwater
table is an important consideration when dealing with deep
basement excavation.
You have learnt the construction procedures of each technique
identified in objective 1. In general, sheet piling is constructed by
driving the sheet piles into the ground. Bracing members (i.e., wales
and struts) could be installed to support the sheet piles. Contiguous
bored piles are constructed in a similar way as the normal bored
piles for building foundation. They are constructed in a row with
pile cap connecting their pile heads. Diaphragm wall is constructed
by excavating trench while drilling fluid is supplied continuously
into the trench. The reinforcement is then installed into the trench
and concreted to form a diaphragm wall panel.
The common types of retaining walls were identified. In general,
the retaining walls can be divided into two main types based on
their deformation behaviour and design concept, i.e., rigid retaining
wall and flexible retaining wall. Rigid retaining walls include
gravity wall, cantilever wall, crib wall and Gabions wall, while
flexible walls include sheet pile wall, anchored wall, and propped
wall.
You have also examined the failure modes and stability of flexible
and rigid retaining walls. The rigid retaining wall should be checked
for its stability against, sliding, rotation, bearing, and structural
failure. The potential failure modes for a flexible retaining wall
include deep seated failure, rotation near base, failure by bending,
rotation about anchor/prop, and failure of anchor/prop.

As a whole, Unit 2 provided you with an overview of techniques

for deep basement excavation, and the stability of various types of
retaining walls. By completing this module, it is expected that you
have developed some basic understanding of the techniques and
types of earth retaining structures available for deep excavations.
UNIT 2 39
Unit Practice Exercise

1. Identify the limitations of using sheet piling, contiguous bored pile wall and
diaphragm wall for deep basement excavations.
2. Explain in detail how the material cost could be saved by using a cantilever
retaining wall over a gravity wall.
3. A concrete gravity wall, as shown in Figure 2.32 is used to retain an excavation

of 4m high. Given that the allowable bearing capacity of the soil beneath the
gravity wall (qallow) = 150 kN/m2, and the interface friction angle between the
base of wall and soil (b) = 18,
a. Check the stability of the retaining wall against sliding, rotation, and
bearing failure.
b. If the gravity wall is to be replaced by a steel sheet pile, determine the safe
embedment depth of the pile.
1.5 m
4m
Concrete
wall
con = 24 kN/m3
3m
Figure 2.32
Soil
= 18 kN/m3

UNIT 2 41
Suggested Answers to Self-tests

Feedback
Self-test 2.1
Techniques of
deep basement
excavation
Advantages
Disadvantages
Sheet piling
Provides high
resistance to driving
stresses.
Light weight.
Long service life
above or below
water with modest
protection.
Easy to adapt the
pile length by either
welding or bolting.
Low cost compared
to other types of
wall.
Can be pulled out
and reused on
several project.
Sections can rarely

be used as part
of the permanent
structure.
Installation of sheet
piles is difficult in
soils with boulders
or cobbles. In such
cases, the desired
wall depths may
not be reached.
Excavation shapes
are dictated by the
sheet pile section
and interlocking
elements.
Sheet pile driving
may cause
neighbourhood
disturbance.
Contiguous
bored pile wall
Low noise and

vibration during
installation.
Can be used at sites
with low headroom
where driving of pile
is impermissible.
Low cost and speed
construction.
Can be used for
excavation in firm
and stiff soils.
May not be
effectively watertight.
Limitation on the
depth of excavation.
Diaphragm wall
Can be installed to
considerable depth.
Reduce construction
time of basement.
No vibration during
installation.
Economic solution
for large deep
basement with
unstable soil profile.
May not be an
economic solution
for small and shallow
basement.

Self-test 2.2
1. Checking for sliding:
(FS )T =
T
1.5
Pa

= 24 kN/m3 [(0.5 m 2.5 m) + (0.5 m 2 m)]
= 54 kN/m
Ws = Cross-sectional area of the encompassed soil region

= 17 kN/m3 (1 m 2.5 m)
= 42.5 kN/m
Rz = Ww + Ws
= 54 + 42.5 kN/m
= 96.5 kN/m
T = Rz tan b
= 96.5 kN/m tan (20)
= 35.1 kN/m
Pa =
1
0.3 H 2
2
1
0.3 17 kN/m 32
2
= 22.95 kN/m
(FS )T =
35.1 kN/m
22.95 kN/m
= 1.53 > 1.5
OK!
UNIT 2 43
2. Checking for rotation:

x=
Ww xw + Ws xs Pa za
Ww Ws
30(0.8) + 24(1) + 42.5(1.5) 22.95(3/3)
54 + 42.5
= 0.92 m
e = |(B/2 x)|
= |(2/2 0.92)|
= 0.08 m
B/6 = 2/6
= 0.33 m
e = 0.08 m < B/6 = 0.33 m
OK!
3. Checking for bearing failure:

max =
Rz
R e(B/2)
+ z
A
I
96.5
96.5 0.08(2/2)
+
21
(23 1)/12
= 59.7 kN/m2

max = 59.7 kN/m2 > qallow = 150 kN/m2
The retaining design is adequate.
OK!

Self-test 2.3
Pa
1
1
H = Pp do
3
3
Pa =
1
0.3 H 2
2
1
0.3 18.5 kN/m3 (5 + do)2
2
= 2.775 (5 + do)2
Pp =
1
1.5 do2
2
1
1.5 18.5 kN/m3 do2
2
= 13.875 do2
2.775 (5 + do)2
1
1
(5 + do) = 13.875 do2 do
3
3
0.925 (5 + do)3 = 4.625 do3
By trial and error, do = 7.04m

Thus, the required penetration depth, d = 1.2 do = 1.2 7.04m =
8.45m
UNIT 2 45
Suggested Answers to Unit Practice

Exercise
Feedback
1.
Techniques of deep
basement excavation
Limitations
Sheet piling
Could not be used in firm and

stiff soil with large boulders.
Generate undesirable noise and
vibration, thus is not suitable to
be used in urbanized area.
Contiguous bored pile

wall
Not effectively watertight; could

not be used for excavation below
groundwater table.
Limitation on the depth of
excavation.
Diaphragm wall
Expensive and requires a large

site for placing machineries.
Not economic for small and
shallow excavation.
2. The stability of cantilever retaining wall is derived partly from

the self-weight of the wall, but mostly from the self-weight of
the soil retained. Consider the gravity wall and cantilever
wall below, the resultant vertical force for the gravity wall is Ww
only. As for the cantilever wall, the resultant vertical force is
the summation of Ww1, Ww2, and Ws. The area of the soil is
relatively large compared to the area of concrete, thus contribute
to a large Ws. As a large resultant vertical force would provide
better sliding resistance for the retaining wall, the wall is safer
against sliding failure.
With respect to the rotation failure, large portion of the
resistant moment for the case of cantilever retaining wall is
derived from the component of soil (i.e., Ws x3). For the case of
gravity wall, the resistant moment relies solely on the concrete
wall only (i.e., Ww x1). From the foregoing, it is obvious that
the cantilever wall utilises less volume of concrete, and the soil
retained behind the wall plays an important role in providing
stability against both sliding and rotation.

Ww
x1
Ww1
Ws
x3
x1
x2
Ww2
3. a. i.
Checking for sliding:

(FS)T =
T
1.5
Pa

= 24 kN/m3 [4 m
1
(1.5 m + 3 m)]
2
= 216 kN/m
Ws
= Cross-sectional area of the encompassed soil region
= 18 kN/m3
1
4 m 0.75 m
2
= 27 kN/m
Rz = Ww + Ws
= 216 + 27 kN/m
= 243 kN/m
UNIT 2 47
T = Rz tan b
= 243 kN/m tan (18)
= 79 kN/m
Pa =
1
0.3 H 2
2
1
0.3 18 kN/m 42
2
= 43.2 kN/m
(FS )T =
79 kN/m
43.2 kN/m
= 1.83 > 1.5
OK!
ii. Checking for rotation:

x=
Ww xw + Ws xs Pa za
Ww Ws
216(1.5) + 27(2.75) 43.2(4/3)
216 + 27
= 1.40 m
e = |(B/2 x)|
= |(3/2 1.40)|
= 0.1 m
B/6 = 3/6
= 0.5 m
e = 0.1 m < B/6 = 0.5 m
OK!

iii. Checking for bearing failure:

max =
Rz
R e(B/2)
+ z
A
I
243
243 0.1(3/2)
+
31
(33 1)/12
= 97.2 kN/m2

max = 97.2 kN/m2 < qallow = 150 kN/m2
The retaining design is adequate.
b. Pa
1
1
H = Pp do
3
3
Pa =
1
0.3 H 2
2
1
0.3 18 kN/m3 (4 + do)2
2
= 2.7 (4 + do)2
Pp =
1
1.5 do2
2
1
1.5 18.5 kN/m3 do2
2
= 13.5 do2
2.7 (4 + do)2
1
1
(4 + do) = 13.5 do2 do
3
3
0.9 (4 + do)3 = 4.5 do3
OK!
UNIT 2 49
By trial and error, do = 5.64 m

Thus, the safe penetration depth, d = 1.2 do = 1.2 5.64m
= 6.77m

UNIT 2 51
Terminology
Bracing
Rembatan
Strut
Topang
Contiguous
Berdampingan
Cladding
Pelapisan
Slurry
Buburan
Trench
Parit
Embedment
Penembusan
Rigid
Tegar
Flexible
Boleh lentur
Curb
Bebendul jalan
Pitched
Condong

UNIT 2 53
References
Chew Yit Lin (2001) Construction Technology for Tall Buildings, 2nd edn, Singapore
University Press.
Budhu, M (2007) Soil Mechanics and Foundations, 2nd edn, John Wiley and Sons
(Asia).

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UNIT 2 i

Introduction to advanced foundation in construction

ii WAWASAN OPEN UNIVERSITY

EXTERNAL COURSE ASSESSOR

2012 Wawasan Open University

Wawasan Open University

54, Jalan Sultan Ahmad Shah, 10050 Penang.

2.1 Deep basement

Contiguous bored pile wall

Suggested answers to activity

2.2 Rigid earth retaining structures

Types of rigid retaining wall

Stability of rigid retaining wall

Suggested answers to activity

2.3 Flexible earth retaining structures

Types of flexible retaining wall

iv WAWASAN OPEN UNIVERSITY

Stability of flexible retaining wall

Suggested answers to activity

Unit practice exercise

Suggested answers to self-tests

Suggested answers to unit practice exercise

This unit is organised into two sections:

2 WAWASAN OPEN UNIVERSITY

2.1 Deep Basement

4 WAWASAN OPEN UNIVERSITY

Figure 2.1 Deep basement excavation for a commercial building

Figure 2.2 Sheet pile sections

The disadvantages of using sheet piling walls are:

6 WAWASAN OPEN UNIVERSITY

Cross sectional view

Figure 2.3 Braced sheet piling excavation

Figure 2.4 Typical construction sequences of a braced sheet piling excavation

Contiguous bored pile wall

Figure 2.5 Contiguous bored pile wall

8 WAWASAN OPEN UNIVERSITY

Figure 2.6 Plan view of secant piles

Advantages of using contiguous bored pile wall/secant piles:

Disadvantages of using contiguous bored pile wall/secant piles:

10 WAWASAN OPEN UNIVERSITY

Disadvantages of using diaphragm wall:

Figure 2.7 Construction sequences of diaphragm walls

Figure 2.8 Open pumping dewatering

12 WAWASAN OPEN UNIVERSITY

Figure 2.9 Predrainage of groundwater

Figure 2.10 Diaphragm wall to cutoff groundwater

It should be noted that open pumping or groundwater lowering may not be

Suggested answers to activity

Trench excavation; drilling fluid is supplied simultaneously

Stop ends fixing

Installation of reinforcement meshes

Removal of stop ends

14 WAWASAN OPEN UNIVERSITY

2.2 Rigid Earth Retaining Structures

Retaining wall to support a fill

Retaining wall to support a cut

Figure 2.11 Applications of retaining walls

16 WAWASAN OPEN UNIVERSITY

Figure 2.12 Forces acting on a retaining wall

Types of rigid retaining wall

Figure 2.13 Gravity wall

Figure 2.14 Cantilever retaining wall

18 WAWASAN OPEN UNIVERSITY

Figure 2.15 Crib wall