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World
education
report
Teachers
and teaching
in a
changing
U N E S C O
P U B L I S H I N G
world
World
education
report
1998
Teachers
and teaching
in a changing
world
UNESCO Publishing
Foreword
Federico Mayor
Director-General of UNESCO
Contents
Acknowledgements 13
4
1
Introduction 15
Teachers, teaching
and new technologies 77
Appendices
I Statistical notes 97
II Regional tables 103
Figures and tables for which no source is indicated have been drawn from the database of UNESCOs Division of
Statistics. In these figures and tables, where a regional breakdown is shown, there is an overlap between the two
regions of sub-Saharan Africa and the Arab States (see Explanatory Notes to Appendix II on page 104).
Boxes
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
2.10
2.11
2.12
2.13
2.14
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8
3.9
3.10
3.11
3.12
3.13
3.14
3.15
10
3.16
3.17
3.18
3.19
Figures
1.1
1.2
1.3
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
3.1
3.2
3.3
11
4.1
4.2
Tables
Text tables
2.1
2.2
2.3
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
4.1
Regional tables
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
12
Acknowledgements
HE INFORMATION
John Smyth
Programme specialist:
Ranwa Safadi
Statistics Division
co-ordination for the Report
Vittoria Cavicchioni
Consultant:
John Ryan
Roser Cusso
and Sophia Gazza
Secretary:
Micheline Gingras-Kovatcheva
Camera-ready
preparation of the Report:
Josette Pentcheff
and Marina Rubio
Publications officer:
Wenda McNevin
1
Introduction
16
Box 1.1
Much will be expected,
and much demanded, of teachers
Our vision of the coming century is of one in
which the pursuit of learning is valued by individuals and by authorities all over the world not only
as a means to an end, but also as an end in itself.
Each person will be encouraged and enabled to
take up learning opportunities throughout life.
Hence, much will be expected, and much
demanded, of teachers, for it largely depends on
them whether this vision can come true. Teachers
have crucial roles to play in preparing young
people not only to face the future with confidence
but to build it with purpose and responsibility.
The new challenges facing education to contribute to development, to help people understand
and to some extent come to terms with the
phenomenon of globalization, and to foster social
cohesion must be met from primary and secondary school onwards. .. .
The importance of the role of the teacher as an
agent of change, promoting understanding and
tolerance, has never been more obvious than
today. It is likely to become even more critical in
the twenty-first century. The need for change,
from narrow nationalism to universalism, from ethnic and cultural prejudice to tolerance, understanding and pluralism, from autocracy to democracy in its various manifestations, and from a technologically divided world where high technology
is the privilege of the few to a technologically
united world, places enormous responsibilities on
teachers who participate in the moulding of the
characters and minds of the new generation.
Source: J. Delors et al., Learning: The Treasure Within. Report to
UNESCO of the International Commission on Education for the
Twenty-first Century, pp. 1412, Paris, UNESCO, 1996.
Introduction
Figure 1.1
Percentage breakdown of teachers
in the worlds formal education systems,
by level of education, 1980 and 1995
1980
(41.2 million)
1995
(56.6 million)
11%
Tertiary
38%
9%
Secondary
37%
46%
7%
Primary
Pre-primary
43%
8%
17
18
Box 1.2
The status of teachers depends on the status
of education, and vice versa
If education does not command the respect and
support of the entire community, teachers will not
command that respect and support. Teachers are
those who do the educating in the schools. Other
institutions play co-ordinate roles: the family, the
media, cultural institutions and others. Schools
serve at the very core in the efforts to provide the
common basis of learning skills, knowledge, culture, respect for constructive achievement and
adherence to common codes of behaviour which
are essential to economic, social and cultural
progress in society.
When a society fails to recognize that this role
must be played by organized education in the
schools and under-values its educational system,
the status accorded those responsible for the
direct day-to-day performance of the educational function is necessarily reduced. It is, of
course, teachers who occupy this position in the
schools. ...
The converse is also evident: as teachers are
regarded so are education and the schools.
Respect for teachers engenders respect for the
function they perform. When teaching as a profession is ill-regarded in a society, that ill-regard
reflects itself on the entire system of organized
education. ...
We believe it to be true that the status of
teachers and the status of education are so intertwined that whatever produces changes in the one
will normally produce changes in the same direction in the other.
Thus, although the World Conference on Education for All (Jomtien, Thailand, 1990) ushered in
a decade of growing recognition of educations
vital role in national development and the preparation of young people for active and productive
lives in the knowledge-based societies of the
twenty-first century, many governments have continued to regard public expenditure on education
as an area of potential savings rather than as
an investment in the future. In consequence,
improvement in the material rewards for teaching
and in teachers status generally have not been
priority concerns of educational policy. In most
regions of the world, few (if any) informed
observers believe that the status of teachers has
improved in recent years; the majority believe it
has declined.
Moreover, it has not just been teachers salaries
and status which have failed to benefit in recent
years from policies towards public expenditure on
education. Teaching and learning conditions and
the material situation of the schools generally, in
Figure 1.2
Estimated numbers (millions) of out-of-school
youth in the world, 1995 and 2010
Age-group 6 11 years
157
133
60
66
151
85
167
86
1995 2010
1995 2010
Male
Female
Introduction
Figure 1.3
Regional distribution of teachers
in the worlds formal education systems,1
1980 and 1995
1980
(41.2 million)
1995
(56.6 million)
23%
27%
59%
64%
14%
13%
Box 1.3
Harnessing information and communication
technology to meet basic learning needs
New possibilities are emerging which already
show a powerful impact on meeting basic learning
needs, and it is clear that the educational potential
of these new possibilities has barely been tapped.
These new possibilities exist largely as a result of
two converging forces, both recent by-products of
the general development process. First, the quantity of information available in the world much
of it relevant to survival and basic well-being is
exponentially greater than that available only a
few years ago, and the rate of its growth is accelerating. A synergistic effect occurs when important
information is coupled with a second modern
advance the new capacity to communicate
among the people of the world. The opportunity
exists to harness this force and use it positively,
consciously, and with design, in order to contribute to meeting defined learning needs.
Source: World Conference on Education for All. Meeting Basic
Learning Needs, Jomtien, Thailand, 1990, Framework for Action
to Meet Basic Learning Needs, para. 27, New York, Inter-Agency
Commission for the World Conference on Education for All,
1990.
19
20
Box 1.4
What Makes a Good Teacher? Children Speak Their Minds
A good teacher is a friend . . .
You need to be kind, trusting and friendly to me . . .
you must listen and understand us all . . . never lose
your temper . . .
Rose, 9 years old, from New Zealand.
. . . treat us equally and understand the feelings, aspirations and moods of each one of us.
Le Nhu Anh, 9 years old, from Viet Nam.
Source: What Makes a Good Teacher? Children Speak their Minds. Brochure of the International Childrens Contest organized by UNESCO through the
Associated Schools Project, Paris, UNESCO, 1996.
2
The changing
status and profile
of teachers
22
Box 2.1
The Guiding Principles of the Recommendation concerning the Status of Teachers1
1. Education from the earliest school years should be
directed to the all-round development of the human
personality and to the spiritual, moral, social,
cultural and economic progress of the community,
as well as to the inculcation of deep respect for
human rights and fundamental freedoms; within the
framework of these values the utmost importance
should be attached to the contribution to be made
by education to peace and to understanding, tolerance and friendship among all nations and among
racial or religious groups.
2. It should be recognized that advance in education
depends largely on the qualifications and ability of
the teaching staff in general and on the human,
pedagogical and technical qualities of the individual
teachers.
3. The status of teachers should be commensurate
with the needs of education as assessed in the light
of educational aims and objectives; it should be recognized that the proper status of teachers and due
public regard for the profession of teaching are of
4.
5.
6.
7.
23
24
Box 2.2
Reports by states on the application
of the Recommendation concerning
the Status of Teachers
The mandate of the Committee of Experts invites
it to supervise periodically, the application of
the Recommendation concerning the Status of
Teachers in all the Member States of UNESCO and
of the ILO. This mandate cannot be fully carried
out unless the greatest possible number of states
provide reports, covering the period under examination, and giving the development trends during
this period and unless these reports provide as
exact information as possible on law and practice
with regard to all the provisions of the Recommendation. Yet only 72 states out of 144 replied to the
questionnaire as compared with 77 out of 126 in
the Committees previous survey [in 1969] and the
replies provided for each of the two periods under
examination did not always come from identical
states. As a result, it is very difficult to make useful
comparisons of reported changes over this period
and to make meaningful judgements on the way
in which the situation has developed. Moreover,
while the questionnaire invited the different states
to provide elements of information both in a general part, on the application of all the various sections of the Recommendation, and secondly more
thoroughly on various specific problems, the information given in the general part of the governmental reports was so inadequate that the Committee found itself unable to draw any really useful conclusion from it. The Committee is, on this
account, unable to fulfill the main part of its mandate.
Source: Conclusions of the Final Report adopted by the Joint ILOUNESCO Committee of Experts on the Application of the Recommendation concerning the Status of Teachers (Third Session,
Geneva, 8 19 March 1976) and Relevant Decisions Taken by
UNESCO General Conference at its Nineteenth Session (Nairobi,
October November 1976), para. 16, Paris, UNESCO, 1977. (Document ED-77/WS/61.)
and ILO to develop a set of reliable, internationally comparable statistical indicators that
could facilitate monitoring the status of teachers;
this development is now under way in the two
organizations.
The more focused, topic-oriented approach in
25
26
Figure 2.1
Estimated trends in population
of the 6 14 age-group, by region, 1975 2015
Millions
Southern Asia
300
Eastern Asia/
Oceania
250
Sub-Saharan
Africa
200
150
Latin America /
Caribbean
100
Arab States
Countries
in transition
North America
Europe
50
Asia/Oceania*
0
1975
1985
1995
2005
2015
Those countries in Asia /Oceania that are classified under more developed regions.
students already in the education system to continue their education to higher levels.
As noted earlier, the teacher shortages of the
1960s and the 1970s, especially in the less developed regions of the world, were met to some
extent by employing large numbers of unqualified, untrained teachers; in many cases they were
simply primary-school graduates. This did not
accord with the provisions of the Recommendation, which required that prospective teachers
should have completed secondary education and
that their teaching preparation should be at
the post-secondary level. In 1976, the Joint ILOUNESCO Committee observed that these conditions were not yet attained in a third or more of
the countries that replied to its questionnaire.
A measure of the tremendous efforts exerted by
countries in the less developed regions to provide
teachers to meet the challenge of the explosive
growth in their school-age populations is that they
managed to achieve an improvement in their enrolment ratios, i.e. the percentages of the relevant
age-groups enrolled at the various levels of education (Figure 2.2). Even so, sub-Saharan Africa
was an exception: the gross enrolment ratio in primary education fell back between 1980 and 1995.
The special difficulties faced in recent years by
the countries in transition in maintaining the
growth momentum of previous decades in secondary and tertiary education are indicated by the
stagnation and/or fall in the overall gross enrolment ratios for these levels between 1980 and
1995. In the more developed regions, the falling
birth rates and declining population pressures on
school enrolments and hence softening of the
demand for teachers provided an opportunity
for reducing student-teacher ratios and class sizes
at the middle and lower levels of the education
system, although this was offset by an increasing
need for teachers to meet the expansion of enrolments at the upper and lower ends of the education system in higher education and preprimary education respectively.
Still, over time, as the outputs of the education
Figure 2.2
Gross enrolment ratios, by level of education and region, 1980 and 1995
Primary
Tertiary
Secondary
Sub-Saharan
Africa
Sub-Saharan
Africa
Sub-Saharan
Africa
Arab
States
Arab
States
Arab
States
Southern
Asia
Southern
Asia
Southern
Asia
Latin America/
Caribbean
Latin America/
Caribbean
Latin America/
Caribbean
Eastern Asia/
Oceania
Eastern Asia/
Oceania
Eastern Asia/
Oceania
Countries
in transition
Countries
in transition
Countries
in transition
More developed
regions
More developed
regions
More developed
regions
10
30
50
70
90
1980
1995
110
10
20
30
40
50
60
27
28
Table 2.1
Early childhood, school-age and old-age
dependency ratios (percentages),1
by region, 1995 and 2015
1995
0 5 6 14
2015
65 +
0 5 6 14
65 +
WORLD TOTAL
Countries in transition
23.6 32.8
7.7
17.5 25.1
40.4
30.8
22.3
17.4
15.5
26.1
23.8
46.5
41.2
32.5
25.8
23.5
36.9
34.0
5.7
6.2
8.3
8.5
9.0
7.2
7.6
32.0
22.0
15.9
12.5
11.5
17.1
14.6
5.8
29.2 38.1
9.4
40.8 5.7
31.4 7.0
23.4 10.9
18.1 11.2
16.0 12.2
26.3 8.5
23.7 9.4
Table 2.2
Number of teachers in the non-agricultural
labour force, by region, 1985 and 1995
5.8
Number of
teachers 1
(thousands)
Teachers
per 1,000
persons in the
non-agricultural
labour force
1985
1995
1985
1995
WORLD TOTAL
45 499
56 645
41
40
11 453
12 918
33
33
4 030
1 816
5 607
4 469
2 209
6 240
31
28
36
30
30
37
6 232
7 361
40
44
27 829
36 354
46
42
2 128
1 726
4 749
13 716
9 398
5 440
3 914
2 962
2 763
6 400
16 577
11 117
7 097
4 852
36
49
45
54
57
35
36
34
50
42
49
53
32
32
1 581
2 178
34
31
Countries in transition
Less developed regions
of which:
Sub-Saharan Africa
Arab States
Latin America /Caribbean
Eastern Asia /Oceania
of which: China
Southern Asia
of which: India
Least developed countries
1. Only countries for which data on the non-agricultural labour force are
available are included. The figures shown here, therefore, differ slightly
from those shown in Appendix II, Table 9.
However, the adult population in the less developed regions is less well educated and has a
higher percentage of illiterates than the adult
population in the more developed regions. Correspondingly, a higher percentage of the adult
population is employed in traditional agriculture
than is the case in the more developed regions.
Thus the real pool of adults in the less developed
regions who potentially could be teachers in the
formal education system is smaller than is suggested above. As is shown in Table 2.2, the percentage of the non-agricultural labour force who
are teachers is generally higher in the less developed regions than in the more developed regions,
which suggests that the less developed regions
might already be doing as much as they can to
employ their eligible adult population in teaching.
In the more developed regions, now that a
majority of young people in many countries can
participate in formal education up until their early
twenties, the adult population is running out of
people to educate, so to speak, unless it starts
educating itself. It could be partly for this reason
that the idea of lifelong education is gaining
ground so rapidly in the industrial countries.
Figure 2.3
Average annual growth rates in enrolment,
by level of education, in the more developed
regions and in countries in transition,
1980 85, 1985 90, 1990 95
%
8
North America
6
4
2
0
2
4
Pre-primary
Primary
Secondary
Tertiary
%
8
Asia/ Oceania
6
4
2
0
2
4
Pre-primary
Primary
Secondary
Tertiary
%
8
Europe
6
4
2
0
2
4
Pre-primary
Primary
Secondary
Tertiary
%
8
Countries in transition
6
4
2
0
2
4
Pre-primary
198085
Primary
Secondary
198590
Tertiary
199095
29
30
Box 2.3
Four major trends in Canadian education
The last several years have ushered in much change
for Canadian education. The following is a summary of
four major trends in Canadian education, which are
captured in various sections of this report:
1. emergence of information technology at all levels of
education;
2. retrenchment and restructuring;
3. redefining accountability structures; and
4. respect for diversity and gender equity.
Emergence of information technology at all levels
of education
Information technology is emerging to pervade all
aspects of education as a key learning and administrative tool. Technological developments of particular
interest in this context are computers in education and
distance education.
Computers and computer linkages have exploded
onto the education scene. Access has been enhanced
in the 1990s through technologically based lifelong
learning and distance education. Education walls are
becoming more permeable.
...
Retrenchment and restructuring
In the 1990s, all levels of government have struggled
with increased debt loads, budget deficits, and stagnant
revenues in what some have described as the emergence of a cuts culture. In its efforts to put its fiscal
house in order, the federal government has not been
able to exempt transfer payments [to the provinces]
from its deficit reduction exercise, given the magnitude
of this support. The most frequent reaction of the
provinces has been to reduce or at least cap expenditures, particularly in the social services envelope in
which education is included.
...
Source: The Development of Education /Le dveloppement de lducation, pp. 13, Toronto, Council of Ministers of Education/Conseil des Ministres de
lducation, 1996. (National report presented at the 45th session of the International Conference on Education, Geneva, 1996.)
Box 2.4
Poland is still a country
in a transition period
The prospects of the Polish educational system as
the XXI Century approaches are further transformations and reforms that began in 1990. The last
six years showed that reform of the education system is an arduous and long-term process, and the
effects of the activities undertaken will only be
seen many years later. The political, social and
economic context of the state has an essential
importance for the harmonious course of this
process.
Poland is still a country in a transition period.
The period of general transformation does not by
its nature favour quiet and long-term activities.
Political instability manifests itself by the three
alterations in the composition of Parliament since
1990 as well as still more frequent changes of the
Cabinets (since 1993, there has already been in
operation the third government under the rules of
the same parliamentary coalition), and as consequence also changes of ministers of national
education and their closest collaborators, which
does not favour steady reformatory activities.
Added to all this are the constantly insufficient
financial resources which the state budget allocates to education.
At the same time it must be emphasized that
despite such a complicated situation, transformations and modernization of the Polish education
system have been continued.
Source: Development of Education in Poland, pp. 137 8, Warsaw, Ministry of National Education, 1996. (National report presented at the 45th session of the International Conference on
Education, Geneva, 1996.)
31
32
Figure 2.4
Average annual growth rates in enrolment, by level of education, in the less developed regions,
1980 85, 1985 90, 1990 95
15
15
15
Eastern Asia/Oceania
Southern Asia
12
12
12
0
Pre-primary
Primary
Secondary
15
Tertiary
0
Pre-primary
Primary
Secondary
15
Tertiary
Pre-primary
Primary
Secondary
Tertiary
Sub-Saharan Africa
Arab States
12
12
198085
198590
199095
0
0
Pre-primary
Primary
Secondary
Tertiary
Pre-primary
Primary
Secondary
Tertiary
Box 2.5
Structural reform of education in Argentina
A structural transformation of education has been
under way in Argentina since 1993. The basic legal
framework for these changes consists of three laws:
Law No. 24.049, Transfer of Educational Services
to the Provinces, 1992; transfers the educational
services that still depended on the National
Government to the Provinces.
Law No. 24.195, known as the Federal Law of Education, passed in 1993; states the basic outlines
for the transformation of education at primary
and secondary levels. This law establishes new
objectives, a new academic structure and the
need for new contents at all levels. It also sets
the rules for the decentralized government of
education; assigning the State the role of policymaker, assessment in education and compensating balance, whereas the actual educational services are directly supplied by the provincial governments.
Law No. 24.521, Law of Higher Education, passed
in 1995; deals with the tertiary level, both university as well as non-university tertiary studies,
teacher development being one of them.
This legal framework is completed by a clear
political determination which guarantees the economic resources required for the transformation,
stated in the Federal Educational Pact signed by
the President, the Governors of the Provinces and
the Mayor of the City of Buenos Aires, on September 11th, 1994, according to Article 63 of the Federal Law of Education.
Source: Fortalecimiento de la funcin del personal docente en un
mundo cambiante. Propuesta argentina /Strengthening the Work
of the Teaching Staff in a Changing World. Argentine Proposal,
pp. 20 2, Buenos Aires, Ministerio de Cultura y Educacin de la
Nacin /Ministry of Culture and Education of the Nation, 1996.
(National report presented at the 45th session of the International
Conference on Education, Geneva, 1996.)
33
34
Box 2.6
The evolution of educational development
policies in the Republic of Korea
from the 1950s to the 1980s
With scarce natural resources, Korea has relied
heavily on human resources to develop its economy. Education being a major source for trained
manpower, educational policies have changed in
accordance with the types of human resources
demanded by a changing economy. In the 1950s,
when low-level skilled workers were needed in
manual industries, efforts were geared to undertake a massive scale literacy campaign to produce
a manual workforce. In the 1960s, skilled workers
were in great demand for light industries, and the
focus was shifted to expand vocational education
at the secondary school level. As the importance
of heavy industries grew in the 1970s, technicians
who could deal with complex modern manufacturing processes were in demand. The government responded by expanding junior technical
colleges. The number of junior colleges nearly
doubled in this period. In the 1980s, economic
competitiveness based on high-level technology
and information industries became fierce and this
challenge urged the Korean government to
strengthen research and education in basic science
and technology.
... In other words, Korea expanded and universalized elementary education followed by secondary education, and only after achieving this,
shifted its emphasis to the expansion of higher
education. This sequence of policies fits well into
the economic development plan.
Source: The Development of Education, National Report of the
Republic of Korea, p. 1, Seoul, Ministry of Education, 1996.
(National report presented at the 45th session of the International
Conference on Education, Geneva, 1996.)
Box 2.7
Progress towards Education for All
in Mauritania
The overall objective of the Mauritanian education
system is to give Mauritanian children the basic
education necessary for the development of their
personality, in accordance with the precepts and
principles of the Muslim religion, national culture
and the requirements of life in a modern society,
and to offer a training enabling them to find a job
thanks to general secondary and higher education
or to the network of technical and vocational education.
At the level of basic education, priority is given
to enhancing admission capacity with a view to
achieving by the year 2000 the enrolment of all
children from 6 to 11 years and providing them
with basic instruction. Efforts are thus continually
being directed towards building classrooms, the
initial and ongoing training of teachers and
improving the curricula and material conditions in
schools. Emphasis is placed on reducing regional
disparities and those between boys and girls.
It should be noted that the gross enrolment
ratio [in primary level education] rose from 44 per
cent in 1987/88 to 64 per cent in 1992/93,
82.78 per cent in 1995/96 and 88.87 per cent at
the start of the 1996/97 school year (estimate),
when 80 per cent was the objective set for 1998.
This rapid growth, which was more marked in
regions where the enrolment ratio was below
the national average, makes full enrolment by the
year 2000 a certainty.
Source: Dveloppement de lducation. Rapport national de la
Rpublique islamique de Mauritanie, p. 5, Nouackchott, Ministre
de lducation Nationale, 1996. (National report presented at
the 45th session of the International Conference on Education,
Geneva, 1996.)
Box 2.8
The effects of a worsening economic, social and political situation on education in Burundi
Since the last country report on the development of
the Burundi education system submitted at the fortythird session of the ICE in 1992, the countrys economic, social and political situation has continually
worsened, as can be seen from the failure to publish
a country report for the forty-fourth session of the
International Conference on Education (ICE), held in
October 1994.
...
The assassination on 21 October 1993 of the first
President elected by universal suffrage plunged
Burundi into an unprecedented socio-political crisis,
jeopardizing chances of improving the socio-economic
conditions of the people of Burundi. The widespread
massacres left countless victims, orphans, widows and
widowers, displaced persons and refugees. The number of orphans is estimated at 17,600 and the displaced
at more than 200,000, while the number of refugees
resulting from the October 1993 crisis exceeded
140,000 in 1994.
All the social indicators show a sharp deterioration
in social services. Over 80 per cent of the population
live below the poverty line and more than half have an
annual per capita income of less than US $90. Life
expectancy at birth has dropped. The national health
care system functions at 70 per cent of its pre-crisis
capacity.
The education system has also suffered from the
crisis. Intake capacity, which had expanded across the
country, has been significantly reduced in terms of
staffing, and quality has declined.
In 19921993, public and private schools in Burundi
Source: Dveloppement de lducation: rapport national du Burundi, pp. 12, Bujumbura, Ministre de lducation, de lEnseignement de Base et de
lAlphabtisation des Adultes, Ministre de lEnseignement Secondaire, Suprieur et de la Recherche Scientifique, 1996. (National report presented at the
45th session of the International Conference on Education, Geneva, 1996.)
In the less developed regions of the world generally, economic and social changes in recent
years have reinforced the impulse towards the
democratization of education (e.g. Box 2.9),
establishing a momentum of rapid growth in most
education systems that tends continously to push
up against existing limits placed on the public
budgetary resources available for education. In
35
36
Box 2.9
Economic and social changes and their effects on education in Bahrain
Bahrain society has been submitted as all other Arab
States to profound changes in its structure and function. The transformation from a society dependent on
pearl-diving, fishing, dhow-building and agriculture to
one based on oil industry and then non-oil industrial
and services activities has led to the emergence of various kinds of position and expertise which have
brought about changes in Bahrains social structure. ...
The changes in the social structure .. . have created
an increasing social demand for education which has
affected the education system as follows:
1. The population growth in Bahrain is one of the most
important factors that has contributed to the increase
of school population. This has required more school
buildings and equipment, and more qualified teaching and administrative staff to be employed.
2. The construction and expansion of new cities in
Bahrain has resulted in a movement of population
to these new cities. This has increased the number
of students in those areas and obliged the Ministry
to make efforts to provide the necessary educational
services, side by side with the other services in
those areas.
3. The growth of the industrial and business sectors in
Bahrain and the development of the economic situation have generated an obvious demand for education. They have also led to an attempt to develop
technical and vocational education adequate for the
growing industrial needs.
Source: Development of Education in Bahrain, 1994 /95 1995 /96, pp. 13 4, Manama, Ministry of Education, 1996. (National report presented at the
45th session of the International Conference on Education, Geneva, 1996.)
accorded to already employed teachers with similar qualifications (e.g. Box 2.11).
This practice highlighted in ILOs 1996 report,
Impact of Structural Adjustment on the Employment and Training of Teachers is flatly contrary
to the provisions (Section X) of the Recommendation. In fact, no other aspect of structural adjustment programmes has demonstrated so clearly the
increasing tendency of national development
policies to subject education to the same costcutting logic of market forces that is applied to the
overall system of production: if qualified people
Box 2.10
Declining status of teachers in Thailand
Major problems facing teachers are as follows:
The status of the teaching profession is deteriorating, discouraging competent and good
people to enter the profession. Some teacher
students enroll in the programme without serious commitment as it is their low priority when
taking the entrance examination. Their attitude
and faith in the profession are not favourably
contributive to their teaching career. Some are
concerned over the limited teaching positions
available and their lower remuneration in comparison with other careers.
Teachers incomes are low while their workload
is heavy. Since promotion does not correspond
with their professional development, teachers
suffer low morale. Some spend their time
moonlighting for more income. Their pride in
being good teachers has decreased. Consequently, society respects the teachers less as
some of them do not behave properly.
Teacher development programmes are not seriously and consistently carried out. Consequently, in-service teachers have the tendency
to have a lower level of academic competence,
knowledge transmission skills and sense of professionalism.
Source: Development of Education, pp. 23 4, Bangkok, Ministry
of Education, 1996. (National report presented at the 45th session
of the International Conference on Education, Geneva, 1996.).
Box 2.11
Recruitment of teachers under
structural adjustment constraints in Togo
Since the introduction of the Structural Adjustment
Programmes, the Ministry of Education, faced with
staff shortages, has recruited teachers to a variety
of posts whose common denominators are precariousness and especially lower remuneration for
the same qualifications and the same duties as
other teachers. Although this category of teacher
is smaller in primary education (24 per cent), it
represents the majority in the last two years of
secondary education. In some establishments,
teachers on short-term contracts represent 90 per
cent of the teaching staff. It is highly unlikely that
a majority group which is marginalized in any
organization will not be tempted to demand its
rights. There is therefore a risk that the whole system might be deadlocked if two categories of
teachers continue to coexist.
Source: Dveloppement de lducation: rapport national du Togo,
p. 42, Lom, Ministre de lducation Nationale et de la
Recherche Scientifique, Commission Nationale pour lUNESCO,
1996. (National report presented at the 45th session of the International Conference on Education, Geneva, 1996.).
37
Figure 2.5
Public expenditure on education as a percentage
of GNP, by region, 19801995
%
8
38
Countries in transition
Arab States
Latin America/Caribbean
4
Southern Asia
2
1980
Eastern Asia/Oceania
1985
1990
1995
Figure 2.6
Changes in the average percentage shares of defence and education
in central government expenditure, in selected countries,1 1985 89 and 1990 94
7
CMR
6
5
LES
TUR
PAR
SIN
4
3
UAE
ISR
NZE
MAT
2
1
OMA
JOR
EGY
UKM
BKF
USA
PAN
BUL
BOT
MOR
HUN
BAH
IRE
CHI DEN
BZE
GHA
S
ARG
IN L
FRA CYP
AU NOR
X
CAN
PNG
LU
URU
BRA
KEN
SWE
DOM
FIN
MAL
SYR
NEP
PHI
SRL
ETH
BHA
GUA
IND
ROK
YEM
FIJ
BOL
3
7
TUN
THA
COL
* This symbol is used for Austria ( 0.58, 0.08) and Netherlands ( 0.57, 0.02).
1. Countries for which data are available for the two periods, excluding the following three countries where the changes in the percentage shares fall outside the
ranges presented in this diagramme: El Salvador (10, 3), Kuwait (21, 4) and Mexico (1, 12).
Source: Government Finance Statistics Yearbook, Washington, D.C., International Monetary Fund, various issues.
39
40
and Latin America. Still, in the more stable economic conditions of most regions in the 1990s, it is
possible that the real incomes of teachers in many
countries are rising again. Whether they are keeping up with average incomes generally is difficult
to say; reliable evidence on movements in
teachers salaries relative to those of other major
occupational groups in different countries is very
scarce. The numerous studies of the effects of the
structural adjustment programmes of the 1980s,
for example, never clearly established whether
teachers incomes generally suffered more than
those of other public sector employees.
More recently, OECD has assembled systematic
data on primary- and secondary-teachers salaries
scales in its member countries (published in Education at a Glance, Paris, OECD, 1996), but these
data refer only to a recent year (1994) and comparable data for other occupational groups are still
lacking. However, even if such data were available, international comparisons of teachers economic status are especially difficult to make
because of differences between countries in the
educational backgrounds and working conditions
of teachers, as well as of other professional
groups.
Consider, for example, India and the United
States. Data for the various Indian states on the
starting level salaries of public primary-school
teachers and other government employees with
comparable educational backgrounds, reported
by India in its national report to the 1996 International Conference on Education, show that the
salaries of primary-school teachers tend to lie in
the middle of the range, somewhat less than those
of trained nurses but more than those of policemen. In the United States, where primary-school
teachers in general have a college (university) degree, unlike in India, quite different occupations
are usually chosen for comparison. Thus, the
National Commission on Teaching and Americas
Future compared the average annual earnings of
teachers with those of physicians, lawyers and
judges, engineers, accountants and auditors, social
Figure 2.7
Distribution of countries1 by percentage
of private-school teachers in primary and
secondary general education, by region, 19952
%
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
SubSaharan
Africa
(13)
Arab
States
(8)
Latin
America/
Caribbean
(5)
Eastern
Asia/
Oceania
(7)
More
Countries
developed
in
regions
transition
(10)
(10)
1. Each dot represents one country. For each region, the total number of
countries for which data are available is shown in parentheses.
2. Or latest year available.
41
42
Box 2.12
Freedom of association
and collective bargaining rights of teachers
in the Indian context
In the domain of the rights and responsibilities of
teachers, the Indian context enjoins a fair degree
of freedom and flexibility based on a framework
outlined by the respective state governments on
the issue of freedom of association. In every state,
teaching and non-teaching personnel have their
unions/associations. These organizations have
powers of collective bargaining to secure better
service conditions for their members. State level
organizations have joined together to form federations of educational organizations for primary,
secondary and college stage education. These federations negotiate with the central government to
secure better pay scales and other service conditions. The central question under Indian laws is
whether a teacher can be equated to a workman, the latter being defined in the Industrial
Disputes Act 1947. Various suggestions in this
respect are being considered by the Ministry of
Labour to amend the Industrial Disputes Act and
initiate reforms to grant teachers the same protection as other workers. On the question of the
rights of teachers (in particular, salaries), these are
structured as per norms as laid down by the government from time to time.
Source: Development of Education in India, 1995 96, with Special Reference to Teacher Education, pp. 44 5, New Delhi,
Department of Education, Ministry of Human Resource Development, 1996. (National report presented at the 45th session of
the International Conference on Education, Geneva, 1996.)
Figure 2.8
Number (millions) of teachers in pre-primary,
primary and secondary education, by sex
and region, 1980 and 1995
Sub-Saharan
Africa
Arab States
1980
* 1.1
1995
1.2 1.7
1980
**
1995
1.3 1.4
1980
1995
Countries
in transition
1995
More
developed
regions
1995
1980
2.4
1.1
4.0
1.2
1.7
Figure 2.9
Age-profile of teachers in primary and
secondary education, selected countries, 19941
3.0
2.3
4.3
4.7
7.4
7.8
7.8
Jordan
3.6
Algeria
1.0
5.1
Oman
Morocco *
1.3
5.9
7.0
3.7
Qatar
3.5
Botswana
Kuwait
Female Male
Swaziland
Uganda
Venezuela
Costa Rica*
Togo
United
Arab Emirates
Argentina **
Austria**
Rep. of Korea
Switzerland
Luxembourg
Slovakia **
France
Finland
Italy
Germany
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
30 39
40 or over
Source: National replies to the questionnaire administered by the International Bureau of Education in preparation of the 45th session of the
International Conference on Education (Geneva, 1996).
43
44
Box 2.13
Raising of the level at which primary-school teachers are recruited in France
Since 1992, all teachers recruited and trained to work
in nursery and primary schools are known by the new
term of professeurs des coles which therefore replaces
the traditional term of instituteurs.
The decision taken in 199091 to improve the status
of teaching staff in the primary sector led to the creation of a new body of teachers. These professeurs des
coles (who are classed as Category A civil servants
whereas instituteurs come under Category B) are
totally comparable in terms of level of recruitment, pay
and career structure to qualified teachers in middle
schools (collges) and secondary schools (lyces). All
new recruits belong to this new teaching body ... The
raising of the level at which primary school teachers
are recruited comes at the end of a relatively rapid
process: only fifteen years separate the last intake of
trainee teachers (lves matres) recruited after their
fourth year of secondary education (1976) from the
first competitive examinations to recruit primary school
teachers (professeurs des coles) in possession of a
Source: Jean-Claude Ermin, Recruitment of Primary School Teachers under the New System, ducation et Formations, Vol. 37, March 1994, p. 106.
(Special number: Connaissance des enseignants.)
Table 2.3
Education and training backgrounds
of primary- and secondary-school teachers,
in selected countries, 19941
Percentage of teachers
with university or
equivalent
educational qualification
Percentage of teachers
who have received
pedagogical training
Primary
Secondary
Primary
Secondary
17
1
55
...
5
79
42
41
14
9
6
61
74
78
1
1
32
...
39
1
100
...
62
93
75
90
44
...
9
91
98
69
47
25
96
...
90
86
36
69
91
...
...
...
77
...
...
...
55
...
90
61
...
78
59
58
49
72
84
...
...
...
79
...
...
...
44
...
87
80
...
84
Argentina
Ecuador
Egypt
Ghana
Indonesia
Japan
Jordan
Kuwait
Lesotho
Nigeria
Panama
Poland
Qatar
Slovakia
Swaziland
Uganda
United Arab Emirates
Venezuela
Source: National replies to the questionnaire administered by the International Bureau of Education in preparation of the 45th session of the International Conference on Education (Geneva, 1996).
ing that it has a much more highly developed education system than Togo, the 1995 Secondary Education Teachers Census found that one-third of
secondary teachers had never completed their
university studies and another 11 per cent had
themselves never gone beyond the secondary
level. Although systematic data for the region
again are not available, the situation in Uruguay is
probably not a lot different from that in a number
of other Latin American countries.
The situation as regards teacher preparation or
training, as distinct from teachers general education backgrounds, is hardly any better, because
most countries, whatever their level of development, have at one time or another temporarily
Box 2.14
Shortages of qualified teachers in
the United States of America
Although parents might assume that teachers,
like other professionals, are educated in similar
ways so that they meet the same standards before
they are admitted to practice, this is not the
case. Unlike doctors, lawyers, accountants, or architects, teachers do not have the same training.
Some teachers have very high levels of skills
particularly in states that require a bachelors
degree in the discipline to be taught; coursework
in teaching, learning, curriculum, and child development; extensive practice teaching, and a masters degree in education. Others learn little about
their subject matter or about teaching, particularly
in states that have low requirements.
And while states have recently begun to require
some form of testing for a teaching license, most
are little more than multiple-choice tests of basic
skills and general knowledge, widely criticized
by educators and experts as woefully inadequate
to measure teaching skill. Furthermore, in many
states the cutoff scores are so low, there is no
effective standard for entry.
These difficulties are barely known to the public. But the schools most closely held secret
amounts to a national shame: Roughly of
newly hired American teachers lack the qualifications for their jobs. More than 12 per cent of new
hires enter the classroom without any formal training at all, and another 14 per cent arrive without
fully meeting state standards.
Source: National Commission on Teaching and Americas Future,
What Matters Most: Teaching for Americas Future. Summary
Report, p. 7, New York, National Commission on Teaching and
Americas Future, 1996.
45
46
3
Teaching contexts
and pressures
48
HAT sOCIETY
cies on students learning outcomes and the continuing resource constraints facing a majority of
the worlds education systems. There are six sections. In the first two, the origins of the current
concern for educational quality and relevance are
recalled, and the impulse which this concern has
given to the monitoring and evaluation of education is noted. In subsequent sections, the growing pressures on teachers and policy issues relat-
Box 3.1
The importance of the quality of teaching,
and therefore of teachers
The importance of the quality of teaching, and
therefore of teachers, cannot be overemphasized.
It is at an early stage of basic education that the
principal attitudes toward learning as well as the
self-image of the learner are formed. The role of
the teacher at this stage is crucial. The greater the
handicaps the children coming to school have to
overcome in terms of poverty, difficult social
environment or physical impairments the greater
the demands on the teacher. He or she, to be
effective, must draw upon a broad range of teaching skills, as well as on the human qualities of
empathy, patience and humility, as a complement
to authority. When a childs or adults first teacher
is poorly trained and poorly motivated, the very
foundations on which all subsequent learning will
be built will be unsound. The Commission feels
that reasserting the importance of teachers in basic
education and improving teachers qualifications
are tasks to which all governments must address
themselves. The measures needed to recruit future
teachers from among the most motivated students,
improve their training and encourage the best
among them to take on the most difficult posts
need to be determined in relation to the specific
circumstances of each country; but such measures
must be taken, since, without them, it is unlikely
that there will be significant improvements in
quality where they are most needed.
Thus, improving the quality and motivation of
teachers must be a priority in all countries.
Source: J. Delors et al., Learning: The Treasure Within. Report to
UNESCO of the International Commission on Education for the
Twenty-first Century, p. 146, Paris, UNESCO, 1996.
Box 3.2
Towards an education of ones choice
in the Russian Federation
Today the strategy in the field of education is to
facilitate the solution of global social problems
through educational means, in particular:
To strengthen and develop democracy;
To consolidate national identify, harmonize ethnic relations, to ease social tensions;
To develop the Russian economys potential
under new conditions.
The way to accomplishing these aims is through:
Ensuring guaranties of citizens rights to get an
education;
Transition to an education of ones choice and
ensuring an opportunity to get education in
accordance with ones talents, abilities, interests
and health;
Maintaining a common educational space;
Modification of the education content, its
humanization;
Ensuring a high-quality education.
The main direction of the reform is to create certain conditions for a transition from a unified,
standardized, uniform education to an education
of ones choice. The educational system should
change to meet educational needs of children,
families and different communities.
Source: Russias Educational System: National Report of the
Russian Federation, p. 5, Moscow, Ministry of Education, 1996.
(National report presented at the 45th session of the International
Conference on Education, Geneva, 1996.)
political and economic changes and developments have brought a broader range of objectives
to the fore. In the countries of east and central
Europe and the former Soviet Union, for example,
the depoliticization of educational contents, and
the establishment of a new pattern of relations
between the education system and children, families and communities (e.g. Box 3.2), have redefined the reference points or criteria from which
to judge quality and relevance: how successful is
education in preparing young people to help
strengthen and develop democracy, . . . consolidate national identity, harmonize ethnic relations,
49
50
Box 3.3
Focus on the evaluation and measurement
of the quality of education
in Latin America and the Caribbean
Evaluation and measurement of the quality of education: taking responsibility for educational results
Using appropriate criteria and procedures so
that an evaluation can be made not only of the
results but also of the processes undergone by the
students while developing the various types of
skills. Now that in many countries education systems are in a process of transition from quantitative to qualitative expansion, it is necessary to
develop both qualitative and quantitative evaluation indicators.
Carrying out national assessments to determine
the level of skills attained, establishing assessment
systems and improving the methods and instruments used.
Developing comparative assessments at different levels. Establishing machinery for regional
analysis of school results in order to carry out
studies of attainments and performance factors at
various stages in the educational processes, in different types of schools and in a range of contexts.
Developing systems of indicators for the performance evaluation of schools that include not only
factors such as the attainements of pupils but also
others that have to do with the performance of the
institution.
Devising ways of making better use of information. Adopting methods of communicating the
results of assessments of educational quality that
will enable ministries, schools, parents and educational communities to adopt and implement
measures to improve results, together with better
arrangements whereby society can monitor the
performance of schools.
Source: Seventh Conference of Ministers of Education of Latin
America and the Caribbean, Kingston, Jamaica, 13 17 May
1996. Final Report. Recommendation, Article VI. Santiago,
UNESCO, 1996. (Document ED/MD/201.)
health, let alone defence. Nevertheless, it is significant that even in countries where education
budgets are very tight, some official support is
given for educational research.
The World Conference on Education for All
helped to bring to the fore the need for more
research in the field of basic education in the
worlds less developed regions and the need too
for increased support for co-operation among
educational researchers in these regions. In
response to the World Conferences call for
countries to define acceptable levels of learning
acquisition for educational programmes and to
improve and apply systems of assessing learning
achievement, UNESCO, in collaboration with
UNICEF, has sought to strengthen national capacities in this field; a joint UNESCO-UNICEF
Monitoring Learning Achievement Project involving five countries (China, Jordan, Mali, Mauritius
and Morocco) was launched in 1992. In addition,
established networks of co-operation, such as
the Information Network on Education for Latin
American and the Caribbean (REDUC) and
UNESCOs Asia and the Pacific Programme of
Educational Innovation for Development (APEID)
were given a fresh impetus, and new networks
such as the recently formed Southern Africa
Consortium for Monitoring Educational Quality
(SACMEQ), involving Botswana, Kenya, Malawi,
Mauritius, Namibia, Swaziland, the United Republic of Tanzania, Zambia and Zimbabwe, have
emerged.
Given the scarcity of funds available for educational research in the worlds less developed
regions, much of the research carried out in these
regions necessarily is highly pragmatic and downto-earth, focused on concrete obstacles or handicaps in the way of improving educational quality.
In Africa, for example, many studies concern different aspects of textbooks: their cost (e.g. a study
of parents purchasing power with respect to
buying school textbooks in Mozambique), their
distribution (e.g. a study of the distribution and
modes of utilization of school textbooks in
Box 3.4
Development of a National System
of Evaluation of Basic Education in Brazil
The Ministry [of Education and Sports] has
attached priority to the production of information
in the area of evaluation and statistical data,
through the restructuring, in 1995, of the National
System of Evaluation of Basic Education, and
through the implementation of the Integrated System of Educational Information. .. .
The National System of Evaluation of Basic
Education ... provides data on the level of performance and the acquisition of skills in reading and
interpretation of texts, problem-solving and the
use of mathematical concepts.
In 1995 tests were given to a selected sample of
95 thousand pupils of public and private schools
in the 4th and 8th grades of primary education
and the 2nd and 3rd grades of secondary education. The research had different focal points,
such as structural and sociopolitical aspects of the
school and the school organization, psychological,
pedagogical and technical aspects, including the
instruments for the evaluation of pupils, teacherstudent relations, class dynamics and the resources
used in the learning process.
In addition to the pupils, 3,400 directors,
7,000 teachers and 3,600 schools were also studied. The results can be utilized by educational
administrators, researchers and teachers, and
should soon be available on the Internet. The
analysis of the results will assist actions which aim
to correct the distortions identified and to improve
school teaching.
Source: Development of Education in Brazil, p. 59, Brasilia, Ministry of Education and Sports, 1996. (National report presented at
the 45th session of the International Conference on Education,
Geneva, 1996.)
51
52
Box 3.5
Reservations concerning a product-oriented
view of education (Malaysia)
A high quality teaching force one that is always
learning is a sine qua non of coping with the
dynamic complexity of a changing world. There
are simply no substitutes to having better teachers.
However, the status and image of teachers
accorded by society do not seem to be commensurate with these expectations. Teachers pay
remains comparatively low and opportunities for
career advancement are limited. All these are
issues related to the assessment of the worth of
the teaching profession. However, we should not
assess education solely from the socio-economic
perspective for otherwise we run into the danger
of using performance indicators to appeal to economics and business sense and thus subjugate the influence of teaching professionals under the control
of managerial authority. This in the end may only
further limit the development of the profession and
promote the development of a product-oriented
rather than process-oriented view of education.
Source: Strengthening the Role of Teachers in a Changing World.
Country Paper, pp. 2 3, Kuala Lumpur, Ministry of Education,
1996. (National report presented at the 45th session of the International Conference on Education, Geneva, 1996.)
Box 3.6
Towards a new culture of evaluation of education in France
Assessment of pupils proficiency and knowledge has
been enhanced both by :
ongoing monitoring activities (evaluation on completion of the lower secondary level (collge ) in
1995 in all subjects, except the arts and physical
education and sport); and
innovative comparative time studies (trends in academic achievement among the elite over the past
forty years; pupils proficiency in French and mathematics today as against the 1920s on the basis of
primary school-leaving certificate examinations) and
international comparisons (participation in the third
international evaluation of achievement in mathematics and science).
Further work has been done on the evaluation of educational personnel, through two approaches :
gaining a better understanding of the various categories of educational personnel (teachers, inspectors, documentalists, chief administrative officials,
guidance counsellors-psychologists, head teachers)
by conducting studies on how they and the other
actors in the system perceive their role and activities;
further research on teacher impact at the primary
and lower secondary level (French and mathematics). These research studies are intended to
highlight professional practices which, in a given
context, are instrumental in improving pupils performance.
Evaluation of state educational policies designed to
improve pupils performance has focused on the steps
taken at the collge level to remedy the shortcomings
Source: Rapport de la France, pp. 41 2, Paris, Ministre de lducation Nationale, de lEnseignement Suprieur et de la Recherche, 1996. (National
report presented at the 45th session of the International Conference on Education, Geneva, 1996.)
closely involved with these outcomes than anybody else except the learners themselves.
Teachers have always had their own individual
methods of evaluation in the classroom and most
countries have systemwide school-leaving examinations of one kind or another. What has been
called the new culture of evaluation, though, is
something quite different and more all-embracing
(Box 3.6). It does not necessarily make for com-
53
54
Table 3.1
Teaching conditions in sampled primary schools,1 in selected least developed countries, 1995
Percentage of pupils in classrooms not having:
Number
of schools
in sample
Bangladesh
Benin
Bhutan
Burkina Faso
Cape Verde
Equatorial Guinea
Ethiopia
Madagascar
Maldives
Nepal
Togo
Uganda
U. Rep. of Tanzania
Zambia
141
30
54
103
20
25
99
108
20
158
24
30
25
20
Usable
chalk
board
Wall
chart
World
map
47
2
3*
79
42
48*
36
51
51
...
8*
35
54*
44
80
25*
52*
6
92
96
97
48
78*
...
75*
70
90
88*
92
99
76*
94
97
99
99
89
98
...
97
93
91
100
98
97
76
89
77*
95
100
88
82*
...
83*
91
94
86*
44
35*
12*
14
49
76*
92
48
54*
...
31*
70*
91
64*
31
29*
17*
15
45
85
90
47
50
...
32*
56*
97
68*
Piped
water
Any
water
Electricity
First
aid
kit
Percentage
of pupils in
schools needing
major repairs
or rebuilding
90
77*
40*
88
21*
93*
94
58*
90*
65*
77*
98
91*
80*
23
46
5
39
0
42
72
36
10
28
67
35
36
30
95
88*
69*
92
42*
98
93
55*
35*
91
83*
92*
100
95*
93
87*
73*
81
62*
100
96
79*
68*
85
72*
71*
100
80*
42*
90*
10*
37*
0
...
72*
39*
...
38*
36*
55*
39*
45*
1. The figures in this table need to be interpreted with caution, bearing in mind that they are drawn from a sample of schools in each country and hence are subject in each case to sampling error. For example, for the column Usable chalk board in the case of Bangladesh, where the standard error is 1.7, it can be said
that there is a 95 per cent probability that the true figure for the countrys whole population of primary-school pupils lies in the range 47 ( 2 x 1.7), that is to
say, between 43.6 and 50.4. The standard errors of sampling are not shown in this table. Instead, an asterisk (*) is shown next to figures where the standard
error is equal to or greater than 5.0.
Source: Andreas Schleicher, Maria Teresa Siniscalco and Neville Postlethwaite, The Conditions of Primary Schools: A Pilot Study in the Least Developed Countries.
A Report to UNESCO and UNICEF, pp. 97 and 125 6. Paris, UNESCO, 1995. (Mimeo.)
55
56
Table 3.2
Availability of textbooks in sampled
primary schools,1 in selected
least developed countries, 1995
Percentage of pupils
whose home language
is different from
the medium
of instruction
Bangladesh
Benin
Bhutan
Burkina Faso
Cape Verde
Equatorial Guinea
Ethiopia
Madagascar
Maldives
Nepal
Togo
Uganda
U. Rep. of Tanzania
Zambia
2
99
86
94
100
98
16
84
8*
34
99
60
91*
100
...3
...
...
100
100
99
35*
70
...3
84
94
99
98
95
A maths
textbook
...
78
4*
95
7
72*
20*
81
52*
58
68*
55
48*
59*
Table 3.3
Pupil-teacher ratios in primary and secondary
education, by region, 1985 and 1995
Primary
Secondary
1985
1995
1985
1995
WORLD TOTAL
27
27
17
17
17
16
14
14
14
22
17
16
18
16
16
17
13
16
14
12
Countries in transition
22
19
15
12
30
30
20
20
38
26
27
26
25
43
47
39
23
24
24
23
45
47
24
19
15
18
17
24
26
25
16
15
17
16
30
32
Figure 3.1
GNP per capita and pupil-teacher ratio in primary and secondary education, by region,1 1995
70
60
60
50
50
Pupil-teacher ratio
Pupil-teacher ratio
Primary education
70
40
30
20
10
0
40
30
20
10
10
15
20
25
30
1,000
2,000
3,000
4,000
5,000
4,000
5,000
40
40
35
35
30
30
Pupil-teacher ratio
Pupil-teacher ratio
Secondary education
25
20
15
25
20
15
10
10
10
15
20
25
30
1,000
Sub-Saharan Africa
Arab States
2,000
3,000
Countries in transition
Eastern Asia/Oceania
Southern Asia
1. Individual countries within each region are represented by dots, diamonds and squares.
Note: The graphs on the right show separately countries for which the GNP per capita is lower than US$5,000.
57
58
Box 3.7
Class sizes and teachers workloads in India
The workload of teachers is often judged in terms
of amount and type of work done by them. A
sample survey carried out in 1990 (J. C. Goyal and
R. K. Chopra, Elementary School Teachers: A Profile, National Council of Educational Research and
Training, 1990) found that 42 per cent of primary
school teachers teach two classes or more at a
time. About 50 per cent of upper primary/middle
school teachers report that they teach four or
more subjects. More than 60 per cent of teachers
teach about 50 students on average, 34 per cent
teach between 51100 and about 5 per cent more
than 100 students. This means that on average
about 39 per cent of teachers teach more than
50 students in the primary school. At high/higher
secondary levels, however, the teacher-pupil ratio
was 1:16 in 1994 95. It is evident that primary
school teachers are working under stress, especially
those teachers who are handling multi-grade classes.
Education codes in different states specify the
number of class periods teachers at different levels
have to teach. The above-mentioned sample survey found that about one-fourth of primary school
teachers teach 31 35 class periods and a similar
number teach more than 36 class periods a week.
In middle schools, nearly half of the teachers
teach 31 40 class periods a week, whereas, 12 per
cent teach more than 40 class periods.
Besides teaching, elementary and secondary
school teachers have to spend a fair amount of
time on co-curricular activities, especially in private schools. In addition, teachers have to do clerical work and other miscellaneous work like
organizing relief work, collecting census data,
participating in family planning campaigns, and
population control drives, helping in the smooth
conduct of elections, etc.
Source: Development of Education in India, 1995 1996 with
Special Reference to Teacher Education, pp. 37 38, New Delhi,
Department of Education, Ministry of Human Resource Development, 1996. (National report presented at the 45th session of the
International Conference on Education, Geneva, 1996.)
expenditure on teachers with a view to reducing the student-teacher ratio on the one hand,
and additional expenditure on instructional materials on the other hand.
For countries such as those that participated in
the UNESCO-UNICEF pilot survey, where the
pupils have teachers but few textbooks or other
learning aids, it can be plausibly argued on common-sense grounds that the trade-off favours
expenditure on additional instructional materials
rather than additional teachers. However, for the
majority of countries, where teaching and learning conditions are better, the trade-off is more difficult to decide and in any case is rarely posed for
educational policy-makers in such simple terms.
In many countries, the overall pupil-teacher or
pupil-class ratio usually masks a wide variation in
teachers workloads; in some cases even, teachers
could be teaching very large classes composed of
multiple grades (e.g. Box 3.7).
Moreover, in most of the worlds less developed
regions, the whole question of class size is complicated by the fact that pupil drop-out rates are
so high (Figure 3.2). Very large classes sometimes 75 to 100 pupils are common in the first
grade in some countries, but a third or more of the
pupils drop out of school before reaching the fifth
grade. In these countries, overall policies on class
size cannot be meaningfully formulated without
reference to the educational and social conditions
which determine whether pupils will remain in
school at all.
Up to now, very few of the studies of the effect
of class size on students learning achievement
have been rigorous enough to warrant giving
much confidence to the possibility of generalizing
their findings to the level of a national school system. Indeed, few have fully recognized that the
notion of class size itself is problematic: the size
of the class today or last month? Or five years ago
when the child started to read? How long do children have to be in a class of a given size before
reliable measures of the effect can be made? And
how can these children be meaningfully com-
Figure 3.2
Estimated survival rates1 to Grade 5 in primary
education, in the less developed regions
Grade
1
67%
64%
68%
68%
74%
70%
88%
85%
97%
93%
Southern Asia
100%
80%
74%
Latin America/Caribbean
100%
83%
77%
Sub-Saharan Africa
100%
83%
80%
Eastern Asia/Oceania
100%
94%
91%
Arab States
100%
99%
98%
59
60
Box 3.8
When half the class has problems . . .
If there are five or six problem children in a class
of 30, the teacher can take care of the problem. But
when half the class has problems the teacher cannot
really cope. But in addition, most of our teachers do
not come from our neighbourhoods, and that poses a
problem ...
Teaching today is not what it was ten years ago: a
teacher must now be priest, cop, and so on. Are
teachers capable of that? They would say no. What
they say is, We can play that role up to a point, but
after that the State must assume its responsibilities. But
something more than teaching is called for, and that is
the human capacity to understand all the problems.
What we need today is teachers who are involved.
And that goes far beyond mere time-tables. It is a fact
that children and adolescents succeed when they come
upon a teacher who shows interest and confidence in
them. It is what we define as human warmth. Are we
capable of providing human warmth in a class in
which more than half the pupils have problems of one
kind or another? .. .
All we teachers do is sow the seeds. We have no way
of knowing what our efforts will produce. Some students
will take nothing in. But others, years later, will say: I
remember you once told me such and such; it made an
impression on me and it taught me something ...
(Rachid Benzine, a secondary school teacher in
Trappes, France.)
Most teachers [in this school] work individually with
each student and weve worked it out as a system,
with a sense of family. Young people are reasonable.
They are looking for someone who treats them with
respect. The message that I try to transmit is that whatever they do now will have an impact in their future,
in their life, in their society .. .
For me teachers are more than instructors. I wish I
would become a lifelong teacher, which is teaching
how to learn, the ability to analyze, share possibilities
in unique and innovative ways to solve problems.
Teachers are renaissance people. We are not licensed
to counsel, we are not licensed to preach, but we
preach ...
(Mimsie Robinson, biology teacher at Unity High
School and New Yorks 1997 Teacher of the Year,
United States.)
Source: Learning to Live Together. Interviews from around the World on the Role of Education, pp. 34, 501, Paris, UNESCO, 1997. (Mimeo.)
Table 3.4
Secondary-school mathematics teachers views
concerning their students,1 in countries
and territories that participated in IEAs Third
International Mathematics and Science Study
(TIMSS), 1994 95
Percentage of students whose teachers
report that their teaching is limited
quite a lot or a great deal by: 2
Students
academic
abilities
Students
wide range
of backgrounds
Students
lack of
interest
Disruptive
students
Belgium (Fl)3
30
20
38
26
Canada
54
21
46
45
Cyprus
83
47
74
64
Czech Republic
70
54
30
England
35
13
30
27
France
66
21
59
36
Hong Kong
67
33
55
44
Hungary
91
38
68
57
Iceland
86
21
54
52
88
62
68
49
Ireland
62
19
43
38
Japan
62
...
35
...
Latvia 4
81
15
64
27
Lithuania
88
11
57
33
New Zealand
50
26
40
39
Norway
67
16
39
29
Portugal
72
37
69
58
Rep. of Korea
77
24
67
65
Russian Federation
77
13
49
18
Singapore
56
34
48
45
Slovakia
68
21
71
44
Spain
82
17
88
64
Sweden
51
18
35
30
Switzerland
61
33
30
25
United States
48
17
47
36
1. Teachers of 7th and 8th grade students were asked whether a particular
characteristic of their students, e.g. students academic abilities, limited
their teaching either not at all, a little, quite a lot or a great deal.
2. The TIMSS sampling targeted the 7th and 8th grade student population
in each system. Thus, this table shows the views of teachers of nationally representative samples of 7th and 8th grade students. For example,
with reference to Belgium (FI): an estimated 30 per cent of 7th and
8th grade students had teachers who report that their teaching is limited
quite a lot or a great deal by their students academic abilities.
3. Flemish-speaking schools.
4. Latvian-speaking schools.
61
62
Box 3.9
The language question in Niger
In Niger most schools use French, as they were established in a non-French-speaking environment by the
colonizer. Since then, they have been unable to put
this original sin behind them. In order to understand
the kind of anathema that schools in Niger labour
under one needs to be aware of Nigers situation as
regards language and culture.
Niger is at the heart of the African continent, almost
equidistant from all the seas, and appears in the
middle of the Sahara like a kind of buffer against
which, from time immemorial, waves of populations
bringing Arab-Berber, Guinean, even Bantu influences,
not to mention those of great medieval empires of
Africa (Mali, Songhay, Kanem), were brought to a halt.
This meeting-point function is seen clearly on a linguistic map of the country. It does not have exclusive
possession of any language but shares them all with
other countries.
Hausa, with Nigeria;
Gurmanche, with Burkina Faso;
Sona Zarma, with Mali, Benin and Burkina Faso;
Tamajak, with the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya, Algeria
and Mali;
Source: Rapport national sur le dveloppement de lducation au Niger, 1994 1996, pp. 7 8, Niamey, Commission Nationale Nigrienne pour lducation, la Science et la Culture, Ministre de lducation Nationale, 1996. (National report presented at the 45th session of the International Conference
on Education, Geneva, 1996.)
Teacher education
While teaching and learning conditions are important, teachers are central to the question of educations quality and relevance. How they are
educated and prepared for their work is a critical
indicator of what kind of educational quality and
relevance is being sought. Although it is still common, as was noted in Chapter 2, for persons who
have never participated in a teacher-education
programme to be appointed as teachers, the educational authorities in most countries today are
probably more reluctant to resort to this expedient than they were ten or twenty years ago. The
World Conference on Education for All pointed
educational policies away from measures designed merely to permit increases in student
enrolments without doing anything to improve
students learning outcomes.
Approaches to teacher education, however, are
as varied as the tasks and roles for which teachers
are intended to be prepared, whether in the classroom, school or other educational setting, or in
the wider community. In so far as there can be
said to be any international consensus at all on
such a complex matter, given the differences in
national and cultural contexts, it is that teaching
should be regarded as a profession. This is what
was agreed when the Recommendation was
adopted.
Teaching, the Recommendation affirms, is a
form of public service which requires of teachers
expert knowledge and specialized skills, acquired
and maintained through rigorous and continued
study; it calls also for a sense of personal and corporate responsibility for the education and welfare of the pupils in their charge (see Box 2.1).
Approaches to the pre-service and in-service
education of teachers have essentially been based
on conceptions of the teachers teaching and
other roles, choices concerning the form and contents of teacher-education programmes, and the
priority given to enabling teachers to continue
learning while keeping up to date and abreast of
developments in their fields.
Conceptions of the teaching role have strongly
influenced pre-service teacher-education programmes, but the emphasis typically placed on
this role has often led to the neglect of preparation for other aspects of the teachers life in the
school and the community (e.g. Box 3.10).
Given the emphasis on the teaching role, global
trends in teacher education can be broadly interpreted as a shifting balance between a concern
mainly to prepare teachers who can implement
effectively their school systems mandated cur-
63
64
Box 3.10
Little or no time is spent preparing the trainee teachers for their real life in these difficult contexts
The [Conferences] Roundtable on Teaching in Difficult
Contexts commenced with presentations outlining
either recent practice or identifying possible issues in
different regions, including Viet Nam, Pakistan, Thailand and Myanmar. .. .
One of the major issues identified was the recruitment of local teachers, that is teachers who come from
the same difficult context and who therefore understand the nature of the situation. This is often not possible and therefore offers a new set of challenges for
teachers who come to the area from outside. This then
has implications for how these teachers are trained.
Locally recruited teachers have the advantage of
understanding the local conditions but are often disadvantaged through the same factors that make the situation difficult. In many cases of minority people, they
are further disadvantaged by having to be trained in
what is for them their second language. For women, it
is particularly difficult for them to leave their local area
to attend training. Thus, training of an intensive nature
which is provided in the local environment is a useful
innovation. ...
For teachers who come from outside the disadvantaged region, there are additional complexities to their
work. Often, they are expected to be more than
teachers. In many cases, they will be the most educated person in the village and demands will be placed
upon their specialist skills and knowledge. Thus, additional responsibilities will be given to them. At the
same time, survival skills for these teachers are neces-
Source: Partnerships in Teacher Development for a New Asia, pp. 3912, Bangkok, UNESCO (Asia-Pacific Centre of Educational Innovation for Development), 1996. (Report of an International Conference organized by UNESCO and UNICEF in association with the Office of the National Education Commission, Thailand, held in Bangkok, 6 8 December 1995.)
Box 3.11
The danger of schools becoming
mere training camps to pass examinations
(Republic of Korea)
The university-entrance-focused secondary school
education has been the most stigmatizing problem
in Korean education. It has been the cause of
almost all aberrant educational practices occurring
in the schools. For example, as the main concern
of all educational agencies is to prepare their
students to obtain high scores to enter a prestigious university, no matter how sound a curriculum is developed, it has not been and cannot be
implemented as intended. Private tutoring became
a virtual school curriculum, a means for every
student to use to win a competitive edge for entering universities and colleges. This, in turn, causes
a soaring of private educational spending far
above the level of public educational spending.
The heated competition to enter universities
stems, in part, from an educational system which
focuses on academic education only and which
provides few learning opportunities outside of formal school settings. Those who fail to advance to
the next level of schooling upon graduation find
little chance to pick up the opportunity at a later.
Especially since learning at a higher education
institution can only be available to those who
manage to win the fierce competition. Students
rightly fear their futures depend upon passing the
university entrance examination.
In so far as the schools have become mere
training camps to pass examinations, they have
not been the most ideal places for learning.
65
66
Box 3.12
Learning better to understand (John Dewey, 1859 1952)
By science is meant that knowledge which is the outcome of methods of observation, reflection, and testing
which are deliberately adopted to secure a settled,
assured subject matter. It involves an intelligent and
persistent endeavour to revise current beliefs so as to
weed out what is erroneous, to add to their accuracy,
and, above all, to give them such shape that the
dependencies of the various facts upon one another
may be as obvious as possible. .. . Both logically and
educationally, science is the perfecting of knowing, its
last stage.
Science, in short, signifies a realization of the logical
implications of any knowledge. Logical order is not a
form imposed upon what is known; it is the proper
form of knowledge as perfected. .. .
To the non-expert, however, this perfected form is a
stumbling block. Just because the material is stated
with reference to the furtherance of knowledge as an
end in itself, its connections with the material of everyday life are hidden. .. . The necessary consequence is
an isolation of science from significant experience. The
pupil learns symbols without the key to their meaning.
He acquires a technical body of information without
ability to trace its connections with the objects and operations with which he is familiar often he acquires
simply a peculiar vocabulary.
There is a strong temptation to assume that presenting subject matter in its perfected form provides a
royal road to learning. What more natural than to suppose that the immature can be saved time and energy
and be protected from needless error by commencing
where competent inquirers have left off? The outcome
is written large in the history of education. Pupils
begin their study of science with texts in which the
Source: John Dewey, Democracy and Education, pp. 256 8, New York, Macmillan, 1916.
which teachers need to possess in order to implement them effectively. Methods which help pupils
better to understand scientific principles (Deweys
example) could well apply everywhere. For other
things that a sense of personal and corporate
responsibility for the education and welfare of
their pupils beckons teachers to help pupils
understand, for example, the nature of the obstacles to living better together (e.g. Box 3.13), different methods might be equally effective.
So long as the nature of good teaching remains
elusive, the design of teacher-education programmes will continue to be uncertain. Although
educators have long been aware that subject matter knowledge, knowledge of general pedagogical
principles and knowledge of learners are essential
components of the knowledge base that teachers
must possess if they are to be effective, the challenge still rests for teacher-education programmes
to integrate these components into the contentspecific pedagogical knowledge (how best to
teach maths or history or human rights) which
some researchers claim to be the key to effective
teaching.
While the central concern of pre-service teacher
education in most countries in coming years will
continue to be preparation for teaching as such,
other aspects of teachers work could also come
more into focus. They have not often been given
the attention which they merit, in so far as teaching is only one of the challenges facing teachers
when they graduate and take up their duties in the
schools. For many teachers in the worlds less
developed regions, but not only there, skills in
non-formal education and in relations with parents and the local community generally as can
be seen for example in Box 3.10 are sometimes
critical for survival even as a teacher, yet few
teacher-education programmes currently provide
serious preparation for handling them. The situation of teachers in some of the urban schools of
the industrial countries, which was featured in
Box 3.8, poses a parallel challenge for teacher
education. But quite aside from the specific
Box 3.13
Learning to stop bullying
The attitude of society to bullying [in schools]
needs to be urgently examined. As long as there is
a heritage of opinion which considers that it can
be sorted out among the children themselves, that
it is a valuable learning experience, that we cannot and need not, as adults, do anything constructive to help, then bullying in schools is being
covertly supported. Within the school a sense of
community can be developed where all, pupils
and staff, take responsibility for each other. If
pupils witnessing bullying feel confident to alert
staff in the context of taking responsible action,
rather than telling tales, this could be a most
powerful preventative strategy. If pupils are
alerted to the subtleties of bullying so that they
recognise it and can see that it is the dominance
of the powerful over the powerless, and as such
warrants no kudos, a change in attitude could be
brought about.
Source: Valerie Besag, Management Strategies with Vulnerable
Children, in: Erling Roland and Elaine Munthe (eds.), Bullying:
An International Perspective, pp. 845, London, David Fulton
Publishers Ltd., 1989.
67
68
Box 3.14
Components of the initial training
programmes for teachers in Portugal
In accordance with the legislation governing the
initial and in-service training of pre-school, basic
education and secondary school teachers, the initial teacher-training must include a content training
component in the subject area(s) to be taught,
which should not exceed 60 per cent of the total
hours of training for pre-school and basic education first cycle (primary) teachers and 70 per
cent for basic education second- and third-cycle
teachers. As regards secondary school teachers,
the training is given in one subject area only and
must not exceed 80 per cent of the total hours of
training. Subject areas are the responsibility of the
respective departments.
The sciences of education components are
organized with the aim of providing psychological
and pedagogical training appropriate for the exercise of the responsibilities of a teacher, particularly
through a knowledge of the principal theories of
development and their educational implications,
through the development of awareness of interpersonal relations, and through training in the various methods and techniques of education, in
models of curriculum organization and in evaluation processes, to quote the most significant
themes of the syllabuses.
These components, particularly that concerned
with the methods and techniques of education,
take into account, directly and systematically,
questions such as the new technologies (computer-assisted and computer-managed teaching,
and multimedia systems) and also, less-systematically, civics education, values education and multicultural education.
Source: Dveloppement de lducation. Rapport national du
Portugal, pp. 282 3, Lisbon, Ministre de lducation, Bureau
des Affaires Europennes et des Relations Internationales, 1996.
(National report presented at the 45th session of the International
Conference on Education, Geneva, 1996.)
pants after completion of the first cycle of secondary education. However, in the majority of
countries in every region, preparation for secondary-school teaching is now generally conducted at the tertiary level.
move towards raising the educational level required of entrants to pre-service teacher-education
programmes has been determined by several factors. While the status of the teaching profession
has often made it difficult to attract the most able
secondary-school graduates, the sheer size of the
teacher recruitment needs of the education sector
in many countries where student enrolments have
been growing rapidly has also been a factor. In
regions such as Western Europe, where enrolment
growth has slowed, most countries have had little
difficulty in recent years in selecting persons
whom they consider to be suitable candidates
for teacher-education programmes. In the worlds
less developed regions, raising the educational
levels of teacher recruitment has often been
constrained by budgetary considerations, in particular fears of increased expenditure on teachers
salaries; such considerations have been an issue in
many of the structural adjustment programmes,
especially in Africa, that were noted in Chapter 2. Recruitment for technical-vocational teachereducation programmes has presented special difficulties in many countries, because the abilities
needed in candidates are frequently those which
provide ready access to engineering qualifications
and employment at higher salaries in industry.
Although the main focus of teacher-education
policies in most countries continues to be the preservice preparation of teachers, the in-service or
further education of teachers has grown in importance over the last thirty years. In some countries,
the term continuing education is used. Increasingly it is appreciated that teaching, like other professions, is a learning occupation in which the
practitioners need to have opportunities throughout their careers for periodically updating and
renewing their knowledge, skills and capabilities.
The classroom and the school, it is realized, are
relatively small worlds which do not in themselves
provide opportunities for teachers to share in
the broader educational communitys growing
and constantly changing body of knowledge and
experience of teaching.
Figure 3.3
Average teaching hours per week
of primary- and secondary-school teachers,
in selected countries, 19941
Teaching hours per week
Secondary
Primary
30
20
10
10
Afghanistan
Algeria
Argentina
Australia
Austria
Cameroon
Chad
Congo
Costa Rica
Cte d'Ivoire
Cuba
Czech Rep.
Ecuador
Egypt
France
Germany
Ghana
Guinea
Iran, Islamic Rep. of
Italy
Japan
Jordan
Luxembourg
Mali
Malta
Mauritania
Mexico
Nicaragua
Norway
Oman
Panama
Peru
Rep. of Korea
Saudi Arabia
Slovakia
Spain
Swaziland
Sweden
Switzerland
Syrian Arab Rep.
Thailand
Togo
Tunisia
Turkey
U. Rep. of Tanzania
Uruguay
Venezuela
Zimbabwe
1. Or latest year available.
20
30
69
70
Box 3.15
The evolution of in-service education
for primary school teachers in China
Teacher training schools in China, strengthened
and rebuilt in the early 1980s, have been a major
base for the in-service training of primary school
teachers. There are at present 2,153 such institutions, with almost one for each county and city
district.
From 1980 to 1995, more than two million
teachers were trained in these schools. In the first
four years, training focused on enabling teachers
to master subject matter and develop basic teaching competence. From 1984 to 1990, the training
objective was to help unqualified teachers obtain a
diploma of secondary normal education.
As a result of the 15-year endeavour, the percentage of unqualified primary school teachers
decreased from 53 per cent to 12 per cent of the
5,664 million teaching force in 1995. Given this
condition, the training priority for most parts of
China has changed from training for qualification
(diploma of secondary normal education) to continuing education.
Continuing education is offered through various
programmes to serve the professional needs of all
qualified teachers. The programmes include training for the following: new teachers, key teachers,
teachers in new teaching posts, and potential key
teachers, with emphasis on the first two.
cational needs, school management and administration, and educational technologies. The 1996
International Conference on Education recommended that special priority should be given to
the in-service training and education of those
involved in the management, supervision and
evaluation of teachers.
With the growth of in-service teacher education
over the last thirty to forty years, experience of its
strengths and limitations as a means to improve
the quality of education has grown too. While
there exist some remarkably sophisticated programmes, notably those found in east Asia that are
conceived for the induction of beginning teachers
(e.g. Box 3.16), most in-service programmes typically are modest in scope and of short duration.
In a number of countries they are often schoolbased, which some observers believe to be a
growing trend, although fears have been
expressed that this could signal a tendency to substitute in-service training for the practicum component of pre-service teacher education. In probably the majority of cases they consist of a short
course, workshop or seminar lasting a few days
and focused on selected aspects of subject area
knowledge, teaching technique, or classroom and
school management. Teachers normal workloads
constitute a basic constraint on their participation
in anything more elaborate except during school
vacations, and even then most teachers often have
preferred alternatives for the use of their time
unless specific incentives to participate in a course
are offered.
Still, in countries where there exist extensive
networks of teacher-education institutions and
school advisory and support services able to
mount short in-service courses, either on their
own initiative or at the request of schools, it is
possible to involve quite high percentages of the
total teaching force in any year. The percentages
are probably higher in Western Europe than in
any other region of the world, although the figures for a few east Asian countries may be comparable. Thus, in France, where primary-school
Box 3.16
Induction for beginning teachers
in New Zealand and Japan
In New Zealand, though registration is not a compulsory requirement, new teachers are not eligible
to become fully registered until they have completed at least two years classroom experience.
An advice and guidance programme is available
to all beginning teachers during their initial two
years. The programme includes resources and personal support from colleagues; a programme of
visiting and observing experienced teachers; meetings with other staff; appraisals of the beginning
teachers progress, and a written record of the
induction programme. In addition, primary
schools that employ beginning teachers receive
0.2 teaching entitlement per week for each new
teachers first year, to facilitate released time for
the beginning teachers or senior staff working
with them.
In Japan, beginning teachers maintain a lighter
work load of teaching duties; attend in-school
training two times per week, with assistance from
designated guidance teachers; and receive out-ofschool training once per week. Out-of-school
training covers a wide range of activities including
volunteer work, lectures, seminars and visits to
other schools, child welfare facilities, and private
corporations. To support induction activities,
schools employing one beginning teacher are
assigned a part-time lecturer; those employing two
beginning teachers are assigned a full-time
teacher.
Source: Linda Darling-Hammond and Velma L. Cobb (eds.),
Teacher Preparation and Professional Development in APEC
Members: a Comparative Study, p. viii, Washington, D.C., U.S.
Department of Education, 1995.
71
72
Table 3.5
Percentage of employees who participated
in courses in 1993 in enterprises employing
10 or more people in Western Europe1
By industry:
Mining and quarrying
Manufacturing
Electricity, gas, water
Construction
Wholesale, retail, repair
Hotels and restaurants
Transport, communication
Financial intermediation
Services for enterprises, renting,
real estate
32
24
49
14
25
24
37
55
34
TOTAL
28
By size of enterprise:
10 to 49 employees
50 to 99 employees
100 to 249 employees
250 to 499 employees
500 to 999 employees
1 000 and more employees
13
19
24
30
35
44
TOTAL
28
Box 3.17
The career structure for primary-school teachers in Lesotho
Classroom positions
On first appointment, the teacher will be allocated to
salary grade and step within that grade according to
his/her qualifications and experience. Allocation will
be at the discretion of the Teachers Service Commission (TSC). The teacher will then proceed by
annual increment to the top step of the grade. At this
point no further progress can be made without applying to TSC for advancement. Advancement will only be
granted on a satisfactory assessment of the teachers
performance, experience and qualifications. This will
be assessed by consideration of a report from the
teachers Principal on behalf of the Management Committee, together with assessment of any additional
qualifications which the teacher has gained.
On satisfactory assessment, the teacher will be allocated to the next grade, normally at the first step of
that grade. Allocation to a step above the first will be
at the discretion of TSC, taking account of exceptional
performance, experience, qualifications.
Advancement can continue to the top of the
Senior Teacher Position grade. At that point advancement ceases. Further progression in the career struc-
Source: The Development of Education, 1996 1998, p. 36, Maseru, Ministry of Education, 1996. (National report presented at the 45th session of the
International Conference on Education, Geneva, 1996.)
73
74
Box 3.18
Measures taken to improve the efficiency
and evaluation of teachers in Oman
The Ministry has paid great attention to the efficiency and evaluation of the teacher. It has taken
certain measures in this respect. Some of these
are:
The Ministry recruits a training specialist in
every educational region. This specialist coordinates with educational supervisors to follow
up the teachers during their first two years of
work. They give them necessary help and assistance in order to raise up their professional
efficiency and to decide their training needs.
The Ministry is implementing a new system of a
senior teacher for each subject in schools. The
senior teacher is supposed to teach less periods
per week and is expected to help his colleagues in order to develop their performance
skills.
The Ministry has revised evaluation methods so
as to be more objective and scientific. Three
forms have been prepared and they are supposed to give an actual view of the professional
performance of the teacher. These forms are:
Classroom observation form. This form is filled
out by the headmaster whenever he visits
a teacher inside a classroom. On the form,
the headmaster states the positive aspects
in the teachers performance and the plan
suggested to raise up the standard of performance.
Supervision visit form. This form is filled out by
the supervisor and it covers both planning
and performing of a lesson. The supervisor
also states on the form the positive points
and the suggested improvement plan.
Evaluation form. It is an annual report which is
written by both the headmaster and the
supervisor. It evaluates the teachers performance.
Box 3.19
Proposed checklist of teacher behaviour items to be utilized in the appraisal
of primary- and secondary-school teachers in Beijing
Item
Objectives
Preparation of classes
Homework
Tuition
Evaluation
Regular and fully recorded classroom observation and evaluation; proper evaluation
criteria and objective evaluation results.
Amount of work
Organization of teaching
Classes
Fulfilment of teaching plans of the class; scientific and precise teaching content, laying
proper emphasis on the most important points, and spreading difficult points out evenly.
Teaching methods
Proper use of teaching methods such as lecture, demonstration and student experiment,
use of standard character forms on the blackboard, proper use of teaching aids tools,
multi-directional classroom communication.
Teaching manner
Teaching effectiveness
Source: National Commission of the Peoples Republic of China for UNESCO, On the Methods of Appraising Middle and Primary School Teachers in
China, Beijing, 1996. (Mimeo. Report commisioned by UNESCO from the National Commission of the Peoples Republic of China for UNESCO.)
75
76
4
Teachers, teaching
and new technologies
78
of countries, questions
concerning teachers and teaching have
emerged at the centre of debate over how education can make best use of the new information
and communication technologies. At the international level, as was noted in Chapter 1, there are
expectations that these technologies could facilitate progress towards Education for All goals, in
particular by enabling society to reach out more
effectively to individuals and social groups whose
basic learning needs are not being met by conventional educational means.
For the purposes of this report, the new technologies are understood to refer mainly to the
computer and related communication equipment
and software that enable one computer to communicate (network) with other computers. It has
often been suggested that education has up to
now been relatively slow in making use of these
N A GROWING NUMBER
Box 4.1
If the methods for seeking knowledge in the school and outside the school become too different,
the school will end up in a crisis of legitimacy (Sweden)
The school must prepare young people for a reality
involving computers. All pupils must be able to use IT
(information technology) when leaving school. Education learning takes place under different conditions, e.g. dialogue and collaboration with other pupils
and using libraries. Concurrently with the development
of IT, computers as a pedagogical means of assistance
and a tool have come into focus. Through access to
international data networks, e.g. Internet, the pedagogical arena has widened far outside the wall of the
schools. More and more pupils are accustomed to
using computers and getting hold of information and
knowledge through IT. Very often pupils knowledge
of using computers is on a higher level than that of
their teachers. As IT affects the work in school, schoollibraries change and get a more important role. In
every teaching situation, the pupil must be in focus.
The role of the teacher must be seen as a mentor sup-
porting the pupil when seeking knowledge. The massavailability of data and information in databases raises
demands on capacity to formulate problems and on
critical thinking in order to choose the relevant information. The role of the teacher becomes even more
important as transferer of knowledge, as discussionpartner, etc. If the schools fail to cope with the development of IT and its integration into the teaching
process, and if the methods for seeking knowledge in
the school and outside the school become too different, the school will end up in a crisis of legitimacy. In
a society rich in information the school no longer has a
monopoly on facts, information and knowledge which
means a change in the task for the schools. The development of knowledge and competence for the individual person will in the future take place in several arenas in school, in the home, in social life and working
life. This affects the schools and the teachers work.
Source: Reply of Sweden to the questionnaire administered by the International Bureau of Education in preparation for the Forty-Fifth Session of the International Conference on Education on the theme Strengthening the Role of Teachers in a Changing World, Geneva, International Bureau of Education,
1996, p. 30. (Mimeo.)
Figure 4.1
Media and communication indicators,
by region, 1995
Daily newspapers
Copies per 1,000 inhabitants
286
250
200
150
114
100
80
57
50
37
27
12
0
Radio receivers
Receivers per 1,000 inhabitants
1,287
1,200
1,000
800
600
387
400
200
199
169
403
251
88
Overshadowing the utilization of the new information and communication technologies in education are worldwide disparities in access to these
technologies. A majority of countries lack the
basic infrastructure needed for gaining access. All
of Africa, for example, has barely more telephones than the city of Tokyo. A majority of the
worlds schools still do not have electricity.
The dangers of a widening gulf in the world
between information rich and information poor
countries have been of particular concern to
UNESCO. A comprehensive overview of the current disparities in information resources across the
different regions of the world is presented in the
Organizations recently published World Information Report (Paris, UNESCO, 1997). Selected
media and communication indicators are shown
in Figure 4.1.
The utilization of the new information and com-
625
600
500
400
318
300
200
170
192
109
100
33
43
Television receivers
534
500
400
300
200
158
90
100
11
44
15
46
0
Sub-Saharan Africa
Arab States
Eastern Asia/Oceania
Countries in transition
Latin America/Caribbean
Southern Asia
More developed regions
79
80
puter for educational purposes is still at an experimental stage, whereas in other sectors for
example, financial services, many parts of manufacturing industry, commerce its utilization has
already altered core technical processes. In the
education sector, the core process face-to-face
contact between the teacher and learners in a
classroom has as yet barely been touched.
Nevertheless, there are signs that the computer,
in contrast to earlier technologies which never
delivered on promises to transform education,
could be different, for it has begun to intrude into
the core process in a way that many of the older
technologies never managed to do. This is a very
recent development, not even a decade old. It has
occurred in several steps.
Computers were originally introduced into a
number of industrial countries education systems
in the 1980s for the purposes of school administration and as subjects of study, in the latter case
to enable students to become acquainted with
their basic modes of operation and some of their
functions. In fact, this computer literacy rationale
is probably still the main driving force behind
most countries efforts to introduce computers
into the school system. Students and their parents
are increasingly aware of the need for computerrelated skills: in the United States, for example, a
presidential task force has estimated that up to
60 per cent of jobs in the year 2000 will require
computer-literate employees.
Initially, little use was made of computers for
the support of students learning in other areas of
the school curriculum. In the sole international
survey (twenty countries) carried out to date on
the uses of computers in schools, IEA in 1989
found that in almost all the countries surveyed
computers were mainly located in special computer rooms. Besides the scarcity of funds for buying hardware, there was a dearth of appropriate
educational software for the support of students
learning in standard curriculum subjects and most
teachers did not have the skills needed for developing such software. In a special report on the
Figure 4.2
Trends in the number of Internet hosts
in the world, 1981 97
Thousands
198189
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
81 82 83 . 84 . 85 . 86 . 86 . 87 . 88 . 88 . 89 . 89
v
g. ay ug.
b
c Jul
n Jul
ct
ct
ct
O
O
O
Ja
Fe No De
Au M
A
Thousands
20,000
199097
18,000
16,000
14,000
12,000
10,000
8,000
6,000
4,000
2,000
0
1 2 2
3
3 4
4 5
6 6
5
0 1
7
7
.9 .9 .9 .9 .9 .9 .9 .9 .9 .9 .9 .9 .9 .9 .9
ct n Jul an Jul an Jul an Jul an Jul an Jul an Jul
J
J
J
O Ja
J
J
J
Technological trends in both hardware and software have begun to change the educational status
of the computer. On the hardware side, there has
been a tremendous increase over the past few
years in the data-processing power, capabilities
and convenience of use of the computers that
schools indeed, ordinary families in most of
the industrial countries can afford to buy. The
standard desktop or personal computer today has
comparable processing power to some of the
mainframe computers of 1985. In addition, as a
result of digitalization the storage of texts,
images and sound in the same (digital) form on
compact disks (CDs) it has a multimedia capability (the ability to present text, images and
sound to the user). Affordable equipment that
enables one computer to communicate with
another has also become available.
On the software side, too, there have been significant developments: first, in the ease of inter-
81
82
Box 4.2
Accessible Internet data: finding sites that suit your students needs
The Internet is fast becoming an important tool for
Earth science teachers and students because it makes a
vast wealth of data, both real-time and archival, easily
accessible. Teachers no longer need to use small, contrived data sets [for] classroom discussions, and
students can be given large sets of real data to create
graphs, apply basic statistical techniques, construct
models, and draw conclusion about how the Earth
functions.
Montgomery Blair High School has had Internet
access for a number of years, but use of the Internet
has only recently extended to departments other than
computer science. My initial excitement and plans for
classroom applications were quickly squelched, however, when I realized that finding data that students
can handle is quite difficult. Most online data are field
specific and incomprehensible to those with limited
experience in the field. Because data generally are presented with no explanations or labels, I had no idea
what many numbers meant or what units they were in.
Fortunately I was persistent. It took close to a year, but
I finally found a student-friendly data set at the
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administrations
(NOAA) Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory
Source: Sarah Clemmitt, Accessible Internet Data: Finding Sites That Suit Your Students Needs, The Science Teacher, pp. 4850, March 1996.
action between the user and the computer, in particular by means of graphical user interfaces
which make it possible to control many aspects of
the computers functions by pointing at pictures
rather than by typing instructions; second, in
the development of programs of interactive selfinstruction for users; and third, in the ease of
communication and interaction (networking)
with other computers.
Educationalists have begun to recognize that as
a result of these developments modern computers
with their convenient keyboards, small screen and
pointing devices such as mice have evolved into
personal media which for the user are similar to
books and notepads while having additional
properties such as multimedia and the ability to
link up with the books and notepads of other
Box 4.3
Information technology is not yet
widely used in the Chadian education system
Chad does not have the funds necessary to introduce information technology into teaching, and
there is also a problem of human resources.
At the university, computer science is a timid
newcomer, in two faculties only:
the economics faculty, where computer science
teaching is offered from the first to the third year
to approximately 300 students by only two permanent teachers, has only four PCs, already very
heavily used;
the science faculty, where computer science is
taught as from the second year. The training programme comes down to an introduction to the
MS-DOS operating system and to the Turbo-Pascal
programming language. Training is provided by
two temporary teachers. The faculty has five computers at its disposal. A project to set up a computer network has been drawn up in collaboration
with the Institut universitaire technique in Orlans
on behalf of the science faculty.
As can be seen, information technology is not
yet widely used in the Chadian education system.
Source: Rapport national sur le dveloppement de lducation,
p. 33, NDjamena, Commission Nationale Tchadienne pour
lUNESCO, Ministre de lducation Nationale, 1996. (National
report presented at the 45th session of the International Conference on Education, Geneva, 1996.)
83
84
Box 4.4
Creating Learning Networks for African Teachers
The emerging power of information technologies might
contribute to resolving two of the central issues which
are crippling African education systems today, namely:
1) the lack of access to necessary information and learning resources, which considerably lessens the chances
of building up the existing formal systems capacity
and 2) the lack of opportunities for communication
among key players in the learning process (students
and their parents, educators, researchers) and education officials (planners, policy makers and curriculum developers) which often results in a bureaucratic
and top-down approach to the provision of learning
with isolated or disconnected teacher training colleges.
With this in mind, a project, Creating Learning Networks for African Teachers, has been established by
UNESCO to facilitate knowledge of and access to Internet in Africa. Considering the rapid expansion of
affordable access to full Internet, even in some of the
poorest regions of Africa, the World Wide Web and
e-mail are increasingly becoming a possibility for challenging educators and formal systems of communication to overcome some of the existing barriers to
learning.
The project, still in its pilot stage, will connect a
number of teacher training colleges (four to six in
twenty African countries) to the Internet in order to
develop local, national and regional networks to initiate activities that focus on:
enhancing dialogue between teacher training colleges, educational planners and policy-makers,
researchers and practicing teachers on issues related
to learning and teaching;
accessing and assessing information on latest concepts, developments and experiments in the field of
learning, teaching and education to enhance professional development, build local knowledge structures, and stimulate processes of change;
stimulating the development of locally adapted and
relevant curricula, appropriate teaching and printbased learning materials through groupwork and
groupware, using locally relevant images and
sounds (including otherwise inaccessible artifacts)
in close collaboration with the relevant national
education authorities;
promoting the development and implementation of
learning projects at teacher training colleges; targeting different learner groups of the communities
around them;
exploring the use of the Internet to stimulate more
learner-centred and interactive approaches in the
teaching-learning process at colleges and in the
classroom.
Source: Technology and Learning, Cases, pp. 47 8. Paris, UNESCO, 1997. (Education for All: Making it Work: Change in Action.)
Box 4.5
Searching for information about education
on the Internet /World Wide Web
It does not take long to discover that the World
Wide Web features a wealth of entertaining sites
that offer endless diversion. But what if you
wanted to use resources on the Internet to help
improve educational practice? What do the Internet and the World Wide Web offer today to K-12
educators, hype and hoopla aside?
The short answer to this question is plenty. An
individual with 1) a starting point and 2) a strategy
for negotiating the World Wide Web can find
many high-quality Web sites specific to education
in a relatively short period of time. These sites
offer, among other things, dozens of on-line
student and teacher publications, electronic news
services that feature articles of particular interest to
educators, subject-specific resources that provide
in-depth and comprehensive information on
nearly every topic imaginable, complete on-line
texts of classics and more recent books, thousands
of detailed lesson plans, information about how to
apply for educational grants, home pages of
teachers eager to volunteer their own insights into
classroom teaching and recommend other educational sites on the Web, maps to hundreds of
networked K-12 schools, lists of students and
classes looking for keypals, step-by-step instructions on how to construct your own Web site, and
discussion groups that feature extensive conversation and idea-sharing with others around the
United States and the world. Furthermore, provided that you have access to the Internet and the
World Wide Web, practically all of this information
is yours free of charge, twenty-four hours a day, to
explore on-screen, print out as hard copy, or
download onto your own computer.
Source: Edouard J. Miech, Editors Reviews, Harvard Educational Review, Vol. 66, No. 1, 1996, p. 128.
85
86
Table 4.1
Selected characteristics of students home backgrounds and use of time at home,
as reported by Grade 8 science students in countries and territories that participated
in IEAs Third International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS), 1994 95
Percentage of students
reporting:
Country/
territory 1
More than
25 books
at home
Australia*
Austria*
Belgium (Fl) 2
Belgium (Fr) 3*
Canada
Colombia*
Cyprus
Czech Republic
Denmark*
England
France
Germany*
Greece*
Hong Kong
Hungary
Iceland
Iran, Islamic Rep. of
Ireland
Israel*
Japan
1.
2.
3.
4.
90
72
71
83
86
43
76
95
88
81
78
78
73
50
88
94
31
77
83
...
Average number
of out-of-school
hours per day spent:
Have a
computer
at home
Studying
or doing
homework
Watching
TV or
videos
73
59
67
60
61
11
39
36
76
89
50
71
29
39
37
77
4
78
76
...
2.0
2.4
3.4
3.0
2.2
4.6
3.6
1.8
1.4
...
2.7
2.0
4.4
2.5
3.1
2.4
6.4
2.7
2.8
2.3
2.4
1.9
2.0
1.9
2.3
2.2
2.3
2.6
2.2
2.7
1.5
1.9
2.1
2.6
3.0
2.2
1.8
2.1
3.3
2.6
Percentage of students
reporting:
Country/
territory 1
More than
25 books
at home
Kuwait*
Latvia4
Lithuania
Netherlands*
New Zealand
Norway
Portugal
Republic of Korea
Romania*
Russian Federation
Scotland*
Singapore
Slovakia
Slovenia*
Spain
Sweden
Switzerland
Thailand*
United States
of America
Average number
of out-of-school
hours per day spent:
Have a
computer
at home
Studying
or doing
homework
Watching
TV or
videos
51
95
80
76
90
92
64
78
54
87
72
67
87
83
78
89
76
51
53
13
42
85
60
64
39
39
19
35
90
49
31
47
42
60
66
4
5.3
2.7
2.7
2.2
2.1
2.3
3.0
2.5
5.0
2.9
1.8
4.6
2.4
2.9
3.6
2.3
2.7
3.5
1.9
2.6
2.8
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.0
2.0
1.9
2.9
2.7
2.7
2.7
2.0
1.8
2.3
1.3
2.1
79
59
2.3
2.6
Countries marked by an asterisk * are not strictly comparable with other countries because they did not meet the studys agreed sampling standards.
Flemish-speaking schools.
French-speaking schools.
Latvian-speaking schools.
Source: Albert E. Beaton et al., Science Achievement in the Middle School Years: IEAs Third International Mathematics and Science Study, pp. 94 5, 106 7,
Boston, Center for the Study of Testing, Evaluation, and Educational Policy, Boston College, 1996.
Box 4.6
Virtual learning environments
Virtual learning environments represent an entirely
new form of educational technology. They offer
the educational institutions of the world a complex set of opportunities and challenges. For the
purposes of this report we will define a virtual
learning environment to be an interactive educational computer program with an integrated
communication capability. An example of a virtual
learning environment is a program . .. which supports learners as they work with mathematical formulae and makes it possible for them while using
the program to send mathematical working, tables
of values and mathematical sketches to other
students and tutors, and to receive similar information back from them, either while they are
working or later. It is the combination of individual adaptive interaction with communication on
demand that provides the unique form of support
for the learner. A classroom or a library is an
example of a real learning environment, and a
computer program which supports a non-trivial
scientific simulation can be considered to be an
interactive learning environment. A virtual learning
environment may support similar forms of learning to a real one but it is not a physical space
like a classroom or lecture theatre, and learners
may work closely together while not being active
at the same time. In addition to having a different
relation to space and time, a virtual learning environment is also different from a real one with
respect to memory. Virtual learning environments
are realized with computer technology, thus can
be designed to have their own memory of what
the learner or group of learners have been doing.
Virtual learning environments are a relatively
recent development and they arise from the convergence of computer and communication technologies that has accelerated over the last ten
years. ... The educational community has only
recently begun to think through the possibilities
for learning environments that are not restricted to
particular places and times and that can remember
past events.
Source: Tim OShea and Eileen Scanlon, Virtual Learning Environments and the Role of the Teacher: Report of a UNESCO/
Open University International Colloquium, pp. 34, Paris/Milton
Keynes, Unted Kingdom, UNESCO/Open University Institute of
Educational Technology, 1997. (Mimeo.)
87
88
Box 4.7
The scope for computer enhancement of students learning
The special properties of computers can be used to
enhance student learning processes on a number of
orthogonal dimensions.
1. Visualization. By augmenting simulation engines,
symbolic calculators and other software with graphical output it becomes possible to support student
visualization of highly abstract processes and procedures. ...
2. Diagnosis. By tracking student work on related
tasks it becomes possible to distinguish accidental
errors from those which provide statistical evidence
for failure to understand key concepts or to master
critical skills.
3. Remediation. By systematically giving students
greater access to relevant information or rehearsing
them on weak skills it becomes possible to focus
remediation on areas that the student, tutor or software has diagnosed as requiring attention. .. .
4. Reflection. By giving the students access to records
of their past working, the responses of the peers,
tutors and systems they were working with, and by
providing them with tools with which to annotate
and file such work, it becomes possible to support
systematic reflection on what they have learnt and
on their own learning processes. .. .
5. Memory prostheses. By giving students comprehensive access to their past computer mediated work
and by providing them with appropriate search
engines it becomes possible for students to have the
self confidence to be very selective and focused
about what they choose to attempt to memorise at
any point in time, thus supporting much greater
cognitive economy on the part of the learner. ...
6. Scaffolding. By tracking student learning gains and
by human or system dialogue with the learner it
becomes possible to dynamically vary the level of
scaffolding provided for learners.
7. Tackling the hypothetical. By making it possible for
students to set up counterfactual situations in simulations or to break laws in symbolic reasoning systems it becomes possible for students to investigate
the fundamental principles which underpin formal
scientific, mathematical and other models. .. .
8. Time travel. By facilitating time travel as a matter of
routine in simulations and databases it becomes
possible to help learners augment their understand-
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
Source: Tim OShea and Eileen Scanlon, Virtual Learning Environments and the Role of the Teacher: Report of a UNESCO/Open University International
Colloquium, pp. 14 16, Paris/Milton Keynes, United Kingdom, UNESCO/Open University Institute of Educational Technology, 1997. (Mimeo.)
89
90
and cannot handle multimedia software. The software problem relates to curriculum requirements.
In fact, there may have been a tendency for advocates of greater use of the computer in schools to
underestimate the extent to which most school
systems have mandated curricula and learning
goals that normally can be changed only after
careful deliberation. Increased use of the computer in regular classwork is unlikely if it does not
contribute to improved learning of mandated curriculum content.
The software question leads further, for it suggests that the computer, far from yet having solved
the problem of enabling students to learn better,
may actually have partly displaced the problem
elsewhere. Are educational software designers
anything other than virtual teachers? This question was evoked at the UNESCO/Open University
Colloquium. The preparation of good educational
software, it was agreed, requires a range of skills
that can only be provided by multi-disciplinary
teams of technicians and educators; in this respect
there is an important difference compared with
the preparation of conventional textbooks. The
need to involve teachers in the software development process, with a view to minimizing the difficulties that could later arise when utilizing the
software in the classroom, was emphasized in the
discussions at the Moscow Congress.
The continuing nature of the software problem,
even in countries with highly developed software
industries, points to larger policy issues. First, who
will take responsibility for developing the software? The education system itself or commercial
software producers? Several speakers at the
Moscow Congress, for example, urged that the
development of educational software should not
be left to the commercial and industrial world
alone. Yet if education systems themselves are
going to get involved more than they are now in
educational software research and development,
resources for such activity will have to come from
somewhere. At a time when most governments
are trying to hold down public expenditure, how
Box 4.8
Issues relating to the introduction of the new technologies into education in developing countries
1. It was noted [in the discussions at the Round Table]
that education has always made use of technology,
with new waves of technology absorbing not
replacing their predecessors. Thus, there has been
a progression from oral transmission, to print, to
computer assisted instruction and, now, to computer assisted learning.
2. It was noted that new technologies raised issues to
do with (a) impact on culture, (b) impact on communities, (c) authority and control, (d) curriculum
design and access, (e) the nature of the school,
(f) teacher competence, and (g) equity and social
justice.
3. In some countries, access to the Internet is being
discouraged by the government because it has the
potential to subvert the culture. However, it was
noted that while it is possible to reduce access, it is
not possible to eliminate it altogether.
4. Differences of opinions were expressed as to the
role of computers as aids to teaching or aids to
learning. Some believed that the role of the teacher
as a source of knowledge should be maintained,
while others argued that students should be as independent as possible and should be encouraged to
become interested thinkers.
5. Differential access to computers will further exacerbate differences within societies and will undermine
democracy.
6. Investment in technology should be seen as just that
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
Source: Re-engineering Education for Change: Educational Innovation for Development, Report of the Second UNESCO - ACEID (Asia-Pacific Centre of
Educational Innovation for Development) International Conference organized by UNESCO - ACEID in co-operation with the Ministry of Education, Thailand, Bangkok, 9 12 December 1996, pp. 162 3, Bangkok, UNESCO Principal Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, 1997. (Report of the Round
Table on the theme: Re-Engineering Use of Educational Technology in Developing Countries.)
91
92
Box 4.9
Making educational and cultural buildings
more intelligent (Japan)
In recent years, along with the maturing of our
society, the aspiration of people for learning has
been growing, and their learning demands have
become diversified and heightened. In this context, the National Council for Educational Reform
proposed a concept of intelligent school building.
According to this concept, education, research,
cultural and sports facilities in the community
should become focal points for lifelong learning
and information activities in the community
through reorganizing and renovating these facilities as centres providing comfortable learning and
living spaces equipped with high-level information
and communications equipment.
In response to this proposal, the Ministry began
to conduct studies on making educational and cultural buildings more intelligent, and in March 1990
published a report on Making educational and
cultural buildings more intelligent.
To follow up on this report, the Ministry started
in 1990 to commission a number of local governments to conduct pilot studies on model intelligent schools. On the basis of the results of these
pilot studies, the Ministry is now studying how to
carry out specific plans for making educational
and cultural buildings more intelligent.
Further, with a view to contributing to the
diversification and upgrading of the functions of
school buildings, the Ministry in 1992 launched a
programme for making school buildings more
intelligent for public elementary, lower secondary,
upper secondary and special schools.
During the six years from 1990 to 1995 the Ministry commissioned 22 local governments and
other organizations to conduct pilot studies on
model intelligent schools.
Box 4.10
Can anything be taught by words?
(Augustine of Hippo, A.D. 354 430)
What can be said in support of the view that words
teach us something quite apart from their sound
which strikes our ears? All that we perceive is perceived either with the senses or with the mind.
When we are asked about the former, we can
give an answer only if the things we experience
through the senses are actually before us; for
example, when we are looking at the new moon
and are asked what it is made of or where it is. In
this case, if the questioner does not see it himself,
he merely believes my words, and often, in fact,
he does not believe them. It is quite wrong to say
that he learns, unless he himself is seeing what is
being spoken about. This is to say, he does not
learn from the words which are uttered but from
the things themselves and from his senses; for the
same words sound in the ears of the person who
sees a thing and of the person who does not see
it. .. .
When we consider the things we perceive with
the mind, * that is, by means of the intelligence
and reason, we are talking about what we are
looking at directly in that interior light of truth by
which what we call the inner man is enlightened
and in which he delights. If at the same time the
person who listens to me sees these realities for
himself with his inner eye, he knows what I am
talking about, not because he has listened to my
words, but because he has contemplated the realities on his own account. .. . If he is led along this
path by the words of a questionner, he is not
being taught by words; the words are merely raising questions which put him in a fit condition to
learn inwardly. .. .
[Therefore,] we go astray when we refer to
teachers, since there are really no teachers at all.
The reason that we speak in this way is that frequently there is no time lapse between the
moment of speaking and the moment of learning.
Because pupils are quick to learn within themselves in consequence of the teachers instruction,
they think that in fact they have learned externally, from the person who has instructed them.
Editors note: Elsewhere, Augustine gives 7 + 3 = 10 as an
example of something perceived with the mind as distinct from
something experienced by the senses.
93
94
Box 4.11
Dear Mr Germain, . . . (letter from
Albert Camus to his former teacher)
19 November 1957
Dear Mr Germain,
I let the flurry around me these last few days die
down somewhat before writing to you from the
depths of my heart. I have just been paid a great
honour indeed,* which I neither sought nor
solicited. But when I heard the news, my first
thought, after my mother, was for you. Without
you, without the affectionate hand that you held
out to the poor child that I was, without your
teaching and your example, none of this would
have happened. I do not like making a big fuss
over this kind of event, but this one is at least an
opportunity to tell you what you meant and will
always mean to me and to assure you that your
efforts, your work and the generous heart that you
put into it are still alive in one of your little pupils
who, despite his age, has not ceased to be a grateful one. I hug you with all my might.
Albert Camus
* Camus had just heard that he had been awarded the Nobel
Prize for Literature.
Source: Albert Camus, Le premier homme, p. 327, Paris, Gallimard, 1994.
Appendices
I. Statistical
notes
98
Statistical notes
99
100
on its laws, regulations and statistics relating to educational, scientific and cultural life and institutions ....
In May 1946, the United States of America submitted to
the Preparatory Commission of UNESCO two proposals, one of which concerned the setting up of an international service of educational statistics. This proposal
was adopted by the General Conference of UNESCO at
its first session in November 1946. As a result, the programme of the Organization for 1947, as approved by
the Executive Board at its second session in May of that
year, contained the following project under the section
on education:
Educational statistics. In collaboration with a
committee on educational statistics the following
activities will be carried on: (a) Assist in the coordination, standardization and improvement of
national educational statistics. (b) Assist in the standardization of educational terminology. (c) Advise
Member States and intergovernmental organizations
on general questions relating to the collection, interpretation and dissemination of statistical data on
education. (d) Explore the possibility of publishing
an international education yearbook, which should
contain information on educational policies and
trends as well as statistics.
Accordingly, over the next ten years, UNESCOs activity
in educational statistics had two main thrusts: on the
one hand, standard-setting and advisory services to
Member States, culminating in the Recommendation
concerning the International Standardization of Educational Statistics, adopted by the General Conference
at its tenth session in 1958, and on the other hand
development of data collection and analysis, culminating in the World Survey of Education: Handbook of
Educational Organization and Statistics (Paris,
UNESCO, 1955).
Recommendation concerning the International Standardization of Educational Statistics, 1958. The Committee on Educational Statistics which had been proposed by the Preparatory Commission of UNESCO met
in March-April 1947 and drew up a plan for the collection of basic statistics on education. This eventually led
to the establishment of a statistical service in UNESCO
(April 1950), and to the setting up of a Committee of
Experts on the Standardization of Educational Statistics
(November 1951), which was charged with drawing up
Statistical notes
101
102
(a) Regular education, (b) Adult Education; the corresponding part of the 1958 Recommendation had made
a distinction between education that could be classified
by level and Education which is not usually classified
by level. In the following sub-section, Tabulations,
the text of the 1958 Recommendation was replaced
by a new text spelling out four sets of tabulations covering regular education, adult education, special
education and population data respectively, in each
case (except the last) with breakdowns drawn according to the ISCED levels and fields of study. Tabulations
on adult education had not been mentioned at all in
the 1958 Recommendation, nor had the distinction
between regular and adult education. Within adult
education, the Revised Recommendation made a distinction between formal and non-formal education
that also had not been made in the 1958 Recommendation. As regards the other sections of the Revised
Recommendation i.e. those concerning Statistics of
Illiteracy, Statistics on the Educational Attainment of
the Population, and Statistics of Educational Finance
the original text of the 1958 Recommendation was
retained except for the inclusion of two new terms
functionally literate and functionally illiterate
accompanied by their definitions: can/cannot engage
in all those activities in which literacy is required for
effective functioning of his group and community and
also for enabling him to use reading, writing and calculation for his own and the communitys development.
II. Regional
tables
104
NEW CLASSIFICATION
Countries in transition
Countries in transition comprises Albania, Armenia,
Azerbaijan, Belarus, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Czech Republic, Estonia, Georgia,
Hungary, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Latvia, Lithuania,
Poland, Republic of Moldova, Romania, Russian Federation, Slovakia, Slovenia, Tajikistan, The Former
Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Turkmenistan,
Ukraine, Uzbekistan and Yugoslavia.
1. The totals for each regional group include data and estimates for
other small countries and territories not shown individually in
Annex IIIs indicators tables. It should also be noted that the totals
for Less developed regions include data for Cyprus, Malta and
Turkey, and do not double count data for the four countries
(Djibouti, Mauritania, Somalia and Sudan) which belong to both
the Sub-Saharan Africa and the Arab States groups.
Regional tables
Table 1
Dependency ratios1 and population aged 15 64, 1985 2005
1985
Dependency ratio
(percentage)
1995
Population
(millions)
Dependency ratio
(percentage)
2005
Population
(millions)
Dependency ratio
(percentage)
Population
(millions)
0 5
6 14
65 +
15 64
0 5
6 14
65 +
15 64
05
6 14
65 +
15 64
WORLD TOTAL
23.3
31.9
9.8
2 936
20.8
29.6
10.5
3 534
18.0
25.8
11.1
4 192
11.9
19.1
18.4
523
11.2
17.3
20.9
557
10.0
16.0
22.9
581
13.5
11.6
10.9
19.1
21.1
18.2
17.5
15.1
20.4
178
97
247
13.7
9.5
10.0
19.8
15.8
15.9
19.1
19.8
22.8
194
105
258
11.4
10.0
8.9
18.4
14.7
14.6
18.5
25.9
25.3
216
105
261
Countries in transition
16.1
22.2
14.1
261
12.7
23.0
16.9
272
10.8
16.7
18.6
285
27.0
36.2
7.1
2 153
23.6
32.8
7.7
2 706
20.0
28.3
8.3
3 326
42.0
36.8
27.7
20.1
17.4
30.8
28.5
46.0
43.3
37.8
31.9
29.6
38.0
35.8
5.7
6.2
7.8
7.6
8.0
6.8
7.2
229
105
229
968
690
607
448
40.4
30.8
22.3
17.4
15.5
26.1
23.8
46.5
41.2
32.5
25.8
23.5
36.9
34.0
5.7
6.2
8.3
8.5
9.0
7.2
7.6
305
143
292
1 176
824
771
562
36.8
26.6
18.3
13.6
11.6
21.5
19.2
44.9
35.0
26.8
21.6
19.3
30.2
28.0
5.7
6.4
9.1
9.6
10.3
7.7
8.3
412
192
358
1 362
936
983
696
40.1
45.6
5.8
234
36.8
46.1
5.8
307
33.5
40.8
5.6
415
1. Percentage ratio of the population in each age-group to the population aged 1564.
Table 2
Estimated illiterate population (millions) aged 15 and over, 1985 2005
1985
WORLD TOTAL
More developed regions
and countries in transition
Less developed regions
of which:
Sub-Saharan Africa
Arab States
Latin America /Caribbean
Eastern Asia /Oceania
of which: China
Southern Asia
of which: India
Least developed countries
1995
2005
MF
%F
MF
%F
MF
%F
885.9
560.1
63.2
884.7
564.7
63.8
869.5
558.2
64.2
22.5
15.6
69.3
12.9
7.9
61.6
8.6
5.0
58.4
863.3
544.4
63.1
871.8
556.7
63.9
860.9
553.2
64.3
132.0
59.8
43.8
258.5
205.4
370.4
265.9
80.6
37.1
24.5
177.8
141.6
224.3
164.0
61.1
62.0
56.0
68.8
68.9
60.6
61.7
140.5
65.5
42.9
209.9
166.2
415.5
290.7
87.1
41.2
23.4
149.5
119.5
256.1
182.7
62.0
62.9
54.7
71.2
71.9
61.6
62.8
145.4
69.4
41.2
152.9
118.4
456.1
308.8
91.0
44.1
21.9
112.7
89.1
285.0
196.6
62.5
63.5
53.3
73.7
75.3
62.5
63.7
144.7
87.0
60.2
165.9
100.8
60.7
188.1
115.1
61.2
Source: Compendium of Statistics on Illiteracy. Paris, UNESCO, 1995. (Statistical Reports and Studies, 35).
105
106
Table 3
Estimated adult literacy rates (percentages),1 1985 2005
1985
1995
2005
MF
MF
MF
WORLD TOTAL
72.5
79.7
65.4
77.4
83.6
71.2
81.4
86.7
76.1
97.5
98.4
96.7
98.7
98.9
98.4
99.2
99.3
99.1
62.9
73.0
52.5
70.4
78.9
61.7
76.4
83.3
69.3
45.6
46.4
82.4
75.2
72.5
42.9
44.6
56.7
59.9
84.3
84.7
83.4
56.3
58.9
34.9
32.2
80.5
65.3
60.9
28.5
29.3
56.8
56.6
86.6
83.6
81.5
50.2
52.0
66.6
68.4
87.7
90.6
89.9
62.9
65.5
47.3
44.2
85.5
76.3
72.7
36.6
37.7
66.9
65.9
89.6
89.8
88.5
57.2
59.3
74.9
75.6
90.1
94.7
94.5
68.8
71.3
59.2
55.9
89.1
84.7
82.3
44.9
46.4
40.5
51.9
29.2
48.8
59.5
38.1
56.7
66.3
47.0
1. Percentage of literate adults in the population aged 15 years and over. The population data utilized are those of the United Nations Population Division
database (1994 revision).
Source: Compendium of Statistics on Illiteracy. Paris, UNESCO, 1995. (Statistical Reports and Studies, 35).
Table 4
Culture and communication indicators, 1985 and 1995
Consumption of
newsprint and
other printing and
writing paper
(kgs per inhabitant)
Circulation of
daily newspapers
(copies per
thousand
inhabitants)
Radio
receivers
(per thousand
inhabitants)
Television
receivers
(per thousand
inhabitants)
Telephone
main lines
(per thousand
inhabitants)
1985
1995
1985
1995
1985
1995
1985
1995
1985
1995
WORLD TOTAL
16.5
20.7
105
96
345
362
154
204
83
120
80.0
110.4
310
286
1 179
1 287
559
625
401
534
123.5
61.2
55.7
148.0
108.2
82.2
255
519
268
213
520
250
1 954
828
754
1 990
948
878
762
552
415
796
643
485
488
375
347
614
489
490
10.5
6.1
315
114
568
403
291
318
93
158
3.4
5.1
39
43
143
185
54
114
14
39
1.6
3.3
8.8
3.9
3.6
1.4
1.4
1.5
2.7
10.7
7.3
5.5
1.9
1.9
12
33
85
49
36
22
26
12
37
80
57
43
27
32
139
215
315
141
112
72
65
169
251
387
199
185
88
81
16
81
139
62
65
14
13
33
109
192
170
205
43
51
8
26
50
10
3
5
4
11
46
90
44
34
15
13
0.4
0.4
87
115
11
Countries in transition
Less developed regions
of which:
Sub-Saharan Africa
Arab States
Latin America /Caribbean
Eastern Asia /Oceania
of which: China
Southern Asia
of which: India
Least developed countries
Regional tables
Table 5
Enrolment (millions) and gross enrolment ratios in pre-primary education, 1985 and 1995
Enrolment
1985
1995
1985
1995
MF
%F
MF
%F
MF
MF
WORLD TOTAL
72.5
34.7
48
95.3
45.4
48
26.7
27.2
26.3
30.1
30.6
29.5
19.7
9.6
49
21.6
10.4
48
65.0
64.8
65.2
69.9
70.5
69.3
6.7
2.6
10.4
3.3
1.3
5.0
49
49
49
8.8
2.4
10.3
4.2
1.2
5.0
48
49
49
59.4
49.7
75.5
58.8
49.6
75.6
60.0
49.9
75.4
68.1
53.3
77.3
69.5
52.9
77.4
66.6
53.8
77.2
Countries in transition
16.3
7.9
49
13.3
6.3
47
64.1
64.9
63.4
54.0
55.7
52.4
36.5
17.2
47
60.4
28.6
47
16.9
17.4
16.4
23.1
23.5
22.6
1.8
1.6
9.4
19.7
14.8
4.1
1.2
0.9
0.6
4.6
9.4
7.0
1.7
0.6
47
38
49
48
47
43
45
3.1
2.4
14.2
34.7
27.1
6.2
2.1
1.5
1.0
7.0
16.5
12.7
2.8
1.0
47
41
49
48
47
44
46
7.1
14.8
35.4
20.1
20.0
7.6
3.2
7.5
18.0
35.8
20.3
20.4
8.4
3.3
6.7
11.4
35.1
19.9
19.5
6.7
3.0
9.2
15.4
51.1
28.9
28.7
9.8
4.8
9.7
17.7
50.7
29.0
29.0
10.6
5.0
8.7
12.9
51.5
28.8
28.2
9.0
4.5
2.6
1.1
45
3.9
1.8
45
9.8
10.6
8.8
10.8
11.9
9.8
Table 6
Enrolment (millions) and gross enrolment ratios in primary education, 1985 and 1995
Enrolment
1985
MF
WORLD TOTAL
1995
%F
567.2 256.5
45
MF
1985
1995
%F
MF
MF
650.2 299.9
46
99.1
106.0
91.8
99.6
104.8
94.2
61.8
30.1
49
62.7
30.5
49
101.7
101.9
101.5
104.5
104.8
104.2
22.5
13.7
25.6
10.9
6.7
12.4
49
49
49
26.9
11.0
24.9
13.0
5.4
12.1
49
49
49
99.5
102.1
103.4
99.8
102.0
103.7
99.3
102.2
103.1
103.3
102.9
106.7
103.8
102.8
106.9
102.7
103.0
106.4
Countries in transition
29.8
14.5
49
28.9
14.0
49
98.7
99.0
98.4
98.1
98.6
97.6
475.7 211.9
45
558.6 255.4
46
98.7
106.9
90.1
99.1
105.0
92.9
57.9
25.7
70.2
203.2
133.7
114.0
87.4
25.8
10.8
34.0
93.2
59.9
45.6
35.2
45
42
48
46
45
40
40
76.5
36.1
81.7
206.1
132.0
155.4
109.7
34.6
16.0
39.5
98.2
62.4
65.6
47.4
45
44
48
48
47
42
43
76.1
80.4
105.1
117.8
123.2
85.1
96.0
84.0
90.9
107.2
124.3
132.0
98.2
110.5
68.2
69.5
103.0
111.0
113.9
70.8
80.3
73.9
83.8
110.4
114.5
118.3
94.2
100.3
80.7
91.7
112.0
115.8
119.4
105.5
110.1
67.1
75.6
108.8
113.0
117.1
82.1
89.8
45.9
19.2
42
65.3
28.2
43
65.9
75.6
56.0
69.5
78.2
60.7
107
108
Table 7
Enrolment (millions) and gross enrolment ratios in secondary education, 1985 and 1995
Enrolment
1985
MF
WORLD TOTAL
1995
%F
291.6 126.5
43
MF
1985
1995
%F
MF
MF
372.0 168.7
45
48.5
53.5
43.2
58.1
62.5
53.4
72.3
35.5
49
75.3
37.1
49
92.3
91.7
92.9
105.8
104.8
106.9
22.9
12.9
36.4
11.2
6.4
17.9
49
49
49
23.7
13.0
38.6
11.6
6.4
19.1
49
49
49
97.4
93.0
89.1
97.4
92.0
88.3
97.5
94.1
89.9
97.0
107.8
111.4
96.5
107.3
109.8
97.4
108.3
113.1
Countries in transition
36.0
17.7
49
40.7
20.3
50
94.6
94.6
94.7
86.9
85.4
88.4
183.3
73.4
40
256.1 111.3
43
37.7
44.0
31.0
48.8
53.9
43.6
12.3
12.1
20.5
80.0
51.7
56.0
44.5
5.0
4.8
10.4
33.6
20.6
18.7
14.8
40
40
51
42
40
33
33
18.8
16.9
25.8
100.7
63.8
89.2
66.6
8.4
7.5
13.3
46.4
28.8
33.8
24.9
44
44
52
46
45
38
37
21.7
44.8
50.2
41.5
39.7
33.8
37.7
25.8
52.7
48.8
47.0
46.3
43.2
48.2
17.6
36.6
51.7
35.8
32.6
23.6
26.3
24.3
53.7
56.6
61.5
66.6
44.5
48.7
26.9
58.4
53.9
64.5
70.5
53.4
58.7
21.6
48.8
59.3
58.3
62.4
35.0
38.0
10.2
3.5
34
14.6
5.5
38
16.3
21.3
11.2
18.4
22.5
14.1
Table 8
Enrolment (millions) and gross enrolment ratios in tertiary education, 1985 and 1995
Enrolment
1985
1995
1985
1995
MF
%F
MF
%F
MF
MF
WORLD TOTAL
60.3
26.8
44
81.7
38.4
47
12.9
14.0
11.7
16.2
16.8
15.6
25.1
12.2
49
34.3
17.8
52
39.3
39.4
39.2
59.6
56.0
63.3
13.9
2.9
8.2
7.3
1.1
3.8
53
37
47
16.4
5.3
12.6
9.0
2.4
6.4
55
46
51
61.2
28.1
26.9
56.9
34.5
28.2
65.7
21.4
25.6
84.0
45.3
47.8
74.6
47.9
45.9
93.8
42.6
49.8
Countries in transition
10.9
5.9
54
10.8
5.8
54
36.5
33.1
40.0
34.2
30.7
37.7
24.4
8.7
36
36.6
14.7
40
6.5
8.1
4.8
8.8
10.3
7.3
0.9
2.0
6.4
9.1
3.5
5.5
4.5
0.2
0.7
2.8
3.3
1.0
1.6
1.3
25
33
45
36
29
29
30
1.9
3.1
8.1
14.3
5.6
8.0
5.6
0.7
1.3
4.0
5.7
1.9
2.7
2.0
35
41
49
40
33
34
36
2.2
10.7
15.8
5.4
2.9
5.3
6.0
3.4
14.0
17.4
6.8
3.9
7.3
8.1
1.1
7.2
14.2
3.9
1.7
3.2
3.8
3.5
12.5
17.3
8.9
5.3
6.5
6.4
4.6
14.5
17.6
10.5
6.8
8.2
7.9
2.5
10.5
17.0
7.2
3.6
4.6
4.8
1.0
0.3
26
1.7
0.5
27
2.5
3.7
1.3
3.2
4.6
1.7
Regional tables
Table 9
Number of teachers (thousands), by level of education, 1985 and 1995
1985
1995
Preprimary
Primary
Secondary
Tertiary
All
levels
Preprimary
Primary
Secondary
Tertiary
All
levels
3 869
20 841
16 844
4 332
45 887
4 729
24 330
21 670
5 919
56 648
988
3 699
5 099
1 667
11 453
1 059
3 883
5 567
2 415
12 924
277
126
585
1 560
621
1 518
1 441
775
2 882
751
294
622
4 030
1 816
5 607
316
138
605
1 667
621
1 595
1 504
962
3 101
983
488
945
4 469
2 209
6 246
Countries in transition
1 538
1 369
2 420
905
6 232
1 429
1 552
3 404
976
7 361
1 343
15 773
9 326
1 760
28 202
2 241
18 895
12 699
2 528
36 363
55
68
366
747
550
107
20
1 510
970
2 601
7 882
5 377
2 657
1 868
510
636
338
410
039
315
724
65
108
506
698
432
362
303
2
1
4
13
9
5
3
140
782
811
736
398
440
914
101
110
652
1 215
875
165
35
762
058
699
975
038
998
090
118
167
728
969
540
505
375
70
1 097
413
50
1 629
111
630
94
WORLD TOTAL
More developed regions
of which:
North America
Asia /Oceania
Europe
1
4
3
2
1
1
1
3
8
5
3
2
981
548
386
418
664
429
352
1
1
5
4
2
2
1 462
2
2
6
16
11
7
4
962
882
466
577
117
097
852
2 297
Table 10
Number of teachers (all levels) per thousand population in the age-group 15 64
and percentage of female teachers by level of education, 1985 and 1995
Percentage of female teachers
1985
1995
1985
1995
Preprimary
Primary
Secondary
Preprimary
Primary
Secondary
WORLD TOTAL
16
16
94.5
54.5
43.0
94.0
57.8
47.2
22
23
92.4
76.6
48.3
92.9
78.9
52.4
23
19
23
23
21
24
94.4
89.5
92.1
83.5
60.1
76.2
53.5
32.3
50.0
93.6
90.3
93.1
84.7
64.8
78.3
56.6
38.8
54.6
Countries in transition
24
27
99.8
84.8
63.6
99.7
88.3
66.5
13
13
90.0
46.7
34.7
90.8
51.0
39.7
9
17
21
14
14
9
9
10
20
22
14
13
9
9
86.5
49.9
97.1
96.2
95.9
46.7
93.3
38.0
47.8
76.9
44.1
39.6
29.8
27.5
33.3
35.4
47.9
32.8
28.1
30.7
30.9
86.8
68.4
96.8
95.1
94.6
48.7
93.5
41.7
53.0
76.7
50.5
46.6
31.8
29.3
32.9
41.7
46.2
39.5
34.9
37.2
37.9
42.0
29.8
25.4
40.2
34.2
27.4
109
110
Table 11
Foreign students by host region and region of origin, 1995
Host region 1
Region of origin
WORLD
More
developed
regions
Countries
in
transition
Less
developed
regions
SubSaharan
Africa
Arab
States
Latin
America/
Caribbean
Eastern
Asia/
Oceania
Southern
Asia
134 753
143 271
12 625
67 568
16 922
29 646
...
WORLD
439 725
403 474
15 157
21 094
3 607
248
574
14 895
...
56 029
82 946
300 750
52 256
70 803
280 415
507
2 377
12 273
3 266
9 766
8 062
3 607
66
50
132
3
571
3 155
9 557
2 183
...
...
...
Countries in transition
152 189
59 804
84 299
8 086
397
425
...
854 542
713 625
35 186
105 731
9 018
62 108
13 727
13 761
...
97
177
90
348
93
75
104
78
330
82
7
13
1
3
6
919
994
979
890
186
7 701
495
822
2 272
56 677
53
1 953
910
3 259
241
10 172
47
8
370
596
253
10 867
1 636
...
...
...
...
...
141
527
903
353
620
891
930
116
578
621
331
603
808
885
813
13
58
10
13
4
37 596
27 309
5 689
4 598
911
1 511
1 752
252
...
55 584
47 113
111
8 360
4 815
2 621
565
...
Table 12
Estimated public expenditure on education, 1980 95
US$ (billions)
Percentage of GNP
1980
1985
1990
1995
1980
1985
1990
1995
WORLD TOTAL
566.3
607.3
1 062.0
1 403.3
4.9
4.9
4.9
4.9
407.8
446.4
816.4
1 109.9
5.2
5.0
5.0
5.1
155.1
63.3
189.4
221.6
69.5
155.3
330.2
133.3
352.9
408.9
224.7
476.3
5.2
5.0
5.2
5.1
4.5
5.2
5.4
4.0
5.1
5.5
4.0
5.4
Countries in transition
61.1
62.2
90.0
45.7
6.4
6.3
7.5
5.2
97.4
98.7
155.6
247.7
3.8
3.9
3.9
4.1
15.8
18.0
33.5
16.0
7.6
12.8
4.8
11.3
23.7
27.9
20.1
7.7
14.7
7.1
14.8
24.4
44.6
32.0
9.1
35.8
11.9
18.8
27.5
72.8
59.9
15.6
62.6
11.7
5.1
4.1
3.8
2.8
2.5
4.1
2.8
4.8
5.8
3.9
3.1
2.5
3.3
3.4
5.1
5.2
4.1
3.0
2.3
3.9
3.9
5.6
5.2
4.5
3.0
2.3
4.3
3.5
3.5
3.1
4.3
5.3
2.9
3.0
2.7
2.5
Regional tables
Table 13
Estimated public current expenditure per pupil, by level of education, 1985 and 1995
All
levels
Number
of
countries
WORLD TOTAL
US$
% of
GNP
per
capita
Pre-primary
+ primary
US$
% of
GNP
per
capita
Secondary
US$
% of
GNP
per
capita
Pre-primary
+ primary
+ secondary
Tertiary
US$
% of
GNP
per
capita
US$
% of
GNP
per
capita
113
1985
1995
683
1 273
22.4
22.0
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
532
1 052
17.5
18.2
2 011
3 370
66.1
58.2
22
1985
1995
2 344
4 979
20.5
21.4
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
1 982
4 636
17.3
19.9
3 498
5 936
30.5
25.5
1985
1995
3 107
5 150
19.0
22.0
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
2 900
5 021
17.8
21.5
3 761
5 596
23.0
23.9
1985
1995
2 131
5 727
19.7
18.3
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
1 823
5 390
16.9
17.2
3 720
5 488
34.4
17.5
16
1985
1995
1 803
4 552
22.1
22.7
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
1 385
4 062
16.9
20.3
2 975
6 585
36.4
32.9
Countries in transition
26
1985
1995
571
432
22.7
20.5
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
473
377
18.8
17.9
666
457
26.5
21.7
65
1985
1995
101
217
17.5
17.7
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
74
165
12.8
13.5
602
967
103.9
78.9
of which:
Sub-Saharan Africa
23
1985
1995
92
87
29.0
30.4
52
49
16.4
17.0
183
165
57.5
57.6
72
66
22.6
23.2
1 531
1 241
481.5
433.9
1985
1995
476
444
24.9
20.5
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
364
360
19.0
16.6
2 211
1 588
115.6
73.5
18
1985
1995
211
444
11.7
12.9
106
312
5.9
9.1
266
451
14.8
13.1
153
352
8.5
10.2
548
937
30.4
27.2
1985
1995
60
155
13.8
15.3
31
89
7.2
8.8
79
182
18.1
18.1
44
116
10.1
11.5
406
709
93.1
70.3
Southern Asia
1985
1995
77
223
17.8
18.8
46
121
10.7
10.2
76
253
17.7
21.3
56
168
13.0
14.1
333
1 058
77.6
89.1
17
1985
1995
34
33
17.7
16.6
19
19
9.7
9.2
50
59
26.0
29.2
25
26
12.9
12.8
299
252
153.9
125.6
Asia /Oceania
Europe
Arab States
111
112
Table 14
Expenditure on educational development co-operation by bilateral and multilateral agencies,
1980 95 1 (millions of current US dollars)
Agency
1980
1985
1988
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
3 395
2 301
3 516
3 642
3 589
3 465
3 740
4 419
4 450
668
27
17
65
1
34
67
17
+
440
1 394
116
49
67
1
30
126
45
32
928
1 212
48
20
180
3
81
22
18
8
832
2 083
148
2
291
3
43
61
43
5
1 487
2 640
177
+
182
2
3
195
23
56
2 002
2 852
310
+
236
10
89
261
32
30
1 884
3 222
127
55
387
5
106
495
26
15
2 006
3 265
14
1
88
1
124
969
53
7
2 008
2 717
+
1
358
20
53
107
55
66
2 057
31
3
34
...
16
4
33
...
17
5
37
99
18
8
57
129
16
8
48
125
12
5
72
133
10
4
72
119
7
6
87
79
7
7
85
106
UNESCO11
78
88
78
73
73
82
82
100
100
Memo Item:
World GDP deflator (1990 =100)12
21
42
63
100
117
137
165
198
215
I. Bilateral 2
II. Multilateral banks and funds 3
African Development Bank
Arab Multilateral 4
Asian Development Bank
Caribbean Development Bank
European Development Fund 5
Inter-American Development Bank
Islamic Development Bank
OPEC 6 Fund
World Bank
III. World
education
indicators
HIS
Explanatory notes
General notes
Data refer to the year indicated or to the nearest year
for which data are available. For educational indicators
Magnitude nil.
0 or 0.0 Magnitude less than half the unit
employed.
...
Data not available.
.
Category not applicable.
or #
The explanation of these symbols is
given below for each specific indicator.
./.
Data included elsewhere with another
category.
Table notes
Table 1. Population and GNP
Total population. Estimates of 1995 population, in
thousands.
Population growth rate. Average annual percentage
growth rate of total population between 1985 and
1995.
Dependency ratios. Populations in the age-groups 014
and 65 years and over, expressed as percentages of
the population in the age-group 1564.
Urban population. Number of persons living in urban
115
116
areas, expressed as a percentage of the total population. Urban areas are defined according to
national criteria, which affects the comparability
between countries.
Life expectancy at birth. The average number of years
a newborn infant would live if prevailing patterns of
mortality at the time of its birth were to stay the same
throughout its life.
Total fertility rate. The average number of children that
would be born alive to a woman during her lifetime
if she were to bear children at each age in accord
with prevailing age-specific fertility rates.
Infant mortality rate. The number of deaths of infants
under 1 year of age per 1,000 live births in a given
year. More specifically, the probability of dying
between birth and exactly 1 year of age times 1,000.
GNP per capita. Gross national product per capita in
1995 US dollars, the average annual growth rate of
GNP per capita between 1985 and 1995 in constant
prices, and estimates of GNP per capita based on
purchasing power parities (PPP). The figures are
extracted from the World Development Indicators
1997 of the World Bank.
Table 2. Literacy, culture and communication
Estimated number of adult illiterates. Estimated number of adult illiterates (15 years and over), in thousands, and the percentage of female illiterates, 1985
and 1995.
Estimated adult illiteracy rate. Estimated number of
adult illiterates (15 years and over) expressed as a
percentage of the population in the corresponding
age-group.
Number of volumes in public libraries. Number of
books and bound periodicals in public libraries per
1,000 inhabitants.
Daily newspapers. Estimated circulation of daily newspapers, expressed in number of copies per 1,000
inhabitants.
Radio and television receivers. Number of radio and
television receivers per 1,000 inhabitants. The indicators are based on estimates of the number of
receivers in use.
Main telephone lines. Number of telephone lines per
1,000 inhabitants connecting a customers equipment to the switched network and which have a
dedicated port on a telephone exchange.
Table 3. Enrolment in pre-primary education
and access to schooling
Age-group in pre-primary education. Population agegroup that according to the national regulations can
be enrolled at this level of education.
The symbol is shown when there has been a
change in the duration of pre-primary school
between 1985 and 1995.
Gross enrolment ratio, pre-primary. Total enrolment in
education preceding primary education, regardless
of age, expressed as a percentage of the population
age-group corresponding to the national regulations
for this level of education.
Apparent intake rate, primary education. Number of
new entrants into first grade of primary education,
regardless of age, expressed as a percentage of the
population of official admission age to primary education.
The symbol is shown when enrolment data
including repeaters are used instead of new
entrants.
School life expectancy. The school life expectancy,
or expected number of years of formal education,
is the number of years a child is expected to remain
at school, or university, including years spent on
repetition. It is the sum of the age-specific enrolment
ratios for primary, secondary and tertiary education.
Table 4. Primary education: duration,
population and enrolment ratios
Duration of compulsory education. Number of years of
compulsory education, according to the regulations
in force in each country.
Duration of primary education. Number of grades
(years) in primary education, according to the education system in force in each country in 1995.
The symbol is shown when there has been a
change in the duration between 1985 and 1995.
School-age population. Population, in thousands, of the
117
118
Data sources
Population and demographic indicators: United
Nations Population Division database (1996 revision).
GNP and GNP per capita: World Bank, World Development Indicators 1997.
Illiteracy: Estimates and projections by the UNESCO
Division of Statistics based on actual country data
supplied by the United Nations Statistical Division or
drawn from national publications.
Education, culture and communication: UNESCO
Division of Statistics.
Main telephone lines: International Telecommunication
Union, World Telecommunication Indicators 1996.
Non-agricultural, economically active population:
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
Nations (FAO) (1997 revision).
119
120
Table 1
Population and GNP
Population
Country or territory
Total
(000)
Average
annual
growth
rate
(%)
1995 1985 95
Dependency ratio
Life
Total
expectfertility
ancy
rate
at birth (births per
(years)
woman)
Infant
mortality
rate
(per 1,000
live births)
Age
0 14
Age
65 and over
Percentage
urban
1985 1995
1985 1995
1995
1995
1995
1995
US$
Average
annual
PPP
growth
(Interrate national
(%) dollars)
1995 198595
1995
Africa
Algeria
Angola
Benin
Botswana
Burkina Faso
Burundi
28
10
5
1
10
6
109
816
409
450
479
064
2.5
3.1
3.0
3.0
2.9
2.5
85
90
94
92
95
86
68
96
100
80
95
92
8
6
7
4
6
7
6
6
6
4
5
6
56
31
38
60
16
8
69
47
55
50
46
47
3.8
6.7
5.8
4.5
6.6
6.3
44
124
84
56
97
114
1 600
410
370
3 020
230
160
2.6
6.1
0.4
6.0
0.1
1.3
5
1
1
5
Cameroon
Cape Verde
Central African Republic
Chad
Comoros
Congo
13 192
386
3 273
6 335
612
2 593
2.8
2.2
2.3
2.4
3.2
3.0
87
88
79
78
96
88
85
77
78
83
91
89
7
11
8
7
5
7
7
8
7
7
5
7
45
54
39
22
30
58
56
67
49
48
58
51
5.3
3.6
5.0
5.5
5.5
5.9
58
41
96
115
82
90
650
960
340
180
470
680
7.0
2.1
2.0
0.5
1.4
3.2
2 110
1 870
1 070
700
1 320
2 050
Cte dIvoire
Dem. Rep. of the Congo
Djibouti
Egypt
Equatorial Guinea
Eritrea
13 694
45 453
601
62 096
400
3 171
3.3
3.7
4.4
2.2
2.5
1.6
95
93
81
70
76
82
85
94
74
66
82
83
5
6
5
7
8
5
5
6
5
7
8
6
43
29
82
45
42
17
51
53
50
66
50
51
5.1
6.2
5.4
3.4
5.5
5.3
86
89
106
54
107
98
660
120
...
790
380
...
4.3
8.5
...
1.1
2.3
...
1 580
490
...
3 820
...
...
Ethiopia
Gabon
Gambia
Ghana
Guinea
Guinea-Bissau
56
1
1
17
7
1
404
076
111
338
349
069
3.2
3.0
4.1
3.1
4.0
2.0
87
61
81
87
91
72
90
68
73
86
94
78
6
10
5
5
5
7
6
11
5
6
5
8
15
50
29
36
29
22
50
56
47
58
47
44
7.0
5.4
5.2
5.3
6.6
5.4
107
85
122
73
124
132
100
3 490
320
390
550
250
0.5
1.6
0.3
1.5
1.4
1.8
450
...
930
1 990
...
790
Kenya
Lesotho
Liberia
Libyan Arab Jamahiriya
Madagascar
Malawi
27
2
2
5
14
9
150
027
123
407
874
673
3.2
2.6
0.4
3.6
3.4
2.9
107
81
86
91
91
93
90
78
79
87
93
93
7
8
7
5
5
5
6
7
7
5
5
5
29
24
45
85
26
13
55
59
52
66
59
41
4.9
4.9
6.3
5.9
5.7
6.7
65
72
153
56
77
142
280
770
...
...
230
170
0.1
1.5
...
...
2.0
0.7
1 380
1 780
...
...
640
750
Mali
Mauritania
Mauritius
Morocco
Mozambique
Namibia
10
2
1
26
17
1
795
274
117
524
260
536
3.2
2.6
1.0
2.1
2.5
2.7
92
87
50
76
82
81
95
80
42
61
87
79
5
6
7
7
6
7
5
6
9
7
6
7
27
51
41
52
34
36
48
54
72
67
47
56
6.6
5.0
2.3
3.1
6.1
4.9
149
92
15
51
110
60
250
460
3 380
1 110
80
2 000
9 151
111 721
5 184
133
8 312
73
3.3
3.0
1.5
2.3
2.7
1.2
94
86
99
...
89
...
98
88
91
...
85
...
5
5
5
...
6
...
5
5
4
...
6
...
18
40
6
43
44
54
49
52
42
...
51
...
7.1
6.0
6.0
...
5.6
...
114
77
125
...
62
...
220
260
180
350
600
6 620
2.1
1.2
5.0
2.1
1.2
4.2
750
1 220
540
...
1 780
...
195
491
465
707
857
1.6
1.9
2.3
2.2
2.8
81
92
72
86
97
83
95
64
74
79
6
6
7
5
7
6
5
8
5
5
33
26
49
31
31
38
49
65
55
60
6.1
7.0
3.8
4.6
4.5
169
112
48
71
65
180
...
3 160
...
1 170
3.4
...
1.0
0.6
0.6
580
...
5 030
...
2 880
4 085
8 987
3.0
2.1
87
70
90
58
6
7
6
7
31
62
50
70
6.1
2.9
86
37
310
1 820
2.8
1.8
1 130
5 000
Niger
Nigeria
Rwanda
Sao Tome and Principe
Senegal
Seychelles
Sierra Leone
Somalia
South Africa
Sudan
Swaziland
Togo
Tunisia
4
9
41
26
300
310
760
580
780
630
0.6
550
0.5
1 540
5.7 13 210
0.8
3 340
3.6
810
2.8
4 150
Population
Country or territory
Total
(000)
Average
annual
growth
rate
(%)
1995 1985 95
Uganda
United Rep. of Tanzania
Zambia
Zimbabwe
19
30
8
11
Dependency ratio
Life
Total
expectfertility
ancy
rate
at birth (births per
(years)
woman)
Infant
mortality
rate
(per 1,000
live births)
Age
0 14
Age
65 and over
Percentage
urban
1985 1995
1985 1995
1995
1995
1995
1995
US$
Average
annual
PPP
growth
(Interrate national
(%) dollars)
1995 198595
2.8
0.9
1.0
0.6
1995
689
026
081
190
2.9
3.3
2.3
2.9
96
93
103
90
99
89
97
84
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
13
24
43
32
41
51
43
49
7.1
5.5
5.5
4.7
113
80
103
68
240
120
400
540
1 470
640
930
2 030
66
279
261
213
19
29 402
0.6
1.9
0.3
2.5
3.1
1.3
...
59
44
92
...
31
...
44
36
77
...
30
...
7
19
8
...
15
...
8
18
8
...
18
36
86
47
47
56
77
...
74
76
75
...
79
...
2.0
1.7
3.7
...
1.6
...
14
9
30
...
6
...
11 940
6 560
2 630
...
19 380
Costa Rica
Cuba
Dominica
Dominican Republic
El Salvador
Grenada
3 424
10 964
71
7 823
5 662
92
2.6
0.8
0.1
2.1
1.9
0.2
62
41
...
68
86
...
58
33
...
58
64
...
7
13
...
6
7
...
8
13
...
7
7
...
49
76
69
62
45
36
77
76
...
71
70
...
3.0
1.6
...
2.8
3.1
...
12
9
...
34
39
...
2 610
...
2 990
1 460
1 610
2 980
2.9
...
4.0
2.1
2.9
...
5 850
...
...
3 870
2 610
...
Guatemala
Haiti
Honduras
Jamaica
Mexico
Netherlands Antilles
10
7
5
2
91
621
124
654
468
145
194
2.9
2.0
3.1
0.7
1.9
0.6
90
73
91
65
78
43
85
72
83
51
59
40
6
8
6
13
7
11
7
7
6
11
7
12
39
32
44
54
73
69
67
54
70
75
73
76
4.9
4.6
4.3
2.4
2.8
2.1
40
82
35
12
31
10
1 340
250
600
1 510
3 320
...
0.3
5.2
0.2
3.7
0.1
...
3 340
910
1 900
3 540
6 400
...
4 123
2 631
41
142
107
2.6
2.0
0.5
1.4
0.5
95
65
...
...
...
82
54
...
...
...
5
8
...
...
...
6
9
...
...
...
62
56
34
37
48
68
74
...
...
...
3.9
2.6
...
...
...
44
21
...
...
...
2
5
3
2
380
750
170
370
280
5.8
0.4
4.6
3.9
3.9
2 000
5 980
9 410
...
...
1 287
267 115
0.9
1.0
55
33
48
34
9
18
10
19
72
76
74
77
2.1
2.0
14
7
3 770
26 980
34
7
159
14
35
11
768
414
015
210
814
460
1.4
2.3
1.6
1.7
2.0
2.3
51
78
62
49
62
75
47
73
50
46
56
61
14
7
7
9
7
7
15
7
7
10
7
7
88
61
78
84
73
59
73
62
67
75
71
70
76.8
4.4
2.2
2.4
2.7
3.1
22
66
42
13
24
46
8 030
800
3 640
4 160
1 910
1 390
1.9
1.7
0.7
6.1
2.8
0.8
8
2
5
9
6
4
310
540
400
520
130
220
830
4 828
23 532
427
3 186
21 844
0.5
3.0
1.9
1.3
0.6
2.5
62
78
72
63
43
68
51
76
60
58
39
61
6
8
7
7
18
6
6
6
7
8
19
7
35
52
71
49
90
86
64
70
68
72
73
73
2.3
4.2
3.0
2.4
2.3
3.0
58
39
45
24
17
21
590
1 690
2 310
880
5 170
3 020
0.8
1.1
1.6
0.7
3.3
0.5
2
3
3
2
6
7
420
650
770
250
630
900
19 661
3 632
7 531
557
3.1
0.8
1.2
3.0
75
47
53
48
73
45
52
48
5
8
8
3
5
12
9
4
20
69
56
90
46
71
71
73
6.9
1.7
2.3
3.0
154
25
33
18
...
730
480
7 840
America, North
Nicaragua
Panama
Saint Kitts and Nevis
Saint Lucia
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
Trinidad and Tobago
United States
2.7
...
1.0 14 710
0.2 10 620
4.4
5 400
...
...
0.4 21 130
1.6
8 610
1.4 26 980
America, South
Argentina
Bolivia
Brazil
Chile
Colombia
Ecuador
Guyana
Paraguay
Peru
Suriname
Uruguay
Venezuela
Asia
Afghanistan
Armenia
Azerbaijan
Bahrain
...
...
15.1
2 260
16.3
1 460
0.6 13 400
121
122
Table 1 (continued)
Population
Country or territory
Total
(000)
Average
annual
growth
rate
(%)
1995 1985 95
Bangladesh
Bhutan
Brunei Darussalam
Cambodia
China
Cyprus
118 229
1 770
293
10 024
1 220 224
745
Dependency ratio
Life
Total
expectfertility
ancy
rate
at birth (births per
(years)
woman)
Infant
mortality
rate
(per 1,000
live births)
Age
0 14
Age
65 and over
Percentage
urban
1985 1995
1985 1995
1995
1995
1995
1995
US$
Average
annual
PPP
growth
(Interrate national
(%) dollars)
1995 198595
1.8
2.0
2.8
3.1
1.3
1.4
86
76
63
69
47
39
75
79
53
78
39
40
6
6
5
5
8
17
6
6
4
5
9
17
18
6
69
20
30
54
58
53
76
54
70
78
3.1
5.9
2.7
4.5
1.8
2.3
78
104
9
102
38
7
240
420
...
270
620
...
2.1
4.0
...
2.0
8.0
4.6
1995
1 380
1 260
...
...
2 920
...
22
5
6
929
197
68
097
450
123
005
460
365
1.6
0.3
1.2
1.9
1.7
3.4
49
38
34
64
67
88
39
37
28
58
53
86
6
13
11
7
6
6
7
18
14
8
7
7
61
58
95
27
35
59
72
73
79
62
65
69
2.1
1.9
1.3
3.1
2.6
4.8
22
23
5
72
48
39
...
440
22 990
340
980
...
...
...
17.0
1 470
4.8 22 950
3.1
1 400
6.0
3 800
0.5
5 470
Iraq
Israel
Japan
Jordan
Kazakhstan
Kuwait
20
5
125
5
16
1
095
525
068
373
817
691
2.8
2.7
0.3
3.4
0.6
0.2
87
56
32
92
51
60
79
48
23
80
47
65
5
15
15
6
9
2
5
15
20
5
11
3
75
91
78
71
60
97
62
78
80
70
68
76
5.3
2.8
1.5
5.1
2.3
2.8
95
7
4
30
34
14
15
39
1
1
17
...
920
640
510
330
390
...
...
2.5 16 490
2.9 22 110
2.8
4 060
8.6
3 010
0.9 23 790
4 460
4 882
3 009
430
20 140
254
1.1
3.1
1.2
3.5
2.5
3.3
64
78
65
37
67
89
64
86
56
38
65
94
9
5
9
10
6
6
10
6
9
10
7
7
39
21
88
99
54
27
68
54
70
78
72
65
3.2
6.7
2.8
1.6
3.2
6.8
39
86
29
8
11
49
700
350
2 660
...
3 890
990
6.9
2.7
2.7
...
5.7
6.7
1 800
...
...
...
9 020
3 080
463
106
456
207
257
2.6
1.9
2.7
4.5
3.0
77
69
80
86
79
68
59
81
94
79
6
7
5
5
5
7
7
7
5
6
61
26
10
76
34
66
60
57
71
64
3.3
3.3
5.0
7.2
5.0
52
78
82
25
74
310
...
200
4 820
460
3.8
...
2.4
0.3
1.2
1 950
...
1 170
8 140
2 230
...
792
...
67 839
548
44 909
.
4.2
...
2.2
4.3
1.0
.
101
...
73
39
46
...
113
...
66
38
33
.
5
...
5
2
7
...
6
...
6
2
8
...
94
...
54
91
81
...
68
...
68
72
72
...
8.0
...
3.6
3.8
1.7
...
37
...
35
17
9
...
...
...
1 050
11 600
9 700
.
...
...
...
...
...
1.5
2 850
2.6 17 690
7.6 11 450
Saudi Arabia
Singapore
Sri Lanka
Syrian Arab Republic
Tajikistan
Thailand
18
3
17
14
5
58
255
327
928
203
828
242
3.7
2.1
1.1
3.2
2.5
1.3
79
34
57
99
80
59
75
31
46
86
78
42
5
7
8
6
7
6
5
9
9
6
8
7
83
100
22
52
32
20
71
77
73
69
67
69
5.9
1.8
2.1
4.0
3.9
1.7
23
5
15
33
56
30
7 040
26 730
700
1 120
340
2 740
1.9
8 820
6.2 22 770
2.7
3 250
1.0
5 320
13.0
920
8.4
7 540
Turkey
Turkmenistan
United Arab Emirates
Uzbekistan
Viet Nam
Yemen
60
4
2
22
73
15
838
075
210
762
793
027
1.9
2.4
3.6
2.3
2.1
4.5
61
73
40
73
74
102
49
70
45
71
64
95
7
7
2
8
8
5
8
7
3
8
8
5
69
45
84
41
19
34
69
65
75
68
67
58
2.5
3.6
3.5
3.5
3.0
7.6
44
57
15
43
37
80
2 780
920
17 400
970
240
260
2.2
5 580
9.6
...
3.5 16 470
3.9
2 370
4.2
...
...
...
3 383
8 045
1.3
0.6
57
27
50
26
9
21
9
22
37
64
71
77
2.6
1.4
32
6
670
26 890
...
...
1.9 21 250
Kyrgyzstan
Lao Peoples Dem. Rep.
Lebanon
Macau
Malaysia
Maldives
Mongolia
Myanmar
Nepal
Oman
Pakistan
2
45
21
2
136
Europe
Albania
Austria
Population
Country or territory
Total
(000)
Average
annual
growth
rate
(%)
1995 1985 95
Dependency ratio
Life
Total
expectfertility
ancy
rate
at birth (births per
(years)
woman)
Infant
mortality
rate
(per 1,000
live births)
Age
0 14
Age
65 and over
Percentage
urban
1985 1995
1985 1995
1995
1995
1995
1995
US$
Average
annual
PPP
growth
(Interrate national
(%) dollars)
1995 198595
1995
Belarus
Belgium
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Bulgaria
Croatia
Czech Republic
10
10
3
8
4
10
352
127
569
509
505
263
0.3
0.3
1.4
0.5
0.0
0.0
34
28
36
32
31
36
33
27
31
28
28
28
15
21
8
17
15
18
19
24
11
22
19
18
71
97
41
68
56
65
70
77
73
71
72
73
1.4
1.6
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.4
15
7
13
16
10
9
2 070
24 710
...
1 330
3 250
3 870
5.2
4 220
2.2 21 660
...
...
2.2
4 480
...
...
1.8
9 770
Denmark
Estonia
Finland
France
Germany
Greece
5
1
5
58
81
10
223
488
107
104
594
454
0.2
0.2
0.4
0.5
0.5
0.5
28
34
29
32
23
33
26
31
28
30
23
25
23
17
18
20
21
20
22
19
21
23
22
24
85
73
63
75
87
59
76
69
77
79
77
78
1.8
1.3
1.8
1.6
1.3
1.4
7
12
5
7
6
8
29
2
20
24
27
8
890
860
580
990
510
210
1.5
4.3
0.2
1.5
...
1.2
Hungary
Iceland
Ireland
Italy
Latvia
Lithuania
10 106
269
3 546
57 204
2 536
3 736
0.5
1.1
0.0
0.0
0.2
0.5
32
42
50
29
32
35
27
37
37
22
31
33
19
16
18
19
18
15
21
17
18
23
20
18
65
92
58
67
73
72
69
79
77
78
68
70
1.4
2.2
1.8
1.2
1.4
1.5
14
5
6
7
16
13
4
24
14
19
2
1
120
950
710
020
270
900
1.0
6 410
0.3 20 460
5.2 15 680
1.7 19 870
6.6
3 370
11.7
4 120
Luxembourg
Malta
Monaco
Netherlands
Norway
Poland
407
367
32
15 482
4 332
38 557
1.0
0.6
1.3
0.7
0.4
0.4
25
37
...
28
31
39
26
33
...
27
30
35
19
15
...
18
24
14
20
16
...
19
25
17
89
89
100
89
73
64
76
77
...
78
78
71
1.8
2.1
...
1.6
1.9
1.7
6
8
...
6
5
13
41 210
...
...
24 000
31 250
2 790
1.0 37 930
5.1
...
...
...
1.8 19 950
1.6 21 940
0.4
5 400
0.0
0.5
0.0
0.4
1.3
0.4
36
42
37
34
...
41
26
41
30
31
...
34
19
12
14
14
...
14
22
14
17
18
...
16
36
52
56
76
94
59
75
68
70
64
...
71
1.5
1.8
1.4
1.4
...
1.5
8
26
24
19
...
12
9 740
920
1 480
2 240
...
2 950
3.7 12 670
8.2
...
4.0
4 360
5.1
4 480
...
...
2.6
3 610
Portugal
Republic of Moldova
Romania
Russian Federation
San Marino
Slovakia
9
4
22
148
815
437
728
460
25
5 338
21
4
17
21
20
11
230
220
760
030
070
710
Slovenia
Spain
Sweden
Switzerland
The FYR of Macedonia
Ukraine
1
39
8
7
2
51
925
627
788
166
156
757
0.2
0.3
0.5
0.9
1.2
0.2
34
36
27
26
42
32
26
24
29
26
37
31
15
18
28
21
10
17
18
22
27
21
12
21
51
76
83
61
60
70
74
78
79
79
73
69
1.3
1.2
1.8
1.5
1.9
1.4
7
7
5
5
23
18
8
13
23
40
200
580
750
630
860
1 630
...
...
2.6 14 520
0.1 18 540
0.2 25 860
...
...
9.2
2 400
United Kingdom
Yugoslavia
58 079
10 251
0.3
0.4
29
36
30
33
23
13
24
17
89
57
77
73
1.7
1.8
6
19
18 700
...
1.4 19 260
...
...
17 866
19
784
78
3 561
4 301
1.3
1.1
1.2
1.5
0.9
2.3
36
...
65
...
37
74
32
...
56
...
35
69
15
...
5
...
16
3
18
...
6
...
17
5
85
60
41
36
86
16
78
...
73
...
77
58
1.9
...
2.8
...
2.0
4.7
6
...
20
...
7
61
18 720
...
2 440
920
14 340
1 160
1.4 18 940
...
...
2.3
5 780
0.3
...
0.6 16 360
2.1
2 420
165
378
98
10
169
0.5
3.4
0.7
2.3
2.5
77
94
...
...
86
67
84
...
...
81
6
4
...
...
6
7
6
...
...
7
21
17
41
47
19
69
72
...
...
67
3.8
5.0
...
...
4.4
58
23
...
...
38
...
910
1 630
...
1 200
Oceania
Australia
Cook Islands
Fiji
Kiribati
New Zealand
Papua New Guinea
Samoa
Solomon Islands
Tonga
Tuvalu
Vanuatu
...
2.2
0.2
...
1.1
...
2 190
...
...
2 290
123
124
Table 2
Literacy, culture and communication
Country or territory
1985
Total
(000)
Algeria
Angola
Benin
Botswana
Burkina Faso
Burundi
Estimated
adult
illiteracy
rate (%)
Estimated number
of adult illiterates
Number of
Daily
volumes in
newspapers
public libraries
(number of
(per 1,000
copies per 1,000
inhabitants)
inhabitants)
1995
1995
%F
Total
(000)
%F
6 483
...
1 632
224
3 818
1 907
63
...
58
69
56
62
6 582
...
1 792
255
4 597
2 221
66
...
60
69
57
62
38.4
...
63.0
30.2
80.8
64.7
26.1
...
51.3
19.5
70.5
50.7
Cameroon
Cape Verde
Central African Republic
Chad
Comoros
Congo
2 723
72
908
1 806
115
422
65
71
61
63
58
66
2 712
64
760
1 868
143
354
67
71
63
64
58
68
36.6
28.4
40.0
51.9
42.7
25.1
Cte d'Ivoire
Dem. Rep. of the Congo
Djibouti
Egypt
Equatorial Guinea
Eritrea
3 712
5 740
141
16 921
60
...
55
71
62
62
74
...
4 339
5 184
181
18 954
49
...
57
73
64
62
76
...
Ethiopia
Gabon
Gambia
Ghana
Guinea
Guinea-Bissau
16 577
334
301
3 422
1 970
292
57
63
60
65
59
64
19 052
295
403
3 387
2 272
282
Kenya
Lesotho
Liberia
Libyan Arab Jamahiriya
Madagascar
Malawi
3 439
342
864
765
...
1 973
68
68
60
70
...
69
Mali
Mauritania
Mauritius
Morocco
Mozambique
Namibia
3 420
651
157
8 484
5 359
...
1985
1995
1985 1995
51.0
...
74.2
40.1
90.8
77.5
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
7
...
...
...
26
13
0
17
0
0
25.0
18.6
31.5
37.9
35.8
16.9
47.9
36.2
47.6
65.3
49.6
32.8
...
...
...
0
...
7
...
...
...
...
...
...
59.9
22.7
53.8
48.6
21.5
...
50.1
13.4
39.7
36.4
10.4
...
70.0
32.3
67.3
61.2
31.9
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
57
65
62
67
61
65
64.5
36.8
61.4
35.5
64.1
45.1
54.5
26.3
47.2
24.1
50.1
32.0
74.7
46.7
75.1
46.5
78.1
57.5
3 237
340
1 014
702
...
2 587
69
68
62
73
...
69
21.9
28.7
61.7
23.8
...
43.6
13.7
18.9
46.1
12.1
...
28.1
56
60
64
61
63
...
3 917
806
138
9 730
5 298
...
57
60
62
62
65
...
69.0
62.3
17.1
56.3
59.9
...
3 146
26 626
1 616
...
2 602
...
55
61
62
...
57
...
4 081
26 075
1 695
...
3 084
...
55
63
63
...
58
...
Sierra Leone
Somalia
South Africa
Sudan
Swaziland
1 569
...
4 373
7 672
114
59
...
53
60
58
1 727
...
4 731
8 507
114
Togo
Tunisia
1 013
2 044
64
64
1 085
1 930
Radio
receivers
(per 1,000
inhabitants)
Television
receivers
(per 1,000
inhabitants)
Main
telephone
lines
(per 1,000
inhabitants)
1985 1995
1985 1995
1985
1995
51
11
1
31
1
3
219
27
75
107
19
53
238
34
92
131
28
68
69
5
4
5
0
89
7
6
19
6
2
25
6
3
10
1
1
42
6
5
41
3
3
1
0
120
161
58
229
125
72
152
179
75
248
137
116
24
4
5
1
1
8
3
7
1
0
4
5
4
55
2
0
9
8
...
...
...
...
...
...
5
2
48
5
15
3
43
5
131
88
77
241
410
...
153
98
80
312
425
98
51
0
31
78
7
...
62
2
43
110
10
0
6
0
10
18
3
...
8
0
13
46
6
5
3
...
119
...
...
...
...
...
78
...
...
...
1
25
6
40
2
28
1
18
194
164
141
195
36
34
193
181
164
231
44
42
2
27
12
2
...
4
47
3
92
9
...
2
14
3
3
3
6
2
24
17
4
2
9
30.0
37.7
77.6
37.0
...
58.2
...
...
...
...
...
4
22
...
...
...
...
25
14
30
13
17
6
2
17
7
16
13
4
3
81
28
216
211
183
207
96
37
318
231
192
256
5
0
16
62
9
18
12
26
102
20
6
5
4
37
2
3
9
9
2
59
2
4
60.6
50.4
12.9
43.4
42.3
...
76.9
73.7
21.2
69.0
76.7
...
...
...
17
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
69
15
6
17
4
1
112
15
8
100
32
142
330
178
33
127
46
150
367
226
38
140
0
0
138
63
1
14
2
25
222
94
4
25
0
2
39
11
3
38
2
4
131
43
3
51
86.4
42.9
39.5
...
66.9
...
79.1
32.7
30.2
...
57.0
...
93.4
52.7
48.4
...
76.8
...
...
9
...
...
...
589
...
5
...
...
2
...
1
17
1
8
46
0
17
1
6
41
45
175
55
255
110
385
68
197
101
271
120
548
2
12
31
31
11
55
162
38
137
1
1
2
4
0
2
18
19
3
10
91 178
61
...
51
61
56
68.6
...
18.2
53.9
23.3
54.6
...
18.1
42.3
22.0
81.8
...
18.3
65.4
24.4
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
3
1
44
12
15
5
1
31
24
18
216
25
303
250
156
250
42
316
270
163
8
0
91
51
12
12
13
109
84
21
3
1
68
3
12
4
2
95
3
21
67
68
48.3 33.0
33.3 21.4
63.0
45.4
...
...
13
...
4
38
2
45
208
162
215
200
5
55
12
89
3
26
5
58
Africa
Niger
Nigeria
Rwanda
Sao Tome and Principe
Senegal
Seychelles
Country or territory
1985
Number of
Daily
volumes in
newspapers
public libraries
(number of
(per 1,000
copies per 1,000
inhabitants)
inhabitants)
1995
1995
%F
Total
(000)
%F
3 810
5 089
1 148
947
65
68
67
67
4 172
5 171
1 082
940
66
69
68
68
...
4
7
...
...
...
...
62
67
...
...
...
...
3
5
...
...
...
...
60
65
...
...
...
Costa Rica
Cuba
Dominica
Dominican Republic
El Salvador
Grenada
118
587
...
879
882
...
50
58
...
50
56
...
115
364
...
908
975
...
Guatemala
Haiti
Honduras
Jamaica
Mexico
Netherlands Antilles
2 520
2 215
763
279
6 622
...
58
55
52
40
61
...
Nicaragua
634
Panama
170
Saint Kitts and Nevis
...
Saint Lucia
...
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
...
Trinidad and Tobago
United States
Uganda
United Rep. of Tanzania
Zambia
Zimbabwe
Total
(000)
Estimated
adult
illiteracy
rate (%)
Estimated number
of adult illiterates
38.2 26.3
32.2 20.6
21.8 14.4
14.9 9.6
49.8
43.2
28.7
20.1
1985
1995
1985 1995
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
2
5
15
24
...
...
...
...
...
668
633
713
...
...
2 192 2 383
Radio
receivers
(per 1,000
inhabitants)
Television
receivers
(per 1,000
inhabitants)
Main
telephone
lines
(per 1,000
inhabitants)
1985 1995
1985 1995
1985
1995
2
12
13
17
85
17
78
60
117
276
99
89
6
0
14
21
13
2
32
29
97
168
158
18
215
91
125
157
166
339
517
791
530
486
896
439
735
900
587
474
1053
306
220
237
201
541
424
229
284
178
211
714
113 308
179 283
225 345
42 134
...
...
481 590
2
2
6
12
2
3
8
14
America, North
Antigua and Barbuda
Bahamas
Barbados
Belize
British Virgin Islands
Canada
...
1.8
2.6
...
...
...
...
1.5
2.0
...
...
...
...
2.0
3.2
...
...
...
49
55
...
49
56
...
5.2 5.3
4.3 3.8
...
...
17.9 18.0
28.5 26.5
...
...
5.0
4.7
...
17.8
30.2
...
121
336
...
...
...
...
114
575
507
90
...
...
106
119
...
34
52
88
119
...
34
49
246
324
528
160
406
500
263
351
634
176
459
598
76
158
78
75
143
228
70
93
689
348
79 164
27
32
67 251
23
73
19
53
16
27
2 627
2 360
869
254
6 246
...
58
54
50
37
61
...
44.4
55.0
27.3
15.0
10.4
...
37.5
52.0
27.4
19.2
8.2
...
51.4
57.8
27.3
10.9
12.6
...
...
...
...
...
45
...
...
...
...
...
265
...
31
9
70
60
132
297
23
6
42
65
115
273 1
57
24
382
398
199
044 1
71
53
409
438
263
093
26
4
67
93
113
319
56
5
88
162
219
345
43 255
5
8
11
29
33 116
50
96
260 374
52
52
...
...
...
822
161
...
...
...
52
53
...
...
...
34.3 35.4
9.2 8.6
...
...
...
...
...
...
33.4
9.8
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
... 2 232
50
113
250
185
488
738
539
280
228
668
765
670
59
162
116
135
59
73
175
244
211
158
30
...
71
...
19
...
72
...
Argentina
Bolivia
Brazil
Chile
Colombia
Ecuador
1 045
872
18 521
585
2 204
790
53
70
53
54
53
60
935
745
18 331
485
2 046
719
Guyana
Paraguay
Peru
Suriname
Uruguay
Venezuela
19
242
1 935
24
108
1 366
67
61
73
67
47
56
6 493
...
...
64
58
...
...
55
2.1
...
32
61
13
78
69
61
53
23
114
351
184
164
1.2
...
3.0
...
...
...
...
...
147
260
186
424
505
218 2 067 2 093
272
786
322
805
102 160
494 626
52
73
51
54
51
60
3.8 3.8
16.9 9.5
16.7 16.7
4.8 4.6
8.7 8.8
9.9 8.0
3.8
24.0
16.8
5.0
8.6
11.8
...
...
...
78
81
...
388
7
...
79
...
...
130
49
48
108
61
88
135
67
45
99
42
70
594
623
362
332
136
313
676
672
399
348
564
332
214
71
185
145
93
66
219
115
220
215
117
96
90 160
26
47
48
75
44 132
57 100
30
65
11
235
1 736
19
65
1 244
66
59
76
66
45
54
1.9
7.9
11.3
7.0
2.7
8.9
1.4
6.5
5.5
4.9
3.1
8.2
2.5
9.4
17.0
9.0
2.3
9.7
...
...
298
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
151
98
47
82
146
226
158
47
41
85
101
235
206
448
166
205
610
585
408
494
180
259
679
609
458
24
77
119
166
131
48
93
106
141
235
169
23
53
21
34
21
47
73 130
96 196
71 111
8 169
...
...
56
60
...
...
55
68.5 52.8
...
...
...
...
14.8 10.9
85.0
...
...
20.6
24
...
... 3 950
... 4 245
496
...
8
...
...
45
10
23
28
126
100
...
...
507
122
5
20
575
7
...
...
411
10
224
33
467
America, South
Asia
Afghanistan
Armenia
Azerbaijan
Bahrain
2
127
71
167
1
155
85
242
125
126
Table 2 (continued)
Country or territory
1985
Number of
Daily
volumes in
newspapers
public libraries
(number of
(per 1,000
copies per 1,000
inhabitants)
inhabitants)
1995
1995
%F
Total
(000)
%F
36 818
554
26
...
205 352
...
57
60
66
...
69
...
45 082
558
22
...
166 173
...
58
62
67
...
72
...
61.9 50.6
57.8 43.8
11.8 7.4
...
...
18.5 10.1
...
...
73.9
71.9
16.6
...
27.3
...
...
...
77
62
67
...
...
...
370
290 705
21 507
...
...
...
74
63
68
...
...
...
...
...
7.8 4.0
48.0 34.5
16.2 10.4
...
...
Iraq
Israel
Japan
Jordan
Kazakhstan
Kuwait
4 513
...
...
486
...
313
63
...
...
73
...
48
4 848
...
...
414
...
200
65
...
...
75
...
59
Kyrgyzstan
Lao People's Dem. Rep.
Lebanon
Macau
Malaysia
Maldives
...
1 098
191
...
2 345
9
...
63
68
...
67
47
...
1 170
151
...
2 057
9
261
4 770
7 404
...
40 036
67
69
57
...
57
.
...
...
2 715
66
1 246
Saudi Arabia
Singapore
Sri Lanka
Syrian Arab Republic
Tajikistan
Thailand
Turkey
Turkmenistan
United Arab Emirates
Uzbekistan
Viet Nam
Yemen
Bangladesh
Bhutan
Brunei Darussalam
Cambodia
China
Cyprus
Mongolia
Myanmar
Nepal
Oman
Pakistan
Total
(000)
Estimated
adult
illiteracy
rate (%)
Estimated number
of adult illiterates
1985
1995
1985 1995
4
...
...
...
239
...
...
...
...
...
257
525
36
128
...
...
11.8
62.3
22.0
...
...
...
... 5 735
...
811
...
...
...
...
...
234
42.0 29.3
...
...
...
...
13.4 6.6
...
...
21.4 17.8
55.0
...
...
20.6
...
25.1
...
66
67
...
67
49
...
...
43.4 30.6
7.6 5.3
...
...
16.5 10.9
6.8 6.7
...
55.6
9.7
...
21.9
7.0
256
4 913
9 149
...
48 693
67
67
59
...
58
17.1
16.9
72.5
...
62.2
11.4
11.3
59.1
...
50.0
22.8
22.3
86.0
...
75.6
...
0
...
...
...
.
...
...
54
30
82
...
...
...
2 234
82
697
...
...
...
53
27
82
...
...
...
...
...
...
5.4 5.0
20.6 20.8
2.0 0.7
...
...
...
5.7
20.1
3.3
3 323
257
1 363
2 136
...
3 564
54
76
68
72
...
70
3 871
196
1 241
2 259
...
2 613
55
77
67
75
...
68
37.2 28.5
8.9 4.1
9.8 6.6
29.2 14.3
...
...
6.2 4.0
7 580
...
270
...
4 332
...
74
...
31
...
73
...
7 231
...
272
...
2 916
...
76
...
29
...
73
...
17.7 8.3
...
...
20.8 21.1
...
...
6.3 3.5
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
Radio
receivers
(per 1,000
inhabitants)
Television
receivers
(per 1,000
inhabitants)
Main
telephone
lines
(per 1,000
inhabitants)
1985 1995
1985 1995
1985
1995
68
...
101
40
12
247
108
112
294
47
17
273
112
185
309
202
7
65
142
6
6
239
9
205
322
2
2
1
6
92 240
0
0
3
34
205 474
238
...
751
26
18
26
226
...
735
...
24
17
106
...
596
65
128
204
136
551
668
81
149
228
11
...
234
13
38
53
48
468
286
51
66
63
30
80
323
4
4
27
...
...
... 2 035
1 030
...
37
...
... 5 642
185
...
39
260
565
40
...
221
26
271
576
47
...
387
196
425
786
206
...
311
224
489
916
251
384
473
59
260
579
63
...
262
80
290
684
80
256
370
31
33
279 418
375 488
56
73
58 118
129 226
... 3 134
...
...
...
...
...
...
225
541
...
...
...
4
112
817
96
8
12
3
110
581
139
12
...
120
768
320
421
103
114
129
891
337
432
118
...
300
115
17
34
9
366
105
164
26
54
76
2
4
98
82
134 361
61 166
12
57
...
0
...
5
4
93
14
8
36
11
81
22
7
29
21
105
67
27
561
84
134
89
36
580
92
24
1
1
632
13
45
5
5
657
20
26
1
1
30
5
32
3
4
79
16
.
...
...
...
380
92
...
...
...
...
252
304
.
...
...
40
168
245
...
...
...
62
146
394
.
...
...
...
...
...
91
147
419
438
946 1 024
.
...
...
27
335
189
...
...
...
49
401
334
.
...
...
9
194
160
...
...
...
21
223
415
49.8
13.7
12.8
44.2
...
8.4
50
...
...
...
...
...
...
977
...
...
...
...
33
261
24
16
...
85
58
301
25
19
14
46
280
572
159
212
...
156
291
601
206
264
...
189
243
314
28
58
...
81
257
361
51
67
...
189
72
315
5
43
39
12
96
478
11
63
45
59
27.6
...
20.2
...
8.8
...
130
...
...
...
374
...
184
...
...
...
173
...
60
...
187
...
9
...
118
...
136
6
8
15
139
...
245
...
100
...
164
81
271
81
106
43
159
...
84
...
33
...
189
180
104
191
43
28
44
50
150
51
1
7
212
71
283
76
11
12
...
...
912 1 352
46
361
53
298
166
553
207
620
78
431
103
497
11
361
12
465
46
103
530
13
17
76
Europe
Albania
Austria
...
...
...
...
...
...
Country or territory
1985
Total
(000)
Belarus
Belgium
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Bulgaria
Croatia
Czech Republic
Estimated
adult
illiteracy
rate (%)
Estimated number
of adult illiterates
Number of
Daily
volumes in
newspapers
public libraries
(number of
(per 1,000
copies per 1,000
inhabitants)
inhabitants)
1995
1995
%F
Total
(000)
%F
203
...
...
207
125
...
87
...
...
70
66
...
38
...
...
125
87
...
73
...
...
69
64
...
0.5
...
...
1.7
2.4
...
0.3
...
...
1.1
1.8
...
0.6
...
...
2.3
2.9
...
... 5 887
... 2 945
...
...
6 254
...
944
...
... 3 678
245
220
...
293
55
...
Denmark
Estonia
Finland
France
Germany
Greece
...
5
...
...
...
496
...
76
...
...
...
78
...
3
...
...
...
283
...
56
...
...
...
74
...
0.2
...
...
...
3.3
...
0.2
...
...
...
1.7
...
0.2
...
...
...
4.7
6 783 6 191
8 848 6 921
6 215 7 226
... 1 635
... 1 511
835
914
Hungary
Iceland
Ireland
Italy
Latvia
Lithuania
88
...
...
1 296
15
55
62
...
...
64
82
78
69
...
...
931
5
16
62
...
...
64
64
67
0.8
...
...
1.9
0.3
0.5
0.7
...
...
1.4
0.2
0.4
1.0
4
...
6
...
3
2.4
0.3 10
0.7
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
Portugal
Republic of Moldova
Romania
Russian Federation
San Marino
Slovakia
1 251
88
623
2 903
...
...
65
62
77
89
...
...
827
34
388
543
...
...
66
27
75
73
...
...
10.4
1.1
2.1
0.5
...
...
7.5
1.6
1.1
0.3
...
...
Slovenia
Spain
Sweden
Switzerland
The FYR of Macedonia
Ukraine
...
1 665
...
...
...
...
...
72
...
...
...
...
...
957
...
...
...
...
...
70
...
...
...
...
...
2.9
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
57
...
...
731
...
...
62
...
...
63
...
...
43
...
...
724
...
...
63
...
...
65
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
Luxembourg
Malta
Monaco
Netherlands
Norway
Poland
United Kingdom
Yugoslavia
1985
1985 1995
Television
receivers
(per 1,000
inhabitants)
Main
telephone
lines
(per 1,000
inhabitants)
1985 1995
1985 1995
1985
1995
174
316
146
212
50
296
245
756
...
419
240
427
285
790
235
471
266
638
250
401
...
248
218
...
227
454
0
378
255
482
101 190
308 457
...
54
167 306
130 269
129 236
363
...
543
193
391
122
308
...
468
234
313
153
953 1 034
...
491
985 1 008
870
895
...
944
403
430
523
...
469
390
...
191
574
383
519
589
564
220
497
176
447
417
416
314
613
277
550
558
493
493
4 479
7 017
3 271
...
6 478
6 562
257
467
193
97
...
...
169
...
154
100
233
134
581
768
577
652
...
...
643
799
649
822
678
401
402
311
256
416
...
...
433
353
409
446
477
415
70
426
199
305
203
152
185
555
365
434
280
254
1 672
...
851
731
...
469
2 674
...
4 235 4 712
3 217 3 545
381
163
357
310
510
207
332
624
639
174
517
545
250 1 007 1 019
329
828
937
596
778
808
140
329
454
251
683
679
462
395
280
381
749
750
497
433
311
413
246
...
402
423
67
565
459
...
525
556
148
13.0
0.5
3.1
0.6
...
...
...
...
2 965
7 850
...
...
1
4
2
6
264
275
042
624
...
3 571
42
...
158
...
45
...
41
24
299
122
40
244
202
...
180
...
527
...
245
699
211
340
600
570
178
...
193
...
314
...
326
273
220
377
360
476
145 361
73 131
88 131
103 170
...
...
105 208
...
1.8
...
...
...
...
...
3.9
...
...
...
...
...
512
5 353
3 648
...
8 233
3 089
1 611
5 027
...
...
6 506
115
80
526
492
36
...
203
102
460
371
25
50
346
294
868
830
...
715
384
314
882
851
183
856
266
270
464
390
161
298
327
404
478
419
167
339
149
243
628
502
121
102
309
385
681
613
165
161
...
...
...
...
... 2 232
1 393 1 363
397
43
433
174
448
190
374
118
502
191
...
...
...
...
8.4 6.2
...
...
...
...
27.8 19.0
...
...
10.7
...
...
37.3
...
...
102
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
275
117
97
326
13
195
212
239
909
997
15
67
77
448
430
495
184
18
9
514
4
392
...
44
10
396
9
510
...
83
26
479
10
...
...
...
...
...
...
81
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
32
41
6
16
13
...
8
29
...
12
...
17
67
...
25
670
450
058
284
409
...
1995
Radio
receivers
(per 1,000
inhabitants)
Oceania
Australia
Cook Islands
Fiji
Kiribati
New Zealand
Papua New Guinea
Samoa
Solomon Islands
Tonga
Tuvalu
Vanuatu
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
71
433
100
330
238
269
485
122
571
320
296
127
128
Table 3
Enrolment in pre-primary education and access to schooling
Pre-primary education
Access to schooling
Gross enrolment
ratio (%)
Country or territory
Agegroup
Total
1995
1985
Algeria
Angola
Benin
Botswana
Burkina Faso
Burundi
45
5
35
46
46
...
3
0
0
2
...
3
...
...
2
...
3
...
...
2
...
3
...
...
103
...
78
118
34
...
106
...
93
120
41
...
Cameroon
Cape Verde
Central African Republic
Chad
Comoros
Congo
45
56
35
35
46
35
11
23
5
...
...
3
11
...
...
1
...
1
11
...
...
1
...
1
11
...
...
1
...
1
...
135
...
67
100
86
Cte d'Ivoire
Dem. Rep. of the Congo
Djibouti
Egypt
Equatorial Guinea
Eritrea
35
35
45
45
35
56
1
...
1
5
...
...
2
1
0
8
...
4
2
1
0
8
...
4
2
1
0
8
...
4
Ethiopia
Gabon
Gambia
Ghana
Guinea
Guinea-Bissau
46
35
56
45
46
46
2
...
...
25
...
2
1
...
...
...
9
...
1
...
...
...
...
...
Kenya
Lesotho
Liberia
Libyan Arab Jamahiriya
Madagascar
Malawi
35
46
45
35
26
35
6
...
36
...
...
...
Mali
Mauritania
Mauritius
Morocco
Mozambique
Namibia
56
35
34
56
...
...
...
57
13
Niger
Nigeria
Rwanda
Sao Tome and Principe
Senegal
Seychelles
46
35
46
36
46
...
Total
Male
Female
Total
1995
Male
Female
1995
Male
Female
1985
1995
1985
1995
1985
1995
101
...
63
115
26
...
9.1
...
...
8.5
1.9
3.3
10.5
...
...
10.6
2.7
4.6
10.3
...
...
8.1
2.4
3.9
11.1
...
...
10.5
3.3
5.1
7.9
...
...
8.9
1.3
2.7
9.9
...
...
10.7
2.0
4.0
...
136
...
86
109
90
...
134
...
49
89
82
...
7.5
...
...
...
...
...
8.8
...
...
...
...
...
7.8
...
...
...
...
...
9.0
...
...
...
...
...
7.2
...
...
...
...
...
8.6
...
...
...
...
69
69
41
99
...
50
77
78
47
105
...
56
61
61
35
92
...
44
...
5.8
3.2
...
...
...
...
5.6
...
9.9
...
4.1
...
7.1
3.7
...
...
...
...
6.8
...
10.8
...
4.6
...
4.6
2.6
...
...
...
...
4.4
...
8.8
...
3.5
1
...
...
...
...
...
61
128
...
...
49
...
79
129
...
...
58
...
42
128
...
...
40
...
...
...
4.8
...
3.0
4.3
...
...
5.0
...
...
...
...
...
6.1
...
4.2
5.6
...
...
6.1
...
...
...
...
...
3.5
...
1.8
2.6
...
...
4.0
...
...
...
36
...
...
...
35
...
...
...
107
102
...
...
80
...
110
101
...
...
81
...
105
103
...
...
79
...
...
9.1
...
...
...
...
...
8.3
...
...
...
10.6
...
8.0
...
...
...
...
...
7.6
...
...
...
11.0
...
10.2
...
...
...
...
...
9.0
...
...
...
9.9
3
0
85
63
11
3
0
86
85
10
2
0
85
40
11
30
99
109
88
69
125
35
105
110
96
77
126
26
93
108
80
61
125
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
3.4
12.3
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
4.0
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
2.8
...
1
...
1
...
2
...
1
...
...
...
2
...
1
...
...
...
2
...
1
...
...
...
2
...
31
99
...
...
77
...
39
109
...
...
81
...
24
89
...
...
72
...
...
...
...
...
4.4
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
5.4
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
3.4
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
34
45
5
4 5
35
...
0
10
17
...
...
...
28
37
26
...
...
28
42
...
...
...
28
33
...
...
...
157
...
126
...
...
165
...
128
...
...
149
...
124
...
1.3
...
...
...
...
...
13.1
...
11.2
...
1.8
...
...
...
...
...
13.0
...
11.5
...
0.9
...
...
...
...
...
13.2
...
10.8
35
35
3
...
3
11
3
11
3
11
109
93
122
93
97
93
...
9.3
...
...
...
10.4
...
...
...
8.2
...
...
Africa
Sierra Leone
Somalia
South Africa
Sudan
Swaziland
Togo
Tunisia
Pre-primary education
Access to schooling
Gross enrolment
ratio (%)
Country or territory
Agegroup
Total
1995
1985
...
46
36
5
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
99
75
92
...
109
76
92
...
34
34
34
34
35
45
...
...
...
19
...
57
...
8
...
27
...
63
...
8
...
26
...
64
...
8
...
28
...
63
...
110
...
143
...
125
Costa Rica
Cuba
Dominica
Dominican Republic
El Salvador
Grenada
5
5
...
3 5
46
35
52
79
...
10
...
...
70
92
...
20
31
...
70
105
...
19
30
...
70
79
...
20
32
...
Guatemala
Haiti
Honduras
Jamaica
Mexico
Netherlands Antilles
56
35
46
35
45
45
26
...
12
76
56
...
32
...
14
81
71
...
33
...
13
85
70
...
Nicaragua
Panama
Saint Kitts and Nevis
Saint Lucia
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
36
5
...
...
...
14
51
...
...
...
20
76
...
...
...
34
35
8
60
Argentina
Bolivia
Brazil
Chile
Colombia
Ecuador
3 5
45
46
5
35
5
Guyana
Paraguay
Peru
Suriname
Uruguay
Venezuela
Uganda
United Rep. of Tanzania
Zambia
Zimbabwe
Total
Male
Female
Total
1995
Male
Female
1995
Male
Female
1985
1995
1985
1995
1985
1995
90
73
92
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
7.3
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
7.9
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
6.8
...
...
...
...
143
...
127
...
...
...
144
...
123
...
11.9
...
...
...
15.6
...
12.6
...
10.5
...
17.5
...
11.6
...
...
...
15.3
...
12.1
...
10.6
...
17.2
...
12.2
...
...
...
16.0
...
13.2
...
10.4
...
17.8
104
101
...
193
126
...
104
102
...
206
128
...
103
100
...
179
125
...
8.7
12.7
...
...
7.7
...
10.3
11.3
...
11.2
9.7
...
8.8
12.6
...
...
7.6
...
...
10.9
...
11.1
9.6
...
8.6
12.8
...
...
7.7
...
...
11.7
...
11.3
9.9
...
32
...
14
78
72
...
152
...
133
...
117
...
160
...
135
...
117
...
145
...
131
...
116
...
...
...
8.1
10.3
10.9
...
...
...
...
11.0
...
...
...
...
8.1
10.1
...
...
...
...
...
10.8
...
...
...
...
8.1
10.5
...
...
...
...
...
11.1
...
...
20
...
...
...
...
21
...
...
...
...
140
...
...
...
...
141
...
...
...
...
138
...
...
...
...
8.1
11.2
...
...
...
9.1
...
...
...
...
7.2
11.0
...
...
...
8.9
...
...
...
...
9.1
11.5
...
...
...
9.4
...
...
...
...
10
68
9
70
10
67
86
106
82
105
90
106
10.8
14.7
10.8
15.8
10.7
14.5
10.1
15.4
11.0
14.9
11.3
16.2
50
38
36
82
12
36
54
...
56
96
28
49
53
...
...
96
...
48
56
...
...
96
...
19
...
...
147
100
142
129
...
...
...
100
145
130
...
...
...
99
138
128
...
10.0
9.4
11.6
9.3
...
...
...
11.1
11.8
10.5
...
...
10.9
...
11.7
...
...
...
...
...
11.8
...
...
...
9.0
...
11.5
...
...
...
...
...
11.7
...
...
45
5
35
45
25
3 5
71
19
21
...
25
39
85
38
36
...
33
43
84
37
36
...
33
42
85
38
37
...
34
43
99
129
124
...
105
...
98
130
124
...
104
...
101
127
123
...
106
...
...
8.1
11.3
11.5
11.8
10.1
9.5
9.1
12.4
...
...
10.5
...
8.3
...
11.2
...
9.9
9.4
9.2
12.9
...
...
10.2
...
7.8
...
11.7
...
10.4
9.7
9.1
11.8
...
...
10.7
36
36
3 5
35
1
54
21
27
...
22
20
33
...
...
22
34
...
...
19
33
28
83
106
104
42
82
105
104
14
84
106
104
...
...
...
12.7
...
...
...
13.0
...
...
...
12.3
...
...
...
12.6
...
...
...
13.0
...
...
...
13.3
America, North
Antigua and Barbuda
Bahamas
Barbados
Belize
British Virgin Islands
Canada
America, South
Asia
Afghanistan
Armenia
Azerbaijan
Bahrain
129
130
Table 3 (continued)
Pre-primary education
Access to schooling
Gross enrolment
ratio (%)
Country or territory
Agegroup
Total
1995
1985
Bangladesh
Bhutan
Brunei Darussalam
Cambodia
China
Cyprus
5
...
35
35
36
25
...
...
44
...
20
...
...
...
51
5
29
60
...
...
51
5
29
60
...
...
51
5
28
60
...
18
110
116
108
...
...
19
113
122
107
...
45
35
35
45
56
5
...
...
92
3
15
7
...
32
84
5
19
7
...
...
83
5
18
7
...
...
84
5
19
7
...
81
102
131
109
84
Iraq
Israel
Japan
Jordan
Kazakhstan
Kuwait
45
25
35
45
36
45
8
77
46
...
70
46
8
71
49
25
29
52
8
...
49
27
30
52
7
...
50
24
28
51
Kyrgyzstan
Lao People's Dem. Rep.
Lebanon
Macau
Malaysia
Maldives
36
35
35
35
45
45
30
6
...
...
37
...
8
7
74
87
...
59
9
6
76
89
...
59
Mongolia
Myanmar
Nepal
Oman
Pakistan
47
4
35
45
34
28
...
...
2
...
23
...
...
3
...
45
45
45
56
45
5
.
...
...
6
33
42
Saudi Arabia
Singapore
Sri Lanka
Syrian Arab Republic
Tajikistan
Thailand
45
45
4
35
36
3 5
Turkey
Turkmenistan
United Arab Emirates
Uzbekistan
Viet Nam
Yemen
Total
Male
Female
Total
1995
Male
Female
1995
Male
Female
1985
1995
1985
1995
1985
1995
...
16
107
110
109
...
4.5
...
11.0
...
...
...
...
...
12.0
...
...
...
5.5
...
10.9
...
...
...
...
...
11.8
...
...
...
3.4
...
11.0
...
...
...
...
...
12.1
...
...
...
...
81
101
141
112
85
...
81
103
119
106
84
...
...
12.1
...
9.8
...
...
10.2
12.6
...
10.0
...
...
...
12.2
...
10.3
...
...
10.1
12.6
...
10.4
...
...
...
12.1
...
9.2
...
...
10.4
12.7
...
9.5
...
...
96
102
...
98
72
...
96
102
...
99
73
...
96
102
...
98
70
9.9
...
12.9
...
...
...
8.3
...
14.0
...
...
9.0
11.2
...
...
...
...
...
9.4
...
14.2
...
...
8.9
8.5
...
...
...
...
...
7.1
...
13.8
...
...
9.1
6
7
73
86
...
59
106
118
...
...
97
134
107
133
...
...
97
138
105
104
...
...
97
131
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
6.9
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
8.2
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
5.7
...
...
...
...
21
...
...
4
...
25
...
...
3
...
95
158
...
67
...
95
...
...
68
...
95
...
...
66
...
...
...
5.1
...
...
7.2
...
...
8.6
...
...
...
6.8
...
...
6.2
...
...
8.8
...
...
...
2.9
...
...
8.1
...
...
8.1
...
...
...
...
13
31
85
...
...
...
...
32
85
...
...
...
...
29
85
...
112
...
168
53
99
...
115
...
...
51
98
...
109
...
...
56
99
.
...
...
10.0
11.7
13.2
...
...
...
11.0
11.1
14.5
.
...
...
9.9
10.9
13.8
...
...
...
11.0
10.6
15.1
.
...
...
10.1
12.4
12.5
...
...
...
11.0
11.6
13.9
6
20
...
6
...
18
8
...
...
7
10
58
...
...
...
7
...
...
...
...
...
6
...
...
75
...
113
97
101
93
74
...
114
101
...
...
76
...
112
93
...
...
6.7
...
...
10.2
...
...
8.7
...
...
9.2
...
...
7.7
...
...
11.4
...
...
9.0
...
...
9.8
...
...
5.7
...
...
8.9
...
...
8.4
...
...
8.5
...
...
45
36
45
35
35
35
5
...
56
70
33
...
6
...
57
54
35
1
7
...
59
56
...
1
6
...
56
53
...
1
106
...
94
99
...
...
109
...
96
100
...
...
102
...
92
97
...
...
8.4
...
...
...
...
...
9.7
...
10.0
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
10.6
...
9.8
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
8.7
...
10.3
...
...
...
35
35
52
71
38
76
37
76
39
76
94
103
93
104
95
103
...
...
...
14.3
...
...
...
14.4
...
...
...
14.2
Europe
Albania
Austria
Pre-primary education
Access to schooling
Gross enrolment
ratio (%)
Country or territory
Agegroup
Total
1995
1985
Belarus
Belgium
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Bulgaria
Croatia
Czech Republic
3 5
35
...
3 6
36
35
66
110
...
93
...
...
80
116
...
62
31
91
85
116
...
62
31
90
75
116
...
61
30
92
99
114
...
102
...
105
101
117
...
103
...
105
Denmark
Estonia
Finland
France
Germany
Greece
3 6
36
36
25
35
45
94
...
28
89
...
57
81
73
39
84
84
61
81
74
39
84
85
61
81
73
39
84
82
62
99
97
96
109
104
...
Hungary
Iceland
Ireland
Italy
Latvia
Lithuania
35
56
45
35
36
36
91
55
106
85
67
64
111
53
107
96
44
36
112
54
108
96
45
37
109
52
107
95
43
36
Luxembourg
Malta
Monaco
Netherlands
Norway
Poland
45
3 4
35
45
46
36
95
139
...
106
66
51
99
105
...
100
98
45
...
106
...
100
96
45
Portugal
Republic of Moldova
Romania
Russian Federation
San Marino
Slovakia
35
36
3 6
36
35
35
30
66
75
73
...
87
58
45
53
63
...
71
Slovenia
Spain
Sweden
Switzerland
The FYR of Macedonia
Ukraine
36
25
36
5 6
36
36
...
51
62
57
...
65
34
36
United Kingdom
Yugoslavia
Total
Male
Female
Total
1995
Male
Female
1995
Male
Female
1985
1995
1985
1995
1985
1995
96
111
...
100
...
105
...
13.9
...
11.5
...
...
...
15.5
...
12.1
11.6
13.1
...
13.9
...
11.5
...
...
...
15.6
...
11.8
11.5
13.1
...
13.8
...
11.6
...
...
...
15.4
...
12.5
11.7
13.1
99
97
96
110
104
...
99
97
96
107
104
...
14.0
...
...
13.3
...
12.9
14.6
12.5
15.5
15.4
15.1
13.8
14.0
...
...
13.1
...
13.0
14.5
12.2
15.0
15.2
15.4
13.9
14.0
...
...
13.6
...
12.8
14.8
12.9
16.0
15.6
14.8
13.6
104
103
104
98
98
94
105
103
104
99
101
94
104
103
104
97
95
93
11.3
...
12.0
12.3
...
...
12.5
...
13.6
...
11.4
...
11.2
...
11.8
12.4
...
...
12.3
...
13.5
...
11.1
...
11.3
...
12.1
12.1
...
...
12.6
...
13.8
...
11.7
...
...
103
...
99
101
45
...
110
...
...
97
97
...
110
...
...
98
97
...
111
...
...
97
96
11.1
11.8
...
15.0
13.5
11.5
...
13.4
...
15.5
14.9
13.1
11.1
12.2
...
15.3
13.3
11.4
...
13.7
...
15.7
14.7
13.0
11.0
11.4
...
14.5
13.8
11.7
...
13.1
...
15.2
15.2
13.3
58
47
52
65
...
...
57
43
53
60
...
...
112
97
105
101
...
99
112
98
107
103
...
99
111
97
104
100
...
99
...
...
...
...
...
...
14.3
...
11.4
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
13.9
...
11.5
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
14.7
...
11.4
...
...
...
66
69
60
94
24
54
68
68
59
65
24
56
64
69
62
93
24
51
109
100
102
94
94
99
111
99
102
93
96
100
108
102
102
96
92
98
...
...
...
13.6
...
...
...
15.5
14.3
14.0
10.3
...
...
...
...
14.2
...
...
...
15.1
13.9
14.5
10.3
...
...
...
...
12.9
...
...
...
15.9
14.5
13.5
10.3
...
49
...
...
31
...
31
...
31
...
...
...
...
...
...
13.4
...
16.3
...
13.4
...
16.1
...
13.4
...
16.6
...
5
...
35
...
2 4
56
71
...
7
...
91
...
73
...
15
...
77
1
74
...
15
...
78
1
73
...
16
...
77
1
104
...
...
...
102
104
104
...
...
...
103
110
103
...
...
...
102
97
12.5
...
...
...
13.7
...
16.2
...
...
...
16.4
...
12.5
...
...
...
13.8
...
16.3
...
...
...
16.0
...
12.5
...
...
...
13.6
...
16.1
...
...
...
16.7
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
113
116
...
...
...
114
121
...
...
...
112
111
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
11.5
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
11.4
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
11.7
...
...
...
...
Oceania
Australia
Cook Islands
Fiji
Kiribati
New Zealand
Papua New Guinea
Samoa
Solomon Islands
Tonga
Tuvalu
Vanuatu
131
132
Table 4
Primary education: duration, population and enrolment ratios
Duration in years
Country or territory
School-age
population
(000)
Compulsory
education
Primary
education
1985
1995
1985
1995
1985
1995
1985
1995
1985
1995
1985
1995
9
8
6
6
6
6
4
6
7
6
6
3 720
917
656
213
1 303
735
4 336
...
1 003
269
1 721
933
94
106
68
105
27
52
107
...
72
115
38
70
103
117
90
100
34
61
112
...
92
114
46
77
83
96
45
111
20
44
100
...
52
117
30
63
86
...
53
89
23
41
95
...
59
96
31
52
94
...
71
84
29
47
99
...
74
94
37
56
78
...
36
94
17
35
91
...
43
99
24
48
Cameroon
Cape Verde
Central African Republic
Chad
Comoros
Congo
6
6
6
8
9
10
6
6
6
6
6
6
1 662
49
413
776
79
323
2 144
60
...
998
99
437
103
117
75
43
84
147
88
131
...
55
78
114
111
120
93
63
93
154
93
132
...
74
85
119
94
114
57
24
73
141
84
129
...
36
71
109
...
96
61
...
62
...
...
100
...
...
53
...
...
98
74
...
...
...
...
100
...
...
58
...
...
95
47
...
...
...
...
100
...
...
48
...
Cte dIvoire
Dem. Rep. of the Congo
Djibouti
Egypt
Equatorial Guinea
Eritrea
6
6
6
8
5
7
6
6
6
5
5
5
1 697
5 378
63
7 280
...
...
2 420
7 522
94
8 128
...
427
72
86
40
85
...
...
69
72
38
100
...
57
84
105
47
94
...
...
79
86
44
107
...
63
59
68
33
76
...
...
58
59
33
93
...
51
...
...
31
...
...
...
...
61
32
...
...
31
...
...
37
...
...
...
...
71
37
...
...
33
...
...
26
...
...
...
...
50
28
...
...
30
6
10
9
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6 540
...
107
2 182
802
125
8 677
...
156
...
1 207
157
37
...
68
72
34
62
31
...
73
...
48
64
44
...
84
81
47
81
39
...
78
...
63
81
30
...
52
62
22
43
24
...
67
...
34
47
...
...
62
...
27
46
24
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
77
...
36
60
28
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
48
...
18
33
19
...
...
...
...
...
8
7
9
9
5
8
8
7
6
9
5
8
4 761
285
334
932
1 488
1 573
6 508
371
...
1 189
2 104
2 116
99
110
40
109
109
60
85
99
...
106
72
135
102
97
51
113
113
68
85
92
...
107
73
142
96
123
28
104
106
52
85
105
...
104
70
128
...
71
...
...
...
43
...
65
...
97
...
100
...
61
...
...
...
46
...
60
...
98
...
100
...
81
...
...
...
41
...
71
...
96
...
100
9
6
7
6
7
10
6
6
6
6
5
7
1 255
292
129
2 955
1 429
217
1 715
369
115
3 743
2 347
277
23
48
110
77
87
135
32
78
107
83
60
133
30
58
110
93
99
...
39
85
107
94
70
132
17
39
109
60
76
...
25
72
106
71
50
134
18
...
100
61
51
25
60
96
72
40
92
22
...
100
73
56
...
30
64
96
81
45
...
13
...
100
48
47
...
19
55
96
62
35
...
8
6
7
4
6
9
6
6
7
4
6
6
1 081
13 593
1 329
...
1 034
...
1 521
18 157
...
...
1 352
...
26
96
63
...
56
...
29
89
...
...
65
...
33
107
65
...
67
...
36
100
...
...
72
...
18
85
61
...
46
...
22
79
...
...
57
...
25
...
60
...
48
...
...
...
...
...
54
...
32
...
61
...
57
...
...
...
...
...
60
...
17
...
58
...
39
...
...
...
...
...
48
...
8
10
8
7
7
8
7
8
7
673
1 713
6 030
3 476
137
...
...
6 796
5 642
158
63
11
103
50
102
...
...
117
54
122
...
15
103
59
104
...
...
119
59
125
...
8
103
41
100
...
...
115
48
119
...
8
...
79
...
...
96
...
95
...
11
...
78
...
...
95
...
95
...
6
...
80
...
...
96
...
96
6
9
6
6
499
1 122
696
1 271
93
115
118
116
114
124
140
119
71
105
97
112
...
93
85
97
...
99
98
98
...
87
72
95
Total
Male
Female
Total
Male
Female
1985 1995
Africa
Algeria
Angola
Benin
Botswana
Burkina Faso
Burundi
Ethiopia
Gabon
Gambia
Ghana
Guinea
Guinea-Bissau
Kenya
Lesotho
Liberia
Libyan Arab Jamahiriya
Madagascar
Malawi
Mali
Mauritania
Mauritius
Morocco
Mozambique
Namibia
Niger
Nigeria
Rwanda
Sao Tome and Principe
Senegal
Seychelles
Sierra Leone
Somalia
South Africa
Sudan
Swaziland
Togo
Tunisia
Duration in years
Country or territory
School-age
population
(000)
Compulsory
education
Primary
education
7
3
5
7
7
7
7
3
4
1
1
11
10
12
10
7
10
7
6
7
8
7
6
Costa Rica
Cuba
Dominica
Dominican Republic
El Salvador
Grenada
9
6
10
9
9
11
Guatemala
Haiti
Honduras
Jamaica
Mexico
Netherlands Antilles
Total
Female
Total
Male
Female
1995
1985
1995
1985
1995
1985
1995
1985
1995
991
786
686
149
74
75
104
136
73
67
89
116
81
76
109
139
79
68
92
117
67
74
98
132
67
66
86
114
57
56
88
100
...
48
75
...
60
55
90
100
...
47
76
...
53
56
85
100
...
48
75
...
...
33
...
40
...
2 183
...
35
...
45
...
2 366
...
100
...
103
...
103
...
94
...
121
...
102
...
100
...
106
...
104
...
95
...
124
...
103
...
99
...
100
...
102
...
94
...
118
...
101
...
100
...
87
...
95
...
...
...
99
...
95
...
100
...
89
...
95
...
...
...
99
...
...
100
...
96
85
...
95
98
...
94
6
6
7
8
9
7
374
1 062
...
968
...
...
476
1 023
...
1 414
1 205
...
97
101
...
126
...
...
107
105
...
103
88
...
98
105
...
123
...
...
107
107
...
103
88
...
96
98
...
129
...
...
106
103
...
104
89
...
84
91
...
70
...
...
92
99
...
81
79
...
83
91
...
70
...
...
...
99
...
79
78
...
84
91
...
69
...
...
...
99
...
83
80
...
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
1 329
898
728
340
12 864
...
1 749
...
887
305
12 695
...
76
97
111
100
118
...
84
...
112
109
115
...
83
103
110
99
119
...
90
...
111
110
116
...
70
91
113
101
116
...
78
...
112
109
113
...
...
56
92
94
100
...
...
...
90
100
100
...
...
57
89
92
...
...
...
...
89
100
...
...
...
54
94
95
...
...
...
...
91
100
...
...
Nicaragua
6
Panama
6
Saint Kitts and Nevis
12
Saint Lucia
10
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines ...
6
6
7
7
7
554
319
...
...
...
694
349
...
...
...
101
106
...
...
...
110
106
...
...
...
97
109
...
...
...
109
...
...
...
...
106
104
...
...
...
112
...
...
...
...
76
90
...
...
...
83
...
...
...
...
74
90
...
...
...
82
...
...
...
...
79
90
...
...
...
85
...
...
...
...
7
10
7
6
175
20 391
193
22 987
96
99
96
101
96
99
91
101
97
99
102
101
92
93
88
96
91
92
83
96
92
93
94
97
Argentina
Bolivia
Brazil
Chile
Colombia
Ecuador
7
8
8
8
5
6
7
8
8
8
5
6
4
1
24
1
3
1
369
271
861
969
588
461
4 634
...
27 875
2 175
4 102
1 637
105
95
100
104
113
119
113
...
112
99
114
109
105
100
...
105
111
120
114
...
...
100
115
109
105
89
...
102
114
118
113
...
...
98
114
108
...
86
81
89
72
...
...
...
90
86
85
92
...
90
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
87
...
91
...
82
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
85
...
92
Guyana
Paraguay
Peru
Suriname
Uruguay
Venezuela
10
6
6
11
6
10
6
6
6
6
6
9
111
542
3 081
...
331
3 666
106
768
3 361
...
307
4 469
103
105
120
...
106
97
94
109
123
...
111
94
104
108
123
...
106
95
95
110
125
...
112
93
101
102
118
...
105
98
93
107
121
...
110
96
...
89
96
...
87
84
90
89
91
...
95
...
...
90
...
...
87
...
90
89
91
...
95
...
...
89
...
...
87
...
89
89
90
...
95
...
6
9
11
12
6
4
4
6
2 898
...
412
51
2 703
304
671
67
20
...
118
112
49
82
104
108
27
...
...
109
64
...
100
107
13
...
...
116
32
...
108
109
17
...
...
96
...
...
...
100
23
...
...
94
...
...
...
99
11
...
...
98
...
...
...
100
024
232
326
669
1995
Male
1985
Uganda
United Rep. of Tanzania
Zambia
Zimbabwe
1985
3
5
1
2
1985 1995
America, North
America, South
Asia
Afghanistan
Armenia
Azerbaijan
Bahrain
133
134
Table 4 (continued)
Duration in years
Country or territory
School-age
population
(000)
Compulsory
education
Primary
education
1985
1995
1985
1995
1985
1995
1985
1995
1985
1995
1985
1995
Bangladesh
Bhutan
Brunei Darussalam
Cambodia
China
Cyprus
12
6
9
9
5
7
6
5
5
6
14 140
...
32
...
108 482
...
...
...
38
1 400
111 521
...
63
...
107
...
123
103
...
...
110
122
118
100
72
...
109
...
132
103
...
...
113
134
119
100
53
...
104
...
114
102
...
...
107
109
117
100
57
...
78
...
...
98
...
...
91
...
99
96
64
...
78
...
...
99
...
...
91
...
99
96
48
...
78
...
...
98
...
...
91
...
98
96
10
9
9
8
6
5
4
4
6
5
6
5
...
...
506
91 102
25 548
7 098
...
353
489
109 383
25 970
9 800
...
...
106
96
117
96
...
82
96
100
114
99
...
...
107
111
120
106
...
81
95
110
117
103
...
...
105
80
114
85
...
82
97
90
112
96
...
...
96
...
98
79
...
82
91
...
97
...
...
...
96
...
100
85
...
81
90
...
99
...
...
...
96
...
95
72
...
82
92
...
95
...
Iraq
Israel
Japan
Jordan
Kazakhstan
Kuwait
6
11
9
10
11
8
6
6
6
10
4
4
2 615
722
10 913
...
1 310
168
...
640
8 619
...
1 424
195
108
97
102
...
88
103
...
99
102
94
96
73
116
95
102
...
...
104
...
...
102
94
96
73
99
98
102
...
...
102
...
...
102
95
96
72
93
...
100
...
...
87
...
...
100
89
...
65
99
...
100
...
...
88
...
...
100
89
...
65
87
...
100
...
...
85
...
...
100
89
...
65
Kyrgyzstan
Lao People's Dem. Rep.
Lebanon
Macau
Malaysia
Maldives
10
5
5
11
4
5
5
6
6
5
280
473
...
...
2 184
...
444
637
336
41
3 068
36
122
111
...
...
101
...
107
107
109
98
91
134
123
121
...
...
101
...
108
123
111
100
91
136
122
100
...
...
100
...
105
91
108
97
92
132
...
...
...
...
...
...
97
68
...
...
91
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
99
75
...
...
91
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
95
61
...
...
92
...
8
5
5
3
5
5
6
5
146
4 782
2 267
233
14 109
199
5 346
2 822
386
18 426
103
98
80
76
44
88
103
110
80
74
102
101
108
85
56
87
105
129
82
101
104
96
50
68
30
90
102
89
78
45
...
...
...
66
...
80
...
...
71
...
...
...
...
70
...
78
...
...
72
...
...
...
...
63
...
81
...
...
70
...
10
.
.
6
10
.
.
6
6
6
.
...
...
8 313
37
5 006
...
...
...
9 987
58
4 310
.
...
...
107
109
97
...
...
...
116
89
101
.
...
...
108
110
96
...
...
...
...
92
100
.
...
...
107
107
98
...
...
...
...
87
101
.
...
...
96
91
94
...
...
...
100
80
99
.
...
...
97
88
94
...
...
...
...
81
98
.
...
...
96
94
95
...
...
...
...
80
99
Saudi Arabia
Singapore
Sri Lanka
Syrian Arab Republic
Tajikistan
Thailand
11
6
9
6
6
6
5
6
4
6
2 078
260
2 240
1 853
...
7 451
2 890
...
1 736
2 655
663
6 819
65
111
103
110
...
96
78
...
113
101
89
87
73
113
104
117
...
...
79
...
114
106
91
...
57
109
102
102
...
...
76
...
112
95
88
...
51
99
100
98
...
...
62
...
...
91
...
...
60
99
100
100
...
...
63
...
...
95
...
...
42
99
100
92
...
...
61
...
...
87
...
...
Turkey
Turkmenistan
United Arab Emirates
Uzbekistan
Viet Nam
Yemen
5
...
6
...
5
9
5
4
6
4
5
9
5 856
...
156
1 863
7 891
...
6 175
...
279
2 477
8 957
3 374
113
...
98
87
103
...
105
...
94
77
114
79
117
...
98
88
106
...
107
...
96
78
...
113
110
...
97
85
100
...
102
...
92
76
...
45
98
...
77
...
...
...
96
...
83
...
...
...
...
...
76
...
...
...
98
...
84
...
...
...
...
...
77
...
...
...
94
...
82
...
...
...
8
9
8
4
527
343
553
378
103
100
101
101
104
101
100
101
102
99
102
101
...
...
96
100
...
...
95
100
...
...
97
100
Mongolia
Myanmar
Nepal
Oman
Pakistan
Total
Male
Female
Total
Male
Female
1985 1995
Europe
Albania
Austria
Duration in years
Country or territory
School-age
population
(000)
Compulsory
education
Primary
education
1985
1995
1985
1995
1985
1995
1985
1995
1985
1995
1985
1995
Belarus
Belgium
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Bulgaria
Croatia
Czech Republic
9
12
...
8
8
9
4
6
...
4
4
4
735
738
...
1 057
493
700
655
718
...
448
241
525
108
99
...
102
105
99
97
103
...
97
86
103
...
99
...
103
105
...
98
103
...
98
87
103
...
99
...
102
106
...
95
102
...
96
86
102
...
94
...
...
...
...
97
98
...
97
...
98
...
94
...
...
...
...
98
98
...
98
...
98
...
95
...
...
...
...
95
98
...
96
...
98
Denmark
Estonia
Finland
France
Germany
Greece
9
9
9
10
12
9
6
5
6
5
4
6
409
135
370
3 792
...
852
334
116
388
3 849
3 668
...
99
98
102
109
...
104
99
109
100
106
102
...
99
97
103
110
...
104
98
110
100
107
102
...
98
99
102
107
...
104
99
108
100
105
101
...
99
...
...
97
...
99
99
94
99
99
100
...
99
...
...
97
...
99
98
93
99
99
100
...
98
...
...
97
...
99
99
94
99
99
100
...
Hungary
Iceland
Ireland
Italy
Latvia
Lithuania
10
8
9
8
9
9
8
6
6
5
4
4
1 310
25
421
3 978
141
214
1 016
25
368
2 876
157
233
99
99
100
98
80
80
97
97
104
98
89
96
99
99
100
98
80
80
97
99
104
99
91
97
99
99
100
98
80
81
97
95
103
97
86
95
97
...
100
97
...
...
93
...
100
97
84
...
97
...
100
96
...
...
92
...
100
...
86
...
98
...
100
97
...
...
94
...
100
...
82
...
Luxembourg
Malta
Monaco
Netherlands
Norway
Poland
9
10
10
11
9
8
6
6
5
6
6
8
25
34
...
1 119
346
4 749
27
32
...
1 109
317
5 286
89
107
...
99
97
101
104
108
...
107
99
98
88
109
...
98
97
102
...
111
...
108
99
99
89
104
...
100
97
100
...
105
...
106
99
98
81
97
...
92
96
99
...
100
...
99
99
97
80
97
...
91
96
100
...
100
...
99
99
97
82
96
...
94
96
99
...
99
...
99
99
96
Portugal
Republic of Moldova
Romania
Russian Federation
San Marino
Slovakia
9
11
8
9
8
9
6
4
4
3
5
4
960
294
3 094
6 350
...
...
728
340
1 393
7 298
...
330
129
84
98
104
...
...
128
94
100
108
...
100
132
85
98
103
...
...
131
95
101
108
...
100
125
84
98
104
...
...
124
93
99
107
...
100
100
...
...
...
...
...
100
...
92
100
...
...
100
...
...
...
...
...
100
...
92
100
...
...
100
...
...
...
...
...
100
...
92
100
...
...
Slovenia
Spain
Sweden
Switzerland
The FYR of Macedonia
Ukraine
8
10
9
9
8
8
4
5
6
6
8
4
...
3 166
612
456
271
3 630
98
2 251
615
474
297
3 071
...
110
98
95
101
103
103
105
105
107
89
87
...
111
98
94
...
...
103
105
104
108
90
87
...
109
98
95
...
...
103
105
105
107
87
86
...
100
...
95
...
...
100
100
100
100
85
...
...
100
...
94
...
...
100
100
100
100
86
...
...
100
...
95
...
...
99
100
100
100
84
...
United Kingdom
Yugoslavia
11
8
6
4
4 124
...
4 549
625
104
...
115
72
104
...
114
71
105
...
115
72
100
...
100
...
100
...
100
...
100
...
100
...
10
10
9
11
6
6
6
7
6
6
1 444
...
104
...
308
554
1 527
...
114
...
331
643
107
...
122
...
107
67
108
...
128
...
104
80
107
...
122
...
108
73
108
...
128
...
105
87
106
...
122
...
106
62
108
...
127
...
104
74
98
...
97
...
100
...
98
...
99
...
100
...
98
...
97
...
100
...
98
...
99
...
100
...
98
...
97
...
100
...
98
...
100
...
100
...
8
9
6
8
6
6
8
6
30
49
...
...
23
31
62
...
...
27
104
79
...
...
100
116
97
...
...
106
101
...
...
...
...
117
104
...
...
105
108
...
...
...
...
115
90
...
...
107
...
...
...
...
...
99
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
100
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
99
...
...
...
...
Total
Male
Female
Total
Male
Female
1985 1995
Oceania
Australia
Cook Islands
Fiji
Kiribati
New Zealand
Papua New Guinea
Samoa
Solomon Islands
Tonga
Tuvalu
Vanuatu
135
136
Table 5
Primary education: internal efficiency
Country or territory
Percentage of repeaters
Total
Male
Grade 2
Grade 5
1985
1995
1985
1995
1985
1995
Total
Male
Female
Total
Male Female
Algeria
Angola
Benin
Botswana
Burkina Faso
8
...
27
6
16
9
...
25
3
16
9
...
26
6
15
11
...
25
3
16
6
...
28
6
16
6
...
25
2
17
100
...
87
94
99
100
...
89
92
98
100
...
84
95
100
95
...
61
89
79
94
...
63
86
78
95
...
57
92
80
Burundi
Cameroon
Cape Verde
Central African Republic
Chad
Comoros
Congo
18
29
28
29
32
33
30
24
...
17
...
35
36
33
18
30
29
30
31
32
31
24
...
18
...
34
...
35
18
28
26
29
35
33
29
23
...
16
...
35
...
32
...
...
...
...
70
90
93
...
...
...
...
73
...
...
...
...
...
...
66
...
...
...
...
...
...
28
78
54
...
...
...
...
33
...
...
...
...
...
...
21
...
...
Cte d'Ivoire
Dem. Rep. of the Congo
Djibouti
Egypt
Equatorial Guinea
Eritrea
28
19
12
2
...
...
27
5
12
5
25
19
29
19
...
2
...
...
28
7
...
6
25
15
28
19
...
1
...
...
25
3
...
4
25
23
90
83
99
100
...
93
91
86
100
100
...
92
90
81
100
100
...
93
73
64
94
98
...
79
76
73
97
98
...
78
68
54
98
97
...
79
Ethiopia
Gabon
Gambia
Ghana
Guinea
Guinea-Bissau
10
36
17
...
27
41
9
39
14
...
22
...
8
37
18
...
25
40
7
40
15
...
21
...
11
35
16
...
31
42
11
38
14
...
24
...
60
...
...
...
97
...
60
...
...
...
98
...
60
...
...
...
95
...
51
...
...
...
80
...
51
...
...
...
82
...
51
...
...
...
75
...
Kenya
Lesotho
Liberia
Libyan Arab Jamahiriya
Madagascar
Malawi
...
23
...
...
33
18
...
18
...
...
32
18
...
25
...
...
35
18
...
21
...
...
34
17
...
21
...
...
31
17
...
16
...
...
31
19
87
89
...
...
66
...
...
87
...
...
66
...
...
90
...
...
67
...
68
79
...
...
28
...
...
72
...
...
26
...
...
87
...
...
30
...
Mali
Mauritania
Mauritius
Morocco
Mozambique
Namibia
30
18
6
20
24
...
28
16
6
12
26
23
30
17
6
21
23
...
28
15
6
13
25
24
30
20
6
18
24
...
28
17
5
10
27
21
96
90
100
93
86
91
98
88
100
94
90
90
94
92
100
92
79
92
72
63
99
78
47
82
75
68
99
80
52
79
70
62
99
77
39
84
Niger
Nigeria
Rwanda
Sao Tome and Principe
Senegal
Seychelles
15
...
12
35
16
16
...
...
...
14
15
...
12
35
16
19
...
...
...
14
15
...
12
35
17
12
...
...
...
14
99
89
...
...
93
98
99
...
...
...
...
...
98
...
...
...
...
...
77
80
...
...
81
97
76
...
...
...
...
...
78
...
...
...
...
...
Sierra Leone
Somalia
South Africa
Sudan
Swaziland
...
...
...
14
...
...
...
15
...
...
...
16
...
...
...
17
...
...
...
12
...
...
...
13
...
...
78
100
92
...
...
...
...
92
...
...
...
...
93
...
...
65
94
78
...
...
...
...
76
...
...
...
...
82
Togo
Tunisia
35
20
24
17
34
21
24
19
36
19
25
16
89
99
91
99
87
98
71
92
79
92
60
93
Africa
Country or territory
Percentage of repeaters
Total
Male
Grade 2
Grade 5
1985
1995
1985
1995
1985
1995
Total
Male
Female
Total
14
0
2
...
3
3
14
0
2
...
3
3
14
0
2
...
3
3
...
94
97
88
...
93
98
...
...
94
96
...
...
83
84
76
...
81
87
...
...
86
80
...
...
...
...
10
...
...
...
10
7
...
...
...
...
11
...
...
...
12
8
...
...
...
...
8
...
...
...
9
5
...
...
90
...
77
...
99
...
...
...
77
...
99
...
...
...
76
...
99
...
78
...
70
...
99
...
...
...
71
...
99
...
...
...
70
...
99
Costa Rica
Cuba
Dominica
Dominican Republic
El Salvador
Grenada
11
3
5
17
8
7
9
3
...
...
6
...
12
...
6
...
9
8
11
...
...
...
7
...
9
...
5
...
8
5
8
...
...
...
5
...
97
99
91
67
76
...
95
...
89
66
75
...
98
...
93
68
77
...
89
94
84
58
58
...
87
...
81
50
58
...
90
...
87
65
59
...
Guatemala
Haiti
Honduras
Jamaica
Mexico
Netherlands Antilles
13
9
15
4
10
...
16
13
12
3
7
...
...
9
16
4
...
...
17
13
13
4
8
...
...
9
15
3
...
...
16
13
11
3
6
...
...
...
84
...
94
...
...
...
73
...
94
...
...
...
76
...
94
...
...
...
60
...
84
...
...
...
44
...
85
...
...
...
51
...
84
...
Nicaragua
Panama
Saint Kitts and Nevis
Saint Lucia
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
15
13
7
...
15
...
...
16
15
7
...
16
...
...
15
11
6
...
14
...
...
79
...
...
100
...
79
...
...
100
...
80
...
...
100
...
54
...
...
95
...
52
...
...
91
...
56
...
...
97
...
5
...
6
...
4
...
6
...
5
...
5
...
100
...
100
...
100
...
95
...
95
...
95
...
Argentina
Bolivia
Brazil
Chile
Colombia
Ecuador
...
...
20
7
17
7
...
...
18
6
9
4
...
...
...
8
17
7
...
...
...
7
10
5
...
...
...
6
17
6
...
...
...
5
9
4
...
...
86
97
76
86
...
...
...
97
75
85
...
...
...
97
77
86
...
...
71
92
58
77
...
...
...
92
55
76
...
...
...
91
61
78
Guyana
Paraguay
Peru
Suriname
Uruguay
Venezuela
6
11
14
22
11
10
4
8
15
...
10
11
7
12
...
24
13
...
5
9
16
...
11
13
5
9
...
20
9
...
3
7
15
...
8
9
...
91
...
...
98
92
...
91
...
...
98
91
...
91
...
...
99
93
...
71
...
...
94
78
...
70
...
...
93
75
...
73
...
...
96
82
6
...
...
9
9
0
0
5
6
...
...
8
9
...
0
6
6
...
...
9
9
...
0
5
...
...
94
98
...
...
95
99
...
...
93
98
...
...
...
94
...
...
...
90
...
...
...
94
Uganda
United Rep. of Tanzania
Zambia
Zimbabwe
Male Female
America, North
America, South
Asia
Afghanistan
Armenia
Azerbaijan
Bahrain
137
138
Table 5 (continued)
Country or territory
Percentage of repeaters
Total
Male
Grade 2
Grade 5
1985
1995
1985
1995
1985
1995
Total
Male
Female
Total
Male Female
Bangladesh
Bhutan
Brunei Darussalam
Cambodia
China
Cyprus
...
17
9
...
7
0
...
19
9
30
2
0
...
...
11
...
...
0
...
20
...
31
2
0
...
...
6
...
...
0
...
18
...
30
2
0
...
96
99
83
99
100
...
94
...
84
99
100
...
98
...
81
99
100
...
82
95
50
92
100
...
81
...
56
92
100
...
84
...
42
92
100
...
...
2
4
11
12
...
0
1
...
8
7
...
...
2
4
...
13
...
...
...
...
8
9
...
...
2
4
...
9
...
...
...
...
7
6
...
100
100
81
97
96
...
...
...
81
100
97
...
...
...
81
94
96
...
98
100
62
90
90
...
...
...
65
96
92
...
...
...
59
81
89
Iraq
Israel
Japan
Jordan
Kazakhstan
Kuwait
21
...
6
...
5
...
...
1
0
3
22
...
6
...
5
...
...
1
0
3
19
...
6
...
5
...
...
1
0
4
...
100
100
99
...
99
...
100
100
99
...
99
...
100
100
99
...
99
...
100
100
98
...
99
...
100
100
98
...
98
...
100
100
99
...
99
Kyrgyzstan
Lao People's Dem. Rep.
Lebanon
Macau
Malaysia
Maldives
...
27
...
...
...
0
26
...
7
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
27
...
5
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
25
...
8
...
97
73
...
100
95
95
...
74
...
100
95
94
...
72
...
100
95
96
92
53
...
97
94
93
...
55
...
94
94
91
...
51
...
96
94
94
Mongolia
Myanmar
Nepal
Oman
Pakistan
...
...
21
12
...
1
...
27
8
...
...
...
...
13
...
1
...
28
10
...
...
...
...
9
...
0
...
24
7
...
96
...
65
99
...
95
...
68
99
...
96
...
62
99
...
...
...
52
96
...
...
...
52
96
...
...
...
52
96
...
.
...
...
2
11
4
...
...
...
5
.
...
...
2
13
5
...
...
...
7
.
...
...
2
8
4
...
...
...
3
100
...
...
84
99
100
100
...
...
...
99
100
100
...
...
...
99
100
98
...
...
70
95
100
98
...
...
...
92
100
98
...
...
...
98
100
Saudi Arabia
Singapore
Sri Lanka
Syrian Arab Republic
Tajikistan
Thailand
12
1
8
7
...
...
8
...
...
7
0
...
15
1
8
8
...
...
11
...
...
8
...
...
9
1
9
7
...
...
5
...
...
6
...
...
97
...
100
99
...
...
98
...
100
99
...
...
97
...
100
98
...
...
94
...
98
91
...
...
95
...
98
92
...
...
93
...
99
90
...
...
Turkey
Turkmenistan
United Arab Emirates
Uzbekistan
Viet Nam
Yemen
8
...
6
...
...
...
5
...
5
0
...
...
8
...
6
...
...
...
4
...
6
...
...
...
8
...
5
...
...
...
5
...
4
...
...
...
97
...
99
100
...
...
97
...
99
...
...
...
98
...
99
...
...
...
89
...
98
...
...
...
88
...
97
...
...
...
90
...
98
...
...
...
...
...
5
...
...
...
7
...
...
...
4
...
93
99
93
99
93
99
82
99
81
99
83
99
Europe
Albania
Austria
Country or territory
Percentage of repeaters
Total
Male
Grade 2
Grade 5
1985
1995
1985
1995
1985
1995
Total
Male
Female
Total
Male Female
Belarus
Belgium
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Bulgaria
Croatia
Czech Republic
0
17
...
2
...
...
1
...
...
4
0
1
...
18
...
3
...
...
1
...
...
4
0
1
...
15
...
0
...
...
1
...
...
3
0
1
100
...
...
95
99
100
100
...
...
95
99
100
99
...
...
95
99
100
100
...
...
95
98
100
100
...
...
95
98
100
98
...
...
94
98
100
Denmark
Estonia
Finland
France
Germany
Greece
...
0
8
...
0
3
0
...
2
...
...
0
...
...
0
4
0
...
2
...
...
0
...
...
0
1
0
...
2
...
100
100
100
100
100
...
100
100
100
100
100
...
100
100
100
100
100
...
100
100
100
99
100
...
100
100
100
99
99
...
100
98
100
99
100
...
Hungary
Iceland
Ireland
Italy
Latvia
Lithuania
3
...
...
1
...
...
2
...
2
0
3
1
4
...
...
1
...
...
...
...
2
0
...
2
2
...
...
0
...
...
...
...
2
0
...
0
98
...
100
100
98
...
...
...
100
100
...
...
...
...
100
100
...
...
98
...
100
100
...
...
...
...
100
100
...
...
...
...
100
100
...
...
Luxembourg
Malta
Monaco
Netherlands
Norway
Poland
...
3
...
2
...
2
...
...
...
3
...
3
...
...
2
...
...
...
2
...
2
...
...
1
...
...
...
100
99
...
100
99
...
100
99
...
100
...
...
98
99
...
100
...
...
97
98
...
100
98
...
...
99
...
100
...
...
...
95
...
100
...
Portugal
Republic of Moldova
Romania
Russian Federation
San Marino
Slovakia
17
...
...
...
0
...
...
1
3
2
0
2
19
...
...
...
...
...
...
1
3
2
0
2
15
...
...
...
...
...
...
1
2
2
...
99
99
99
100
98
...
99
100
99
...
97
...
99
97
99
...
98
...
...
99
...
100
97
...
...
100
...
...
96
...
...
96
...
...
97
Slovenia
Spain
Sweden
Switzerland
The FYR of Macedonia
Ukraine
...
5
2
...
0
0
3
2
1
0
...
6
2
...
...
...
3
2
2
0
...
4
2
...
...
...
2
1
0
0
100
100
99
100
99
98
...
100
98
100
99
96
...
100
99
100
99
100
98
98
98
100
...
...
...
99
97
100
...
...
...
99
98
100
...
...
United Kingdom
Yugoslavia
...
...
...
...
...
...
100
...
...
...
...
...
100
...
...
...
...
Australia
Cook Islands
Fiji
Kiribati
New Zealand
Papua New Guinea
...
...
3
3
3
...
...
...
0
4
...
...
4
3
3
...
...
...
0
4
...
...
2
3
3
...
...
...
0
4
99
...
92
91
96
84
99
...
94
90
95
84
99
...
90
93
96
84
99
...
87
90
96
59
99
...
88
85
95
59
99
...
84
92
96
60
Samoa
Solomon Islands
Tonga
Tuvalu
Vanuatu
...
7
8
...
2
9
8
13
...
8
8
...
...
...
8
14
...
7
7
...
...
...
8
11
...
92
95
100
92
...
...
95
95
93
...
...
95
100
91
...
81
...
96
61
...
...
...
89
62
...
...
...
98
60
Oceania
139
140
Table 6
Secondary education: duration, population and enrolment ratios
Country or territory
Duration
in years
of secondary
general education
School-age
population
(000)
Male
Female
Total
Male
Female
Lower
Upper
1985
1995
1985
1995
1985
1995
1985
1995
1985
1995
1985
1995
1985 1995
3
4
4
2
4
4
3
3
3
3
3
3
3 547
1 285
600
125
1 202
730
4 076
...
832
166
1 508
832
51
14
17
29
4
4
62
...
16
56
8
7
59
...
24
27
6
5
66
...
23
54
11
8
44
...
10
31
3
2
59
...
10
58
6
5
45
...
13
23
3
3
56
...
...
45
7
5
51
...
19
21
5
3
59
...
...
42
9
6
38
...
8
25
2
2
53
...
...
48
5
4
Cameroon
Cape Verde
Central African Republic
Chad
Comoros
Congo
4
3
4
4
4
4
3
3
3
3
3
3
1 507
40
372
...
73
297
2 044
51
...
929
91
405
23
14
16
...
29
75
27
27
...
9
19
53
28
16
24
...
34
86
32
28
...
15
21
62
18
13
8
...
23
64
22
26
...
4
17
45
...
9
...
...
...
...
...
22
...
...
...
...
...
10
...
...
...
...
...
22
...
...
...
...
...
9
...
...
...
...
...
22
...
...
...
...
Cte d'Ivoire
Dem. Rep. of the Congo
Djibouti
Egypt
Equatorial Guinea
Eritrea
4
2
4
3
4
2
3
4
3
3
3
4
1 457
4 235
60
6 235
...
...
2 281
5 909
92
8 668
...
416
20
23
12
61
...
...
23
26
13
74
...
19
27
32
14
72
...
...
30
32
15
80
...
22
12
13
9
50
...
...
15
19
11
68
...
16
...
...
11
...
...
...
...
23
...
...
...
15
...
...
13
...
...
...
...
29
...
...
...
16
...
...
8
...
...
...
...
18
...
...
...
14
Ethiopia
Gabon
Gambia
Ghana
Guinea
Guinea-Bissau
2
4
5
4
4
3
4
3
2
3
3
2
5 326
105
98
2 064
757
88
6 925
...
145
...
1 103
...
13
...
16
39
13
7
11
...
22
...
12
...
15
...
23
49
18
11
12
...
28
...
18
...
10
...
10
31
7
4
10
...
15
...
6
...
...
...
13
...
9
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
19
...
13
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
8
...
5
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
Kenya
Lesotho
Liberia
Libyan Arab Jamahiriya
Madagascar
Malawi
.
3
3
.
4
2
4
2
3
3
3
2
2 161
162
273
243
1 677
630
2 759
223
...
320
2 296
854
21
23
17
59
29
4
24
28
...
97
14
6
26
19
...
61
32
6
26
22
...
...
14
7
16
28
...
57
27
3
22
34
...
...
14
4
...
13
...
...
...
...
...
16
...
...
...
2
...
9
...
...
...
...
...
10
...
...
...
2
...
18
...
...
...
...
...
21
...
...
...
2
Mali
Mauritania
Mauritius
Morocco
Mozambique
Namibia
3
3
3
3
2
.
3
3
4
3
5
5
1 062
236
149
3 527
2 094
128
1 363
318
151
3 660
2 627
166
6
15
49
35
7
39
9
15
62
39
7
62
9
22
51
42
10
...
12
19
60
44
9
57
4
8
46
28
5
...
6
11
64
33
5
67
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
6
36
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
7
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
5
...
Niger
Nigeria
Rwanda
Sao Tome and Principe
Senegal
Seychelles
4
3
.
5
4
.
3
3
6
2
3
5
989
9 173
752
...
940
...
1 375
14 605
...
...
1 297
...
5
33
6
...
14
...
7
30
...
...
16
...
8
38
7
...
18
...
9
33
...
...
20
...
3
27
5
...
9
...
4
28
...
...
12
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
Sierra Leone
Somalia
South Africa
Sudan
Swaziland
5
.
3
.
3
2
4
2
3
2
532
680
3 610
2 753
79
632
...
4 372
1 919
102
18
7
55
20
39
...
...
82
13
52
...
9
52
23
40
...
...
76
14
53
...
5
59
17
38
...
...
88
12
51
...
3
...
...
...
...
...
52
...
...
...
4
...
...
...
...
...
47
...
...
...
2
...
...
...
...
...
57
...
...
4
3
3
4
462
1 176
637
1 387
21
39
27
61
32
46
41
63
10
32
14
59
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
Africa
Algeria
Angola
Benin
Botswana
Burkina Faso
Burundi
Togo
Tunisia
Country or territory
Duration
in years
of secondary
general education
School-age
population
(000)
Male
Female
Total
Male
Female
Lower
Upper
1985
1995
1985
1995
1985
1995
1985
1995
1985
1995
1985
1995
4
4
2
.
2
2
3
6
2 006
2 859
727
1 162
2 718
3 931
942
1 450
13
3
19
41
12
5
28
44
17
4
25
50
15
6
34
49
9
2
14
33
9
5
21
39
...
...
...
...
...
...
16
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
19
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
14
...
3
3
5
.
3
3
2
3
1
4
2
3
...
32
...
17
...
2 279
...
32
...
21
...
2 336
...
87
...
42
...
99
...
90
...
49
...
106
...
82
...
39
...
99
...
88
...
47
...
106
...
91
...
46
...
99
...
91
...
52
...
105
...
83
...
...
...
88
...
...
...
...
...
92
...
79
...
...
...
88
...
...
...
...
...
92
...
87
...
...
...
89
...
...
...
...
...
91
Costa Rica
Cuba
Dominica
Dominican Republic
El Salvador
Grenada
3
3
.
.
.
.
2
3
5
4
3
5
280
1 402
...
918
...
...
358
883
...
648
445
...
40
82
...
51
...
...
50
80
...
41
32
...
38
80
...
44
...
...
48
78
...
34
30
...
42
85
...
57
...
...
52
82
...
47
34
...
34
67
...
...
...
...
43
...
...
22
21
...
32
63
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
18
19
...
36
71
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
26
22
...
Guatemala
Haiti
Honduras
Jamaica
Mexico
Netherlands Antilles
3
3
3
3
3
.
3
3
2
4
3
5
1 068
801
494
402
11 584
...
1 473
...
627
358
12 462
...
19
18
37
59
57
...
25
...
32
66
58
...
...
19
...
56
58
...
26
...
...
62
58
...
...
17
...
62
55
...
24
...
...
70
59
...
...
...
...
57
46
...
...
...
...
64
...
...
...
...
...
54
...
...
...
...
...
61
...
...
...
...
...
60
...
...
...
...
...
68
...
...
Nicaragua
Panama
Saint Kitts and Nevis
Saint Lucia
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
3
3
4
3
5
2
3
2
2
2
379
307
...
...
...
512
320
...
...
...
34
60
...
...
...
47
68
...
...
...
22
57
...
...
...
43
...
...
...
...
46
63
...
...
...
50
...
...
...
...
19
48
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
14
45
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
24
51
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
3
3
2
3
117
21 204
144
21 372
83
97
72
99
82
97
66
99
84
97
79
98
71
91
...
89
70
91
...
89
72
92
...
89
3
.
.
2
4
3
2
4
3
2
2
3
2 565
540
8 528
998
4 018
1 266
3 378
...
10 012
977
4 512
1 536
70
39
35
67
48
58
77
...
45
69
67
50
66
42
...
64
48
57
73
...
...
66
62
50
74
36
...
70
49
59
81
...
...
73
72
50
...
27
14
...
...
...
...
...
19
55
50
...
...
29
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
52
47
...
...
25
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
57
53
...
3
3
2
4
3
2
2
3
3
3
3
2
101
479
2 271
...
293
1 119
83
627
2 672
...
322
859
76
31
63
...
71
24
76
38
70
...
82
35
73
32
66
...
...
21
68
38
72
...
74
29
78
31
60
...
...
27
85
39
67
...
89
41
...
...
49
...
56
16
...
33
53
...
...
20
...
...
...
...
...
14
...
32
54
...
...
16
...
...
...
...
...
18
...
34
52
...
...
24
.
4
5
3
6
2
2
3
1 280
...
962
40
2 344
413
1 043
57
8
...
95
97
22
79
78
99
11
...
...
98
32
...
76
97
5
...
...
97
11
...
80
100
...
...
...
77
...
...
...
85
...
...
...
76
...
...
...
84
...
...
...
77
...
...
...
87
Uganda
United Rep. of Tanzania
Zambia
Zimbabwe
1985 1995
America, North
America, South
Argentina
Bolivia
Brazil
Chile
Colombia
Ecuador
Guyana
Paraguay
Peru
Suriname
Uruguay
Venezuela
Asia
Afghanistan
Armenia
Azerbaijan
Bahrain
141
142
Table 6 (continued)
Country or territory
Duration
in years
of secondary
general education
School-age
population
(000)
Male
Female
Total
Male
Female
Lower
Upper
1985
1995
1985
1995
1985
1995
1985
1995
1985
1995
1985
1995
Bangladesh
Bhutan
Brunei Darussalam
Cambodia
China
Cyprus
5
2
5
3
3
3
2
2
2
3
2
3
17 113
...
31
...
130 175
...
...
...
37
1 156
95 852
...
18
...
64
...
40
94
...
...
78
27
67
97
26
...
61
...
46
93
...
...
75
34
70
96
10
...
67
...
33
95
...
...
81
20
62
99
17
...
51
...
...
85
...
...
68
...
...
93
...
...
48
...
...
84
...
...
64
...
...
91
...
...
55
...
...
86
...
...
71
...
...
94
.
5
5
3
3
3
6
2
2
4
3
4
...
...
651
117 915
22 963
7 800
...
606
633
136 705
25 376
11 017
...
...
70
38
41
44
...
73
75
49
48
69
...
...
67
48
...
52
...
74
73
59
52
76
...
...
72
26
...
35
...
72
77
38
44
62
...
...
65
...
...
...
...
71
71
...
42
...
...
...
63
...
...
...
...
71
69
...
45
...
...
...
68
...
...
...
...
70
73
...
39
...
3
3
3
2
5
4
3
3
3
2
2
4
2 133
313
11 589
...
2 118
264
...
612
10 362
...
2 245
324
53
80
95
...
103
91
...
89
98
...
83
64
67
76
94
...
...
95
...
...
98
...
82
64
38
85
96
...
...
87
...
...
99
...
83
64
44
...
95
...
...
...
...
...
96
...
...
...
55
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
96
...
...
...
32
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
97
...
...
...
Kyrgyzstan
Lao People's Dem. Rep.
Lebanon
Macau
Malaysia
Maldives
5
3
4
.
3
5
2
3
3
6
4
2
603
484
...
...
2 446
...
657
617
421
29
2 848
39
109
23
...
...
53
...
81
25
81
71
57
49
111
27
...
...
53
...
76
31
77
66
55
49
107
19
...
...
53
...
85
19
84
76
59
49
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
18
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
21
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
15
...
...
...
...
Mongolia
Myanmar
Nepal
Oman
Pakistan
5
4
2
3
3
2
2
3
3
4
304
5 516
1 968
178
17 020
399
5 919
2 288
293
...
90
23
25
27
17
59
30
37
66
...
85
24
37
36
24
50
29
49
68
...
96
22
12
17
10
68
30
25
64
...
...
...
...
...
...
57
...
...
56
...
...
...
...
...
...
48
...
...
58
...
...
...
...
...
...
65
...
...
55
...
.
.
.
.
3
3
2
.
.
4
3
3
.
...
...
4 991
27
5 385
...
...
...
6 071
44
4 670
.
...
...
64
82
92
...
...
...
79
83
101
.
...
...
64
78
93
...
...
...
...
83
101
.
...
...
65
86
91
...
...
...
...
84
101
.
...
...
50
66
84
...
...
...
60
70
96
.
...
...
49
63
85
...
...
...
...
69
96
.
...
...
50
69
84
...
...
...
...
71
96
Saudi Arabia
Singapore
Sri Lanka
Syrian Arab Republic
Tajikistan
Thailand
3
4
6
3
5
3
3
3
2
3
2
3
1 504
341
2 325
1 496
...
7 379
2 463
...
3 103
2 161
887
6 951
40
59
63
58
...
30
58
...
75
44
82
55
48
58
60
68
...
...
62
...
71
47
86
...
31
60
66
48
...
...
54
...
78
40
77
...
27
...
...
51
...
...
48
...
...
39
...
...
32
...
...
59
...
...
54
...
...
41
...
...
22
...
...
42
...
...
41
...
...
37
...
...
Turkey
Turkmenistan
United Arab Emirates
Uzbekistan
Viet Nam
Yemen
3
5
3
5
4
.
3
2
3
2
3
3
7 046
...
114
2 919
9 951
...
8 373
...
200
3 566
11 705
926
42
...
55
107
43
...
56
...
80
93
47
23
52
...
54
117
44
...
67
...
76
99
...
36
30
...
55
97
41
...
45
...
84
87
...
8
36
...
...
...
...
...
50
...
71
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
58
...
67
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
41
...
75
...
...
...
.
4
4
4
248
859
256
752
72
99
35
104
75
103
35
107
68
94
35
102
...
...
...
90
...
...
...
90
...
...
...
90
Iraq
Israel
Japan
Jordan
Kazakhstan
Kuwait
1985 1995
Europe
Albania
Austria
Country or territory
Duration
in years
of secondary
general education
School-age
population
(000)
Male
Female
Total
Male
Female
Lower
Upper
1985
1995
1985
1995
1985
1995
1985
1995
1985
1995
1985
1995
Belarus
Belgium
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Bulgaria
Croatia
Czech Republic
5
2
...
4
4
4
2
4
...
4
4
4
724
813
...
368
...
...
1 125
731
...
970
510
1 248
99
102
...
102
...
...
94
144
...
78
82
96
...
101
...
101
...
...
92
140
...
78
81
94
...
102
...
102
...
...
96
148
...
77
83
97
...
89
...
...
...
...
...
98
...
75
...
88
...
87
...
...
...
...
...
98
...
...
...
87
...
90
...
...
...
...
...
98
...
...
...
89
Denmark
Estonia
Finland
France
Germany
Greece
3
3
3
4
6
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
462
106
401
5 961
...
899
378
131
393
5 434
7 915
899
105
117
106
90
...
90
118
86
116
110
103
95
106
111
98
86
...
92
116
82
108
110
104
97
105
124
114
94
...
89
120
90
124
110
102
92
83
...
...
82
...
81
86
77
93
92
88
84
83
...
...
78
...
81
85
74
92
92
88
84
84
...
...
85
...
81
88
81
93
93
88
83
Hungary
Iceland
Ireland
Italy
Latvia
Lithuania
.
3
3
3
5
5
4
4
2
5
3
3
586
30
346
7 407
280
445
646
29
343
5 575
282
434
72
91
98
72
103
105
81
103
114
88
85
84
72
95
93
73
...
...
79
104
111
87
83
83
72
87
103
72
...
...
83
102
117
88
87
86
70
...
81
69
...
...
73
...
85
...
78
...
69
...
79
69
...
...
71
...
83
...
77
...
70
...
84
69
...
...
76
...
87
...
78
...
Luxembourg
Malta
Monaco
Netherlands
Norway
Poland
3
2
4
3
3
.
4
5
3
3
3
4
34
36
...
1 384
399
2 004
31
40
...
1 083
318
2 556
75
78
...
117
97
78
74
89
...
139
116
96
76
79
...
120
95
76
72
93
...
143
119
95
74
77
...
114
100
81
76
86
...
136
113
96
66
74
...
89
86
73
...
84
...
...
94
83
66
73
...
87
84
70
...
84
...
...
94
79
67
75
...
90
88
76
...
83
...
...
94
86
Portugal
Republic of Moldova
Romania
Russian Federation
San Marino
Slovakia
3
5
4
5
3
4
3
2
4
2
5
4
1 013
548
1 636
13 789
...
...
921
552
2 853
15 778
...
730
57
86
84
97
...
...
102
80
78
87
...
91
53
83
87
96
...
...
98
78
77
84
...
89
62
89
81
98
...
...
106
81
78
91
...
93
...
...
...
...
...
...
78
...
73
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
74
...
72
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
83
...
74
...
...
...
Slovenia
Spain
Sweden
Switzerland
The FYR of Macedonia
Ukraine
4
3
3
3
.
5
4
4
3
4
4
2
...
4 626
683
659
137
3 531
233
4 029
601
553
142
5 207
...
98
90
88
56
96
91
118
132
91
57
91
...
95
89
92
...
...
90
112
130
94
56
88
...
102
92
83
...
...
92
123
133
88
57
94
...
...
...
78
...
...
...
94
96
...
51
...
...
...
...
82
...
...
...
91
96
...
50
...
...
...
...
74
...
...
...
97
97
...
51
...
3
4
4
4
5 826
...
4 992
1 273
84
...
134
65
82
...
123
64
86
...
145
67
80
...
92
...
78
...
91
...
82
...
93
...
Australia
Cook Islands
Fiji
Kiribati
New Zealand
Papua New Guinea
4
3
.
.
4
4
2
3
6
5
3
2
1 597
...
88
...
415
502
1 488
...
104
...
358
561
80
...
51
...
85
12
147
...
64
...
117
14
79
...
51
...
84
14
147
...
64
...
118
17
81
...
51
...
87
9
146
...
65
...
116
11
78
...
...
...
84
...
89
...
...
...
93
...
77
...
...
...
83
...
89
...
...
...
93
...
79
...
...
...
85
...
90
...
...
...
94
...
Samoa
Solomon Islands
Tonga
Tuvalu
Vanuatu
.
3
.
.
4
5
2
7
4
3
31
33
...
...
...
28
45
...
...
24
66
19
...
...
...
47
17
...
...
20
62
...
...
...
...
44
21
...
...
23
71
...
...
...
...
50
14
...
...
18
...
...
...
...
...
45
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
42
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
48
...
...
...
...
United Kingdom
Yugoslavia
1985 1995
Oceania
143
144
Table 7
Teaching staff in pre-primary, primary and secondary education
Pupil-teacher ratio
Country or territory
Pre-primary
Primary
Pre-primary
Secondary
general
Primary
Teachers
(all levels)
per 1,000
non-agricultural
labour force
1985
1995
1985
1995
1985
1995
1985
1995
1985
1995
1985
1995
1985
1995
Algeria
Angola
Benin
Botswana
Burkina Faso
Burundi
...
44
21
...
40
55
26
...
23
...
22
44
28
31
33
32
62
56
27
...
49
26
58
65
22
38
36
25
25
17
17
...
29
18
35
25
...
...
55
...
91
94
89
...
61
...
...
...
40
...
24
78
25
47
44
...
24
76
24
47
37
...
17
42
...
23
45
...
...
44
18
...
53
45
28
42
24
46
52
...
19
47
45
37
Cameroon
Cape Verde
Central African Republic
Chad
Comoros
Congo
30
32
40
29
29
10
24
33
...
28
29
7
51
38
66
71
35
61
46
29
...
62
42
70
34
34
74
38
32
41
31
27
...
40
25
33
100
100
100
100
...
100
99
...
...
100
...
100
27
61
23
4
21
30
32
59
...
8
...
36
21
74
10
...
...
8
25
36
...
4
...
15
41
26
28
18
83
41
39
34
...
20
55
28
Cte d'Ivoire
Dem. Rep. of the Congo
Djibouti
Egypt
Equatorial Guinea
Eritrea
37
...
59
40
...
...
21
43
41
28
28
35
37
37
44
30
...
...
45
45
36
24
55
41
19
...
23
21
...
...
21
...
23
20
31
39
100
...
...
99
...
...
93
53
100
99
100
99
18
...
...
49
...
...
18
22
33
53
27
35
...
...
...
38
...
...
...
...
19
41
12
13
36
40
...
49
...
...
32
33
...
51
51
25
Ethiopia
Gabon
Gambia
Ghana
Guinea
Guinea-Bissau
46
26
32
19
...
28
37
26
32
21
34
...
48
46
23
23
36
25
33
52
30
28
49
...
43
21
28
20
23
10
33
25
29
19
30
...
...
...
...
97
...
87
96
...
...
...
80
...
26
35
35
40
19
23
27
44
34
...
25
...
11
25
23
26
7
11
10
19
...
...
12
...
31
40
61
50
49
69
32
30
53
42
35
...
Kenya
Lesotho
Liberia
Libyan Arab Jamahiriya
Madagascar
Malawi
37
...
...
14
...
...
34
...
...
...
...
...
34
55
...
16
38
61
31
49
...
...
40
62
20
21
...
14
29
22
16
24
...
...
20
...
100
...
...
100
...
...
97
...
...
...
...
...
34
77
...
56
53
33
40
79
...
...
56
38
37
52
...
21
...
...
33
51
...
...
...
...
100
20
...
84
57
36
91
22
...
...
38
77
Mali
Mauritania
Mauritius
Morocco
Mozambique
Namibia
...
...
...
21
...
...
32
...
19
21
...
25
34
51
22
28
64
...
66
52
22
28
58
32
12
24
20
19
40
...
25
24
21
16
38
21
...
...
...
10
...
...
89
100
...
30
...
100
22
15
43
33
22
...
23
20
50
38
23
65
16
...
41
27
24
...
18
10
44
32
19
46
31
15
37
48
21
...
19
16
31
41
18
50
Niger
Nigeria
Rwanda
Sao Tome and Principe
Senegal
Seychelles
35
...
52
...
23
29
22
...
...
...
21
18
37
40
57
39
46
22
37
37
...
...
58
17
26
38
...
21
24
13
28
...
...
...
24
14
100
...
79
...
...
100
100
...
...
...
65
100
33
41
46
46
27
85
34
46
...
...
26
88
17
...
...
...
17
28
23
...
...
...
15
51
32
25
75
...
32
...
35
23
...
...
27
...
Sierra Leone
Somalia
South Africa
Sudan
Swaziland
18
12
...
42
...
...
...
25
...
20
39
19
...
35
34
...
...
37
36
33
33
18
...
25
19
...
...
28
...
18
100
94
...
41
...
...
...
98
41
...
22
45
...
44
80
...
...
58
60
77
21
11
...
33
46
...
...
64
...
43
34
17
...
35
52
...
...
27
37
55
Togo
Tunisia
27
29
27
...
46
32
51
25
22
...
34
...
100
100
100
...
20
39
14
49
13
...
11
36
36
43
34
45
Africa
Pupil-teacher ratio
Country or territory
Pre-primary
Primary
Pre-primary
Secondary
general
Primary
Teachers
(all levels)
per 1,000
non-agricultural
labour force
1985
1995
1985
1995
1985
1995
1985
1995
1985
1995
1985
1995
1985
1995
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
34
34
49
40
35
37
39
39
21
19
23
28
17
18
...
30
...
...
...
...
...
100
...
...
31
39
43
43
32
43
43
41
...
25
25
30
...
25
...
32
68
60
53
65
62
46
57
54
...
...
...
16
13
33
...
17
...
17
9
39
...
29
21
26
18
17
...
22
...
26
16
16
...
13
20
13
14
15
...
16
...
14
11
19
...
97
...
...
93
...
...
100
...
99
100
67
...
91
74
72
83
66
...
91
...
71
85
67
...
50
53
43
...
46
...
69
...
47
65
67
...
35
33
70
...
28
...
27
...
66
...
24
Costa Rica
Cuba
Dominica
Dominican Republic
El Salvador
Grenada
28
23
29
...
45
21
23
25
23
...
26
...
31
14
25
44
42
21
31
14
29
35
28
23
19
12
...
37
...
27
21
10
...
22
...
27
...
100
100
...
97
99
...
100
99
...
...
99
...
77
73
...
66
70
...
81
80
71
...
70
...
53
...
...
...
48
...
61
...
50
...
52
37
61
...
28
32
...
35
45
...
29
39
...
Guatemala
Haiti
Honduras
Jamaica
Mexico
Netherlands Antilles
30
22
35
37
30
...
25
...
29
...
24
...
37
38
38
35
34
...
34
...
35
37
29
...
...
20
...
22
18
...
...
...
...
...
17
...
...
100
100
...
100
...
...
...
100
...
98
...
62
50
74
88
57
...
...
...
73
89
...
...
36
12
...
46
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
40
39
43
32
57
...
43
...
35
28
47
...
Nicaragua
Panama
Saint Kitts and Nevis
Saint Lucia
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
32
25
33
18
13
29
23
17
15
14
33
25
22
30
18
38
...
21
27
20
30
19
15
19
24
38
...
15
18
25
96
99
98
100
...
97
...
100
100
99
75
78
82
79
64
84
...
79
83
67
58
56
54
58
52
56
...
59
61
51
37
49
...
...
...
29
...
...
...
...
14
...
...
...
22
14
25
16
20
...
20
15
96
...
...
...
70
...
74
86
52
...
56
56
34
...
29
31
Argentina
Bolivia
Brazil
Chile
Colombia
Ecuador
19
44
24
24
26
24
16
...
21
30
21
21
20
25
24
29
30
32
...
...
23
27
25
26
8
25
...
...
21
15
...
...
11
...
22
13
100
...
...
100
60
95
94
...
...
97
96
90
92
...
...
75
79
65
...
...
...
72
80
68
74
...
...
...
43
41
...
...
...
...
...
44
57
56
39
35
39
61
...
...
38
37
37
53
Guyana
Paraguay
Peru
Suriname
Uruguay
Venezuela
18
...
31
25
27
25
19
21
23
28
26
23
36
25
35
23
25
25
29
24
28
21
20
23
26
...
21
12
...
...
41
12
19
...
...
...
99
...
99
...
95
98
99
90
98
100
100
98
70
...
60
83
93
77
80
55
58
87
...
75
50
...
...
...
...
...
44
65
39
...
...
...
38
49
54
89
32
42
27
56
56
69
...
39
19
11
8
30
...
8
7
27
37
...
...
21
58
22
20
18
18
...
...
16
28
10
...
14
100
...
100
100
100
...
100
100
53
...
...
50
38
97
83
67
33
...
...
62
34
85
...
61
14
...
...
35
18
44
76
40
Uganda
United Rep. of Tanzania
Zambia
Zimbabwe
America, North
America, South
Asia
Afghanistan
Armenia
Azerbaijan
Bahrain
145
146
Table 7 (continued)
Pupil-teacher ratio
Country or territory
Pre-primary
Primary
Pre-primary
Secondary
general
Primary
Teachers
(all levels)
per 1,000
non-agricultural
labour force
1985
1995
1985
1995
1985
1995
1985
1995
1985
1995
1985
1995
1985
1995
Bangladesh
Bhutan
Brunei Darussalam
Cambodia
China
Cyprus
...
...
22
23
27
24
...
...
21
25
31
20
47
37
16
38
25
22
...
30
15
45
24
19
28
...
12
39
18
13
...
...
14
18
16
12
...
...
89
100
96
99
...
...
92
100
95
99
8
...
55
25
40
49
...
...
60
37
47
65
9
...
34
28
28
50
...
...
48
28
36
55
24
44
56
50
57
...
...
57
50
45
53
...
21
...
30
62
22
18
...
8
21
62
17
23
26
...
27
47
25
22
...
16
24
63
23
32
...
...
23
26
15
16
...
...
20
25
14
32
100
...
98
93
...
100
...
100
99
...
...
100
90
...
74
27
49
52
...
94
76
32
52
55
38
...
52
31
33
39
...
...
51
35
39
46
...
...
19
36
65
65
...
54
19
32
58
47
Iraq
Israel
Japan
Jordan
Kazakhstan
Kuwait
17
...
19
21
...
17
19
30
17
23
6
16
24
14
24
31
26
18
22
16
18
21
20
15
30
...
...
18
15
13
20
7
...
20
10
11
100
...
88
100
...
100
100
97
89
100
...
100
67
81
56
66
96
68
68
83
60
61
97
71
55
...
...
46
71
52
55
...
34
48
74
54
56
70
26
...
53
50
45
62
27
...
52
52
Kyrgyzstan
Lao People's Dem. Rep.
Lebanon
Macau
Malaysia
Maldives
...
16
25
...
32
...
9
16
...
...
23
...
19
25
16
...
24
...
20
30
12
...
20
...
17
12
...
...
22
...
13
13
...
...
19
...
...
100
...
...
98
...
...
100
...
...
99
...
82
32
...
...
50
...
83
42
...
...
59
...
63
38
...
...
48
...
71
39
...
...
54
...
75
86
...
...
42
...
57
74
...
...
41
...
Mongolia
Myanmar
Nepal
Oman
Pakistan
28
...
23
23
...
12
...
...
20
...
30
54
35
27
41
25
48
39
26
...
22
23
...
13
18
18
16
...
17
...
...
...
61
100
...
100
...
...
100
...
...
59
10
44
32
91
67
16
50
...
...
69
...
33
31
67
74
...
48
...
42
30
151
52
23
33
37
174
73
...
.
39
26
41
20
34
31
.
.
...
22
21
.
42
35
31
13
38
42
.
.
35
9
32
.
28
20
32
9
37
7
.
.
36
10
24
.
...
94
...
100
90
98
.
.
...
100
94
.
...
50
95
66
43
48
.
.
...
79
59
.
...
39
95
55
32
41
.
.
...
60
41
.
...
...
40
36
24
...
...
...
34
37
24
Saudi Arabia
Singapore
Sri Lanka
Syrian Arab Republic
Tajikistan
Thailand
17
23
...
31
...
20
13
...
...
22
9
...
16
27
35
26
...
19
13
...
28
24
23
20
14
22
22
18
...
18
11
...
22
17
10
20
98
100
...
100
...
...
100
...
...
94
...
...
42
69
...
61
...
...
51
...
83
65
51
...
42
58
...
27
...
...
49
...
62
44
34
...
51
19
51
74
...
62
60
...
47
70
84
46
Turkey
Turkmenistan
United Arab Emirates
Uzbekistan
Viet Nam
Yemen
20
...
22
16
26
...
16
...
16
11
25
18
31
...
18
24
34
...
28
...
17
21
34
...
24
...
13
13
23
...
27
...
13
9
25
99
...
100
...
100
...
99
...
100
...
...
...
42
...
54
78
70
...
44
...
69
82
...
...
36
...
...
49
63
...
40
...
55
49
...
...
40
...
20
88
63
...
37
...
33
96
52
...
23
22
19
18
20
10
18
12
29
10
17
8
100
99
100
98
52
79
60
84
57
57
51
61
66
41
57
45
Europe
Albania
Austria
Pupil-teacher ratio
Country or territory
Pre-primary
Primary
Pre-primary
Secondary
general
Primary
Teachers
(all levels)
per 1,000
non-agricultural
labour force
1985
1995
1985
1995
1985
1995
1985
1995
1985
1995
1985
1995
1985
1995
Belarus
Belgium
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Bulgaria
Croatia
Czech Republic
8
20
...
12
...
...
7
17
...
11
12
11
17
17
...
18
19
28
20
12
...
17
20
20
...
...
...
17
...
...
...
...
...
11
15
12
...
99
...
100
...
...
...
99
...
100
100
100
...
65
...
75
73
...
...
72
...
89
89
93
...
...
...
67
...
...
...
...
...
75
67
72
46
47
...
34
26
34
47
61
...
37
29
37
Denmark
Estonia
Finland
France
Germany
Greece
16
...
...
25
...
21
13
9
...
24
20
16
12
...
15
17
...
23
10
17
...
19
18
16
9
...
14
...
...
17
9
10
...
...
14
12
57
...
...
78
...
100
92
100
...
80
97
100
57
...
...
76
...
49
58
89
...
78
85
55
...
...
...
...
...
56
49
83
...
...
48
56
36
...
35
36
...
38
40
42
34
38
30
42
Hungary
Iceland
Ireland
Italy
Latvia
Lithuania
13
...
29
15
...
7
11
...
25
13
7
8
15
...
27
14
...
25
11
...
23
11
14
17
13
...
...
10
10
16
12
...
...
8
8
10
100
...
76
...
...
...
100
...
78
100
99
100
82
...
76
89
...
97
84
...
78
93
97
98
64
...
...
67
...
78
67
...
...
71
81
82
40
...
44
47
...
43
47
...
44
42
44
44
Luxembourg
Malta
Monaco
Netherlands
Norway
Poland
17
24
...
17
4
17
19
15
22
16
4
13
13
22
...
17
10
18
...
20
19
19
9
16
10
12
...
15
...
16
...
11
12
12
7
22
...
100
...
100
98
98
...
100
...
100
96
99
49
67
...
53
70
...
...
83
...
54
...
...
...
38
...
27
...
...
...
47
71
30
...
...
30
38
...
39
63
38
...
49
...
34
61
43
Portugal
Republic of Moldova
Romania
Russian Federation
San Marino
Slovakia
20
9
26
10
7
14
20
7
18
9
9
12
17
26
21
27
9
...
12
23
20
20
5
24
14
...
14
15
7
...
...
...
12
12
...
16
99
100
100
...
100
...
...
100
100
...
100
100
83
96
70
98
88
...
...
97
84
98
88
91
63
...
53
77
61
...
...
...
65
79
...
75
37
55
32
34
...
...
45
51
36
39
...
33
Slovenia
Spain
Sweden
Switzerland
The FYR of Macedonia
Ukraine
...
28
...
...
...
8
11
22
4
21
11
8
...
25
10
...
21
23
14
18
11
12
20
20
...
21
...
...
...
10
17
...
11
...
17
11
...
93
...
...
...
...
98
95
97
99
99
...
...
69
77
...
...
98
92
71
72
69
53
98
...
48
...
...
...
...
76
...
64
...
52
...
...
35
44
...
36
41
32
37
42
...
29
41
United Kingdom
Yugoslavia
26
...
35
11
18
...
19
22
14
...
13
...
100
...
100
95
80
...
82
75
50
...
57
...
27
...
31
28
Australia
Cook Islands
Fiji
Kiribati
New Zealand
Papua New Guinea
...
26
21
...
27
...
...
...
...
...
18
32
17
...
28
29
19
30
16
...
...
27
18
33
12
...
17
16
19
25
12
...
...
18
14
24
100
...
99
...
96
...
...
...
...
...
95
66
70
...
58
51
70
30
76
...
56
59
81
37
48
...
44
50
46
35
52
...
47
44
56
35
32
...
64
...
37
46
38
...
...
...
40
40
Samoa
Solomon Islands
Tonga
Tuvalu
Vanuatu
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
26
26
23
22
21
24
24
22
...
31
24
19
19
...
...
19
...
18
...
19
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
74
34
62
70
...
71
...
66
...
41
46
22
45
...
...
45
...
31
...
36
...
64
...
...
...
...
83
...
...
...
Oceania
147
148
Table 8
Tertiary education: enrolment and breakdown by ISCED level
Country or territory
Number of
students
per 100,000
inhabitants
Percentage
of students
by ISCED level
Percentage
of female students
in each ISCED level
1995
1995
Male
Female
1985
1995
1985
1995
1985
1995
1985
1995
Level
5
Level
6
Level
7
Level
5
Level
6
Level
7
Algeria
Angola
Benin
798
63
225
1 126
...
208
7.9
0.7
2.4
10.9
...
2.6
10.7
...
4.4
12.8
...
4.2
5.0
...
0.7
8.9
...
0.9
15
...
...
80
...
...
6
...
...
37
...
...
47
...
...
27
...
...
Botswana
Burkina Faso
Burundi
180
52
59
403
96
74
1.8
0.6
0.6
4.1
1.1
0.9
2.0
0.9
0.9
4.4
1.6
1.3
1.6
0.3
0.3
3.7
0.5
0.4
22
4
...
74
96
...
5
./.
...
66
34
...
45
22
...
50
./.
...
Cameroon
Cape Verde
Central African Republic
190
102
...
...
2.2
1.2
...
...
...
2.2
...
...
...
0.2
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
Chad
Comoros
Congo
...
...
555
70
41
...
...
...
6.3
0.8
0.5
...
...
...
10.9
1.5
0.6
...
...
...
1.9
0.1
0.3
...
...
13
74
...
68
26
...
19
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
Cte dIvoire
Dem. Rep. of the Congo
Djibouti
219
129
...
396
212
22
2.6
1.4
...
4.4
2.3
0.2
4.2
...
...
6.7
...
0.2
1.0
...
...
2.1
...
0.2
16
...
100
80
...
3
...
33
...
47
21
...
20
...
1 718
...
...
1 674
...
102
18.1
...
...
18.1
...
1.1
24.5
...
...
22.1
...
1.9
11.2
...
...
13.7
...
0.3
...
10
86
...
90
14
...
...
21
40
...
13
32
...
Ethiopia
Gabon
Gambia
Ghana
Guinea
Guinea-Bissau
66
...
...
132
176
...
60
...
148
...
...
...
0.7
...
...
1.4
2.1
...
0.7
...
1.7
...
...
...
1.2
...
...
...
3.5
...
1.1
...
2.3
...
...
...
0.3
...
...
...
0.6
...
0.3
...
1.2
...
...
...
53
...
...
...
...
...
45
...
...
...
...
...
2
...
...
...
...
...
24
...
...
...
...
...
16
...
...
...
...
...
9
...
...
...
...
...
Kenya
Lesotho
Liberia
Libyan Arab Jamahiriya
Madagascar
Malawi
109
113
216
792
366
54
...
221
...
...
316
76
1.2
1.3
2.5
9.2
3.8
0.6
...
2.4
...
...
3.4
0.8
1.8
1.2
3.7
...
...
0.9
...
2.2
...
...
3.8
1.2
0.7
1.3
1.2
...
...
0.3
...
2.7
...
...
3.0
0.5
...
58
...
...
62
65
...
40
...
...
36
34
...
2
...
...
2
0
...
56
...
...
30
37
...
53
...
...
44
21
...
48
...
...
39
18
Mali
Mauritania
Mauritius
Morocco
Mozambique
Namibia
86
256
114
837
11
...
...
393
564
1 153
41
738
1.6
...
1.3
11.9
0.2
...
6.8
...
13.0
...
6.3
0.2
...
0.8
5.5
0.1
...
1.4
...
9.4
...
9.9
...
10
...
11
./.
...
...
90
...
83
100
...
...
...
6
...
...
34
...
36
./.
...
...
16
...
42
26
...
...
...
30
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
100
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
15.2
...
4.5
...
...
47
...
64
...
...
46
...
31
...
...
8
...
4
...
...
48
...
42
...
...
52
...
50
...
...
43
...
52
0.8
44
56
16
12
Africa
Egypt
Equatorial Guinea
Eritrea
Niger
0.9
...
2.8
4.1
1.1
6.3
8.7 11.3
0.1
0.5
8.1
43
...
0.6
...
0.9
...
0.2
...
Nigeria
Rwanda
Sao Tome and Principe
Senegal
Seychelles
321
33
209
...
367
...
290
...
3.3
0.4
2.4
...
4.1
...
3.4
...
4.9
0.7
3.8
...
...
...
...
...
1.8
0.1
1.0
...
...
...
...
...
Sierra Leone
Somalia
South Africa
Sudan
Swaziland
159
174
...
174
421
...
...
1 524
...
543
Togo
173
281
1.8
...
2.1
...
15.9
2.0
...
4.4
5.1
...
3.4
2.4
...
1.9
3.4
3.2
...
...
16.6
...
5.7
5.6
...
0.8
1.4
...
0.5
Country or territory
Number of
students
per 100,000
inhabitants
Percentage
of students
by ISCED level
Percentage
of female students
in each ISCED level
1995
1995
Male
Female
1985
1995
1985
1995
1985
1995
1985
1995
Level
5
Level
6
Level
7
Level
5
Level
6
Level
7
567
68
22
181
368
1 253
142
43
241
679
5.5
0.8
0.3
2.0
3.9
12.9
1.5
0.5
2.5
6.9
6.9
1.2
0.4
3.6
...
14.2
2.2
0.8
3.6
10.1
4.0
0.4
0.1
0.6
..
11.5
0.9
0.1
1.4
3.8
8
63
32
...
69
86
32
64
...
28
6
5
5
...
3
44
32
19
...
41
44
33
15
...
20
35
24
16
...
25
1 956
2 331
17.7
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
Barbados
Belize
British Virgin Islands
Canada
...
6 320
2 501
6 984
... 28.1
69.6 102.9
...
62.0
22.4
95.7
...
77.7
33.9
110.2
...
49
90
...
45
10
...
...
50
64
...
57
49
...
46
Costa Rica
Cuba
Dominica
Dominican Republic
El Salvador
Grenada
2 414
2 325
86
1 941
...
...
2 919
1 116
...
...
2 031
...
22.0
20.1
...
18.0
...
...
31.9
12.7
...
...
17.7
...
...
18.3
...
...
...
...
...
10.1
...
...
17.5
...
...
22.1
...
...
...
...
...
15.5
...
...
17.9
...
100
...
20
...
100
100
...
80
...
...
./.
...
47
...
61
...
...
60
...
48
...
...
./.
...
741
107
875
475
755
...
985
667
8.1
1.1
8.8
4.4
8.1
...
10.0
6.0
...
1.6
10.9
5.0
...
...
11.0
6.8
...
0.6
6.7
3.8
...
...
8.8
5.2
...
...
2
...
...
98
...
...
0
...
...
43
...
...
44
...
...
38
1 600
1 586
15.9
14.3
20.4
15.3
11.5
13.3
96
46
37
...
...
...
...
...
...
9
100
...
...
90
...
...
...
...
33
55
...
...
62
...
...
60
...
...
Tunisia
Uganda
United Rep. of Tanzania
Zambia
Zimbabwe
America, North
Guatemala
Haiti
Honduras
Jamaica
Mexico
Netherlands Antilles
Nicaragua
905
1 029
9.3
9.4
8.2
9.4
10.4
9.3
Panama
2 552
Saint Kitts and Nevis
493
Saint Lucia
290
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
722
2 686
1 024
725
...
24.6
...
...
...
27.2
...
...
...
20.6
...
...
...
21.9
...
...
...
28.6
...
...
...
32.6
...
...
...
559
5 064
715
5 395
5.3
60.2
7.7
81.1
6.5
56.3
8.4
71.0
4.1
64.3
6.8
91.7
9
39
74
47
18
14
69
58
52
54
45
53
Argentina
Bolivia
Brazil
Chile
Colombia
Ecuador
2 792
2 068
1 079
1 639
1 331
...
3 083
...
1 094
2 412
1 643
...
35.7
22.5
10.3
15.6
11.3
...
36.2
...
11.3
28.2
17.2
...
33.6
...
17.6
11.6
...
...
...
10.4
30.2
16.8
...
37.8
...
13.7
11.0
...
...
...
12.2
26.0
17.6
...
...
...
26
20
...
...
...
100
71
74
...
...
...
./.
2
6
...
...
...
44
51
...
...
...
55
46
52
...
...
...
./.
44
51
...
Guyana
Paraguay
Peru
Suriname
Uruguay
Venezuela
294
889
2 321
730
...
2 585
846
931
3 268
...
2 223
...
2.4
9.1
22.4
...
...
25.3
8.6
10.3
31.1
...
27.3
...
2.5
...
...
...
...
29.3
8.9
9.8
...
...
...
...
2.3
...
...
...
...
21.1
8.2
10.8
...
...
...
...
74
17
...
...
...
...
24
83
...
...
...
...
2
0
...
...
...
...
47
77
...
...
...
...
53
48
...
...
...
...
55
78
...
...
...
...
...
3 076
...
...
...
32.3
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
America, South
Asia
Afghanistan
Armenia
149
150
Table 8 (continued)
Country or territory
Number of
students
per 100,000
inhabitants
Percentage
of students
by ISCED level
Percentage
of female students
in each ISCED level
1995
1995
Male
Female
1985
1995
1985
1995
1985
1995
1985
1995
Level
5
Level
6
Level
7
Level
5
Level
6
Level
7
Azerbaijan
Bahrain
Bangladesh
Bhutan
Brunei Darussalam
Cambodia
China
Cyprus
2 730
1 011
464
...
271
...
328
484
1 751
...
...
...
514
119
478
1 191
24.4
12.8
4.8
...
2.9
...
2.9
7.0
19.8
...
...
...
6.6
1.6
5.7
20.0
...
9.7
7.4
...
2.1
...
3.9
7.0
21.9
...
...
...
5.3
2.7
7.3
16.0
...
16.4
1.9
...
3.9
...
1.7
7.0
17.6
...
...
...
8.0
0.5
4.0
24.0
25
...
...
...
37
...
62
76
75
...
...
...
61
...
35
22
./.
...
...
...
2
...
2
2
55
...
...
...
64
...
...
54
...
...
...
...
53
...
...
82
./.
...
...
...
38
...
...
28
...
2 697
1 448
582
586
...
2 845
1 635
601
1 146
...
32.7
13.3
6.0
6.3
...
38.1
21.9
6.4
11.1
...
...
16.9
8.1
8.5
...
35.2
23.9
7.9
13.5
...
...
9.4
3.8
4.1
...
41.1
19.7
4.8
8.6
...
19
30
...
29
...
80
58
...
71
...
1
12
...
./.
...
53
43
...
42
...
52
45
...
32
...
55
32
...
./.
377
1 364
4.1
14.8
5.7
18.7
2.4
10.7
14
80
28
34
21
Iraq
Israel
Japan
Jordan
Kazakhstan
Kuwait
1 108
2 742
1 943
...
3 481
1 377
...
3 598
3 139
...
2 807
2 247
11.5
33.1
27.8
...
36.7
16.6
...
41.1
40.3
...
32.7
25.4
14.4
33.9
35.5
...
...
15.3
...
...
44.0
...
28.7
22.4
8.6
32.2
19.8
...
...
17.9
...
...
36.3
...
36.8
28.3
...
41
34
23
44
28
...
41
63
71
55
71
...
18
3
6
0
2
...
47
68
65
58
47
...
54
32
42
53
68
...
53
19
25
...
49
Kyrgyzstan
Lao Peoples Dem. Rep.
Lebanon
Macau
Malaysia
Maldives
1 777
150
...
...
595
1 115
134
2 712
1 872
971
18.3
1.6
...
...
5.9
12.2
1.5
27.0
26.4
10.6
...
2.0
...
...
6.6
11.6
2.2
27.2
34.9
...
...
1.1
...
...
5.2
12.8
0.8
26.8
20.0
...
...
33
1
...
...
...
67
99
...
...
...
./.
...
...
...
6
61
...
...
...
37
49
...
...
...
./.
...
...
Mongolia
Myanmar
Nepal
Oman
Pakistan
2 101
478
424
69
265
1 569
564
501
495
...
21.6
4.5
4.4
0.8
2.5
15.2
5.4
5.2
4.7
...
...
4.2
...
1.0
3.5
9.1
4.2
...
4.7
...
...
4.8
...
0.6
1.4
21.3
6.7
...
4.6
...
14
14
53
...
...
83
83
36
...
...
2
2
11
...
...
80
80
...
...
...
68
68
...
...
...
54
54
...
...
...
.
...
...
2 565
1 494
3 568
...
...
...
2 701
1 422
4 955
.
...
...
24.9
20.7
34.0
...
...
...
27.4
27.4
52.0
.
...
...
...
12.7
45.8
...
...
...
23.4
14.7
65.5
.
...
...
...
33.8
21.2
...
...
...
31.5
42.1
37.6
...
21
13
14
6
28
...
79
87
82
91
67
...
0
0
4
3
5
...
44
60
64
65
38
...
35
54
55
72
36
...
27
35
67
81
28
Saudi Arabia
Singapore
Sri Lanka
Syrian Arab Republic
Tajikistan
898
1 474
370
1 726
2 086
1 280
2 522
474
1 690
1 857
10.6
13.6
3.7
17.1
20.1
15.3
33.7
5.1
17.9
20.3
11.8
16.6
4.4
21.5
23.1
15.9
36.7
6.0
21.4
27.0
9.2
10.4
3.0
12.3
16.9
14.7
30.7
4.2
14.3
13.4
8
...
28
...
32
89
...
60
...
68
3
...
13
...
3
52
...
38
...
39
47
...
46
...
38
51
...
47
...
39
Thailand
2 009
2 096
19.0
20.1
...
...
...
...
94
...
...
...
Turkey
Turkmenistan
United Arab Emirates
Uzbekistan
Viet Nam
Yemen
934
2 347
501
3 121
255
...
1 930
...
493
2 960
404
...
8.9
22.4
6.8
30.0
1.9
...
18.2
...
8.8
31.7
4.1
...
11.6
...
4.8
...
...
...
21.9
...
4.7
...
...
...
6.0
...
9.5
...
...
...
14.3
...
14.1
...
...
...
25
...
...
...
...
...
69
...
...
...
...
...
6
...
...
...
...
...
45
...
...
...
...
...
36
...
...
...
...
...
36
...
...
...
...
...
Europe
Country or territory
Number of
students
per 100,000
inhabitants
Percentage
of students
by ISCED level
Percentage
of female students
in each ISCED level
1995
1995
Male
Female
1985
1995
1985
1995
1985
1995
1985
1995
Level
5
Level
6
Level
7
Level
5
Level
6
Level
7
Albania
Austria
Belarus
Belgium
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Bulgaria
1 080
2 292
3 425
2 511
...
1 270
899
2 933
3 031
3 206
...
2 942
10.5
26.4
44.8
32.2
...
18.9
9.6
44.8
42.6
49.1
...
39.4
10.3
28.4
...
34.3
...
16.8
8.8
45.3
39.1
48.9
...
29.3
10.7
24.3
...
30.0
...
21.2
10.5
44.3
46.0
49.4
...
49.9
...
7
49
...
10
...
86
99
45
...
89
...
8
1
6
...
0
...
68
...
55
...
75
...
45
52
45
...
61
...
36
...
38
...
38
Croatia
Czech Republic
1 250
1 060
1 917
1 739
17.7
16.2
28.3
20.8
...
...
28.3
21.2
...
...
28.3
20.4
# 24
17
76
78
33
64
54
44
27
Denmark
Estonia
Finland
France
2 275
1 625
2 611
2 318
3 272
2 670
4 033
3 617
29.1
24.1
34.1
29.8
45.0
38.1
66.9
49.6
28.8
19.6
34.2
29.2
42.1
35.1
61.7
44.2
29.5
29.0
34.0
30.3
48.2
41.2
72.3
55.4
10
31
23
22
50
60
68
68
40
8
8
10
44
54
66
53
59
52
50
57
45
51
43
46
Germany
...
2 649
...
42.7
...
46.6
...
38.5
# 13
87
60
41
Greece
1 831
2 858
24.2
38.1
23.6
37.5
24.8
38.7
# 28
72
47
50
Hungary
Iceland
Ireland
Italy
Latvia
Lithuania
939
1 957
1 979
2 088
1 692
2 713
1 514
2 808
3 455
3 135
1 737
2 023
15.4
21.1
22.3
25.5
22.7
32.5
19.1
35.2
37.0
40.6
25.7
28.2
13.9
18.4
24.8
27.0
18.0
23.5
17.6
29.9
36.7
37.8
21.8
22.5
16.9
23.8
19.8
23.8
27.5
41.8
20.7
40.5
37.3
43.6
29.6
34.1
45
...
27
0
29
55
...
46
97
99
61
./.
...
5
2
1
11
56
...
45
68
...
68
50
...
52
51
56
58
./.
...
44
48
48
47
Luxembourg
Malta
Monaco
Netherlands
Norway
Poland
...
428
2 794
2 279
1 221
...
1 595
3 485
4 009
1 946
...
5.8
31.8
29.6
17.1
...
21.8
48.9
54.5
27.4
...
7.6
36.8
27.8
14.8
...
22.0
51.7
48.4
23.2
...
3.9
26.6
31.6
19.5
...
21.7
46.0
60.9
31.8
...
24
./.
31
15
...
66
59
44
75
...
10
41
25
10
...
47
./.
53
74
...
49
49
59
53
...
42
45
46
57
Portugal
Republic of Moldova
Romania
Russian Federation
San Marino
Slovakia
1 046
2 700
703
3 799
...
2 812
1 976
1 483
2 998
1 715
12.3
32.8
10.0
54.2
...
34.0
25.0
18.3
42.9
20.2
11.3
...
10.7
45.9
...
29.0
22.1
...
37.4
20.0
13.3
...
9.1
62.8
...
39.2
27.9
...
48.5
20.5
35
...
42
97
64
...
57
93
3
1
...
1
58
...
60
75
57
54
...
53
49
51
...
...
...
38
Slovenia
Spain
Sweden
Switzerland
...
2 431
2 115
1 685
2 387
3 858
2 810
2 085
...
28.5
30.0
21.0
31.9
46.1
42.5
31.8
...
28.5
28.1
28.1
26.8
42.7
37.6
39.1
...
28.6
32.1
13.7
37.3
49.8
47.7
24.2
25
1
./.
41
75
95
93
49
./.
4
7
10
49
49
./.
32
60
51
56
42
./.
47
36
32
1 979
3 263
1 372
2 812
22.6
46.8
17.5
40.6
...
...
15.5
35.0
...
...
19.7
46.4
# 12
...
88
...
...
61
...
53
...
...
United Kingdom
1 824
3 126
21.7
48.3
23.1
46.0
20.1
50.8
28
57
15
54
50
44
...
1 556
...
21.1
...
19.1
...
23.2
# 18
82
50
55
2 366
...
331
...
2 950
147
5 401
...
...
...
4 603
318
27.7
...
3.2
...
33.1
1.6
71.7
...
...
...
58.2
3.2
28.3
...
3.9
...
35.3
2.2
70.0
...
...
...
50.9
4.2
27.0
...
2.4
...
30.8
0.8
73.5
...
...
...
65.8
2.1
40
...
...
...
30
51
47
...
...
...
59
49
13
...
...
...
11
0
44
...
...
...
55
39
55
...
...
...
57
25
50
...
...
...
50
24
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
Yugoslavia
Oceania
Australia
Cook Islands
Fiji
Kiribati
New Zealand
Papua New Guinea
Samoa
Solomon Islands
151
152
Table 9
Tertiary education: students and graduates by broad field of study, 1995
Country or territory
Education
Humanities
Law
and
social
sciences
Natural
sciences,
engin. &
agric.
Medical
sciences
All
fields
Law
and
Edu- Humanisocial
cation
ties sciences
Natural
sciences,
engin. & Medical
agric. sciences
Gender
segregation
index
(%)
Africa
0
...
21
13
7
...
(1)
(...)
(...)
(...)
(...)
(...)
13
...
./.
29
31
...
(16)
(...)
(...)
(...)
(...)
(...)
23
...
56
30
35
...
(25)
(...)
(...)
(...)
(...)
(...)
52
...
19
24
18
...
(52)
(...)
(...)
(...)
(...)
(...)
10
...
4
8
...
(6)
(...)
(...)
(...)
(...)
(...)
43
...
18
50
22
...
27
...
20
61
14
...
62
...
./.
53
32
...
45
...
20
59
22
...
35
...
11
26
8
...
52
...
23
24
...
8
...
3
11
7
...
Cameroon
Cape Verde
Central African Republic
Chad
Comoros
Congo
...
...
9
...
6
(...)
()
(...)
(...)
(...)
(...)
...
...
42
...
5
(...)
()
(...)
(...)
(...)
(...)
...
...
30
...
53
(...)
()
(...)
(...)
(...)
(...)
...
...
14
...
11
(...)
()
(...)
(...)
(...)
(...)
...
...
3
...
2
(...)
()
(...)
(...)
(...)
(...)
...
...
11
...
...
...
...
7
...
...
...
...
13
...
...
...
...
11
...
...
...
...
3
...
...
...
...
8
...
...
...
...
3
...
...
Cte dIvoire
Dem. Rep. of the Congo
Djibouti
Egypt
Equatorial Guinea
Eritrea
3
...
28
17
...
...
(...)
(...)
(...)
(24)
(...)
(...)
20
...
18
...
...
(...)
(...)
(...)
(17)
(...)
(...)
36
...
72
40
...
...
(...)
(...)
(...)
(32)
(...)
(...)
26
...
15
...
...
(...)
(...)
(...)
(15)
(...)
(...)
14
...
8
...
...
(...)
(...)
(...)
(10)
(...)
(...)
23
...
47
39
...
...
10
...
61
52
...
...
29
...
51
...
...
31
...
41
33
...
...
10
...
27
...
...
23
...
42
...
...
8
...
8
9
...
...
Ethiopia
Gabon
Gambia
Ghana
Guinea
Guinea-Bissau
22
...
...
...
...
...
(19)
(...)
(...)
(...)
(...)
(...)
4
...
...
...
...
...
(3)
(...)
(...)
(...)
(...)
(...)
32
...
...
...
...
...
(36)
(...)
(...)
(...)
(...)
(...)
36
...
...
...
...
...
(35)
(...)
(...)
(...)
(...)
(...)
6
...
...
...
...
...
(8)
(...)
(...)
(...)
(...)
(...)
20
...
...
...
...
...
22
...
...
...
...
...
25
...
...
...
...
...
28
...
...
...
...
...
11
...
...
...
...
...
17
...
...
...
...
...
7
...
...
...
...
...
Kenya
Lesotho
Liberia
Libyan Arab Jamahiriya
Madagascar
Malawi
...
19
...
...
2
56
(...)
(35)
(...)
(...)
(...)
(73)
...
7
...
...
14
2
(...)
(5)
(...)
(...)
(...)
(0)
...
50
...
...
49
20
(...)
(30)
(...)
(...)
(...)
(11)
...
25
...
...
23
18
(...)
(30)
(...)
(...)
(...)
(12)
...
...
...
13
4
(...)
()
(...)
(...)
(...)
(4)
...
55
...
...
35
31
...
68
...
...
36
38
...
52
...
...
66
40
...
67
...
...
25
18
...
21
...
...
31
15
...
...
...
46
79
...
17
...
...
12
11
Mali
Mauritania
Mauritius
Morocco
Mozambique
Namibia
...
11
...
0
3
22
(...)
(52)
(...)
(0)
(7)
(23)
...
26
...
30
13
16
(...)
(13)
(...)
(33)
(17)
(17)
...
55
...
37
26
12
(...)
(27)
(...)
(28)
(19)
(10)
...
8
...
29
50
5
(...)
(9)
(...)
(33)
(49)
(3)
... (...)
()
... (...)
3 (3)
8 (9)
23 (36)
...
17
...
41
26
61
...
30
...
31
35
55
...
18
...
51
33
56
...
15
...
42
22
40
...
15
...
28
21
31
...
...
49
55
85
...
3
...
7
7
12
...
15
...
...
...
(...)
(...)
(...)
()
(...)
(...)
...
11
...
...
...
(...)
(...)
(...)
()
(...)
(...)
...
22
...
...
...
(...)
(...)
(...)
()
(...)
(...)
...
41
...
...
...
(...)
(...)
(...)
()
(...)
(...)
...
11
...
...
...
(...)
(...)
(...)
()
(...)
(...)
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
21
...
34
(...)
(...)
(43)
(...)
(18)
... (...)
... (...)
12 (7)
... (...)
8 (5)
...
...
44
...
26
(...)
(...)
(31)
(...)
(37)
...
...
18
...
22
(...)
(...)
(14)
(...)
(33)
... (...)
... (...)
4 (4)
... (...)
5 (5)
...
...
49
...
45
...
...
64
...
51
...
...
61
...
67
...
...
46
...
52
...
...
29
...
16
...
...
61
...
43
...
...
10
...
13
1
3
()
(9)
37 (48)
25 (17)
38 (37)
39 (36)
16 (8)
24 (25)
8 (7)
9 (10)
13
44
10
46
16
58
13
42
5
28
18
54
3
9
Algeria
Angola
Benin
Botswana
Burkina Faso
Burundi
Niger
Nigeria
Rwanda
Sao Tome and Principe
Senegal
Seychelles
Sierra Leone
Somalia
South Africa
Sudan
Swaziland
Togo
Tunisia
Country or territory
Education
Humanities
39
14
...
47
(51)
(4)
(...)
(...)
6 (7)
()
... (...)
7 (...)
38
41
...
20
...
2
...
()
(...)
(...)
()
()
(...)
()
... (...)
23 (...)
()
()
... (...)
()
... (...)
54 (...)
()
()
... (...)
()
... (...)
19 (...)
()
()
... (...)
()
... (...)
2 (...)
()
()
... (...)
...
63
...
...
57
...
...
77
...
...
64
...
...
44
...
...
46
...
...
8
...
Costa Rica
Cuba
Dominica
Dominican Republic
El Salvador
Grenada
12
34
...
15
...
(19)
(34)
()
(...)
(50)
(...)
4 (4)
2 (1)
11 (12)
... (...)
2 (2)
... (...)
39
7
31
...
40
...
(46)
(9)
(21)
(...)
(25)
(...)
18
23
58
...
25
...
(13)
(25)
(67)
(...)
(12)
(...)
4
25
...
17
...
(16)
(22)
()
(...)
(10)
(...)
...
58
47
...
51
...
...
72
...
66
...
...
60
77
...
53
...
...
62
72
...
53
...
...
35
28
...
28
...
...
71
...
65
...
...
16
22
...
11
...
Guatemala
Haiti
Honduras
Jamaica
Mexico
Netherlands Antilles
...
...
13
...
11
(...)
(...)
(5)
(...)
(3)
()
... (...)
... (...)
2 (1)
... (...)
3 (3)
()
...
...
41
...
45
(...)
(...)
(35)
(...)
(51)
()
...
...
26
...
33
(...)
(...)
(21)
(...)
(33)
()
...
...
12
...
8
(...)
(...)
(38)
(...)
(10)
()
...
...
44
...
46
...
...
68
...
65
...
...
47
...
57
...
...
43
...
54
...
...
26
...
26
...
...
58
...
55
...
...
10
...
13
Nicaragua
...
Panama
12
Saint Kitts and Nevis
15
Saint Lucia
...
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines ...
(...)
(22)
(16)
(...)
(...)
... (...)
11 (6)
5 (5)
... (...)
... (...)
...
46
12
...
...
(...)
(35)
(16)
(...)
(...)
...
26
57
...
...
(...)
(27)
(57)
(...)
(...)
...
4
11
...
...
(...)
(10)
(5)
(...)
(...)
...
60
55
...
...
...
77
83
...
...
...
65
50
...
...
...
66
55
...
...
...
36
38
...
...
...
75
100
...
...
...
13
19
...
...
5
...
(13)
(10)
15 (15)
... (17)
25 (31)
... (38)
45 (37)
... (19)
10 (4)
... (11)
49
...
68
...
73
...
58
...
34
...
43
...
14
...
2
...
12
8
15
...
(...)
(...)
(18)
(13)
(20)
(...)
11
...
9
6
4
...
(...)
(...)
(10)
(4)
(3)
(...)
42
...
44
38
42
...
(...)
(...)
(42)
(42)
(42)
(...)
30
...
22
42
31
...
(...)
(...)
(17)
(33)
(26)
(...)
14
...
9
6
9
...
(...)
(...)
(10)
(8)
(9)
(...)
52
...
55
45
51
...
80
...
81
79
68
...
74
...
73
69
55
...
53
...
51
51
55
...
36
...
34
29
32
...
62
...
66
66
67
...
10
...
12
14
12
...
19
19
...
...
...
...
(28)
(33)
(...)
(...)
(...)
(...)
2
2
...
...
...
...
(2)
(4)
(...)
(...)
(...)
(...)
25
40
...
...
...
...
(27)
(35)
(...)
(...)
(...)
(...)
43
25
...
...
...
...
(33)
(19)
(...)
(...)
(...)
(...)
5
6
...
...
...
...
(5)
(9)
(...)
(...)
(...)
(...)
48
53
...
...
...
...
81
77
...
...
...
...
58
41
...
...
...
...
71
48
...
...
...
...
24
42
...
...
...
...
55
64
...
...
...
...
25
10
...
...
...
...
...
...
32
26
(...)
(...)
(24)
(23)
... (...)
... (...)
5 (5)
./. (8)
...
...
12
22
(...)
(...)
(12)
(27)
...
...
38
39
(...)
(...)
(47)
(25)
...
...
11
13
(...)
(...)
(10)
(17)
...
...
...
58
...
...
...
68
...
...
...
./.
...
...
...
71
...
...
...
42
...
...
...
64
...
...
...
12
Uganda
United Rep. of Tanzania
Zambia
Zimbabwe
(25)
(56)
(...)
(...)
Law
and
Edu- Humanisocial
cation
ties sciences
Natural
sciences,
engin. & Medical
agric. sciences
Gender
segregation
index
(%)
Law
and
social
sciences
Natural
sciences,
engin. &
agric.
Medical
sciences
All
fields
13
39
...
23
(15)
(26)
(...)
(...)
3 (2)
3 (15)
... (...)
3 (...)
32
16
...
35
29
18
...
41
28
...
33
40
20
...
44
17
9
...
14
29
28
...
35
7
6
...
10
America, North
Antigua and Barbuda
Bahamas
Barbados
Belize
British Virgin Islands
Canada
153
154
Table 9 (continued)
Country or territory
Education
Humanities
Law
and
social
sciences
Natural
sciences,
engin. &
agric.
Medical
sciences
All
fields
Law
and
Edu- Humanisocial
cation
ties sciences
Natural
sciences,
engin. & Medical
agric. sciences
Gender
segregation
index
(%)
Bangladesh
Bhutan
Brunei Darussalam
Cambodia
China
Cyprus
...
...
62
...
23
14
(...)
(...)
(80)
(...)
(28)
(9)
... (...)
... (...)
1 (3)
... (...)
8 (8)
6 (3)
...
...
19
...
25
50
(...)
(...)
(13)
(...)
(22)
(59)
...
...
6
...
37
19
(...)
(...)
(4)
(...)
(35)
(22)
... (...)
... (...)
()
... (...)
7 (6)
11 (7)
...
...
59
...
...
59
...
...
74
...
...
93
...
...
56
...
...
76
...
...
53
...
...
56
...
...
36
...
...
28
...
...
...
...
74
...
...
18
...
...
15
...
11
7
...
17
13
(...)
(6)
(9)
(...)
(14)
(15)
...
14
8
...
6
12
(...)
(13)
(9)
(...)
(7)
(10)
...
16
25
...
46
21
(...)
(18)
(34)
(...)
(50)
(14)
...
48
36
...
28
37
(...)
(51)
(42)
(...)
(27)
(35)
...
10
4
...
2
18
(...)
(12)
(4)
(...)
(2)
(26)
...
53
43
...
35
33
...
74
66
...
43
39
...
77
75
...
41
48
...
47
59
...
37
27
...
40
19
...
23
20
...
66
47
...
48
50
...
14
17
...
6
12
Iraq
Israel
Japan
Jordan
Kazakhstan
Kuwait
...
41
8
10
16
31
(...)
(25)
(8)
(14)
(19)
(...)
...
./.
18
17
12
8
(...)
(./.)
(18)
(20)
(9)
(...)
...
25
38
32
15
34
(...)
(35)
(38)
(28)
(15)
(...)
...
27
23
28
42
23
(...)
(30)
(24)
(24)
(40)
(...)
...
6
8
12
10
4
(...)
(10)
(8)
(11)
(14)
(...)
...
51
44
46
...
62
...
61
71
64
...
74
...
./.
72
65
...
70
...
50
39
37
...
60
...
32
13
35
...
43
...
69
64
54
...
72
...
11
18
12
...
10
Kyrgyzstan
Lao Peoples Dem. Rep.
Lebanon
Macau
Malaysia
Maldives
32
23
0
...
...
...
(...)
(28)
(1)
(...)
(...)
(...)
4
11
26
...
...
...
(...)
(7)
(23)
(...)
(...)
(...)
4
8
52
...
...
...
(...)
(13)
(52)
(...)
(...)
(...)
28
45
17
...
...
...
(...)
(38)
(18)
(...)
(...)
(...)
8
13
3
...
...
...
(...)
(11)
(6)
(...)
(...)
(...)
52
27
49
...
...
...
75
38
38
...
...
...
52
40
54
...
...
...
39
35
50
...
...
...
38
11
37
...
...
...
67
50
53
...
...
...
17
15
4
...
...
...
Mongolia
Myanmar
Nepal
Oman
Pakistan
19
0
12
...
...
(20)
()
(...)
(...)
(...)
20
41
37
...
...
(19)
(60)
(...)
(...)
(...)
22
21
33
...
...
(16)
(8)
(...)
(...)
(...)
24
36
17
...
...
(23)
(30)
(...)
(...)
(...)
12
2
1
...
...
(18)
(2)
(...)
(...)
(...)
70
61
...
...
...
85
69
...
...
...
73
64
...
...
...
67
59
...
...
...
53
61
...
...
...
88
42
...
...
...
12
2
...
...
...
...
28
9
12
...
7
(...)
(20)
(15)
(15)
(37)
(8)
...
29
30
7
...
18
(...)
(11)
(26)
(6)
(29)
(18)
...
15
27
33
...
29
(...)
(10)
(26)
(30)
(8)
(29)
...
19
28
31
...
39
(...)
(8)
(19)
(28)
(18)
(36)
... (...)
5 (8)
6 (12)
15 (19)
... ()
6 (7)
...
37
54
57
72
35
...
43
69
79
89
72
...
38
63
56
80
57
...
31
48
71
43
37
...
38
43
27
44
16
...
39
72
75
53
...
5
10
20
...
15
Saudi Arabia
Singapore
Sri Lanka
Syrian Arab Republic
Tajikistan
Thailand
47
...
10
2
38
12
(57)
(7)
(6)
(4)
(...)
(15)
27
...
18
21
1
14
(18)
(8)
(29)
(15)
(...)
(17)
7
...
33
35
5
50
(4)
(24)
(28)
(25)
(...)
(38)
14
...
29
29
23
19
(15)
(58)
(29)
(36)
(...)
(24)
4 (2)
... (2)
10 (7)
11 (19)
14 (...)
5 (6)
47
...
44
38
33
53
60
...
60
55
39
60
39
...
57
61
21
68
38
...
43
32
21
56
26
...
31
30
13
23
38
...
45
34
67
77
12
...
8
10
14
11
Turkey
Turkmenistan
United Arab Emirates
Uzbekistan
Viet Nam
Yemen
9
...
...
...
...
...
(13)
(...)
(...)
(...)
(...)
(...)
5
...
...
...
...
...
(6)
(...)
(...)
(...)
(...)
(...)
53
...
...
...
...
...
(32)
(...)
(...)
(...)
(...)
(...)
21
...
...
...
...
...
(30)
(...)
(...)
(...)
(...)
(...)
10
...
...
...
...
...
(18)
(...)
(...)
(...)
(...)
(...)
38
...
...
...
...
...
43
...
...
...
...
...
47
...
...
...
...
...
37
...
...
...
...
...
28
...
...
...
...
...
61
...
...
...
...
...
7
...
...
...
...
...
30
7
(25)
(17)
16 (12)
16 (13)
7 (11)
8 (11)
53
46
66
74
63
62
47
47
40
26
52
60
10
12
Europe
Albania
Austria
21 (12)
40 (32)
24 (37)
29 (25)
Country or territory
Education
Humanities
Law
and
social
sciences
Natural
sciences,
engin. &
agric.
Medical
sciences
All
fields
Law
and
Edu- Humanisocial
cation
ties sciences
Natural
sciences,
engin. & Medical
agric. sciences
Gender
segregation
index
(%)
Belarus
Belgium
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Bulgaria
Croatia
Czech Republic
18
10
...
14
# 10
16
(15)
(22)
(...)
(19)
(10)
(16)
27 (16)
10 (6)
... (...)
8 (7)
8 (5)
8 (3)
13
37
...
41
30
28
(10)
(17)
(...)
(25)
(27)
(35)
35
25
...
25
38
36
(47)
(36)
(...)
(32)
(40)
(37)
6
13
...
8
7
10
(10)
(13)
(...)
(14)
(12)
(8)
...
49
...
62
49
47
...
72
...
80
80
70
...
59
...
75
68
57
...
51
...
66
63
52
...
24
...
45
27
25
...
65
...
69
69
67
...
13
...
12
20
16
Denmark
Estonia
Finland
France
Germany
Greece
13
9
9
4
# 5
# 17
(15)
(12)
(13)
(14)
(3)
(26)
19 (12)
12 (13)
14 (6)
25 (16)
15 (8)
4 (4)
30
34
22
29
30
35
(30)
(30)
(15)
(36)
(23)
(25)
24
34
37
24
35
30
(30)
(27)
(36)
(31)
(38)
(26)
11
7
18
11
10
11
(13)
(13)
(30)
(3)
(19)
(16)
52
53
53
55
43
49
75
86
76
74
72
73
68
69
70
71
62
51
41
60
58
58
44
54
28
25
23
30
21
27
80
83
84
63
62
60
19
19
22
13
15
13
Hungary
Iceland
Ireland
Italy
Latvia
Lithuania
37
...
2
3
23
...
(42)
(...)
(5)
(2)
(19)
(...)
6 (5)
... (...)
6 (5)
15 (10)
11 (8)
... (...)
17
...
39
41
26
...
(16)
(...)
(46)
(24)
(28)
(...)
29
...
31
28
34
...
(26)
(...)
(40)
(16)
(37)
(...)
8 (9)
... (...)
4 (4)
9 (15)
5 (5)
... (...)
53
...
49
52
56
...
71
...
75
89
81
...
55
...
62
78
78
...
57
...
58
53
59
...
28
...
33
33
28
...
60
...
60
53
69
...
16
...
11
11
19
...
Luxembourg
Malta
Monaco
Netherlands
Norway
Poland
...
19
13
15
14
(...)
(23)
()
(13)
(21)
(17)
... (...)
23 (17)
()
9 (8)
12 (17)
12 (8)
...
24
48
31
32
(...)
(37)
()
(39)
(36)
(26)
...
13
20
19
29
(...)
(11)
()
(23)
(11)
(22)
...
18
10
10
10
(...)
(11)
()
(14)
(7)
(25)
...
48
47
54
57
...
64
65
71
82
...
52
62
63
70
...
44
47
50
61
...
21
17
27
31
...
56
70
80
68
...
10
12
13
16
Portugal
Republic of Moldova
Romania
Russian Federation
San Marino
Slovakia
13
29
2
10
18
(22)
(27)
(2)
(12)
()
(22)
8 (13)
4 (7)
10 (8)
7 (6)
()
8 (10)
41
16
25
22
21
(31)
(14)
(16)
(22)
()
(21)
30
34
51
49
45
(20)
(35)
(63)
(45)
()
(38)
6
11
10
8
(11)
(15)
(10)
(13)
()
(9)
57
...
47
55
50
78
...
32
88
74
72
...
60
75
56
59
...
58
72
55
38
...
38
34
33
73
...
62
78
67
11
...
11
21
15
Slovenia
Spain
Sweden
Switzerland
The FYR of Macedonia
Ukraine
13
7
16
5
#4
...
(11)
(10)
(24)
(...)
(13)
(...)
8 (6)
9 (11)
15 (5)
14 (...)
11 (8)
... (...)
40
46
26
41
30
...
(38)
(43)
(22)
(...)
(25)
(...)
30
29
29
32
41
...
(32)
(20)
(24)
(...)
(38)
(...)
6
8
14
8
11
...
(9)
(11)
(25)
(...)
(12)
(...)
57
51
55
37
54
...
80
70
77
70
86
...
71
62
64
58
72
...
63
56
56
39
60
...
31
31
27
15
38
...
77
67
74
54
70
...
16
12
16
14
13
...
9
# 6
(6)
(14)
14 (13)
14 (10)
32 (32)
26 (21)
31 (28)
44 (42)
14 (13)
10 (12)
50
53
73
70
61
76
51
62
24
37
77
67
16
15
Australia
Cook Islands
Fiji
Kiribati
New Zealand
Papua New Guinea
8
...
...
...
13
...
(19)
(...)
(...)
(...)
(15)
(...)
13
...
...
...
20
...
(14)
(...)
(...)
(...)
(17)
(...)
37
...
...
...
34
...
(29)
(...)
(...)
(...)
(36)
(...)
29
...
...
...
20
...
(22)
(...)
(...)
(...)
(18)
(...)
11
...
...
...
7
...
(14)
(...)
(...)
(...)
(10)
(...)
50
...
...
...
55
...
73
...
...
...
81
...
67
...
...
...
64
...
51
...
...
...
52
...
25
...
...
...
31
...
73
...
...
...
76
...
15
...
...
...
13
...
Samoa
Solomon Islands
Tonga
Tuvalu
Vanuatu
...
...
...
...
(...)
(...)
(...)
(...)
()
...
...
...
...
(...)
(...)
(...)
(...)
()
...
...
...
...
(...)
(...)
(...)
(...)
()
...
...
...
...
(...)
(...)
(...)
(...)
()
...
...
...
...
(...)
(...)
(...)
(...)
()
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
United Kingdom
Yugoslavia
Oceania
155
156
Table 10
Private enrolment and public expenditure on education
Private enrolment
as percentage
of total enrolment
Country or territory
Pre-primary
Secondary
general
Primary
As
percentage
of GNP
As percentage
of
government
expenditure
Average
annual
growth
rate (%)
Current
expenditure
as percentage
of total
1985
1995
1985
1995
1985
1995
1985
1995
1985
1995
198595
1985
1995
Algeria
Angola
Benin
Botswana
Burkina Faso
Burundi
46
26
...
...
...
...
...
...
6
9
1
...
6
8
1
0
50
48
13
...
74
35
11
8.5
5.1
...
6.8
...
2.5
...
...
3.1
9.6
3.6
2.8
20.7
10.8
...
15.4
...
15.5
...
...
15.2
20.5
11.1
...
...
...
...
12.6
...
2.8
69.3
97.7
...
79.3
...
92.7
...
...
85.6
73.4
82.7
86.1
Cameroon
Cape Verde
Central African Republic
Chad
Comoros
Congo
43
...
...
...
41
...
...
...
...
4
34
...
6
24
...
8
9
2
49
8
5
0
...
...
13
37
0
3.1
3.6
2.8
...
4.1
5.1
...
...
...
2.2
3.9
5.9
14.8
...
...
...
23.1
9.8
...
...
...
...
21.1
14.7
...
...
...
...
0.7
4.0
82.4
95.3
97.5
...
...
92.3
...
...
...
99.0
...
97.6
Cte dIvoire
Dem. Rep. of the Congo
Djibouti
Egypt
Equatorial Guinea
Eritrea
63
...
100
93
...
...
54
...
100
69
...
95
11
4
10
5
...
...
12
13
7
7
9
13
29
...
3
8
...
...
36
26
11
7
...
11
...
1.0
2.7
6.3
...
...
...
...
...
5.6
1.8
...
...
7.3
7.5
...
...
...
...
...
...
13.8
5.6
...
...
...
...
1.8
...
...
...
98.4
100.0
94.5
...
...
...
...
...
89.4
98.2
...
Ethiopia
Gabon
Gambia
Ghana
Guinea
Guinea-Bissau
100
...
...
20
100
...
...
...
92
11
33
18
6
9
29
15
...
9
...
6
39
32
5
9
40
...
...
2
...
3.0
4.5
3.2
2.6
...
3.2
4.7
...
5.5
...
...
...
9.5
9.4
...
19.0
15.3
11.2
13.0
...
16.0
...
...
...
6.7
...
11.6
...
...
...
84.3
68.3
80.1
...
99.7
...
68.2
...
60.2
...
...
...
81
43
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
100
33
13
6
...
100
...
21
21
38
...
...
42
14
...
...
...
45
...
6.4
4.3
...
7.1
2.9
3.5
7.4
5.9
...
...
...
5.7
...
...
...
19.8
...
9.6
...
...
...
...
...
15.0
3.3
8.2
...
...
...
4.7
93.8
...
...
79.6
95.4
72.2
94.3
88.6
...
...
...
82.7
Mali
Mauritania
Mauritius
Morocco
Mozambique
Namibia
...
...
...
100
...
...
...
90
100
...
...
4
0
23
3
...
8
0
24
4
78
6
...
...
4
79
3
3.7
...
3.8
6.3
4.2
...
2.2
5.0
4.3
5.6
...
9.4
...
...
9.8
22.9
10.6
...
...
16.1
17.3
22.6
...
21.3
0.1
...
8.8
2.3
...
...
99.2
...
92.8
79.0
93.2
...
97.7
73.5
85.8
89.4
...
93.3
Niger
Nigeria
Rwanda
Sao Tome and Principe
Senegal
Seychelles
44
...
100
57
...
29
...
...
...
62
2
3
...
0
3
...
...
...
10
3
11
...
26
29
10
...
...
...
22
2
...
...
3.1
4.6
...
10.7
...
...
...
...
3.6
7.5
...
...
25.1
18.8
...
21.3
...
...
...
...
33.1
16.3
...
...
...
...
...
2.8
...
...
97.8
...
...
96.4
...
...
...
...
98.5
81.6
Sierra Leone
Somalia
South Africa
Sudan
Swaziland
...
...
69
...
...
...
8
...
...
...
0
2
80
...
...
1
...
...
...
1
...
37
...
...
2
6
...
1.9
...
6.0
...
5.9
...
...
6.8
...
8.1
12.4
...
...
...
20.3
...
...
20.5
...
21.7
...
...
3.5
...
6.8
94.9
...
84.4
...
84.3
...
...
94.0
...
86.7
Togo
Tunisia
48
...
59
...
23
0
25
0
13
9
14
9
5.0
5.8
5.6
6.8
19.4
14.1
18.7
17.4
2.6
5.1
94.6
90.2
96.9
86.9
Africa
Kenya
Lesotho
Liberia
Libyan Arab Jamahiriya
Madagascar
Malawi
Private enrolment
as percentage
of total enrolment
Country or territory
Pre-primary
Secondary
general
Primary
As
percentage
of GNP
As percentage
of
government
expenditure
Average
annual
growth
rate (%)
Current
expenditure
as percentage
of total
1985
1995
1985
1995
1985
1995
1985
1995
1985
1995
198595
1985
1995
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
0
0
88
...
0
...
88
...
49
20
67
...
53
...
85
3.5
4.4
4.7
9.1
...
...
1.8
8.5
...
14.0
13.4
15.0
...
...
...
...
...
...
6.5
2.5
71.1
86.0
92.9
99.2
...
...
92.6
...
100
...
...
...
100
3
...
...
...
88
100
5
31
22
8
...
11
3
...
25
...
...
14
4
...
24
15
...
...
25
...
...
...
6
2.7
4.0
6.1
...
...
6.6
...
...
7.2
6.1
...
7.3
...
18.0
...
...
16.7
11.9
...
...
19.0
21.3
...
13.7
...
...
3.4
...
...
3.3
95.8
94.5
88.2
...
90.5
93.1
...
...
96.8
87.9
...
...
Costa Rica
Cuba
Dominica
Dominican Republic
El Salvador
Grenada
11
72
79
26
7
100
55
31
...
4
24
8
6
5
22
15
...
4
30
51
...
10
4
33
64
...
4.5
6.3
5.9
1.8
3.1
...
4.5
...
...
1.9
2.2
...
22.7
...
16.7
14.0
12.5
...
19.9
10.2
...
13.2
...
...
5.4
...
...
5.5
7.6
...
95.2
93.9
95.9
...
87.3
...
96.0
99.3
...
...
99.3
...
Guatemala
Haiti
Honduras
Jamaica
Mexico
Netherlands Antilles
25
63
18
84
6
...
33
...
...
...
8
...
14
58
5
3
5
...
17
...
5
...
6
...
38
84
42
4
12
...
...
...
...
...
12
...
1.8
1.2
4.2
5.7
3.9
...
1.7
...
3.9
8.2
5.3
...
12.4
16.5
13.8
12.1
...
...
18.2
...
16.5
7.7
26.0
...
2.0
...
1.1
4.7
7.8
...
97.8
99.8
98.6
93.7
...
...
94.8
...
98.1
90.9
...
...
26
27
75
95
100
26
25
73
100
100
13
7
13
2
2
15
9
...
...
3
20
14
4
9
54
24
...
3
...
46
6.8
4.6
5.8
5.5
5.8
...
5.2
3.3
9.9
...
10.2
18.7
18.5
...
11.6
...
20.9
...
22.2
...
...
2.6
1.9
12.5
...
96.7
97.7
99.7
94.4
93.4
...
96.6
95.2
65.9
...
...
35
...
34
72
12
...
12
...
...
...
...
6.1
4.9
4.5
5.3
...
15.5
...
14.2
6.5
3.5
87.5
91.7
90.7
...
Argentina
Bolivia
Brazil
Chile
Colombia
Ecuador
31
11
34
44
61
44
31
...
23
49
56
40
19
8
12
32
13
16
21
...
12
40
18
20
30
...
...
39
42
34
...
...
...
44
39
...
...
2.1
3.8
4.4
2.9
3.7
4.5
6.6
...
2.9
3.5
3.4
...
...
...
15.3
...
20.6
15.0
8.2
...
14.0
12.9
...
...
16.6
...
4.0
6.6
1.9
...
...
...
...
93.7
93.7
...
86.6
...
94.7
81.9
99.9
Guyana
Paraguay
Peru
Suriname
Uruguay
Venezuela
54
23
49
26
15
38
22
...
29
17
14
14
50
15
13
13
12
...
16
15
23
15
38
15
25
24
16
...
16
35
9.8
1.5
2.9
9.4
2.8
5.1
4.1
2.9
3.8
3.5
2.8
5.2
10.4
16.7
15.7
...
9.3
20.3
8.1
16.9
...
...
13.3
22.4
8.0
16.8
2.2
6.4
1.8
3.0
83.1
81.4
96.3
...
96.0
...
77.9
92.7
93.2
99.0
88.1
96.6
100
...
...
100
11
...
...
17
12
...
...
15
...
...
5.7
4.1
...
...
3.0
4.8
...
...
26.7
10.4
...
...
17.5
12.8
...
...
...
4.3
...
...
...
94.2
...
...
91.1
91.9
Uganda
United Rep. of Tanzania
Zambia
Zimbabwe
America, North
Nicaragua
Panama
Saint Kitts and Nevis
Saint Lucia
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
Trinidad and Tobago
United States
America, South
Asia
Afghanistan
Armenia
Azerbaijan
Bahrain
157
158
Table 10 (continued)
Private enrolment
as percentage
of total enrolment
Country or territory
Pre-primary
Secondary
general
Primary
As
percentage
of GNP
As percentage
of
government
expenditure
Average
annual
growth
rate (%)
Current
expenditure
as percentage
of total
1985
1995
1985
1995
1985
1995
1985
1995
1985
1995
198595
1985
1995
...
...
52
...
58
...
...
64
...
66
11
...
29
...
...
...
30
...
93
...
17
...
13
...
...
12
...
11
1.9
...
2.1
...
2.5
3.7
2.3
...
...
...
2.3
4.4
9.7
...
...
...
12.2
12.2
8.7
...
...
...
...
13.8
5.9
...
...
...
8.3
8.0
77.2
...
89.9
...
87.9
95.4
79.7
...
...
...
88.2
91.2
100
...
100
...
100
...
100
...
10
...
17
...
10
...
18
2
...
...
50
...
12
...
42
3
...
...
2.8
3.4
...
3.6
...
5.2
2.8
3.5
...
4.0
...
...
18.4
9.4
...
17.2
...
6.9
17.0
12.1
...
17.8
...
...
6.7
6.3
...
5.4
...
...
92.0
97.6
...
88.6
...
82.8
95.1
99.0
...
82.9
Iraq
Israel
Japan
Jordan
Kazakhstan
Kuwait
...
75
98
37
...
...
80
100
...
25
...
0
8
28
...
...
0
25
0
33
...
13
19
14
...
16
8
0
27
4.0
7.0
...
5.5
...
4.9
...
6.6
3.8
6.3
4.5
5.6
...
9.3
...
13.0
18.9
12.6
...
12.3
10.8
16.6
17.6
...
...
4.9
...
0.0
...
...
...
92.3
...
87.1
...
95.4
...
91.2
...
93.8
99.9
93.1
Kyrgyzstan
Lao Peoples Dem. Rep.
Lebanon
Macau
Malaysia
Maldives
79
...
45
...
...
11
85
...
42
93
68
...
...
...
0
2
71
...
...
...
50
...
8
...
0
0
61
...
5
38
7.9
...
...
...
6.6
4.4
6.8
2.4
2.0
...
5.3
8.4
22.4
...
16.8
...
16.3
7.2
23.1
...
...
8.9
15.5
13.6
...
...
...
...
6.5
...
92.6
...
...
...
85.4
82.4
96.8
75.8
75.8
...
83.5
72.3
Mongolia
Myanmar
Nepal
Oman
Pakistan
100
100
...
...
100
...
1
1
...
6
3
...
...
0
...
...
0
...
7.8
...
2.6
4.0
2.5
5.6
1.3
2.9
4.6
...
...
...
12.7
...
...
...
14.4
13.2
15.2
...
4.3
...
6.5
4.5
...
...
...
...
62.7
74.3
99.2
78.0
...
89.1
...
.
100
100
61
100
54
100
...
...
53
100
78
.
0
5
6
22
1
6
...
...
7
34
2
.
3
6
41
11
39
8
...
...
31
19
37
...
...
...
1.4
4.1
4.5
...
...
...
2.2
3.4
3.7
...
...
...
7.4
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
17.4
...
...
...
10.0
...
9.1
...
...
...
93.4
75.7
79.7
...
...
...
86.9
91.8
...
Saudi Arabia
Singapore
Sri Lanka
Syrian Arab Republic
Tajikistan
Thailand
78
69
...
62
41
76
...
...
95
...
26
3
24
1
4
6
...
2
4
...
12
3
28
2
6
12
4
...
2
6
...
6
6.7
4.4
2.6
6.1
...
3.8
5.5
3.0
3.1
...
8.6
4.2
12.0
...
6.9
11.8
29.5
18.5
...
23.4
8.1
...
17.9
20.1
0.0
4.8
5.8
...
...
11.5
81.9
78.2
84.4
...
94.1
85.9
95.5
76.0
80.3
...
90.2
80.1
Turkey
Turkmenistan
United Arab Emirates
Uzbekistan
Viet Nam
Yemen
62
...
5
...
66
...
...
26
0
...
41
...
...
15
...
3
...
28
...
...
...
1.8
...
1.7
...
...
...
3.4
...
1.8
9.5
2.7
7.5
...
28.0
10.4
25.1
...
...
...
...
16.3
24.4
7.4
20.8
3.5
...
...
...
...
...
83.4
...
94.2
84.1
...
...
93.3
...
92.3
97.8
92.7
90.5
27
...
26
...
4
...
8
...
5.9
3.4
5.5
...
7.9
...
10.2
...
1.9
...
90.1
90.8
91.2
Bangladesh
Bhutan
Brunei Darussalam
Cambodia
China
Cyprus
Dem. Peoples Rep. of Korea
Georgia
Hong Kong
India
Indonesia
Iran, Islamic Republic of
Europe
Albania
Austria
Private enrolment
as percentage
of total enrolment
Country or territory
Pre-primary
Secondary
general
Primary
As percentage
of
government
expenditure
Average
annual
growth
rate (%)
Current
expenditure
as percentage
of total
1985
1995
1985
1995
1985
1995
1985
1995
1985
1995
198595
1985
1995
Belarus
Belgium
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Bulgaria
Croatia
Czech Republic
58
57
...
0
3
2
55
56
...
0
0
0
64
69
...
0
...
2
...
6.2
...
5.5
...
...
5.6
5.7
...
4.2
5.3
6.1
...
15.2
...
...
...
...
17.1
10.2
...
...
...
16.9
...
2.2
...
5.0
...
...
84.3
94.9
...
89.6
...
...
95.5
99.1
...
93.9
...
88.1
Denmark
Estonia
Finland
France
Germany
Greece
...
...
13
...
4
3
0
6
12
52
4
...
15
...
6
11
1
0
14
2
6
14
...
22
...
3
15
0
5
21
7
4
7.2
...
5.4
5.8
...
2.9
8.3
6.9
7.6
5.9
4.7
3.7
...
...
11.8
...
...
7.5
12.6
25.5
11.9
10.8
9.4
9.9
3.1
...
5.2
2.7
...
4.0
...
...
92.5
94.5
...
95.2
94.3
88.7
94.4
91.4
90.6
...
Hungary
Iceland
Ireland
Italy
Latvia
Lithuania
...
100
32
1
...
100
30
0
0
...
100
7
3
...
100
8
0
0
...
...
6
...
...
...
6
0
0
5.5
4.9
6.4
5.0
3.4
5.3
6.6
5.0
6.3
4.9
6.3
6.1
6.4
13.8
8.9
8.3
12.4
12.9
6.9
12.0
13.2
8.8
16.8
21.8
1.7
2.1
4.3
1.8
0.2
4.7
89.0
...
91.0
90.9
95.4
90.3
94.5
89.2
95.1
95.8
99.1
93.5
Luxembourg
Malta
Monaco
Netherlands
Norway
Poland
0
56
...
68
37
0
1
39
28
68
36
2
0
27
34
68
0
...
33
33
69
1
0
8
31
...
72
3
7
28
30
76
0
4
3.8
3.4
...
6.4
5.9
4.9
...
5.2
...
5.3
8.3
4.6
...
7.7
...
...
14.6
12.2
...
11.8
...
9.5
15.0
...
...
11.7
...
1.1
5.8
1.3
87.3
98.2
...
93.9
88.3
81.5
...
94.9
...
96.1
93.1
93.3
Portugal
Republic of Moldova
Romania
Russian Federation
San Marino
Slovakia
58
58
18
0
7
8
0
...
...
4
...
...
0
0
...
5
4.0
...
2.2
3.2
...
...
5.4
6.1
3.2
4.1
...
5.1
...
...
...
...
10.7
...
...
22.9
9.1
9.6
...
...
7.9
...
1.6
0.4
...
...
88.7
84.3
96.7
...
91.3
...
93.7
95.2
95.2
95.5
98.3
78.5
Slovenia
Spain
Sweden
Switzerland
The FYR of Macedonia
Ukraine
38
...
3
0
34
10
7
34
0
2
0
35
2
3
...
35
0
6
0
29
...
8
...
3.3
7.7
4.8
5.5
5.2
5.8
5.0
8.0
5.5
5.5
7.7
...
...
12.6
18.6
18.7
21.2
12.6
12.6
11.0
15.6
18.7
...
...
8.2
2.0
3.3
...
...
...
89.5
88.8
91.0
95.6
84.9
93.4
92.1
...
89.5
95.6
87.5
...
4.9
...
5.5
...
...
...
11.4
...
3.3
...
95.8
...
...
92.2
26
...
100
...
...
100
27
...
100
...
...
41
23
16
96
0
2
1
26
...
96
2
2
29
7
88
68
5
4
34
...
87
77
5
3
5.6
...
6.0
6.0
4.7
...
5.6
...
5.4
6.3
6.7
...
12.8
9.5
...
18.5
18.4
...
13.6
12.4
18.6
17.6
17.2
...
3.0
...
2.0
5.9
6.5
...
91.7
99.1
98.0
100.0
91.2
...
95.8
99.9
96.9
100.0
95.4
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
9
...
...
...
...
9
7
3
...
13
11
7
2
...
25
...
86
...
...
43
17
80
...
...
...
4.7
4.1
...
...
...
...
4.7
...
4.9
...
12.4
16.1
...
...
...
...
17.3
...
...
...
...
2.6
...
...
...
...
100.0
...
...
...
...
...
...
100.0
United Kingdom
Yugoslavia
Oceania
Australia
Cook Islands
Fiji
Kiribati
New Zealand
Papua New Guinea
Samoa
Solomon Islands
Tonga
Tuvalu
Vanuatu
159
160
Table 11
Public current expenditure on education
Country or territory
Teachers'
emoluments as
percentage of
total current
expenditure
Percentage distribution
of current expenditure by level
1985
1995
Preprim.
+
prim.
Sec.
Algeria
Angola
Benin
Botswana
Burkina Faso
Burundi
...
...
78.6
...
61.5
56.1
...
86.8
...
36.3
38.1
45.0
Cameroon
Cape Verde
Central African Republic
Chad
Comoros
Congo
...
...
...
64.7
70.3
83.7
Cte d'Ivoire
Dem. Rep. of the Congo
Djibouti
Egypt
Equatorial Guinea
Eritrea
Ethiopia
Gabon
Gambia
Ghana
Guinea
Guinea-Bissau
1995
Tert.
Preprim.
+
prim.
Sec.
...
./.
...
40.7
20.3
32.3
...
5.0
...
17.2
30.7
19.8
...
...
59.1
...
...
41.5
72.6
61.5
55.2
...
...
65.6
./.
15.9
17.6
...
...
./.
27.4
18.8
...
...
34.4
...
...
...
79.1
...
...
40.2
71.3
63.7
...
...
...
42.7
./.
23.5
...
...
...
...
...
51.1
...
55.6
...
51.5
...
49.0
24.5
30.8
...
...
65.2
...
...
...
...
Mali
Mauritania
Mauritius
Morocco
Mozambique
Namibia
Niger
Nigeria
Rwanda
Sao Tome and Principe
Senegal
Seychelles
1985
Tert.
Preprim.
+
prim.
Sec.
...
...
21.7
...
...
30.4
...
...
18.8
...
...
28.1
...
25
...
9
16
13
...
...
...
42.1
36.6
62.0
...
...
...
21.7
35.1
./.
...
...
...
7.6
17.2
28.0
17.1
28.7
...
...
...
...
...
...
64.3
...
...
...
...
...
./.
...
...
28.3
...
21.3
29.5
36.9
...
14.4
...
13.8
12.5
23.5
...
53.6
...
45.4
...
35.0
...
59.9
39.1
...
...
42.3
41.3
17.7
32.7
...
...
26.5
15.2
12.4
22.3
...
...
27.2
23.3
57.1
51.9
...
...
...
...
48.4
25.1
45.2
35.3
...
...
22.6
30.3
37.6
47.6
...
...
...
...
...
...
66.8
61.5
...
...
67.6
55.6
50.1
29.5
Sierra Leone
Somalia
South Africa
Sudan
Swaziland
...
...
74.4
...
70.6
Togo
Tunisia
59.5
77.0
1995
Tert.
Preprim.
+
prim.
Sec.
Tert.
...
./.
...
65
57
139
...
402
...
515
1 137
796
...
...
11
...
...
13
...
...
22
...
...
69
...
...
240
...
...
941
9
11
13
...
...
9
./.
32
23
...
...
./.
362
503
...
...
290
...
...
...
10
8
13
...
...
...
33
39
./.
...
...
...
234
1 168
224
...
...
...
35.7
...
...
21
4
26
...
...
...
94
./.
35
...
...
...
495
218
...
...
...
...
...
...
13
...
...
...
...
...
./.
...
...
...
...
...
108
...
...
27.7
...
25.0
...
29.1
...
10.5
...
10.9
...
18.4
...
21
...
12
3
5
...
42
...
26
7
18
...
538
...
...
135
106
...
37
...
12
...
11
...
62
...
28
...
38
...
592
...
235
...
498
...
62.4
50.8
...
...
...
59.4
19.2
30.9
...
...
...
16.4
13.7
17.0
...
...
...
16.9
13
6
...
...
8
8
46
44
...
...
17
107
677
766
...
...
209
1 076
15
14
...
...
...
9
47
51
...
...
...
145
540
399
...
...
...
979
13.4
17.5
5.6
17.1
...
...
45.9
40.4
...
33.0
...
48.0
21.6
35.5
...
50.7
...
33.4
17.7
20.4
...
16.3
...
7.2
38
26
10
13
...
...
86
122
18
41
...
...
589
559
171
102
...
...
17
12
...
12
...
17
35
59
...
51
...
44
522
157
...
74
...
86
...
...
15.3
27.0
25.1
54.3
...
...
11.5
19.0
...
...
...
...
...
37.9
...
...
...
...
...
30.9
...
...
...
...
...
13.1
...
...
16
...
23
11
...
...
67
...
52
92
...
...
1 210
...
384
...
...
...
...
...
13
...
...
...
...
...
15
...
...
...
...
...
.
40.7
...
73.1
...
37.3
32.3
...
./.
...
26.6
15.1
...
24.8
...
21.0
...
...
81.8
...
36.6
...
...
./.
...
26.4
...
...
15.4
...
27.5
6
...
15
...
9
22
...
./.
...
30
172
...
132
...
296
...
...
18
...
10
...
...
./.
...
29
...
...
59
...
302
34.0
44.0
29.1
37.0
22.8
18.2
35.2
42.6
30.3
36.8
27.1
18.8
9
13
43
31
527
167
10
15
42
23
521
89
Africa
Kenya
Lesotho
Liberia
Libyan Arab Jamahiriya
Madagascar
Malawi
Country or territory
Teachers'
emoluments as
percentage of
total current
expenditure
Percentage distribution
of current expenditure by level
1985
1995
Preprim.
+
prim.
Sec.
...
...
...
...
44.5
57.5
43.9
58.4
...
...
...
...
...
80.2
Costa Rica
Cuba
Dominica
Dominican Republic
El Salvador
Grenada
1995
Tert.
Preprim.
+
prim.
Sec.
33.4
20.5
26.9
28.3
13.2
12.7
18.3
9.0
...
...
41.5
51.7
36.6
...
31.0
65.7
38.9
63.6
30.6
...
32.5
31.0
35.8
./.
12.7
...
22.3
3.4
9.7
28.7
95.6
60.2
...
...
...
...
35.1
26.3
62.4
47.3
...
...
22.3
42.0
26.2
19.7
...
...
Guatemala
Haiti
Honduras
Jamaica
Mexico
Netherlands Antilles
62.8
...
67.8
66.4
97.9
...
...
51.0
49.1
31.9
...
...
Nicaragua
Panama
Saint Kitts and Nevis
Saint Lucia
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
...
57.7
70.6
...
...
1985
Tert.
Preprim.
+
prim.
Sec.
...
...
18.4
26.4
...
...
23.2
17.3
8
15
9
20
...
...
...
57.1
27.8
65.5
...
...
...
26.1
31.3
./.
...
...
...
7.5
24.7
34.6
41.4
12.9
2.6
20.8
...
...
38.3
31.3
...
53.5
63.5
...
23.3
34.9
...
13.3
6.5
...
...
18.1
16.7
34.0
...
...
...
10.8
21.3
19.4
...
...
58.9
...
52.5
31.5
48.5
45.1
45.7
38.3
50.3
50.9
73.1
16.7
25.2
40.1
26.8
26.6
23.2
20.4
2.1
4.5
0.2
66.7
52.9
47.5
44.7
36.8
30.3
Argentina
Bolivia
Brazil
Chile
Colombia
Ecuador
...
42.8
...
...
...
...
37.7
...
...
57.0
39.2
45.5
Guyana
Paraguay
Peru
Suriname
Uruguay
Venezuela
...
...
...
...
44.5
...
..
...
63.1
62.7
Uganda
United Rep. of Tanzania
Zambia
Zimbabwe
1995
Tert.
Preprim.
+
prim.
Sec.
Tert.
61
180
53
41
499
2 131
441
193
...
...
4
22
...
...
9
39
...
...
160
234
...
...
13
10
11
22
...
...
15
28
17
./.
...
...
58
105
...
30
...
...
...
11
10
26
...
...
...
29
27
./.
...
...
...
367
...
36
30.9
15.7
...
9.0
7.2
...
10
13
17
4
...
...
22
22
17
4
...
...
73
33
163
17
...
...
10
...
...
4
6
...
19
...
...
5
5
...
44
...
...
5
8
...
11.5
...
21.5
37.7
32.1
44.8
15.5
...
16.6
23.1
19.3
4.2
...
4
10
9
...
...
...
9
16
18
...
...
...
119
100
221
...
...
6
...
10
10
12
10
5
...
22
25
20
18
33
...
59
193
61
...
...
30.3
37.6
44.9
...
...
20.7
43.0
24.4
...
...
24.8
11.6
12.5
...
15
10
13
9
16
27
13
24
25
17
170
36
25
82
2
...
10
6
11
...
...
13
14
18
...
...
47
40
114
...
8.9
25.1
40.5
40.2
33.1
36.6
13.3
23.3
17
18
24
16
84
22
11
19
17
24
77
23
27.4
...
...
19.5
30.8
35.8
19.2
...
...
20.3
22.2
17.8
50.5
53.0
...
62.7
38.8
29.0
26.1
./.
...
16.2
33.1
30.9
17.6
28.7
...
18.1
16.8
21.5
5
...
...
13
8
8
12
...
...
15
14
15
20
...
...
54
48
20
9
10
...
10
7
6
12
18
...
9
11
15
17
67
...
21
29
34
38.7
36.6
...
63.7
37.7
...
23.8
29.7
...
13.5
28.4
...
17.8
23.8
...
7.7
22.4
...
71.3
47.9
...
60.4
29.8
...
./.
19.8
...
14.8
26.7
...
7.7
17.5
...
7.6
27.0
...
...
3
...
31
8
...
...
9
...
15
11
...
...
33
...
88
28
...
...
7
...
8
6
...
...
11
...
7
8
...
...
52
...
21
28
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
77.5
79.0
...
...
./.
./.
...
...
22.6
7.8
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
14
10
...
...
./.
./.
...
...
19
13
...
America, North
America, South
Asia
Afghanistan
Armenia
Azerbaijan
Bahrain
161
162
Table 11 (continued)
Country or territory
Teachers'
emoluments as
percentage of
total current
expenditure
Percentage distribution
of current expenditure by level
1985
1995
Preprim.
+
prim.
Sec.
....
53.2
...
...
...
80.2
46.1
...
...
...
29.5
37.7
...
52.6
...
...
...
...
Iraq
Israel
Japan
Jordan
Kazakhstan
Kuwait
1995
Tert.
Preprim.
+
prim.
Sec.
34.7
...
...
...
33.2
50.7
10.4
...
...
...
21.8
4.2
44.2
...
...
...
36.9
36.8
...
...
31.5
37.1
...
42.0
...
...
37.9
25.2
...
37.9
...
...
25.1
15.5
...
10.7
...
73.1
77.6
...
...
...
46.5
42.8
...
63.7
...
77.1
19.5
30.8
...
./.
...
./.
Kyrgyzstan
Lao People's Dem. Rep.
Lebanon
Macau
Malaysia
Maldives
54.1
65.0
...
...
62.1
...
71.3
...
...
...
37.8
...
Mongolia
Myanmar
Nepal
Oman
Pakistan
...
56.8
...
84.8
...
1985
Tert.
Preprim.
+
prim.
Sec.
43.3
...
...
...
31.5
50.8
7.9
...
...
...
16.5
6.5
6
...
...
...
4
13
...
67.1
21.9
38.4
...
27.7
...
./.
35.0
26.1
...
36.1
...
18.5
37.1
13.6
...
22.0
25.0
18.9
...
32.0
...
16.7
...
42.2
38.2
57.5
74.5
...
...
31.7
42.2
./.
./.
...
./.
...
...
...
37.1
...
8.8
...
...
...
14.6
...
80.2
42.2
...
...
35.4
66.7
79.9
...
35.7
50.9
36.0
./.
...
19.9
32.1
33.3
20.1
...
33.4
15.3
18.2
...
...
...
...
79.5
73.5
.
...
...
63.9
...
47.0
.
...
...
10.1
...
36.7
Saudi Arabia
Singapore
Sri Lanka
Syrian Arab Republic
Tajikistan
Thailand
84.6
...
...
...
63.4
61.6
...
30.5
90.2
38.4
64.9
58.4
Turkey
Turkmenistan
United Arab Emirates
Uzbekistan
Viet Nam
Yemen
86.7
...
73.6
58.4
...
...
75.2
70.3
Bangladesh
Bhutan
Brunei Darussalam
Cambodia
China
Cyprus
1995
Tert.
Preprim.
+
prim.
Sec.
Tert.
16
...
...
...
14
25
33
...
...
...
136
31
6
...
...
...
6
12
23
...
...
...
14
26
30
...
...
...
81
22
...
...
5
11
...
10
...
...
11
14
...
18
...
...
43
87
...
91
...
19
6
11
...
7
...
./.
12
13
...
12
...
28
52
78
...
62
...
17.2
13.5
34.4
12.5
...
10
12
...
13
...
14
10
33
...
./.
...
./.
90
44
...
109
...
58
...
12
17
14
16
...
...
29
19
./.
./.
...
...
31
16
111
20
...
./.
43.5
...
...
41.2
31.9
8.3
3.9
...
...
16.8
19
...
...
...
13
...
./.
...
...
...
25
...
36
...
...
...
138
...
23
5
...
...
9
17
./.
25
...
...
22
24
49
55
...
...
77
82.1
47.7
44.5
47.8
...
./.
40.3
17.7
45.3
...
17.8
11.7
28.1
5.8
...
10
...
8
14
9
34
...
17
32
21
74
...
207
...
126
14
4
8
13
...
34
10
12
23
...
74
21
156
...
...
.
...
...
22.5
...
10.9
...
...
...
...
...
45.5
...
...
...
...
...
34.4
...
...
...
...
...
7.9
.
...
...
5
...
13
.
...
...
2
...
11
.
...
...
11
...
11
...
...
...
...
...
16
...
...
...
...
...
12
...
...
...
...
...
6
...
36.9
./.
25.3
./.
21.1
...
27.9
9.8
33.6
7.7
13.2
82.2
25.7
72.7
...
85.0
52.8
./.
34.6
./.
...
./.
21.5
17.8
34.8
12.2
...
9.7
16.5
...
10
8
10
18
12
...
17
./.
15
./.
16
...
65
58
99
30
21
21
7
7
8
27
11
./.
13
./.
17
./.
11
63
32
64
...
39
25
45.9
...
...
...
...
...
22.4
...
...
...
...
...
23.9
...
...
...
...
...
45.4
...
...
86.7
...
...
23.0
...
...
./.
...
...
31.7
...
...
9.7
...
...
5
...
...
...
...
...
6
...
...
...
...
...
38
...
...
...
...
...
13
...
...
28
...
...
9
...
...
./.
...
...
51
...
...
28
...
...
...
23.1
...
46.9
...
16.6
63.9
29.8
20.6
48.1
10.3
19.4
...
18
...
22
...
38
11
19
23
25
36
32
Europe
Albania
Austria
Country or territory
Teachers'
emoluments as
percentage of
total current
expenditure
Percentage distribution
of current expenditure by level
1985
1995
Preprim.
+
prim.
Sec.
...
76.9
...
...
...
37.1
74.8
24.7
...
65.3
...
...
Denmark
Estonia
Finland
France
Germany
Greece
49.3
50.1
53.2
77.1
83.1
91.2
Hungary
Iceland
Ireland
Italy
Latvia
Lithuania
1995
Tert.
Preprim.
+
prim.
Sec.
./.
46.4
...
./.
...
...
14.0
16.7
...
12.4
...
...
87.0
29.8
...
75.1
...
29.2
66.5
...
30.8
29.5
...
37.7
./.
...
41.6
40.8
...
41.3
21.9
...
18.7
12.9
...
20.1
45.7
72.9
75.9
65.7
...
68.1
51.1
...
39.3
30.0
72.0
...
19.9
...
39.7
35.5
./.
...
Luxembourg
Malta
Monaco
Netherlands
Norway
Poland
...
38.7
68.2
76.9
78.6
...
43.5
31.0
...
22.6
73.5
44.2
Portugal
Republic of Moldova
Romania
Russian Federation
San Marino
Slovakia
92.5
71.1
56.6
...
...
52.1
Slovenia
Spain
Sweden
Switzerland
The FYR of Macedonia
Ukraine
United Kingdom
Yugoslavia
1985
Tert.
Preprim.
+
prim.
Sec.
./.
46.9
...
./.
...
53.5
11.0
20.3
...
15.8
...
14.7
16
13
...
16
...
...
72.4
73.8
34.3
32.1
73.0
35.9
./.
./.
37.7
50.0
./.
40.9
22.8
17.6
26.1
16.5
21.8
22.6
16.9
...
17.7
10.2
10.3
...
54.1
34.0
32.7
30.4
81.0
66.2
23.0
41.5
41.6
48.5
./.
./.
42.7
43.3
...
35.9
./.
17.9
3.3
8.2
...
26.4
13.5
18.2
...
22.5
17.3
30.1
65.3
49.7
51.0
...
...
...
52.9
...
30.6
...
...
...
33.3
...
12.7
...
...
...
4.2
...
62.2
81.7
62.8
84.3
82.5
...
...
...
68.1
76.7
...
74.1
...
...
./.
./.
...
./.
48.6
40.6
26.7
...
Australia
Cook Islands
Fiji
Kiribati
New Zealand
Papua New Guinea
76.3
...
73.5
55.1
...
...
Samoa
Solomon Islands
Tonga
Tuvalu
Vanuatu
...
...
70.7
...
68.3
Belarus
Belgium
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Bulgaria
Croatia
Czech Republic
1995
Tert.
Preprim.
+
prim.
Sec.
Tert.
./.
32
...
./.
...
...
17
39
...
48
...
...
24
15
...
17
...
18
./.
25
...
./.
...
25
20
35
...
21
...
41
24
...
18
13
...
10
./.
...
26
23
...
14
63
...
39
30
...
30
30
23
26
15
18
16
./.
./.
30
26
./.
19
55
40
46
24
35
29
17.8
20.8
23.3
15.7
12.2
18.0
15
...
14
15
12
...
24
...
24
17
./.
...
88
...
52
22
20
...
25
14
15
19
29
21
28
16
23
26
./.
./.
73
34
38
23
45
51
...
40.4
45.6
39.0
./.
20.5
...
17.9
31.0
26.0
16.0
17
8
...
13
19
11
21
18
...
19
./.
17
55
63
...
55
31
60
...
8
...
15
25
16
...
19
...
20
./.
19
...
62
...
44
50
42
37.1
...
44.9
...
48.2
47.0
38.8
...
23.8
...
32.1
12.8
14.9
...
15.9
...
14.0
16.7
13
...
...
...
...
...
19
...
...
...
...
...
43
...
...
...
...
...
16
...
17
...
...
20
20
...
7
...
...
4
25
...
40
...
...
39
...
...
13.1
18.1
...
13.5
30.0
30.0
73.3
77.8
54.9
73.5
48.4
53.2
./.
./.
22.8
./.
16.9
14.7
26.7
20.0
22.2
10.7
...
...
27
19
...
19
...
...
./.
./.
...
./.
...
...
42
47
...
18
20
16
30
23
...
13
24
21
./.
./.
...
./.
38
18
76
48
...
20
45.9
...
19.8
...
32.6
65.6
44.4
./.
23.0
21.8
14
...
25
...
51
...
19
...
22
...
44
...
61.9
37.8
...
...
38.4
...
./.
35.8
...
...
28.5
...
30.5
6.0
...
...
28.3
...
70.5
...
...
...
27.9
...
./.
...
...
...
40.7
...
29.5
...
...
...
29.4
...
17
...
...
...
13
...
./.
...
...
...
11
...
66
...
...
...
41
...
17
...
...
...
14
...
./.
...
...
...
23
...
30
...
...
...
39
...
...
...
44.7
...
...
...
...
30.9
...
...
...
...
17.9
...
...
...
...
38.8
...
57.9
...
...
24.2
...
33.0
...
...
7.3
...
6.4
...
...
9
...
...
...
...
8
...
...
...
...
94
...
...
...
...
...
...
14
...
...
...
...
49
...
...
...
...
...
Oceania
163
166
167
168
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Report of Subregional Meeting. Genting Highlands,
Malaysia, 1 17 November 1993. By A. Magnen,
L. Mhlck and J. Sequeira. Paris, UNESCO-IIEP, 1995.
143 pp.
Developments after Jomtien: EFA in the South-East Asia
and Pacific Region. Report of a Seminar on Education for All: Developments after Jomtien. Yangon,
Myanmar, 28 31 March 1995. By A. De Grauwe
and D. Bernard (eds). Paris, UNESCO-IIEP/UNICEF,
1995. 152 pp.
Development since Jomtien: EFA in the Middle East and
North Africa. Report of a Seminar on Education for
All: Developments after Jomtien. Amman, Jordan,
19 22 October 1994. By R. Govinda and I. Lorfing
(eds.). Paris, UNESCO-IIEP/UNICEF, 1995. 188 pp.
Education Aid Policies and Practices: A Report from the
IWGE. Meeting of the International Working Group
on Education (IWGE). Nice, France, 16 18 November 1994. Paris, UNESCO-IIEP, 1995. 81 pp.
Educational Challenges of the 21st Century: The Vision
of Quality. SEAMEO /INNOTECH International Conference on Educational Challenges in the World
Community of the 21st Century. Manila, Philippines,
5 7 December 1995. By J. Hallak. Paris, UNESCOIIEP. 1996. 13 pp.
Environmental Issues and Environmental Education
in the Mekong Region: Proceedings of a Regional
Seminar on Environmental Education, March 1996.
171
172
Publications
ALPHA 97: Basic Education and Institutional Environment. Edited by J.-P. Hautecoeur. Hamburg/
Toronto, UNESCO-UIE/Culture Concepts Publishers, 1997. 372 pp. (F)
ISBN 92-829-1071-6.
ALPHA 96: Basic Education and Work. Edited by
J.-P. Hautecoeur. Hamburg/Toronto, UNESCO-UIE/
Culture Concepts Publishers, 1996. 348 pp. (F)
ISBN 92-820-1075-9.
Analfabetismo y mujer rural (Investigacin). By
M. Almeida-Duque, M. S. Leiva and G. de la Bastida. New York /Paris/Quito, UNICEF/UNESCO/
FUNDELAM, 1995. 134 pp.
ISBN 9978-61-066-9.
Calidad de la educacin en el istmo centroamericano.
By J. B. Arrin et al. San Jos, UNESCO, 1996.
363 pp.
ISBN 92-9136-014-7.
Case Studies on Technical and Vocational Education
in Asia and the Pacific: An Overview. By A. R. Haas.
Bangkok, UNESCO/PROAP, 1996. 28 pp.
ISBN 974-680-057-4.
Challenges of Education for All in Asia and the Pacific
and the APPEAL Response. Compiled by T. M. Sakya
and G. Rex Meyer. Bangkok, UNESCO/PROAP,
1997. 176 pp.
ISBN 974-680-029-9.
Confronting Future Challenges: Educational Information, Research and Decision-Making. By F. Reimers, N. McGinn and K. Wild. Geneva, UNESCOIBE, 1995. 185 pp. (Studies in Comparative Education.)
ISBN 92-9145-003-0.
173
174
Periodicals
Bulletin of the Major Project of Education in Latin
America and the Caribbean (Santiago (Chile),
UNESCO/OREALC). Bulletin published three times a
year. (S).
Educacin Superior y Sociedad (Caracas, UNESCO/
CRESALC). (Spanish only).
Higher Education in Europe (Bucharest, UNESCO/
CEPES). Quarterly review. (F, R).
International Review of Education /Internationale
Zeitschrift fr Erziehungswissenschaft /Revue internationale de lducation (Hamburg, UNESCO-UIE/
Kluwer Academic Publishers). Six issues a year.
(Trilingual: E/G/F).
Prospects: Quarterly Review of Comparative Education
(Geneva, UNESCO-IBE) (Ar, Ch, F, R, S).
UNESCO-AFRICA (Dakar,
issues a year. (F).
UNESCO/BREDA).
Two