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AEISTOTLE
AND THE EAELIER PEEIPATETICS
VOL.
I.
WORKS BY
DR.
PRE-SOCEATIC SCHOOLS
E.
ZELLER.
History of
Greek
Crown
8vo.
SOCRATES
Translated
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THE
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from
the
SCHOOLS.
SOCRATIC
German by
0. J.
Rkichel, M.A.
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Translated
Allkyxk and
A, Goodwin.
8vo. ISs.
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OUTLINES
Translated
Crown
8vo.
OF
THE
PHILOSOPHY.
HISTORY
OF
LONGMANS, GREEN,
39 Paternoster
GREEK
German by Sarah
Crown 8vo. 105.6^'.
&
Eow, London
CO.
F.
ARISTOTLE
AND
!
"
BY
COSTELLOE,
B. F. C.
J.
H.
MUIEHEAD,
M.A.
M.A.
'<
\^
I.
All
rights reserved
CO.
311
VI
TO
TEAN8LAT0ES' NOTE
The
Eduard
ment.'
It is
Zeller's
work on
Zeller's
sanction,
and
time
by
Messrs.
Longmans
as
translations
chiefly
notes
up
the
the
of
Mr. Costelloe
Mr. Muirhead
for the
for
middle
is
translator
owing
to an accident for
which the
of the text in
TRANSLATORS' NOTE
viii
in proof.
Zeller's notes
German
text
its
The
value.
treatise is
readers which
is
The student
will find
ample
which
is
that
it
has
not been
is
and the
so logical and
considered necessary to
CONTENTS
OF
CHAPTER
Alexander,
31.
from
Flight
Athens and
Cha-
death, 33.
racter, 39.
CHAPTER
II
Aristotle's writings
A. Consideration of the particular
The Catalogues,
Works seriatim
Exoteric, 106.
CHAPTER
Scientific, 123.
lit
154.
ARISTOTLE
CHAPTER IV
STANDPOINT, METHOD, AND DIVISIONS OF THE PHILOSOPHY
OF ARISTOTLE
Aristotle
and Plato,
IGl.
Their Difference,
Dialectic, 171.
Empiricism, 173.
Formalism, 177. Division of his Philosophy: Theoretic, Practical, Poietic, and their subdivisions, 180.
Logic, Metaphysics,
Physics, Ethics, Theory of Fine Art, 188.
165.
Aristotle's
Method:
CHAPTER V
LOGIC
Scope of Logic, 191. Nature and Origin of Knowledge, 194. Development of Knowledge, 196. Problem of the Science of Knowledge, 211.
^
.,
CHAPTER VI
INTRODUCTORY
INQUIRIES
TOUCHING
ARISTOTLe's
META-
PHYSICS
The Categories what they are and how they are deduced, 274.
The Categories in Detail, 281. Significance of the Theory of
:
xi
VII
continued
329.
is
CHAPTER
VIII
PHYSICS
A. The Idea of Nature
CHAPTER IX
PHYSICS
continued
469.
The
Terrestrial
and the
Celestial
Universe the ^ther, 472. The Four Elements, 477. The Unity
of the World, 485.
The Shape of the Universe, 487.
Structure of the Heavens Theory of the Spheres, 489. The Number
:
Addenda and
Page
Co7'rigenda.
74, n. 2.
is not decisive.
adds in a later note, that
Zeller
22.
1.
1, col. 1,
188, n.
203, n. 2,
many
1.
12, for
1.
4, insert
210, n. 2, col.
199, n. 2
18, delete of
1, 1.
11, 12,/o/' a
224, n. col. 1,
235, n. col. 2,
249, n. 3, col, 2,
257, n.
1,
288, n.
1,
302, n. 3,
335, n. 1,
1.
346, n. col. 2,
1.
361, n. col. 1,
1.
364,
1.
11.
30, /or
1.
1.
5,
for there
7-ead these
read universal
15 from bottom, after possibility insert
itself
4,/o/- general
16,
comma
omit semicolon
8.
1875, p. 425),
by 'modification.'
390, n. 3, col. 1,
395, n. col.
400, n.
1,
1.
1.
9,
1, col. 2, 1. 11,
404,
1.
1.
add that
it
l)e
omit not
word read is
thought read intelligible
do
read are
12, for
18, /or motion read moved
33, after
405, n.
3, col. 1,
1.
407, n. 2, col. 2,
1.
412, n. col 1,
415,
417,
1.
5,
read Form
related to them read not only bodies and
for bodies and masses
magnitudes but everything which possesses them or is related to them
427, n. 8, col. 2, 1. 8,/or masses read magnitudes
428, 1. 28, /or after read beliind
441, n. 2, col. 1, 1. 8,/or forcible read forced
454, 1. 11, /or extension read extrusion
459, n. 5, col. 1, 1. 17, for But read Again
479, n. 1, col. 1, 1. 1, after ought add in the converse case
1. 4, after does add not
510,
1.
1.
propeller
1.
2,
who
One
The
AEISTOTLE
AND THE
EAELIBE PEEIPATETIC8
CHAPTER
The
lives
philo-
As the
beginning to extend
existence, so
was
we
itself
at first confined in
narrow
pure Athenian
to pass
citizen,
and gained, as
limits,
Socrates
city.
is
not only a
feels
Plato
no desire
is also
an
he spends his youth and a considerable part of his manhood out of Athens, chiefly in the rising Macedonian
kingdom
stranger, not
VOL.
I.
ARISTOTLE
and not hindered by any pergonal
city,
from giving
ties
birth of Aristotle
The
falls,
Ari-
stotle's life
Diogenes,
now extant
v.
are (1)
Brandis,
Aristotelia i. 1-188
Gr.-rom. Phil. ii. b, i. pp. 48-65
Grote's Arist. (1872), i. 1-37,
;
and Grant's
1-29.
Opp.
141)6-1)8
(which
there
is
which approaches
translation,
more closely to the Vita Marciana
the
than to
Pseudo-Ammonius
All of these,
voce 'ApicrroreATis.
except (ih), are to be_ found
in UuHLE, Arist. Oj)]). i. 1-79.
Westermann's appendix to CoVitcs
bet's Diogenes, and his
Scriptorum (at p. 397) also con-
which treated of
Aristotle's life.
We
doubt
differs
widely;
DioG.
basis
9
of
no
the
doubt on
statement
{ibid. 10,
Ord. 245), before the publication of (4&), ascribed the archetype of (4) to the younger Olym-
piodorus
4); vide
tain (3)
o-ives (4&)
'Lib.
a guess which
may be
Arist.
Stahr
i.
30.
Gellius'
B.C. 384.^
was situated
which was
many
flourishing cities,
possession of
all
unknown
writer,
EUMELUS
(ap.
to
Aristotle
(v.
p.
35,
n.
3,
parallelism with
the Platonic Apologia of Socrates.
But apart from the probability
of this explanation, Eumelus is
completely displaced by the
agreement of all the other testimony, including that of so careful
a chronologist as ApoUodorus.
A reliable tradition as to the age
of their founder must have existed
How
in the Peripatetic School,
could all our witnesses, except
this one unknown and badlyinformed writer, have come to
agree upon a false statement of
it when the truth could have been
easily ascertained ?
'
That he was born in the
first half of the Olympiad, or
infra')
and
its
came
We
stotle's
in
Greek,'
but
Grote
(i.
3)
B 2
and
ARISTOTLE
was the body-surgeon and friend of the Macedonian
and it is natural to suppose that the
King Amyntas
long hereditary in the family must
father's profession
^
may
Nicomachus took
though
and
philosopliical
'
Bernays
and
W.
von
Hum-
We
boldt
(in
Werlie, v.
how long
tell
how
or
Equally
little
Ammonius ^
life is
life
whom he
whom he gave
he was a
child,
in marriage.
and
to
own daughter
orders a
'
He
Administr.
ii.
1, vol.
ii.
280 K)
that the Asclepiad families practised their sons eK Traldwv in reading, writing, and avaT/xviv, does
not help us much, as (apart from
the question whether the information is fully credible) we do
not know how old Aristotle was
at his father's
death.
It is
doubtful
human
p. 89, n.
^
In
or animal
all
three recensions, p. 43
Math. i. 258).
^ What trust is
in a writer who tells
to
be placed
Lat.U,12,U).
Aristotle in his will(DiOG. 12)
directs that Nicanor is to marry
''
ARISTOTLE
but
it
growth.^
up
lie
Aristotle
came
to Plato.
It
might appear that, as Aristotle
died at sixty-three, the son of his
foster-parents would be too old
to marry a daughter not then
grown up
but this does not
follow.
If Aristotle was a child
at his father's death, and Proxe;
circle of
xviii.8
made away
what we know
of Pythias, as
see p. 20, n. 3, infra.
know nothing of the
age at which Aristotle came to
Proxenus, nor of the manner or
place of his education, for it
was probably not at Atarneus
see above, p. 5, n. 5.
2 A silly story in Ps. Amm. 44,
V. Marc. 2, and Amman. Latin. 11
relates that he was sent by the
Delphic Oracle.
Apollodor. ap. DioG. 9
to
whom
^
We
''
irapafiaKiTiv
Se
IlKdrwvi,
KoX
Sia-
Tpi\pai Trap'
Koi
SeKa
4twv
avcTTavra.
This
iTTTO/caiSeKO
ira>v
yevSixevos.
We
seen
how
little credit
attaches to
as Aristotle
composed an elegy
memory of a fellow-student,
Eudemus of Cyprus (p. 11, n. 4,
infra), who went to Sicily with
in
for
Eume-
ble,
tetic,
Timffius vide p.
9, n. \, infra.
The
'
'
archetype was
UXdroiVi, or
virh
4rpifiv,
&c.
fj.'
If the latter
be sup-
second
Sicilian
journey
(vide
Stahr
(p. 43) suggests that the abovementioned statement that he was
three years with Socrates and
after his death followed Plato (P^.
^ww. 44,50, V. Marc. 2, Ammon.
Zeller, Plato,
p.
32).
ARISTOTLE
twenty years until the master died.^ It would have
been of the greatest value if we could have known
in detail something of this long period of preparation,
in which the foundations of his extraordinary learning
and of
been
must have
Unhappily our informants pass over all the
laid.
he
and character.
first
One
manner
Another
service, afterwards,
being
Isocrates,
'
p. 6, n. 3,
suj)ra
lit
and Dionysius,
a-va-radils
U\dTa}ui.
Lv. XV.
Pnz?/^.
Ti/A.aiov
Timffius
SUIDAS, sub
V. 'ApiffTOreATis.
oUv
Aristocl. nt supra
ira>s yap
re, KaOdiTip prjalv 'EirlKovpos eV
ry
irepl
rS>v
iTriTrjdevfidrwi/
iin-
by
Aristocles.^
Greater weight
rhv
irepliraTOv')
cf.
same
passage quoted in
similar words, apud Athen. viii.
354, ajjud DiOG. x. 8, and less
the
closely a2?ud
1
In the
^LIAN.
V.
H.
first place, it is
v. 9.
with-
oy\iiixaQ)]s
also.
for learning
should have
first
lies,
and therefore we
Bemays {Abh.
pMl.
d.
GesellscJiaft,
Brest.
i.
Hist.193), that
probably
Aristotle
practised
medicine in Athens while he was
natural
studying
philosophy.
ARISTOTLE
10
dialectician
of
Aristotle
ingratitude
to
his
master.^
showy
accused
and
his doctrines
set
the Academia.''
'
XV.
2,
Aws
Tai
iv
.
T^
.
^Elian,
M\
avrov
(pdcTKWV
^Lfikicf xpevSe-
TAeUTU>VTL
sible, it refers
ancients, re-
DiOG. 2
eri
a-jrecrrr]
irepiouTOS' ooare
Se
IWdTUPos
(prjalu
t'cuvov
aireAaK-
TLaKa9a'KeplTa7rcti\dpiayevpr]94vTa
TTju fiTfT^pa
^and
so
tEliAN,
and Helladius
iv. 9,
a. 6).
16;},
V. 11.
Phot.
aj).
Similarly
b.
Cur. Gr. Aff. v. 4G,
p. 77, says Aristotle often attacked Plato while he was yet
alive
Philop. Anal. Post. 51 a,
Soltol. in Arist. 228, p. 16, that
he had especially opposed his
and
master's
Ideal Theory
Augustine, Civ. Dei. viii. 12,
that he had established even
then a numerous school.
'
This occurrence is related
by our sole authority (^LIAN,
V. II. iii. 19, cf. iv. 9) in this
way that when Plato was over
eighty, and his memory was failing, Aristotle on one occasion,
279,
CahI.
p. 533,
Theodohet,
Xenocrates
see,
it meant only
natural and impersonal polemics.
Besides Aristocles, Diogenes (ii.
also rejects
Eubulides'
109)
charges as a calumny.
since to Aristotle
being
absent and
11
own
opposition to his
in
however,
data,
'
by
strangers.'
All these
are
If the asser-
not
could
it
reasons in the
be
possibly
first place,^
chronological
for
true,
iu
(pT]cr\v
fielv
r^
iv
yap
TTj
^(qj
rod HXdrajyos
Kol ry
irKoLvri
iiravicTTaadai Ka)
avTCf Tivas
aTro5r]fA.ia
avroiKoSo-
irepiirarov
^vovs
Among
(TTOTeXTjv.
the
was
euiot
(Tx^^Vf'
irpuTOs
crreidrjs
i(rvKo<pdvTif](Te
vampov
koX
rfKoAovOrjcrev
'Api;
re-
AEiSTiDES,i>e q^mtuorv.
ii.
324 sq. (Dind.), who, however, does not refer to Aristotle
by name any more than Aristoxenus, whose account he re-
f erringto
and held
Probably, however.
'Ap., o&s
2
Tivs
Cf.
refuted
viroXa/xfidvovcri.
from
was
his
fame 1
The proofs of
this are
(a)
Aristotle published several Platonic essays (cf. infra and Zeller, Plato, p. 26). For many
reasons (especially perhaps because of their notable departure
from the method of teaching
laid down by Plato, cf. Zell.
Plato, p. 517 sq.) it is unlikely
*
and third
of
Plato's
Sicilian
ARISTOTLE
12
that
refer
to
Aristotle
at
all.^
Academia
to his
own
gardens.
But besides,
ascribes
it
lieve of a
The Eudemus of
was written
(/y)
infra)
(cf.
352 B.C.
Oorg.
(c)
16G,
Olympiodorus (m
Jahn's Jahrh.
in
xiv.
and
895,
Bbrgk, Lyr. Gr., p. 504) has
preserved some verses of Aristotle's Elegy on Eudemus, which
Supiylement}).
(Teixuris
(pi\ir]s
IBpixraro
their
genuineness
on
[Plato]
e^fiisf>s
fiSvos
t)
ivapyws
olKeio)
ws
re
ayados
fiicp
re
i.
55) doubts
and the
where
it is used of Speusippus, and 7,
9,
of Heraclides.
The nvas of
cited p. 8, n. 3, suj^ra,
Index Herculanensis,
grounds
Aristoxenus
may
6, 5,
have referred
cf
13
and
been kept at a distance by him,' we could bring
many statements which imply that the relation between
had
so
We
may
is
stories,
apparent.^
and we need
whose inaccuracy
insulBficiently attested,
of
p.
Socratie
in
dialogues
And
probably all Plato's works, except the Laws, were written before Aristotle
came
to
Athens at
all.
David,
ibid.
ibid. 24, a, 6,
b, and the
25,
27
['Ap.] vTrbXiKa.ToivosToaov'Tov
T^s a7xiJ'oias
i]yd(T6r},
ws vovs
ttjs
avTOv irpoaayopeveSiarpifiris
ffdai
and Ps. Ammo7i. 44, says
Plato called Aristotle's house oIkos
vir*
cf.
also Zeller,
Plato, p. 559.
To the same
tradition belong the very doubtful
story cited in Zeller, Plato,
p. 26, n., and the account of the
avayvdocTTOv
with a laudatory
by Aristotle to Plato
onhis death (Anim. 46, Philopon.
i.q.v., Schol. in Amat. 11, b, 29),
which arose, no doubt, out of a
mistranslation of the Elegy to
Eudemus, p. 11, n. 4, mipra.
* Such is the idea mentioned
by Philopo]ms(w?^ svpra, 11, b, 23
sqq., where in 1. 25, lege ^Apiarore-
altar dedicated
inscription
Pseudo-
vi.
Ammon.
originally to
when
Aristotle
ARISTOTLE
14
Plato's death
scholar.
and
credibility,
that
this time
all
So even in
years
later
principles of the
contesting the
is
School,
it
^
;
philosophic
their
accentuated in the
n.
Vide
suina.
p.
6,
n.
Ep. ad Amiii.
YlXdrcopi kuI
(Tvvj]v
irwv
eTTTtt
(TXoAtjs
Koi
3,
and
i.
7,
p.
p.
738
5ieTpi;|/e>'
rpiaKOvra,
riyovfiepos
out'
8,
ISiau
'4us
ovre
7re-
and the
cf.
Ka6'
eari ra
ov<i
ei'Syj
V eluai
Tpo-novs SeiKuvfjiev
kuto.
t^v
on
viroXrjrpiv
(jyafiev
of
iiriffKeipacrOaL koI
\4yeTai,
irus
SLaTroprjarai.
Kaiirep
jToiriKws aipeaiv.
self
In a well-known passage
the
Ethics ^which ^itself
^i^
yivoix4vr]s
elcrayayelu
Xaws
ra
fieKTiov
ye
a(aTr]pLa
ovras-
(plhovs
eJvai
&.v5pas
do^eie
eYSr;.
ttjs
olKe7a avaipelv,
crdcpovs
rh
Koi
aX7]9eias
aWoos re
aix<po7v
S'
5e7u
ti.u
iirl
Kal ra
Kal
(j)i\o-
yap ovroiv
tV
xiv. 6, 8.
Pr. Ev.
16
Ideas.'
for
Macedonia.^
Again,
it is
years,
time the
tie that
time broken.
Finally,
we
are told
that Xenocrates
and
it is
probable
in later times.
^lian
visit to
if
so
inde-
20, n. 3, infra
^AKa5r]iJ.ias
Bop^opov 4u irpoxoais,
6 1 0), whom
disbelieve.
(cf.
p.
whereas
to
in
he
Speusippus
parallel
cases.
is
named
This
pro-
ARISTOTLE
16
we have
Aristotle brought on
intentional offence.
own during
his
done
so,
his
If he had
friendly relations
Platonic circle
exactly at the
left
moment when
On
Even in the books
Philosophy' {Arist. Fraym. 10,
11. p. 1475), apparently written
'
before
Plato's
death,
he
had
We
2
have no right to ascribe
to Plato and his circle of friends
the later ideas of school-orthodoxy, in any such sense as to
If,
his school,
it
17
follows that
The
right to praise.'
thirst for
knowledge.
We may safely
assume that he
in
natural
of secondary importance.
as
it
always treated
is
also possible
he
breaking
may
up against him
as the leader of a
comioeting school.
hear, for instance, that Aristotle
taught Ehetoric
in opposition to Isocrates ; ^ but we
know that the great
We
>
J. ffT^^-^'/i-
p. 12 mpra.
!\'\P-
'i^>
Aristotle.
Jrsfoteles,
cum/orere Isocratem
nohihtate
disoipuloi^vm
videret,
...vmtavitrejjentetotamformam
jrrope
d^sc^pl^nce su<e
[which
sounds as if Aristotle had even
then a school of his own, though
VOL.
enmi
turpe,
siU ait
esse tacere
illavi
tionem
fucjit
sajieJssim^ITeglT^^
"''
I.
ARISTOTLE
18
period the
writer
commencement
and the
of Aristotle's activity as a
time
came
visibly to an
and
quis
Arist. fuit ?
porro Isocrati est adversatvs imIn Tusc. i. 4, 7, Cicero
2)eiu'ms ?
assumes that Aristotle attacked
Isocrates in his lifetime, which
would be possible only in his first
.
acrio?'
MEN.
xxiii.
ihid. xiv. 6, 8,
285,
c.
Themist. Or.
jwnieridianis
.
seniore
Arist. j)r(P^W'^'^^ artem
oratoriam coepit, noto qiiidem lllo,
jam
'scholis
with
19
him
first
in
Athens; since
contemplated the
friend of both,^
went
to Mytilene.6
safety, because
Hermias had
had
left
prise,
'
p. 133 sq.
3 Strabo, xiii.
1, 57,
Apollodor. aj). DiOG.
p.
610,
9,
and
was
for his
own
power of
it is
texts
perhaps the
^vvayuy^
H^xpSiv
seem to belong to the
first Athenian period.
'
This choice has caused sur-
and they
Thereafter Aristotle
DiONYS.
Ej).
i.
5,
who
agree
'A/>.),
was an immoral
impossible;
IS
one,
but this
Boeckh, iUd.
187.
^
sius, etc.,
01.
108.
= 345-4
B.C.,
in
ARISTOTLE
20
of
pliilosopher married
Hermias the
Pythias,
who was
and of
his last-
left
memorial.^
'
According to Aristocles
e/ceij/oj/
&\X(i}5
evvoiav
eyrj/J-ev
(Tcocppova
fxhu
Kal
arvxova-au fievToi
ovffav,
Tas KaraXafioixTas crvfjicpopas rhv
Strabo (^ut supra)
a5X(phv avrr\s.
says Hermias married her to
Aristotle in his lifetime, which
is negatived by the Letter, if
Aristocl. {ibid. 4, 8)
genuine.
says tliat Aristotle was accused
in his lifetime of having flattered
her brother to win Pythias, and
ayaOT]y
Sm
in
Menag.
with Demetr.
De Moo.
Pythias
was
the
Strabo
(xiii.
and
Hermias.
sister
adopted daughter of
Cf.BOECKH,?Z;<VZ. 140.
TiON, Suid.
s.
v.
HarpocraEtym.
'Epfxias,
31.,
call
her an
ument
603
;cf.
Muller, Hist.Gr.
and supra,
p. 15, n. 1.
also dedicated
to
ii.
86,
Aristotle
Hermias the
Suidas,
cilable
{ajnid
Demetr. of Magnesia
DiOG. V. 3) daughter or niece.
Hist.
Qr.
i.
Muller, Fragm.
Athen. xiii.
211
589
citing
DiOG.
c,
V. 1.
ap.
B.C.
Macedonian Court ^
to
him
old,^
The
We
Mytilene.'""'
stotle.^
fjLuriadevTas
'6ri
ifiov,
kuI
6,K\ci}v
Kol
iav
'EpTrvAAiSos,
6.v5pa
jSouATjrat
Diog.
in his
will.
youth
(iJ.eipaKL(TKos)
stocl. ap.
V.
29
in battle (Ari-
Eus, XV.
Suidas
s.
2,
v.
10
DiOG.
@6i)p.
and
NiKd/x,,
are
'
This date is given by ApolLOD. ap. DiOG. 10, and Dionys.
which
i.
(cf.
Stahr,
p. 85).
SoOfi
says fifteen,
und
must be an
a date
entirely
1, 9.
5 Stahr
(p. 84, 105, A. 2) is
not averse to the view that Aristotle first went back from Mytilene to Athens, but none of our
biographers know anything of
it.
On the contrary, Dionys., ut
sn/pra, expressly says he went
from Mytilene to Philip. Aristotle in a fragment of a letter
Demetr. Be
says
iyitJ
ARISTOTLE
22
is certainly
Philip could not
have written in these extravagant terms to a young man of
ix. 3),
spurious,
for
who had
27,
had no
chance
he
him
to
109,
2.
notice
of Aristotle after he had become
one of the most distinguished of
Plato's
school,
though little
weight attaches to Cicero's statement to that effect {De Oral.
iii. ;>5, 141).
It is also possible
tliat tlirough his father, Aristotle
had relations with the Macedonian court, and he may himself, as Stahr (p. 33) suggests,
have been acquainted in his
youth with Philip, who was the
youngest son of Amyntas and
about his own age.
There was a work, or perhaps a section of a larger work,
On the Education of Alexander,'
by the Macedonian historian
'
'
Marsyas (SuiD.
s.
v.
Mapo-.; cf.
MuLLER,
sq.).
it
to
assume that
He
as-
politics,
publishing
trines,
and
those
would
friends,
with
Aristotle's
teaching.
These are, however,
more or less probable guesses,
We
Ilepl fiaaiKeias,
and
'Tirhp 'AiroiKwv,
(Alex. 8)
iv.
23
Alexander
to the king.^
was not only the invincible conqueror, but also a farHe was ambitious
seeing ruler, ripe beyond his years.
arms only,
Grecian
not
of
supremacy,
the
establish
to
but also of the Hellenic culture. He withstood for
years the greatest temptations to overweening pride to
which any
errors, he
man could
still
querors in nobility of
be exposed.
all
other world-con-
And
who
met
^LIAN.
V.
H.
iv. 19).
DiOG.
arepKTLKhu ovk
avrhv a\KoTpi6Tii]ro5
exovaai
irphs
iyevovro
rcKfiripiov.
<pi\o(To(piav
Opafifievos
6 /xevToi
ott'
apxris
irphs
koI
crvvT-
avrcp
Cv^os
ifiireipvKiDs
viii.
106, d.).
DeOYSEN,
p. 99, 2
Hellen. i. b, 12 sq.)
proves nothing to the contrary.
' Fs. Amm. 46,
V. Marc. 4,
Jlww. Zif. 13,-^LIAN, F. ^.xii.54.
cf.
StAHE,
GescJi.
d.
ARISTOTLE
24
Of the
latter
we
had at
different times to
^),
thank him
must naturally
Ammon.
c. 7, cf.
Adv.
and
Dio.
Chkysost. Or.2p'n,Or.il,22^B..
On the other hand, DiOG. 4, Ps.
Col.
33,
3,
p.
1126,
47,
and
in
V.
Ma/rc.
and
Ammon.
that a
him
iv
^KKahriixia
ikOSpTa
vtt'
St)
filois,
a-xo^rjs "EevoKpdTrjs
avrhv koI
deaadfievou
kK4(Tdai. irepi-
decisive
campaigns
25
though that
'*
and the
was
(cf. p. 3, n, 2),
is
assumed
orders
the votive
offering for
Nicomachus to be erected there.
His second wife was of Stagira
(v. p. 20, n. 3), and Theophrastus
owned land in the city (Dioa. v.
52),
to be well acquainted.
Cf Hist.
Plant, iii. 11, 1 ; iv. 16, 3.
.
^ Plut. (^Z^a?. c.
7) says he and
Alexander lived at the Nymph-
Emathia.
with Xenocrates
this bio-
ARISTOTLE
26
He returned to Athens^
in
Olymp. 111.2
work
for his
in that city
(b.c.
335-4)
years,^
left
but
it
after Plato,
(14, 17)
(5,
The
collection
of
polities
Alexander's campaigns
in
noticed
also by Ammon, Categ. 5, b;
David, Schol. in An. 24, a, 34
Ps.-PoEPH, ibid. 9, b, 26 Anon.
is
naming
last
all
his systematic
period of his
life.
Dionys. ut supra
iaxo^a-
322
however,
as
is
is
shown
otherwise unlikely,
at p. 36, n.
infra.
27
as a writer
at last
new
school.
The
name
Peripatetics.' ^
For a
more numerous audience, however, he would naturally
of the
'
V. 352.
Hermippus
ap. Diog. 2,
etc.; Qi\(^. Acad.S..^, 17; Gell.
N. A. XX. 5, 5; Diog. i. 17;
Galen. IT. ijJiil. c. 3 Philop.
in q. V. Schol. in Ar. ii. b, 23 (cf.
in Categ. Schol. 35, a, 41 sq.
Ammon. in q. v. Porph. 25, 6
David, in Categ. 23, b, 42 sq.,
and p.l3,n.3 supra) with David,
Schol. in Ar. 20, b, 16; Simpl.
in Categ. 1 fin. That this derivation is correct rather than the
opposite view of Suidas (s. v.
2
though
later it
was
Therefore,
iii.
181
(v.
Math.
Sext. Pyrrh.
331, 369
vii.
Philosophia remotior
( = Metaphysics) with Physics and Dia'
'
tion,
ing;
the
exoteric
lectures,
to
jjroieipere
artem oratoriamccepit).
ew-
ARISTOTLE
28
as
less
with
scientific
wherever these
some inquiry
accuracy of
difficulties
to be carried
On
detail.^
through
an alternative method. ^
as
is
eTreiS^
irAetoi/s
iyeuoyro
with which
It is this,
Diog. iv,
dAAa juV
10,
and not
speaking of Polemo
oi/Se KaQi^cou
^Aeye
irphs
ras
Se eTre-
X^'^P^i-
following notes).
^ Diog.
(3) is
not
a good
Diog. 3
eyv/jLva^e
piKws
29
everyone
At
freely.^
we must
also
many
haviug on
sides a
common
life.
For friendship
its
by word and
we hear
and
common
life.^
needed
him by
150).
In hae Ar.
adolescentes,
morem
pMlosnpJiorum
7wn ad
tenuiter
Gell.
rulers,
for
and
especially
Prot.
were provided
Macedonian
ihid.
i^corepiKo,
dice-
ad
bantur, quce
and Gell.
il)ld.
2
common meals
v6aoi (rvixiroriKoi,
ARISTOTLE
80
we may
may seem
this subject
inheritance/
it
is
us could
own works ^
told that he
in action something
to
his
hampered by poverty.
was not
As to the
worthlessness
tales
of
the
and
of,
of
p. 9,
3.
Aeas
fii^Xioe^Kr)s
Athen.
i.
3, a.
avuTa^iv.
Gell.
fiaa-i-
Cf.
17, 3)
three Attic ta(iii.
81
science
In the
may
good relations
were disturbed.^
The
many
of the
necessary for
members
As
game
of their ambitions.
friendly, it
also,
But the
sthenes)
as
Antipater,
to
cf.
118.
ARISTOTLE
32
of Callisthenes.^
The
philosopher to the
new
them
the pointed
way
which he vaunted
in
his inde-
placed Alexander's
life
life
in
^
the
especially
pater
fro).
As to Callisthenes, see
PluT. Alex. 53-55 Sto. rep. 20,
>
6.
p. 1043,
Qu. conv.
i.
6. p.
623
Curt. viii.
Chares ajmd Athen. x.
ArriAN,
18 sq.;
iv,
10-14
Theopheast.
434 d
Tusc.
ill.
10, 21
ap.
ClC.
Seneca, Not.
and of modern
23, 2
Stahr, Arist. 1. 121 sq.
Droysen, Gescfi. Alex. ii. 88
sq.
Grote, Hist, of Greece, xii.
Qu.
vi.
writers,
290
sq., etc.
^
jj;^
jg
highly improbable he
ing to Chares
he had at
(ajj.
tirst
Plut.
ihid.),
intended to try
33
recommended
warned the
young man against imprudence.^ The suspicion
him
reckless
So
far
his
vii.
(of. p. 23,
VOL.
I.
gonus
Stahr, Ar.
SEN,
i.
136
sq.
and Droy-
i. 705 sq,)
apart from its moral impossibility, on these grounds
\a) Plut. ihid. shows expressly
that the suspicion of poisoning
first arose six years after Alexander's death, whenit afforded the
passionate Olympias a welcome
pretext to slake her hatred
against Antipater's family, and
to excite public opinion against
Cassander who was said to have
administered the poison
(Z>)
equal suspicion attaches to the
testimony of Antigonus, which
must belong to the time when he
was at enmity with Cassander,
though we do not know whether
he made any charge against
Gescfi. d. Hellen.
rests,
ARISTOTLE
34
(c)
it
is
significant
to
whom
no calumny
is
any fear as to
(_^)
own
his
own
safety
it is
ander's
service,
and
intrusted
For
details, see
Gesoh. d. Hellen.
i.
59
Droysbn,
sq.
86
him
against
in itself baseless
enough
must
But
geance.2
the
rising
Aristotle found
storm.^
He
Orat.
ii.
23,
which were
hostile to Athens;
related
the deification of
Hermias, and alleged as proofs
the poem noticed (p. 20, n. 3),
and the alleged sacrifice (p. 20,
n. 1) cf. Athen. xv. 696 a, 697 a;
to
'Aer}va7oi.
escaped to
iii.
it
in
Eu-
may
We
D 2
ARISTOTLE
where he had a country house, to which he had
sometimes retired before,^ and his enemies could only
To Theophrastus ^
inflict on him unimportant insults.^
boea,^
e'Trl
(rvK(f),
Homer where
in allusion to
the
DiOG.9
Origen,%# w^r;
iELiAN,
iii.36;
EusTATH.
p.
8;
1573
in
Ammon.
Odyss.
p.
Amman. Latin.
48
120,
V.
Marc.
17, the
last
them in a
letter to Antipater. Favorinus,
apud DiOG. 9, says the Homeric
hne occurred in a written Apologia,
mentioned placing
what we
ad Amm.
Dionys. Lp.
tind in
that Aristotle
5,
i.
3,
having
fled to
not possible to
assume (with Stahr, i. 147) an
earlier emigration of Aristotle to
Chalcis, on the authority of the
statement of Heraclides that
It is
Chalcis.
Aristotle
was
in Chalcis
to Athens,
^AXe^dvSpov
living
TcAeuTi^craj/Tos
lj.eT\de7v
['E-TTiKoupov]
For Aristotle's
(pcova.
eis
KoAo-
flight
was
due
The Pseudo-Ammonius
inexact.
possible dates.
2
Cf.
Strabo,
x.
1,
11,
p.
448.
3 In a fragment of a letter to
Antipater probably of this time
(ajj.
^LIAN,
V.
H.
xiv. 1,
Aristotle
Ae\(po7s
tS)v iu
44, n. 4 infra)
mention
e^vTwv
What
ment,
(101.
KoX
S)V
cf.
p.
makes
;|/7j^i(r-
cKpyprjixai
vvv.
privilege
we do not know.
it
If it
may
Aristotle
to
37
In the
is,
in the
summer
of 322
B.c.^,
he
succumbed
So
it
body
is
to a disease from
chanced that
of his
will is preserved to
us,''
and
it is
His
monument
last
of his
1166 b, 11),
does not fit the
^
Apollod. ap. D10G..IO, V.
Marc. 3, Ammon. Latin. 12,
and Dion. Mp. ad Amm. i. 5, give
was
It
and because
it
ARISTOTLE
88
faithful
Kelos),
who
(lege
will be
mentioned in his
place.
Herm-
Peripatetic
'ApiffToov 6
circ.
Twu avTOv
/JLeTO, \_Twv']
(rvyypafxfidr(i)v
A
of which Aristotle possessed.
never
forger, however, would
have omitted the
latter,
which
interest
is very pos-
made
arrangements
about it,
to be re-
all
who
Theo-
slaves.
him
forger inserted
name
but
it
is
as a historic
clearly natural
powerful friend.
And
meant when he
this is all
named
that
is
first
iwiTpoTTos
irdvrcav,
carrying
out
of
is
whereas
the
the
business
him he
lie
named
89
and
to
left
Aristotle's character.
details as to his
as
such
relations
his
we
Most of these
of his later
What
years."^
and
shows
lxya\o'!rpTreia
itself.
choice
iV.
A.
is
xiii.
well
known (Gell.
Eudemus
where
5,
DiOGt. 2
calls
him
laxvo-
nrpoydffTcop.
We
pronouncing
R,
word rpavXhs
(op.
hear of a lisp in
to which the
DiOG.
2,
Anon.
8,-p.26,and Adidat.
9, p.
Poet.
53) reiers.
;
Spada
Rome,
at
v.
Schuster,
and with a
delicate,
clear-cut
profile.
It
or
his
immediate
successor.
Directions are given in Theophrastus' will (DiOG. v. 51) that
the
Mou(re?oj/
be finished
r))v 'Apia-roels
t5 Uphp
'6ffa
irpSTepov
vTTTJpx^v
bably
1/
is
ARISTOTLE
40
by
many enemies^
his
Nor do
probability.^
shrewdness,
concerns
charges
the accounts
we have
little
give us
of
sort
seeking
chiefly
his
or
The
and
jealous
first
relations
of
these
with
the
Macedonian rulers. The second refers to the criticisms he allows himself to make in writing of his
But it- cannot be
cotemporaries and his forerunners.
proved that he ever sought the favour of Philip and
Another calumny is TerAr. familiarem suum
Jlermiam tiirpiter loco excedere
fecit {A2whget. 46), which in the
context can only mean he betrayed
him, a tale so senseless and wicked
sujira.
tullian's
a (XTparhs
talks of
stotle's
'6Xos
of Ari-
By him,
Eus. xv. 2) and
calumniators.
Aristocl.
{ap.
Diogenes
named
are
n. 2, supra'),
and
he sold the
oil
so miserly that
afterwards
or
that in his youth he was too
fashionable for a philosopher
(which, as he was rich and brought
:
and
up at Court, is possible)
that he was impudent and sneerIf there were any facts
ing.
:
any case
charges.
and
41
was not
to be
follies
To impute
of a Callisthenes.
it
to
it
him
as
an
offence,
is
to
By
So
policy.
satisfied
sweeping changes.
men and
ditions
things,
on which the
government depends.
With
his
practical
acumen he
among
sounds like
Aristotle writes to
(Arist. Fragm. No.
Stalir thinks it
flattery
when
Alexander
Rose
Tohs
ovSels
(1.
^ffffovs
and
'[(Tos,
but
aXXb.
yivcrai,
if
xii.
ov irphs
with Rutgers,
Heitz)
KpeiTTOvas
H.
crol
irphs
5e
this is genuine
At
that day no
{Tranqu. An.
Arist.
13, p. 472
614, 1581, b) in which
Aristotle is made to compare
;
Fragm.
ARISTOTLE
42
new foundation
kingdom,
for the
life.
conditions of Greece
come
armed
rising
against Macedon.^
by Philip,
Can
and then reorganised as a Macedonian town.
we blame him if he accepted that view, and, with a
of the
just appreciation
attached
situation,
political
if
power
condemn him
face
to
he
if
enemy without
the
felt
find
still
Can we
come
to
an end, when
its basis
all
him impossible ?
see the hegemony
he preferred to
king of Persia,
'
for
Plut. Phoc.
make
Can we complain
others in efficiency as to
man
of Hellas rather in
23.
pgiit^
iii,
'
great
cities
13
fin^
had
48
been bidding against each other ever since the Peloponnesian War, and hoped that he would give the
Hellenes the only thing they lacked to become the
rulers of the world
As
for the
political unity ?
it
is
colour,
rest
as sharply,
on his own
discoveries,
we ought
and remembering
that remains
all
is
we
this,
pardonable self-appreciation.
Still
less
to pass over
minor matters ^
need we
>
Polit. vii. 7, 1327 b, 29,
reckoning the merits of the
Greek race SiJirep iXevOepdv re
:
Tvyxdvop TroXireias.
Like the tale told by Valer.
Max, viii. 14, 3, as a proof of
Aristotle's sitis
in capessenda
ixias
mos fuisse
ARISTOTLE
44
of centuries.
for tens
In
fact,
So
all science.2
far
as
Aristotle's
philosophical
writings,
the
will,
us
sense, a
warm and
gratitude towards
relatives,
and a
lofty conception of
marriage
we can
They
see.
all
far tran-
such
are
carry us back to
reduced
all virtue,
knowledge
bound
of
backed as
men and by
manner
*
We
are
it
deep
of one-sidedness
(piXo-
own
life,'^
him should be
to
In
Philol. vii. G9) also says.
Aristotle's extant works he often
refers to the need of further
investigation.
' As to
the former, cf. his
will, which provides inter alia
that none of those who had
rhv
&vQp(joirov r{X4r)<ra.
45
human
its roots in
And
we know it,
may have
seems to us
and
his powers
lofty
and honourable,
life.
spite
attached to
still
more are
achievements altogether
intellectual
Never have
astounding.
and in
know-
so great a wealth of
and so untiring
insight
so
with a
scientific thinking,
capable of piercing
into the
all its
all
know-
branches.
That
art.^
us
is
Stagirite,
mark the
full
supra) ovTws
manhood of
science
us /j-iire /xoi
avrwu fi-fire jxoi
in the latter, as to
exco,
the
those
all
17
qualities
in width and
sq)
But
which
solidity
(/;.
ARISTOTLE
46
He
terminology.
man
might,
achieved success.
In every
field of
knowledge then
vestigations,
Even
if
we put
measure the
slaves,^
the range
of his achievements
all,
to
it
had
task
it
he was as a
Aristotle has
man we know
*
Callisthenes of Babylon is
said to have sent him information of astronomical observations
there (Simpl. Be Coelo, Schol.
503, a, 26, following Porph.), but
did.
unhappily too
Of what
but we
little,
16.
Qf p 37^ ^
2,
and DiOG.
v.
47
foes, or
must demand.
48
ARISTOTLE
CHAPTER
II
Aristotle's writings
K. Consideration
The
seriatim
of the particular ivorks
the outset
literary activity of Aristotle startles us at
both by
its
which we
extent and
The works
manysidedness.
its
have under
name
his
extend
over
all
number of others, of which only the titles or slight fragments now remain. Two of these catalogues we have
:
21 sqq.),
the first in two recensions, that by Diogenes (V.
other
the
Menagii'
Anonymus
and that called the
in
contains,
list
first
The
in certain Arabic texts.^
^
Anonymus
^
Diogenes, 146 titles, most of which the
'
'
'
new
ones.
An appendix
'
"^
by
According to Rose's
bable conTectu^re Ur, Mbr. Ord.
3
who
132.
pro-
Rosefroman Ambrosian^S.
48) he
14byonetext,27bytheother.
If our count - right there
ARISTOTLE'S WRITINGS
49
Andro-
identified with
2)
For even
writings.^
Andronicus
is
if
we could
number
at
remains clear that we should look to find in Androthose writings above all that are included in our extant Corpus Aristotelicum, which is
derived, speaking broadly, from his own.
This is far
it
nicus's edition
^^'
^^' 1^'
o^^' \^h ^i H^'
39 and 11 of the main list.
DiOG. 34, and the Anon,
MENAG. at the beginning of his
list. The titles mDiog. (reckoning
the Letters as one book for each
correspondent named and the
UoKiTiiai as a single book) give
375 books those in the Anon, as
completed by Rose, 391.
^'''^'''^1^' 8 sq.
Ot. SELLER, Ph. d. Gt.
iff
in. a, 549,
(ct. p. 37, n. 4,
""^
V.
Pt.
^^"*-
Marc. 8
^*'
^^.-
^^ ^' """^
ott^^^'i\
credible
that Andronicus merely
adopted the catalogue of Hermippus
VOL.
(v.
a
'
'
P''^^^^''
;^c"//Tpw
O^j/ZZa, 26) from the
SgJwI. in At. 24
3 (2nd edition).
1 his IS clear
David,
19.
nuine. Bernays(i>mZ.^.^,..l34)
therefore
supposes that the
book was inserted in the cata^^" ^ Andronicus by a later
hand.
^
5'>
'
'
ARISTOTLE
50
their later
names and
verse theory
only those
contain
The con-
that the
was meant to
in Diogenes
list
contains
list
and that
it
out of
left
is
nega-
many important
distinctly claims to
For
be a complete review of the philosopher's works.^
it can owe
that
impossible
equally
is
it
similar reasons
Nicolaus of Damascus,^ or any other to
origin to
its
bfXTipc^v
n.
102,
Cy'wi/,
1)
books
128,
called 'Tirep toD ^urj yevvav)
75, UoKitlkvs aKpodMrjxa-viKwv a
23, OlKovofiiKhs a
ffiujs 8 books
78,
names,
n.
n.
of.
(pvcreois
/3'
dix adds
Kiv7]<Tws
119,
book iv.
or
Meteor.')', 70, eVeis iinx^ipw<^of
TiKoi Ke' (no doubt a recension
the ProUems) 36, n. rwv -rroaathe treaXoos XeyojjLevav (doubtless
that
tise, often cited by Ar. under
name, which is now book v. of the
C(vlo,
(^(vcvv fiopiccv
IJe
(which are
a
Kivhcr^ois
probably parts of the Physics)
y'
and No. 39, n. (rroix^itav a fi'
probably the two
(meaning
books n. yeve<TQ}s with our book
iii.
our
of
pr)TopiK^<f
Tex^ns
UoL-nriKwu a
the Topics,
parts
;^
important
omits
our
n. C^'wj'
174, n. TfOiKwv
'NiKOfiax^'ioji^-
Schr. p. 19.
^
2ui/e7pai|/c
'
fii^Kia
air^p
viroypdxpai
5e
Tr&fnrXcKTTa
aKdXovOov
5ia
r^v
7)yT)(rdix7]v
irepl
rrdvTas
roov
*
Trpoyeypafx/x^voou
avyypafx-
fidroov,
ARISTOTLE'S WRITINGS
whom
61
>
for
him
which can, as we
Otherwise
it
shall see,
would
works
The
'of Andronicus.''
first
m the Library of
Of
Alexandria.
by Greek
His
writers.^
list
b,
Athbn.
logue.
a. d.
xiii.
and
p.
49,
n.
4,
supra
(cf.
1,
is
De
q.
V.
Rose, Ar.
0pp.,
p. 1469.
One
E 2
ARISTOTLE
52
total of
Ptolemy put
tlie
Books, their
lists
comprise only
For while
works at 1,000
so^e 100
treatises,
may be
Rum
'
(i.e.
the
'
in prorincia
Roman Empire),
and that he was a different person from the author of the AlWhat they say, howmofjest.
exactly with
in Ar. 22, a,
10 (after Proclus, cf. 1. 23), says
of a Ptolemy who reckoned the
ever,
corresponds
what David,
Scliol.
to
works (Athen. i. 3,
David, and Ammon. Schol. in Ar.
28, a, 13, 43), and was a pupil of
Aristotle's
Some
partly accidental.^
others are
ARISTOTLE'S WRITINGS
named
The
twice over.
Arabic catalogue
is
proved by the
often
titles,
63
set against
and origin
offer
no
such a character
for the
Nothing but a
full
and
Aristotle's name.
Such an inquiry cannot here be fully carried out but
it will not be out of place to combine with a complete
;
review of
all
n.
Koi iyp-nySpcreus,
'^TTvov
and
Xp<cfji.dTO}v,theU. KSfffjiov,!!.
IT.
apeTuu
and the
Twj/,
*i'(rto7i'W;U(/c']fj.
But
one
title
*
by
As
and number.
works known only
to the
or fragments,
titles
cf.
the
De
Ar.
Ar.,
d.
Val. Rose,
1865), refuting
Auetoritate, 1854,
The writings
of the extant books.
named in the ancient Catalogues
will be cited in this chapter by
Kose's numbers (p. 48, n. 1) ; of
the Catalogues themselves, that of
Diogenes will be cited as D.,that
of the Anonymus Menagii as An.,
and the Ptolemy of the Arabic
Ar. Fr. will be
texts as Pt.
used for the collection of the
fragments by Rose in Ar. Oj)p. v.
1463 sq., Berlin ed.; and Fr. Hz.
ahistotle
54
ness
is
very
little left.
is
must be
3),
whose
2 The
Letters of Aristotle,
praised by Demetr. Floe. 230,
SiMPL. Categ. 2 7, Scliol. in Ar.
27, a, 43, and others (cf. Rose,
Ar. Ps. 587, Heitz, Verl. Schr.
285, and Ar. Fr. 604-620, p.
1579, Fr. Hz. 321 sq.) as the high-
David,
and Pt.
An
^Y.yKdofxiov
YiXaTuvos is
Gorg.
quoted by Olympiod.
(v.
cious, since
ARISTOTLE'S WRITINGS
65
may
include those
essentially distinct in
form from
use
questions,
scientific
We
all
dialogue.
of
It
is
of Plato
those
own
291,
and Muller,
Alex. pref.
*
Script,
d.
the three
v.
Cf Bernays, Dialoge
his
fact
Of the
hands.'*
Oyi Fhilosoj^hy^
in the
books
that
said
make
Aristotle,
of the form
known works
Ar.
{de
48, p. 1479,
EijS7]fxos
is
called
and
Ammon.
and
33,
b,
Cateff. 6,
(ap.
Stake,
Ad Quint.
Cic. ut supra.
5 does not refer to Dialogues. ' Aristotelius mos,' in Cic.
Ad Earn. i. 9, 23, has a wider sense;
and refers to the in ntramque
partem disputare,' cf Pe Orat. iii.
21, 80 but see Heitz, 149.
* This remarkable
Dialoj^ue
*
Fr.
iii.
'
rl/vxvs
p.
We
it
i.
16).
An.
Pe
4, init.
oversight
Bernays,
gives
four
books),
ARISTOTLE
66
tice
to the
work of
when
Aristotle
subjects,
much
to be said for
the conjecture that they were written in the period
scholars,
still
independe//- position.^
on Philosophy,' Journ. of
64 sq.
vii.
Philol.
Philop.
nowhere
but on
the other hand the reference will
not apply either to the Book on
the Good (which could not be
;
71-77,
p.
1487,
Bernays,
48,
'
auriypd(pooi^)
of
ARISTOTLE'S WRITINGS
whicli are supposed
to
67
in which
treated.
Like the PJiccdo
(60 E), the JEudenms was introit is
Rejj. X.
N.D.
Brandis,
Cic.
ii.
ii.
ap.
49, 125, de q. v.
b, 1, 84; Heitz,
ARISTOTLE
58
system,^
the philosophic
authenticity.^
of humanity to culture and
philosophy, which, although it
connects with Plato by the remark {a}). Thilop.) that the
spiritual and divine principle, in
ment
and
infra, p. 76 sq.).
It is
more
(v.
p.
ever,
much
variation,
and
Blass'
improbable.
ARISTOTLE'S WRITINGS
With
the Dialogues
set of writings,
connected
be
another
'
may
59
Fr.
miswriting; Ar.
p. 1495; Ar. Ps. 119;
107 sq.
Fr. Hz.
Metrodorus,
in
if
Philodem. De
col. 22,
cf.
AMd,
n. iroXmlas, but
11.
the
ttXovtov
by name,
reckoned
'^
ARISTOTLE
60
yet distinguished, as
by
treatises
These are
same period of
To that period must also belong
work.*
Aristotle's
ascribable
in part)
least
(at
it
to the
of them.
called
named
trejftims (D.
where
it is
12
An. 14
Pt.
probably transposed
known
to
Crates
(t.
are
(1)
that
irpoTpeTTTiKhv
G(jivo.
says
'A/>.
^ypa^pe irphs
e/jLi-
Teles
tip
a drama
man,
Tiv\ irpoa"Yp6.(j)iv,
not be written
riva ypd(peip
to
title
aj?.
of
DiOG.
UpoTpcTTTiKhs (Thrasyll.
iii,
60), is
no exception
a dialogue,
iiriTacpios
(Thras.
ibid.
As Usener, ut sujfra,
shows, Cicero also used it for
the Somnium Sci^rionls, Rep. vi.,
and, mediately or immediately,
Censorinus, D. Nat. 18, 11. Bywater, lit siipra^ has also shown
(but cf. Hirzel) that Jamblicus
used it for his own Protreyticus.
Of a kindred nature apparently
was the TI. TraiSetas (D. 19 AN.
10; Pt. 4; Ar.Fr. 51, p. 1484;
Ar. Ps. 72; Heitz, V. S. 307,
Fr. Hz. 61). As no fragments
are preserved, we cannot tell
whether the 11. rjSovTJs (D. 16, cf.
66; An. 15; Pt. 16; Heitz,
V. S. 203; Fr. Hz. 59) was a
The book
dialogue or not.
n. fia<n\ias (D. 18; An. 16;
Pt. 7 Ar. Fr. 78, 79, probably
also 81, p. 1489; Fr. Hz. 59),
which was addressed to Alexander, and apparently referred to by
Eratosthenes {op. Strabo, i. 4,
9, p. 66), was more probably an
essay (v. Heitz, V. S. 204) than
a dial. (Rose, Ar. Ps. 93,*' and
On the other
Beenays, 56).
hand, the title *A\4^av5pos ^ vvfp
(irepi) airoiKwv [-KtcDj/], if the text
tation.
ARISTOTLE'S WRITINGS
the treatise
On
the
Good}
It
from or of
it
suggests
Kal
TTphs 'AAe|.
fiaa-iXeias.
IT.
virlp airo'iKuv
fiaaiXeias a').
vir.
preferable
airoiKwu
a'.
Other fragments
notices
Commentators, whose
are collected and discussed by
Brandis, *Perd. Ar. Libr. de
IdeisetdeBono,' Gr.-rmn. Phil. ii.
Krische, Forsch. i.263
b, 1, 84
Rose, Ar. Ps. 46, Ar. Fr. 22-26,
p. 1477, and Heitz, V. S. 209,
Fr. Hz. 79. Brandis {ihid.) has
shown that none of them except
Alexander possessed the work
Heitz, p. 203, doubts this
itself.
even as to Alex., because he in one
place (p. 206, 19) distinguishes
the eK\oyi] rwv ivavrioov noticed
Ar. Metaph. iv. 2, 1004 a, 2 {de q.
;
61
little is
its
recorded
genuineness.^
words
yofxivois in
they
really
writings
But
refer
to
Platonic
writers
second hand.
re-
We
and
Simpl.
tiffius
d. 2)lat. Pliil.
ad
loo.
ARISTOTLE
62
There
is
the Ideas,^
Metaphysics^^
from some of Plato's writings and the monographs on earlier and cotemporary philosophers^
'*
JExtracts
An. 85 Simpl. Be
Tov; D. 94
Cwlfl, Schol. 491, b, 37 <rvvoxpiy^
Tifiaiov ypdcpeiv ovk
iTTi.rofjL'^v TOV
apea-KduTwu
Schol. 492,
54,
b, 16 to
we may
b, 36).
Syrian, In
3Ietaj)h. 901,
n.
Tcoj/
this,
by SiMPL. De Ccelo,
a, 26 and b, 41 sq.
(Jambl.
the
quote from book 2. The reference in DiOG. viii. 34, cf. 19,
probably belongs to this treatise
(whether we there read eV r^ ire pi
or tt. Kvdfxwp only, cf.
Other notices of the
Cobet).
work are collected by Rose, Ar.
Ps. 193, Ar. Fr. 185-200, p. 1510
find also three
Fr. Hz. 68.
books n. rrjs ''Apx^reiov [-tou ?1
(piAo(To(pias in D. 92, An. 83, Pt,
cf. Ar. Ps. 211, and Fr. Hz.
9
Also Uphs
77, and cf. last note.
Kvaixcav,
We
TO,
'AAKfialwvos,
ruv
A-n/JLOKpirov, 7
2) books, D. 124, An. 116 (cf.
Ar. Ps. 213, Ar. Fr. 202 p. 1514,
Fr. Hz. 77 ;) Uphs rh M\la<Tov, D.
Ylpo^Xriixara
e/c
(?
An. 86
An. 89
ra Topyiov, D.
ra "Seuocpdvovs,
l-Kpdrovs in MSS.] D. 99 Dp. t^
95,
98,
lip.
Up.
ARISTOTLE'S WRITINGS
so far as these
were genuine
must,
63
however, have
first
residence
of
collection
Platonic Divisions
ascribed
to
him
ajp.
Z-i]vo}vos,
D. 100
otir treatise
We
iirirov
ttjs STreuo--
Kal aevoKparovsl^cpLXocrocpias'],
D.
have
left,
extracts and
philosophic
may
among
his papers,
criticisms on various
systems
written
down
and
It is also possible
published.
that similar collections may have
Clement.
Strom,
641
vi.
falsely
attributes to Aristotle
himself, are merely references to
Pythagorean theories. The rest
of the passages cited from this
book as to the Pythagorean
system give no reason to reject
it.
The apparent contradiction
{ap. Simpl. De
Schol. 492, b, 39 sq.) and
Coelo ii. 2, 285, b, 25 is
quite reconcileable, without following Alexander in assuming a
falsa lectio, for which, however,
Fr. 195, ap. Simpl. iUd. 492, a,
18, gives some ground.
2 This is named in the existing lists only by Pt. 53, as Divisio Platonis^ (formerly mistranslated \jusjura7idum or tesCoelo,
Ar. Be
'
'
where mentioned.
A similar
work, obviously a later recension
of the Pseudo -Aristotelian text
ABISTOTLE
64
first-hand
set it forth
If
we take what
now
is
extant or otherwise
which
first
known
meets us
the Categories ^^
The
title
of this
work by
the book on
pr;^:idicamcnta
'
and
it
may have
189, n. 2, q. v.)
to his readers, and he
this in
other places
also, which seems to indicate
that he had dealt with it in a
as
known
assumes
is
a more
El.-) 4. 22.
as to categories in Toj).
i.
9, init.t
ARISTOTLE'S WRITINGS
which, however,
so brief
is itself
lowing Aristotle's example, Eudemus, Theophrastus, and Phanias, wrote not only Analytica,'
and works n. ep^rji/etas,' but
'
also Kar-nyoplai
(Ammon.
SoJiol.
Anon.
i.
On the other
stotle's Categories.
hand, the ancient critics never
doubted the genuineness of the
extant book, although they rejected a second recension {v.
Simpl. Catcg. 4 f, Schol. 39, a,
36 Anon. ibid. 33, b, 30 Philop.
ibid. 39, a, 19, 142, b, 38 Ammon.
;
I.
Metaph.
vii. 7, 18,
1032, b, 2,
1038, b, 10), but also rp'nai ovaiai
(ibid. vii. 2, 1028, b, 20, 1043,
The words of KarTjy.
a, 18, 28).
cIkStws
29
b,
0.
5, 2,
fiSva
VOL.
65
Tct
elfSTj
Koi
to,
y4ur}
AMISTOTLB
66
parts
the
and
kinds
of
"' ^^^^^'^ ^^ ^^
t45 irp6s ri irm ex^
need to suspect here any trace
influence, since the
exetf appears also
in Ae. Toj}. vi. c. 4, 142, a, 29,
vii. 3,247,
c. 8, 164, b, 4; Phys.
a, 2, b, 3, and Mh. ^'. i. 12, 1]01,
of
Stoic
jrpos
Ti
TTws
that
It is trvie, however,
b, 13.
all the objections cannot easily
be set aside. Nevertheless, the
favour.
The
seems to
best
conclusion
whole
we
Ammon.
Unci.
81,
81, a,
b, 37),
another
compiled
from Aristotelian fragmeats,as he
suggests. The concluding para-
FMl.
ii.
b, 406).
question whether
It is
k was
propositions/
on
those
21
Philop. De An.
13,
4),
Ammonius
Ammon. De
cf
201 b
Schol. 135 b) has probably been
added by a later hand. The external evidence for the work is
good enough. Not only do all
three lists agree in naming it (D.
152, An. 133, Pt. 2), but we are
told that Theophrastus referred
to it in his essay IT. KaTacpdcreoos
KOL aTTOcpdaeas (BlOG. v. 44; ALEX.
A7ial. pri. 124, Scfwl. 183 b, 1
more explicitly, after Alexander,
Boeth. iMd. 97, a, 38; Anon.
cf. the
Schol. in Ar. 94, b, 13
Schol. ap. Waitz, Ar. Org. i. 40,
Interpr.
(ppaa-Tos,
etc.;
cf.
b,
b
16,
@6-
Ammon. De
It
seems
ARISTOTLE'S WRITINGS
conclusions and scientific
also
that
Eudemus
Ae'lecos
IT.
Top. 38,
Schol. in
6, b,
Anon.
Ar. 146,
a,
and Poetry
(c.
4,
17, a, 5)
have
67
'
b,
4,
142, b, 38,
f2
ARISTOTLE
68
and their
proof by probability/ and on fallacies
by Eudemus
and we have
book i. of the
(cf.
Analytic
an
of
(Alex. Top.
70),
references to
UpSr^pa ava\. of Theophrastus
(Alex. Anal. pri. 39, b, 51, a,
b, 9,
131, b, Sclwl. 158, b, 8, 161,
Scliol.
184, b, 36 Simpl. Dc Cado,
Alexander, in his
509, a, 6).
;
(cf.
Trpor.
post.
242,
aj). EusTRAT. ibid.
ibid.
17), through Themist.
Philop.
199, b, 46, and through
an
ibid. 205, a, 46, and through
Anon. Schol. ibid. 248, a, 24, of
and
a,
Eudemus,
Analt/tio.
all
of
PI.
ii.
vol.
2,
v.
and
213,
A LEX.
Qii.
1356, b,
1403,
ii. 25,
Analytic
airo-
(Z><?
We
Second
or that Galen
which seem
Puis.
De Libr.
iv, fin., vol. viii. 765
Propr. vol. xix. 41) chooses to
substitute, as he says, for the
common titles, the names n.
(rv\\oyi(TiJ.ov and n. a7ro5ei|ews
nor have we any right to name
them on internal grounds (with
GuMPOSCH, Toy. Ar. 115) n.
avKXoyKTixov and Me0o5iKa. Brandis justly remarks {Ue. d. Ar.
Ory. 261 sq.; Gr.-rdm. Phil. ii.
b, 1, 224, 275) that the First
Analytic is far more carefully
SejKTJKrj,
lytic
a remark of
3,
the
call
2,
i.
Ft.
Tlicophr.
dis-
9,
a, 5,
can
Aristotle
Second (which
hardly have considered as complete), and that the two books of
the First Analytic do not appear
to have been written together,
but with an interval.
Aristotle dealt with this
several books, no
in
doubt in connection with his
still
rhetorical teaching.
have the Topica in eight books,
'
subject
We
Gr.-rom. Phil.
ii.
b, 330).
The
its
name
tions in
by
cita-
Aristotle himself
{Be
is
established
ARISTOTLE'S WRITINGS
proof.^
of our Organon,'
we have
c.
term
'
fxaTeia
tt.
t^u
StaAe/cTiK^jj/ (^Anal.
pri.
i.
Wien.
Aliatl. xxxviii.
99
Bonitz,
Ztschr.
Oesterr.
Gymn. 1866,
It seems, also, that
11, 774.
in several MSS. the Topics were
(Cat. 16
69
a,
Schol 47,
b, 40), after
names of a great
also the
'
is
As
to
iv.
13),
by To2). i. 1, 12,
the second, which does not
satisfied
or
21,
(as
ARISTOTLE
70
number
and
of kindred writings
on Knowledge
treatises
on
on Definition,^
Opinion,^
by
Classification
ToiriKols
that he reckons
'
11
cf. BRANDTS, (ri:rom. Phil. ii. b, 118) to distinguish the two, in a way, however,
which proves, not that the two
were not meant to form a whole,
but that the treatise on fallacies
was composed later than the
The lists of
rest of the TojAcs.
1359,
b,
D. and An.
'Zo(p.
eX. (for
tions
^
etSoji/,
An.
IT.
unknown.
28, otherwise
^ As
to the opposition of
concepts there was a book 11,
Twv avTiKiLfMevcav, doubtless the
same as IT. ^vavriuv (D. 30, An.
Simplicius, in his
32).
comment-
(v.
;
'OpiffTiKa,
'
No. 60,
its
De
Itun^
Pt. 78
given as ' Garam-
Significatione,
Greek title
is
i.e. rpafi/jLariKhv
or -wv.
As
'
n.
(TTTjyUwv,
iTTLa-r-fjiJ.'qs,
treatise.
^
a,
Alex. Metaph.
26,
cites
this
simply as
eV
ARISTOTLE'S WRITINGS
on subjects belonging
and
isms,^
Topics and
T(f
KaTa(pd(T(i}s
IT.
probably, how-
sphere
the
to
"Opwj/
Here
it
2-8.
We conjecture,
ever,
it
DiOG.
V.
airo<paff^(i}S.
1
An.
a'
(D. 48).
To
a'
)8'
three books
quae
tiomtm
Tojnca,
in
adli'ibentuT
i.e.
De Defniendo
Topico
(i.e.
'
On
of
Probably,
Eristics.^
71
52, Toitikcov
is
therefore, in
iriKcav a'
ToiriKccv o'-f'.
33
)8'
D. 65 and
'Y^irix^ip-nixdruv
1,
B)
D.
An.
iirix^LpriiJ.aTiKal
Progymn.
/ce';
cf.
alsoTHEON,
W.
(Rhet. ed.
Sp. il, 69), who ascribes to Aristotle and Theophrastus iroXXh
fiifiXia
p.
165
diffewu iiriypacpdixeua,
scribed by
Alex.
de-
tV
ets toi
254, b, 10, as containing
avTiKclfieva St' evdd^wv iinx^ip7](nv.
(Uphs dcffiv iirix^ip7v means *to
develop the pro and con of a
given proposition,' v. Ind. Ar.
282, b, 57, 283, a, 6: Oea-eis
therefore
are
iirix^iprifxariKal
themes for dialectic development
or dialectical exercises with an
introduction to the way of working them out.) The 'ETTtxeip Vara
are no doubt identical with the
second book
of which is quoted by
Schol. 227, a, 46, and the
Philop.
'Tirofivftfi.
ARISTOTLE
72
Next
Works.
Some
these
of
wards and
or
were
written
long interval.
at a
of Aristotelian
come the
to the
Rhetorical
alleged Aristotelian
which
origin
umsmata
ancients
(cf.
Ar. Fr.
11 3, p.
1496
book.
amusmata
'
or
'
No.
vTro/j.v'fi/j.ara), i.e.
S2, IG
books
if
and
69, 2
82, b,
'
books
1
Wliat relation
fied.
tlic ITporao-eis
71) = 3B[?2a]
80 = 31 [? 7]
books) bear to the eVeis eTrix-
named
in Pt. (No.
books,
and No.
we cannot
say,
but
we
also find
n.
work
(cf.
the
first
itself
not a separate
Them. 97, a, p. 241), but
chapter of the work
/XJ/77/A.
(449,
is
b,
13
sq.,
450,
a,
"'
Cf.
B/iet.
i,
init.
c.
2,
a,
'^
to
an enumeration
eV rols 0eo5e/c-
reiois, wdiicli
Aristotle,
Rliet.
by Theodectes
1 fin.
Ae'liv, named by
tract Uapa
SiMPL. SaJwl. 47, b, 40, was
doubted, as he says, even by the
tV
tle
speak of rais
vir
0eo5e/cT7? ypacpeiaais
I^ater
i/xov
T^xvais
and
ARISTOTLE'S WitITINGS
the
of
history
of
probable
Anon,
rhetoric/
most im-
0eoSe/cTfjfoi rexvai.
(of.
Ft. Hz.
125
Quintilian,
ii.
gives
this
explanation with an ^ut creditum est':
Valee. Max. viii. 14, 3 gives it
more distinctly) or else they
name Theodectes directly as the
author (Cic. Orat. 51, 172, 57,
15,
10,
194
QuiNTiL.iv.
2,
63 and later
:
and published by
Aristotle after
his death, but as a work of Aristotle dedicated to Theodectes, in
to Alexander
through Aristotle (Plut. Alex,
fioi.), it would have been composed during the years of Aristotle's residence in Macedonia.
The name Texvat (in the Rhet. ad
Alex.; cf. Rose, Ar. Ps. 139)
seems to indicate that it had
more than one book, though the
or
set
73
out rhetorical
in neither case
ToKiTiKov
iyKcofiiaariKT),
Rhetoric.
Pt.
68, UapayyeXinaTa
For
as the
Uapayy. p-nropiKrjs attributed to
Theophrastus by DiOG. v. 47, but
was in any case not by Aristotle.
An exposition of all the
plural
0eo8e/cTm {Rhet.
iii.
so.
9)
ARISTOTLE
74
ment of his
rhetorical doctrine.
Alexander
is
now
Invent,
6,
2,
ii.
Be
Orat.
ii.
38,
Ar. Fr.
1500; Ar. Ps. 145;
180-135, p.
Fr. JT~. 122.
EJietoric addressed to
24, as
yris a!
The
v.
an abstract of it seems to be
meant by Deraetr. Magn. (jip.
DiOG. ii. i04) by the title 'ETrtro^^
'EyKw/JLiov
and ^EyKw^Lov
x6yov
counted as pseudepiThe
grapha in An. 190, 194.
and apophvarious proverbs
thegms quoted from Aristotle
(Rose, Ar. Ps. 606 sq.; Fr. Hz.
337 sq.) are collected from difirXovrov, are
ferent sources.
2 I.e. the three books of the
The date of its comlihetorlc.
position must be the last residence of Aristotle at Athens;
cf. Brandis in Ar. Rhet.' Pkllol.
That it has suffered interiv. 8.
polations and transpositions {e.g.
in book ii. c. 18-26 ought to pre'
84,
'EvOvfirjixara prjTopLKO.
An. 7G
diaipeffds a
and
a',
D.
'Eudv/j.-niJ.dTwu
cede
483,
vi.
c.
'
Fr.
aj).
its
Wie7i.
the
(v.
chapters,
See
Vahlen,
Akad.
The genuineness
Schr.'
of
iMunclin.Aliad.
followed by
xxxviii. 92,121.
is
diarpi^wv.
J-Z/A. d.
Z. Krit. Ar.
'ApiffTOTeXovs
proved by
1-17) was
Spengel,
SpeNGEL
Anaxim.
ix.
it,
182,
rex"Prolog,
sq.) attributes
(2^07.
Ars
Rliet.
99
cf.
sq.,
excepting the
first
and
last
ARISTOTLE'S WRITINGS
Of the writings devoted
philosophic system, the
of Definitions
first
of the
separation of the part attributed
to Anaximenes from the rest, the
influence of the school of Aristotle betrays itself throughout,
not only in the persistence of a
method of didactic definitions
'
place
and Divisions
from or
identical
(as
75
is
given to collections
regarded
as
aids
to
p4(Ti
Hz. 119),
is satisfied
i<V.
by M. Mar. i.
he adds
site,
reOewp'fja-da}
5' tj/jlIv
avrai
re^ecopTj/xeVat
1004, b,
avaySfieva
(paiverai els rh ev Kal rh ttXtjOos
elK^ipda} yap t) auaycoy^ r]fuv.
To
the same refers also x. 3, 1054, a,
(TTi 5e Tov fifv uhs, &(nrep
29
cf.
raWa
'
Kal
iu rf)
5iaip4(ri
rwv
ivavri(av
ARISTOTLE
76
the treatise
On
a torso
now
our
on
arbitrarily
Aristotle
wliicli
the
cites
'Ek:Ao7^
with
rayaOov,
Aristotle
is
it
that
probable
in
and
fxeOodos
Trepl
rrjs
apxri^
t^^
We
'Ap.
the
genuine
whose
view.
however,
Probably,
Metaiihysics.^
^erd
to.
(l>v<riKd
afterwards
i.e.
A-'N.
ment
dis in
63-87,
541 sq., and by Bonitz {Ar. Met.
ii. 3-35), that it is sufficient to
earlier
for
reader
refer the
theories to the comprehensive
account given by Bonitz at p. 30.
ARISTOTLE'S WRITINGS
77
{e.g. x. 4,
TToaaxcas,
originally
'
It niust
as
vii. 13),
by
X.
Between these
earlier
is
tions in the
Gen. et Corr.
n.
TTOff.
Biffiv.
in a
way which
indicates, by the
the discussion had
already come under the reader's
notice.
It appears, therefore,
that Aristotle actually intended
to incorporate our book v. or the
contents of it in this part of his
work, but never was able to finish
the literary connection. As to
book xi., the second half (c. 8,
1065, a, 26 sq.), is a compilation
from the Physics, obviously not
genuine. The first half exactly
corresponds in
content with
Metaph.
vii.
init.,
x.
,1
cf.
Tov
TToa.
Xeyerai (KaffTou.
The
word
^v, that
books
of the
iii.,
iv.,
and
vi.
and
is
ARISTOTLE
78
re
found elsewhere. [Thus re
occurs in Aristotle almost exclusively in the Ethics and Politics
(Eucken, 16); 5e 76 almost exclusively in the Physics (ibid. 33),
.
earlier
50):
in the
and among
Phys.
viii.
in c. 7,
ARISTOTLE'S WHITINGS
other writings
tlie
men-
iii.
2,
39,
to at all in
W'
-r,
xiii.
and
xiv.
(Bonitz,
inconceivable that
Aristotle would have repeated a
considerable section almost word
for word, as is the case with the
present text of i. 6, 9, and xiii.
But book i., as a whole,
4, 5.
must, as well as book iii., which
p. 26).
^
a|
'.
Of
79
It is
Athon.
it
Syrian {ap.
3) mentions that
some critics proposed to reject A.
These, like Asclepius, probabl}^
confused it with o if not, Syrian
was right in thinking their sug589,
b,
Schol. 849,
sq.)
a,
gestion laughable.
*
This seems probable (cf.
Zeller, Ahh. d. Berl. Akad.
1877, Hist. Phil. Kl. 145) because
of the circumstance that most of
the genuine books of our Metajfhysics were in use at the date
of the oldest peripatetic books or
fragments which
we
possess,
and
model
book
vi.
by Theophrastus; book
ARISTOTLE
80
vii.
Theophrastus
Kivhcredos
book
xiii.
rod
n.
tract
cf.
TTocraxaJs X^ySfievou, by Strato
the following: (1) Metaj>h. 1,
J)81, a, 12 sq., Eudem. Fr. 2,
Speng.
(2) i. 3, 988, b, 20,
the
the
fifth,
KLV-fjo-ews
(c.
1),
21 sq.,
ihid.
(4)
Melissa,
De
1.
i.
ihid.
i.
i.
Fr. 46
8,
989,
986,
5,
Xeno]ih.
Theophr. Fr. 45
27, Theophr. Fr.
44,
(9)
1.
a,
i,
6,
987,
8p.
Theophr.
30,
3,
12-46
in AHst. 90, a,
(15) vi. 1,
1026, a, 13-16, Theophr. Fr. 12,
1
(16) vii. 1, 1028, a, 10, 20,
EuD. Fr. 5 (17) ix. 9, 1051, b,
24, Theophr. Fr. 12, 25; (18)
xii. 7 init., cf. c. 8, 1073, a, 22,
DeMotn An. 6, 700, b, 7; (19)
xii. 7. 1072, a, 20, Theophr. Fr.
12, 5; (20) xii. 7, 1072, b, 24, c.
9, 1074, b, 21, 33, Etli. Eud. vii.
12, 1245, b, 16, M. Mor. ii. 15,
1213, a, 1
(21) xii. 10, 1075, b,
34, Theophr. Fr. 12, 2; (22)
xiii. 1, 1076, a, 28, Eth. Fud. i. 8,
1217, b, 22; (23) xiv. 3, 1090,
b, 13, Theophr. Fr. 12, 2. Since,
our
parts
of
therefore, the
;
book
Mriapli., like
which
xii.,
6,
which
Metaph.
TrpdoTTjs
main
eV
i.e.
(piKoaocpias
a,
47
treatise
to7s
irepi
BONITZ,
(cf.
sq.
on
rrjs
the sus-
by him (i.e.
and xiv.),
and that at the same time book v.
was inserted between iv. and vi.
but that book a, and the second
half of xi., were first attached by
Andronicus to this work, with
which they were not connected
either by origin or contents.
like character left
Naturally,
taintj'-
we cannot with
cer-
by whom the
first
affirm
ARISTOTLE'S WRITINGS
81
We
Aristotle's productions.
all
largest
have
first
properties
their
phenomena.
probably genuine
(v. p. 58, n.
1,
the Antisthenes
patetic of
who was a
Ehodes
ci^'ca
Peri-
180 B,c,
(le^e,
1479
Fr. Hz.
294, 8
siders
Rose,
A r.
Heitz,
Ps. 50,
V. S.
who con-
it to be a Dialogue. Of
the QeoAoyovfieva, which was ascribed to Aristotle by Macrob,
(Sat. i. 18), the Theogony mentioned by Schol, Eur. *Rhes. (28),
and the reAeral spoken of by
Schol. Laur. in Apoll. Rhod. iv.
973 (v. these and other quotations
'
VOL.
I.
'
religious usages.
The n. hpxh^^
from its position in the list of
D. 41, seems rather to have been
a metaphysical or physical tract
than a political one, but we know
nothing of it. As to a 'Theology of Aristotle,' which originated
in
the
Neoplatonic
and
School
is
preserved
to
an Arabic translation,
DiETERCI,
Alh.
d.
D.
us
in
V.
morgeid.
GesellscU,
1877,
1,
117.
^vctik}) a.Kp6a<ns in 8 books
AN. 148, leg. r( for ii?'), as its
own MSS and those of Simpl.
Phys. init.. An. 148, Pt. 34, &c.,
name the treatise. Aristotle him2
(in
self
commonly
books
<pv(riKb.
(Phys.
viii.
1,
calls
only the
first
or tA irepl <(>vcr(i)s
251, a, 8, cf. iii. 1,
ARISTOTLE
82
On
nected works
the
cluded book
with which it
o-ecos.
viii.
1059,
i.
34,
a,
Metai)li.
i.
5,
xiii. 1,
Phys.
i.).
visually
(Metaj)h.
Phys.
ra
calls
ix.
viii., vi.
Kipv.afus
Trepl
36, cf.
1049, b,
8,
;
Be
Qt'lo
i.
5, 7,
Corr.
i.
318, a,
3,
Be Sensu
3,
cf.
Phys.
viii.
c, 6,
V.
with book
name
Adrastus
(ajj.
SiMPL.
b,
5 books
as ^vaiKa or n. apxa>v
and
No doubt
viii. as n. Kiwfjffeus.
Porphyry, however, was right
(av. SiMPL. 190, a) when he in<pv(riKoov
and of books
vii.
a)
n.
shown that
this
earliest period.
was
so in the
When
Theophr.
cited
book
v.
eV
2,
i.-v.
apx^v
B,
16,
Eudemus
II. kiv}]-
vi.,
so closely con-
is
Simpl. 216, a,
[aj?.
where it is impossible to read
Neoplatonist)
the
Bamascius
speaks of
eK
t^s
-n-epl
<|)U(rea)S
Spengel, Ahh.
d,
MuncUn.
ARISTOTLE'S WRITINGS
Decay
and the
83
Meteorology.'^
Akad.
313
iii.
them under
sq.),
but
the
Ar. Meteorol.
i.
415,
ii.
199 (nor
maintained by Brandis
different
(ii. b, 889)
against Weisse.
* The n. ovpavov in
4, and the
n. 76j/eo-ecos KoL ^dopas in two
books. The current division of
these books, however, can hardly
be derived from Aristotle, for
books iii. and iv. of the IT. ovpavov
are more nearly connected with
the other treatise than are the
earlier books.
Aristotle recognises both by a short reference
to their contents in the beginning
of the Meteorol., and by citing
Be
7 in Meteorol. i. 3
rhv &V(a roirov
iv
Tols irepl rod iroi^lv Koi Tracxetj/
^uapiffixevois
to the Gen. et Corr.
i. 10 (not Metew. iv.) Be Sensu
C, 3, 440, b, 3, 12 (eV toTs Trepi
jui^ecos) ; to the Gen. et Corr. ii.
2, Be An. ii. 11, 423, b, 29, Be
Sensu, c, 4, 441, b, 12 (eV ro7sTrp\
ffToix^icav).
A work n. ovpavov is
ascribed by SiMF.(Be Ccelo, Schol.
in Ar. 468, a, 11, 498, b, 9, 42,
502, a, 43) also to Theophrastus,
who is said to have followed the
lines of Aristotle's book.
With
this exception the earliest witnesses to the existence of the
work are Xenarchus and Nicolaus
of Damascus (t>. Brandis, Gr.rbm. Phil ii. b, 952), but there is
no doubt of the authenticity
either of these books or of the
.
Ccelo
ii.
irepX
n. yep^aeus.
From Stob. Eel. i.
486, 536 we cannot, with Idelee
from Cic. N. B.
ii.
15,
and Plut.
from ours.
An. Apj). 150, MerecDpoAo-
yiKa
books only.
ihid.
to the saijie
treatise.
Alex.
{Meteor. 126, a) and Ammon.
(ap. Olympiod. in Idelee, Ar.
Meteor, i. 133) prefer to connect
it with the IT. yevca-em
but it
is not adapted to
that work
either.
Since it has all the appearance of being Aristotelian,
and is cited by Aristotle (Part.
An. ii. 2, 649, a, 33 ; cf. Meteor,
;
o 2
ARISTOTLE
84
pliilosopliyJ
are a variety of other treatises on natural
Gen. An.
743, a, 6
9, 384, a,
an
33), it must be taken to be
isolated section, which was not
contemplated, in this form, when
iv. 10,
cf Mcieor.
.
iv. 6,
ii.
6,
383, b,
3feteor.
360
SrENGEL,
Ueb.
'
d.
Keihen-
AhUandl.
d.
Munelm.
The points
which he supposed to have been
found in another edition of this,
are for the most part referable to
other works, and where that is
cf
fol-
(pvaiKwi/ a'
Aristotle himself
Peripatetics.
refers with the words iv ro7s ir.
aroix^iuiv in the Be An. ii. 11,
423, b, 28, and the De Sensv, 4,
441, a, 12, to the Gen. et Corr.
2 sqq. Whether in D. 39,
ii.
An. 35, the title n. (rroix^icov 7'
only refers to this work (possibly
in connection
with
De
(Joelo
iii.
or with
31etror. iv., cf. Fr. Pfz. 156), or
whether it means a special collection of several Aristotelian tracts
the elements, or
relating to
and
50,
iv., cf. p.
n.
whether
treatise
ii. 5,
ARISTOTLE'S WRITINGS
Another
a, 1,
varov,
dp-f}Ka/xGv,
fj
and
etc.,
a5v-
325,
suggests
title
Ar.
ap.
cr-n/uLciuu),
Oj)jj.
n.
973,
ii.
which
v.
Fr. 11%.
Ar. Fr. 237 sq. 1521
157 Ar, Ps. 243 sq. The n. ttoTafMoou (Ps.-Plut. He Fluv. c. 25
ad fin. Heitz, V. S. 297 Fr.
Hz. 349) seems to have been a
;
Of much
separate treatise
late compilation.
it
(according to Rose,
either by Theophrastus or of his
time) is An. App. 159 Pt. 22,
n. ttJs rov 'NciKov avafidaews, de
q.v. R0SE,^r. Ps. 239 sq. Ar. Fr,
The
Fq'.
Hz. 211.
p. 1520;
Corr.
et
Trend.
Gesch.
seem to
A work
have
n.
been
avefiooy
spurious.
(ACHILL.
X^i-P-<^vo}v
(D. 112, or
a2).
An.
99,
lier
ear-
date
treatises
De
H\t.mior%bus
and He
cannot
be
Aristotle wrote a
book
IT.
x^H-<^^t
3,
359, b, 20,
to
some more
AMISTOTLE
mechanical,
mathematical,
and astronomical
optical,
tracts.^
Damasc.
Schol. in Ar. 408, b, 25
De 6'a?Zfl,ibid. 454, a, 22; Philop.
;
Olympiod.
in Meteor,
i.
id.
126,
a,
ii.
161
and
Id.;
see
261
>S.
1523;
Against the idea
sq.,
that Meteor,
iv.
iii. 7, 378, b, 5
384, b, 34, refers to the n. ^er.
(on which see Heitz, p. 68), see
;
8,
know nothing
(Hadschi
fodinis
We
98, b, 53.
of the
De
metalli
Khalfa,
160).
The
tract
aj).
Vers.
on the
ous.
tis,
praef. p. xi.
Ord. 181
sq.,
was certainly
so.
a'
n.
To7s
53),
TTJs
eV
An.
ixad7]jxa(nv
aTSfKov rpafi/j-wu
also
names
lxTi]xo.viKa fiifixia
^OiTTiKbv
An.
a'
103,
David
fiifiXia;
cf.
Anon.
(D. 63
MaOf] fiariKhv
0'j<rlas
The n.
ad Jin.).
name
genuineness
assured, though
at an early date,
is not,
it
is
however,
very pro-
ARISTOTLE'S WRITINGS
87
Se'iKwrai
(^Kaddnep
aarpoXoylav
Ccelo,
T7JS
ii.
toTs
deoop-fjixatriv),
10,
Tctlecos
eV
291, a, 29
avTcov
irepl
and De
(Trepl
etc.
e/c
5e
ruv
AeaarpoXoyiav deoipeiTOci}
7eTat yap iKavcos) ; SiMPL. on the
De Ccelo, Schol. 497, a, 8, appears to have the same in his
mind.
The existence of the
book is accepted, of modern
irepl
does
not
seem
probable
that
Heitz,
ibid.) Astrological
work
titles
Be sideruvi arcanis.
sideribus eorwnique arcanis,
stellis lahentibus, and Mille
verba de astrologia judiciaria.
As to the accuracy of the other
mathematical and related writ(p.
159-161)
Be
Be
succeed.
'
n. TO
^(fa iaropla
IffTopias
An,
(TI. ^4^v
the
155
same is meant by D. 102 and
An. 91, n. C^'^Vf nine books, and
by Pt. 42). The Arabic writers
count ten, fifteen, or nineteen
books, and had no doubt expanded the extant text by
various added tracts cf. Wenrich, Be Auct. Grcec. Vers. 148.
Aristotle quotes it by various
names Icropiai [-ta] t. to ^<^a
(Part. Anim. iii. 14, 674, b, 16
i'.
A2J2J-
Gen. An.
i.
iv. 8
ad
Jin. ; iv.
iv. 13, 696, b, 14 ;
680, a, 1
10, 689, a, 18
iv, 5,
4, 717, a,
c.
33
i.
20,
16, init.)
(Part. Anim.
Gen.
660, b, 2
ii. 1, init. c. 17,
Anim, i. 3, 716, b, 31 ; Respir. c.
12, 477, a, 6), tu^'iK)] Iffropia (Part.
IffTopiai
IT.
ra>v C^oou
Anim.
iii.
5, Jin.),
iffropia ^vctik^
ARISTOTLE
88
In
this
of
book
No doubt
itself.
the
is
same
as that
v-n^p
[Trepi]
rq)
ZcoiKwv,
ir.
^ {kuI]
cites
IT.
T^
'IxOvCOV, iv
at the
ry
tt.
iv rcf
tt.
Z(fCt}v
Z(i}'iKWV
TT.
^l^Qvuv
but
v.,
as v4ixtttov
notes of
names
IT.
Catasterismi,
drjpiwv
c.
41,
(Eratosth.
and there-
Buhle,
ed.
88); 'TTrep
ii.
(D.
DiOG.
lin').
V.
44 attributes a
in
tov
ZwiKwv), iv
tliis
As
yepuav.
sq.
Heitz, 224
Wimm.
iii.
name
of Aristotle, sometimes of
ARISTOTLE'S WRITINGS
Anatomical Descriptions.^
the three books O71 the
anthropological
'
The
tracts
Soul^'^
We
iv.
1,
525, a, 8,
Gen. An.
An. iv.
ii.
7,
i.
known
latter class
begin with
The
follow.^
The
89
a. 30,
Be
further
Interpr.
i.
investi-
16, a, 8,
11
Be
ad,
earlier
Ideler {Ar.
Meteor, ii. S60) is not correct in
saying that the reverse follows
from the end of Meteor, i. 1. The
words in the Ingr. An. c. 19 ad
fin. which name this book as only
projected and the n. ^4^v jxopicoi/
as in existence, are (with Brandis
ii. 6, 1078) to be considered as a
gloss only. Of its three books the
first two seem in a more complete state than the third,
Torstrik, in the preface to his edition
of 1862, has shown that there are
preserved traces of a second recension of book ii., and that
confusing repetitions have crept
into the present text of book iii.,
recensions
stotle's
reckoned with
psychology
see
:
Ari-
the
accounts of
no human anatomy
iii.
3,
see
513,
a,
12,
i.
H. An.
16 init. and
(cf.
Lewes, Aristotle).
The n. y\ivxfis is often
'^
and
supra.
cited
by
(BONITZ,
n. 2,
it
\|/ux^s
ARISTOTLE
90
all the
anthropological treatises which
are introduced by 11. alad. 1 init.,
The
as by a common preface.
same explanation will account
for the statement in Parf. An.
ii.
7, 653, a, 19 that Aristode
Kal
would speak
ev t ro7s
ir.
al<Td'f](rws
It
of the
causes and effects of sleep. The
subject is to be found only Be
Somno, 2, 8, 458, a, 18 sq, and no
fitting place for its introduction
can be found in our n. alaQ.
Probably it did not occur in the
explained
oLKovarccv,
Ar. Opp.
ii.
800
sq.
is
TT.
vTTvov
Sicapifffievois
An.
aKovcrrwu.
is
Kal
avafjLvfiffeus,
its
ARISTOTLE'S WRITINGS
p. 72, n. 2 Jin. supra,
to
do with
has nothing
KOL virpov
(Gell.
vi.
6,
Alex. Top.
copied
Somno,
2,
456, a, 27,
announced
as in preparation.
fiidrriTos /cot
An
iii.
10,
a, 30,
view so
closely related that they form
one whole {Be Vita et 31. c. 1
avairvorts, is in Aristotle's
486, b, 21).
Be
Respir.
c.
21,
tract, n. ve6Tr]Tos
ing
91
who wrongly
669. a, 4 refers to
Be
Respir.
c.
a,
Vita et Morte,
3,
is
I7id.
right, these
references
must
projected tract,
(las
(Be Sensu
Long.
c.
IT.
c.
1,
436, a, 17,
Respir.
An.
ii.
7,
ARISTOTLE
92
gations
On
on
Generation
essays
the
unknown
to
Alexander,
J)e
be
1).
(TvjxcpvTov TTvevixaros
e'lprjTai
iv 'aA-
to the words
rod ifj.(pvrov Trv^vixaros 5ia/j.ouri ;
(n. TTj/eu. init.). (So BONITZ, Ind.
uir. 100, a, 52 but Rose, Ar. Lihr.
Ord. 167 makes them refer to the
n. ^(f. KLvr)(T. itself, and Heitz,
Fr. Ar. 168 to the n. Tpo(t>ris.) The
work is named in Pt. No. 20,
where it is wrongly given three
books. It dealt with food and other
matters in an aphoristic style;
and that it is later than Aristotle
is clear from the fact that it
recognised the distinction of
veins and arteries, which was
AoLs clearly relate
Tis
7)
unknown
and
Movement
the
of
'
The
tirst
book
is
losophy,' Ahh. d.
the
iv. 159, and
Mdnch.
AMd.
others
there
cited).
(in
It is often referred to
ficance).
by Aristotle, but only in the
future (cf. Ind. Ar. 108, b, 8 sq.).
ARISTOTLE'S WRITINGS
Animals/ complete
his
zoological
93
system.
Later in
books
On Plants}
refers
De
'
can hardly be
Kiv7](Tcos
^^)<t>p
authentic among other reasons,
because it cites the n. irvev/xaTos
Rose (Ar.
(cf. p. 89, n. 3 Jin.).
Lihr. Ord. 163 sq.) and Brandis
(ii. b, 1, p. 1271, 482) declare it
spurious Barthelemy St. Hilaire
;
So
Michael Ephes, on
Be
telian references
mentioned make
ARISTOTLE
94
Hermippus,
Goxus
in the time of
though they were
afterwards displaced by the more
elaborate work of Theophrastus
(so Heitz, Ar. Fr. 250, and
Verl. Sclirift. 61, though Rose,
Ar. Ps. 261, thinks the books by
Theophrastus were ascribed to
Aristotle).
According to Antistill
extant
{Mirahil.
c.
In like
other
similar collectors also used these
books (cf. Rose and Heitz,
ibid.)
and they sometimes distinguish between the phrases
used by Aristotle and by Theophrastus {Ar.
Fr. 254, Fr.
Hz. 225).
The two extant
books n. (pvTuu are emphatically
un- Aristotelian.
In the older
Latin text they have passed
already through the hands of
two or three translators. Mej^er
manner,
Athemeus
and
worked over by a
later hand.
Jessen's suggestion (Bhnn. Mvs.
1859, vol. xiv. 88) that Aristotle's
genuine work is contained in the
work of Theophrastus is in no
way supported by the fact that
the latter closely agrees with
<pvrS)v
for
stantly
The
4, 1, 5, 9, Cans. viii. 4,
5) which would be hardly possible in Aristotle's lifetime, but it
also refers to what happened in
the time of King Antigonus
{Hist. iv. 8, 4) and the Archons
Archippus, B.C. 321 or 318 {Hist.
iv. 14, 11) and Nicodorus, B.C.
ARISTOTLE'S WRITINGS
field of
mies,^ the
n.
named
^Avdpd>irov
in
An.
(pvffecos,
Aj?jj.
only
There
183.
book
a^).
95
larpiKhs:
Wenrich,
Hadschi Khalfa
p. 159, Pe San-
which he makes,
p. 9, 1 fin. (cf.
Pe
from
this source.
That Aristotle
similar
from PoUt.
i.
subjects
11, 1258,
is
clear
a, 33, 39.
ARISTOTLE
06
The
spurious.
ol
Ptolemy,
delit'jscunt,
deversantur atque
i.
see
'
'
'
"'
iv.,
there
is
by
Aristotle.
but our
described
23,
Loois, quihus
Peripatetic
many
In the Index
'
No.
productions of the
have existed in
Problems'^
^vaiKo.
'
TTpo^Kri[xara,
times with
and some-
addition
Kar'
elSos (Twayui'yris Q arranged
in
accordance with the matter').
Gellius generally says, Prohlemata (xix. 4), Proh. i^hyslca (xx.
ITpo4, (juoting Prohl. xxx. 10)
iyKVKXia
fiX-n/jLUTa
Apul. (JJe
Mar/m, c. 51) has Prohlemata;
Athen^eus and Apollonius {vid.
Indices and Prantl, 390 sq.) althe
ways npoi8AT7^aTo
(pvaLKa;
Macrob.
vii.
ARISTOTLE'S WRITINGS
97
(which seems to be an
extract from the same work) Pt.
30 sq. the Great Ethics in two
books, the Eudemian Ethics in
eight. Aristotle himself quotes
{Metaph. i. 1, 981, b, 25, and
in six passages of the Politics)
the ^QiKd, meaning doubtless the
Nicomachean Ethics (cf. BenDiXEN in PMlologus x. 203,
'
86, n. 1, and
The spurious composition n. TrpofiXrjfidTcov, to which beoTTTiKCL, larpiKa, cf. p.
95, n. 3.
and De
CopIo, i. 9, 279, a, 30 Ha
eyKVK\La <l>i\o<ro(pi\ixara.
Cf BerNAYS, Dial, of Arist. 85, 93 sqq.
171 BONITZ, Ind. Ar. 105, a, 27
.
sqq.
only names 'UdiKwu e' al. S' (although DiOG. elsewhere {Vita,
21) cites the seventh book of the
Ethics in connection with Eth.
End. vii. 12, 1245, b, 20); An.
39 has 'WdiKuv K {e.g. the Eth.
Nic.^ the last book of which is k),
;
VOL.
T.
174
n.
7]6(iov
in the Appendix
{-iKuv) N iKo/j.ax^iccj/
vTroOijKas
290
sqq.,
and
whom
he used
and
ARISTOTLE
98
however,
one
only
the
Nicomachean
sqq.
Eudemian Ethics
Eud.
iv.-vi.)
is
{Nic.
still
v.-vii.,
moot
Ethics
is
of
mass of smaller
lost at
Eudemus
Jin.'),
mian Ethics
iib.
d. niliom.
much to
Nic. v.-vii.,
though essentially Aristotelian,
fication,
which
support
it,
that
has
ARISTOTLE'S WHITINGS
99
tracts is also
genuine.
Eudemian Ethics.
the
59
dperrjs
Kal (TVfjLfiaivovros,
An.
It is
56).
Ira,
i.
title
IT.
and the
Aristotelian.
D. 61, An. 60 have
also TiaQf] a'. Further (besides
3. 9, 2, 17, 1, iii. 3,
l)may
Still
less can Aristotle have
been the author of Seaeis (piXiKal
(D. 72, An. 67).
fi'
Of the
two writings n. ffv/x^idoffeus avSpds
Kal yvvaiKds (AN.
yl;;^;.
165)
and
Nofxovs (-oi) avSpos Kal ya/xe166), the former is mentioned by other writers several
rrjs (ibid.
times
dor.,
H2
ARISTOTLE
100
contains some
work
it
is
unhappily
The
Of all the
left,
genuine.^
rest
(in the
MSS., of D. 139, Nofios avaraTiKhs,
of An. 130 No/nwu ava-TUTLKwu a',
of the
'kofxoi
(Tva(rtTiKo\
for
contained a collection of
customs relating to them,
(TvcTaiTLOov ^ (TVfXTroa-ioov (AN.
App. 161) is identical with it
not so, however, the three books
it
the
n.
like the
p. 72, n. 2 fin.
but though
admirable
Metapliysics,
un-
cannot
be
considered
we have
lost
everything
(Economics
finished.2
preserved
is
c. 13, 1102, a, 5,
12 init.;met. i. 2, 1356, a,
He expects from politics
realisation of the principles
down by Ethics (iUd. x. 10).
2, c. 2 init.
vii.
26).
the
laid
But
(cf.
PolU.
vii.
1,
1323, b,
1, 1261,
ii.
a,
ARISTOTLE'S WRITINGS
Among them
Plut.
names
Or. 971, a)
gives 255:
Ps.-Porphyr.
words
existence of
spurious Polities; pvn' (158) instead of yvr](Tiais may be the true
reading (Heitz, Ar. Fr. 219),
though Ideler, Ar. Meteor, i.,
xii. 40 can hardly be right in substituting ^TTio-ToAats for
The
numerous
iroXireiais').
fragments of
are found
101
the loss of
ARISTOTLE
102
Poetics
writings.
only a fragment
is
be
If this
copies
would only be circulated after
A chapter out of the
his death.
UoKiTfla 'A6r]vaiu>u may have given
rise to the title IT. twu So'Awvos
a^ovwv (An. Apj). liO cf. MiJLLER, ibid., 109, 12). A similar
collection was (2) the NSfxifia
^ap^apiKu, which are quoted under
so,
by Appollon. 3lirabil.
Varro, i. 1 vii. 70 An. App.
this title
11
18G
(yoixljxoiv
(Tvvayuyr])
fiap^.
this title also the designations Nd/xoi a' iS' y' 5' (D. 140),
been wrongly
transcribed.
'
them the
'Pwimaiuv
vojxiixa
To
(An.
v6^iixaTvppif]vS:v
23, d)
i.
probably be-
longed.
UoKiTiKhs
cf. p.
57; on
IT.
^affiXeias
cretnm secretortim
(or, Aristotelis
ad Alexandruvi rcffemdemoribus
rege
dk/nis),
cf.
sq;
Geier, Arist.
Rose, Arist.
',
from
vofiifxwu 8'
in various
simply irreparable.^
cities, is
Our
government
re-
covered.
This writing, in our editions,
is entitled
IT. Trotr/Tt/cTjs. Aristot.
himself mentions it in the Politics
(viii. 7, 1341, b, 38), as a future
work in the Rhetoric (i. II fin.
iii. 1, 1404, a, 38, c. 2, 1404, b, 7,
28, 1405, a, 5, c. 18, 1419, b, 5,
with which cf p. 74, n. 1), as already existing, with these words
eV To7s Trepl nonjTiKrjs, or (1404, b,
28) eV T. TT. TToiriffeoos. The Indices
'^
name
TIpayfiaTeias Te;^vrjs
iroit]-
Marc. p. 2, R) seem
have dealt with quarrels
between the Hellenic states and
their settlement
they are also
named more
and AsT,
but
as
current.
Twv
The
Ai/cajw/iara
(Ammon.
irdAeoji/
Vocal).
somewhere
traditions
(3)
NTjey)
or Aik.
Rifi'er.
'EAAtji/iScov
-TrdAewj/ ( V.
to
briefly
120,
AiKaKo/xara
Harpocrat.
(4) The @
(An. G9 the same
Apu/ids).
is the right
reading in D. 74) were in any case
j3'
spurious.
the
The Anon.
name IT.
5 applies
ttoXitikvs to the Grjd-
los,
TiKTis
/8'
h t^
tt. it.
SiMPL. Cat.
ir.
-ir.
ir.
ir.
in libris quos
scripsit.
thorities
de
arte poetica
ARISTOTLE'S WRITINGS
much
103
to the theory
on the
Nor
poets.^
is
there
much
his dissertations
of the other
left
come after chap. 18), which sufis mentioned only in the quotations ficiently prove that we only p' sgiven on p. 58, n. 1, with regard sess Aristotle's work in a mutito the writing IT. ttolt^tcov), the lated and hopelessly corrupt condition.
We cannot here inquire
more modern only with one
except in so far as they copy how its present condition may be
more ancient writers, as we must explained (Susemihl, ibid., p. 3
suppose was the case with Am- sq., gives an enumeration of the
From ditferent, and in part widely dimonius and Boethius.
this alone we might suppose that verging attempts at explanation).
the writing in question originally It may be true, as Susemihl
had a greater extension than it concludes, that the carelessness
now has, but this becomes cert ain of the writing, the caprice of
from the references to such the copyists, and the freaks of
parts of it as are missing in our accident account for most of the
recension, as for instance the mischief but we cannot make
discussion on the Catharsis pro- these factors responsible for the
mised in Polit. viii. 7, 1341, b, 38, interpolations, except in so far as
which would naturally have come they may have rendered possible
the introduction of some marin the section on Tragedy, and,
as we learn from sure traces, ginal notes into the text.
Of the Dialogue n. toivtwu
actually did occur there (cf.
Bernays, Grundz. d. Abh. d. y we have already spoken on p.
Besides this An. 115 gives
58.
Arist. lib. d. Wirkung d. Trag.'
Abh. d. hist.-jyhil. Ges. in Breslau, KvkXov it. TTOirtrCov, likewise in
160 sqq., 197 sq. SusEMlHL, p. three books. This title may have
12; Vahlen, p. 81 sq. of his arisen, by duplication and coredition, and others) the exam- ruption, from that of the Diaination of Comedy, promised logue, or it may (according to
Poet. c. 6 init., and quoted Heitz, 178) designate a work
Rhet. i. 11 Jin., of which Bernays distinct from it but the kvkXov
{Rh. Mtis. viii. 561 sqq.) has may also have sprung from the
books on Poetry (a third
'
'
'
v.
'Hpo/c\. v6(Tov).
Miiller
{Hist.
AMIStOTLE
104
books named to
us^
where
and among
Xovs).
strange
(r]T7]iJ.aTa
a (D. 133), possibly only a different title for the same writing
N?/cat Aiovva-iaKoi a (D. 135, An.
Kuv
Ylpofi\-r]pi.drwv
(An.
'OfXT]pi-
Ptol.
147
1)1
Ammon. V. Ar. 44 Amm.
Lat. 54, probably a duplication
ot:
the aTvop7]ixara)
'A7ropi)iiiaTa
'Haiodou a'
(An. App. 14i5)
I
A2)2).
'ATTOp,
EvpiTiSovs,
'Apx'-^o'xou,
To these
the
'ATToprnxaTa
seem
tise
(Ax. 107)
Oela
also to belong.
The treaEl 5e TTore "O/uiTjpos iiroir](Tiv
is
eV
title,
TlvdioviKas
'M.ivaixfJ-ov iv'iK-qaev)
fii^Xiov
IlvQiKus
a).
\r)-
181
n. QavfjLaaluvaKovaixdTwv
sq.).^
quoted by Athen.
oK/i.
d/c. c.
(xii.
541
cf.
ARISTOTLE'S WRITINGS
these also there
have crept
B.
105
is
titles
in.
On
known
or
to us as Aristotelian,
The
stotelicum
it is
poems
were of two
different
Ari-
And
scientific form.^
be called genuine
almost
are,
as
all
be seen, connected
will
way
that
is
only to
one
It is quite different in
hypomnematic
'
notes,
work see Westbrmann, Uapa^ol6ypa.<^oi, p, XXV. sqq., and espeRose, Ar. Libr. Ord. 54
Ar. Pseud. 279 sq., who
refers the main body of the
work, consisting of chaps. 1-114,
that
to
is
Aristotelian
sq.,
We
made by
sq.
Fragm. 219) is
doubtful whether there was an
Schr. 163
cially
say,
;
work on this
subject,
cannot
may
fivTjfxara
127
be supplied)
ifi'
(D.
cf p. 96, foot),
.
ARISTOTLE
106
to
it.^
is to
Cicero, Quintilian,
be distinguished a third.
and
ness
exposition
his
the
speech.'''
referred to
^
Simpl. {in Caterj. Schol. in
viroiJ.ur]fjLaTiKa oaa
Ar. 24, a, 42)
:
irphs viru^vriCTiu
avkfTa^^v 6 (piXocrocpos
these writings cannot, however,
be taken as iravrri cnrovSris &^ia,
and hence we may not draw from
tliem any proofs for the Aristotelian doctrine: 6 fiivroi 'AAe|avhpos TO. vTroixvr)/J.ariKa avfXTr^cpvpfidaavov
^liva
(prjalv
Kol
elvai
ava(p4padai,
(TKoirhv
fii]
eVa
Trphs
and
for
tliis
very reason the others are distinguished from them as awrayDavid (ScJtol. 24, a, 38)
fxariKa.
:
vTro/xur]/j.aTiKa
/jl^u
Xiyovrai iu
ois
air e-ypdcpv or av
iTTiAoyuu Kal
TTJs fcp^irovaris eKSoarecriv airayye\ias.
Cf. Heitz, Verl. Schr. 24
fjLova
Si'xa
TO.
K(pdKaia
TTpooi/jLiuu
golden stream of
'
Koi
Sq.
his
works designed
hypomnematical
writings.'
mentioned on
and perhaps also the
whether the
Polities (p. 101)
riepl TayaQov is also one (as al=*
E.g.,
those
p. 62, n. 4, 5,
ready noted on
seems doubtful.
p. 61, n.
2 fn.'),
supposed genuine.
Even
if it
be
orationis
Acad.
ii.
orationis
ornamenta
neglexerit.
Jiimen
stoteles.
ARISTOTLE'S WRITINGS
by him
It is not applicable to
for publication.
now
107
extant
and of
any of
much
and
He
will
to praise in
all
compactness of his
diction,
and
dis-
precision
masterly
his
But of the
which Cicero emphasises, or any graceful movement of a rich and rolling eloquence, he will find even
qualities
in the
We
description.
ourselves,
in a style far
more
rich
and
clarlorem putem.
Dionys. Be
Verb. Cop. 24 of the philosophers, Democritus, Plato, and
Aristotle are the best as to style,
Be Cens. Vet. Sc7'i2)t. 4: irapa-
XTjTTTeW
40
sclentia
co2)ia
IJ,ilJ.7)(Tiv
5e
rrjs
5eti/oT7jTos
Tov
KoX
re
/col
'ApifrrorfXr]
irepl
rrjs
t^v
els
(pfirtveiav
aacprfveias
Koi
Except the Topics and Rhewe have no reason for supposing that any of them knew
by personal reading the extant
'
toric,
Acad.
ii.
JV.
38, 119
37, 96, 49,
;
B.
ii.
125
Birifi. i. 25, 53
Fragm. Hort.
aptid Augustine c. Jul. iv. 78
Fin. v. 4, 11 Ad Quint. Fr. iii.
15, 42, 16, 44,
Ad
Off.
n. 1.
ii.
Att.
16, 56
and above,
28, 2
p. 60,
ARISTOTLE
108
ornate,
and approached
graces
of
the
This difference
is
more
now contained
treatises
scientific
far
Platonic
in
to be explained, not
fact
our
merely by the
but also by the
the
Corpus}
the same
the
same
audiences. 2
Aristotle himself occasionally refers to certain state-
ments of
common
use,
by him, or then in
which seem to imply that a
in terms
On
what is pre12-14,
17 sq.,
32, 30, 40, 48, 49, 71, 72 of the
Fragments (Academy edition)
from the J^itdcwus, Profrejjtieus,
n. (j)i\oao(pias, U. 5iKaioavi>r]s, and
above, p. 56, n. 2.
- We
shall discuss this immediately.
^ Poet. 15, 1154, b,
17: erprjrai
'
served in
Nos.
^oyois iKavws.
Pe
ui fi. i. 4 init.:
ho^a irapaSeSoTai
Koi
oAAtj Se
Trepl
TLs
SeSco/cuia
Kal
in
in
rois iv
And
from his
allowable.
SedoijLeuoi
iKS^SoficuoL
'
'
; '
ARISTOTLE'S WRITINGS
109
'
be, in relation
lowing note).
The latter fact
indicates that it is wrong (as
SiMPL. does see following note)
to refer the \6yoi iv koiv^ yiyv. to
the Platonic Phcedo, for which
this expression would not be a
sufficient indication, nor would
;
it
ARISTOTLE
110
which he
so refers
'
'
AHst. 105,
a,
a,
'iKavcos
(kuI
9, 279, a,
30
(/col
and De
Coelo,
i.
yap KaOdirep iv
Ar. 124,
'
strain,' is
phrase
cius(in
is
writings in the
common
De
iyKVKk.
TTJj'
(piK.
rd^iv
to
e'l
and
avvov(riai
ARISTOTLE'S WRITINGS
of these
relation
tant
Corpus.
always referred
works,
Exoteric Discourses
by a
from
strict
less
the
and Strabo
technical
scientific
But
method of treatment.^
among themselves
differ
our ex-
to
'
distinguished
treatises
they
'
111
Cicero
as to details.
According
late
to Gellius,
Ethics,
by
^^coreptKol x6'yoi.
common
the
'
exoteric
in Plutarch.^
'
about the
Fin. V. 5, 12
highest good, Aristotle and Theophrastus have written duo genera lihrorum, ununi jyopulariter
"^
De An.
ii.
E, 2 {ap.
261)
wv
fiara,
ra
elai
PhiLOP.
Stahe, AHst.
(ppovri^ovra.
OLKpi^eias
i^MTepiKo.
a-vyypdfjL-
koI oi SiaKoyoi
aiTip Sto
yeypa/xfieva.
the
liappened
scriptivni,
quod
i^iorepiKht' ajjjjel-
XIII.
1, 54, p.
609
because
TheoPeripatetics, after
phrastus, had not his works and
those of Aristotle, ttAV oxiywv
Koi yiiKKTTa ruv i^urepiKuv, they
^TjSei/
irpayfiariKcos
Ixetj/ (f)i\o(To(pe7v
aWh deaeis
Cf.
nlo/ni
Tols (pvaiKoTs,
*
2, b:
Sia\6y<t}V,
5ia
tuv i^ayrepiKuv
ARISTOTLE
112
named
exoteric,'
'
'
acroatic,'
as
for
everyone
Andronicus/
is
supposed to
is
the
Alexander,
'
acroatic
expressly stated
mind of the
we do find this
At
a later time
it
the further
'
A.
XX.
5:
Aristotle's
lectures and writings were divided into two classes, the e^co'E|wTeTepiKo. and the aKpoariKa.
piKacl'icchantuT (pur ad rltetoricas
nicditationcx fdcvltatemqve argvi'larum ciriliuniqve rcrnm, noaKpoariKa.
('onducchant,
t'ltiam
sopliia rcmotior
rernm
Cf.
Gell.
ibid.
Plut.
The wording
1.
'
acroatic
'
Thus Plut.
^oiKe
7]QiKbv
Alex.
c.
7:
S'
KoX
iroXiTiKhv
irapaXafielv
CLEMENS, Strom.
not only the Pythagoreans and the Platonists, but
all schools have secret doctrines
and secret writings Xeyovffi Se
Xovs,fxeTa(Tx^^^-
V.
575,
der.
ARISTOTLE'S WRITINGS
113
works a form of exposition which must make them uninany but his scholars
while at the same
time it is said that it was here only that he disclosed his
telligible to
views in their
the
exoteric
'
'
full logical
On
connection. ^
this theory
'
acroatic,' just
for a
classes
of inquiry,
scientific
general comprehension.^
This idea is expressed in
the answer of Aristotle to Alex^
fxeuovs Kal
fx)}
CKSeSoiiievovs
|uj/eToi
the
V. Auct.
26, calls Aristotle SittAoDs, 6.K\os
ixhv 6 eKTOffOev (paiv6/xvos &\\05 Se
c.
6 (PToadeu,
-
exoteric
and
esoteric.
Alexander remarks,
Tojj. 52,
VOL.
I.
Trepl
irepl rSov
But the
and the
Rhetoric shows that this only
refers to the basis of the opinions
laid down in these writings, the
argument from the universally
acknowledged (the
ej/5o|oi/),
and
As to
see follow-
p. 4.
On
fiariKo'is TO,
TO
aXrjdrj,
iu 5e to7s Sia\oyiKo7s
&A\ois SoKovuTa, TO
tA
xf/evSrj.
ARISTOTLE
114
not put
its
if it
as far back
'
It
is,
however,
requires correction in
o:ie
himself as to the
'
It is true that
Exoteric Discourses.'
in a general sense he
may
describe as
'
exoteric
'
any
go to establish this
point. Thus the so-called Ammon.
in Catcg. B,b sqq. (see also Stahr,
AristoteUa, ii. 255 sqq.), who,
after some other divisions of the
the Aristotelian writings, among
syntagmatic ones distinguishes
'
'
avTOTrpocrcoTra
koL aKpoap-ariKO.
and
the
(pi.\o-
iiTLTrjSeLOvs
(Tocpiav,
T-p
avayKacFTiKoov
5ia TTidauMv.
\6y(av,
St'
the latter
Cf. p. 111, n. 4.
cer-
we do not know
has been added to
On the other
their testimony.
hand we must trace the state-
No. 41),
still
how much
ments
ARISTOTLE'S WRITINGS
in liand,^ or
always
and
rauTa
denote a distinct
necessarily
Nevertheless there
writings.^
i.
fxhv
5,
it
aWk
1254, a, 33
i^MTepiKwrepas
Similarly, ibid. ii.
;
Iffus
irrrl (TKe^ews.
in the Rejmblio
1264, b, 39
Plato has only imperfectly treated
of legislation, ra 5' aK\a ro7s
f^ctidev \6yois TreirKrjpwKc rhv KoyovJ
The term ' e^codev Koyoi covers in
this case writings of the most
In like
speculative character.
manner Eudemus Fr. 6 (Simpl.
Phys. 18, b), where instead of the
6,
'
'
e^ei
S' cLTToplav
....
'((Tws
5e ov irphs
8e
a
it does not aim at
and adequate notion of
time (the ii Icnv b xpoj/os, 218, a,
class
of
we
to such a class
^ Thus,
besides the passae'e
given in the preceding note from
the PhysicSy the Eudemian Eth.
ii. 1, 1218, b, 33, introduces the
division of possessions into the
external and the spiritual with the
remark
Kadair^p SiaipovfieOa
kv rots i^coTpiKo7s \6yoL5.
In
Kal
the
concerning
meant. It
must
in question,
p. 218, a, 30.
that the
and that
strict
31), but
"*
because
tions
115
can
happiness
Eudemus
i^car. x6yoi of
also refer.
This
be
is to these, therefore,
true especially of
1323, a, 21
vo/j.iaavTus oZv LKavSos TToAAa \4ye(rdai Kol
rwv iv To7s i^o^TepLKoTs XSyois
irepl rrjs apicrTTjs C^rjs Kal vvv
XPVareov avTo7s.
That by this lie
does not mean mere oral expressions of opinion in the conversations of daily life is clearly
Pollt. vii.
is
i,
fol-
ARISTOTLE
116
tlie
texts
is
made probable
ibid. 32
His avaKvTiKols Aeyofxei/
etc
aii(pi(r^-nry](rii:V,
from oaa &A\a irpoarhiopi^dixiQa iv Tois
point may be stated thus
And, on the other
the arguments in the i^wrfpiKol avaXvTiKOLS.
hand, the vvv xp^fTfov avTois is
\6yoi, it will be univei sally recognised that the conditions of adverse to this explanation. That
hai)piness include not only exter- is meant to designate what folnal and bodily good things but also lows as something extracted from
and pre-eminently spiritual good the exoteric discourses but Arithings although it is true that in stotle would be far more likely to
common life we are wont to content use such a formula if he was quotourselves with far too small a pro- ing something from a former work
portion of such s])iritual good.' than if he was merely repeating
This line of reasoning necessarily in writing what he had already
implies that the i^wrepiKol \6yoL orally delivered. This latter, from
the nature of the case, he must
in qucstion,witli which the current
opinion of society is said to be in have had occasion to do as often
as a modern university teacher
})artial agreement, are not the
same as any form of expression does it. The fact, tlien, that he
expressly mentions that he is
of that current opinion (cf. BerKAYS, Dial. d. Arist. 40). Then, 'making an extract from the e|wTpiKo\ Koyoi,^ points, as in the
again, the words irp6s ye fiiav ZiPe Cwlo, ii. 13, 295, a, 2, and
aipeffLV ovSels au.(pL(T&r)TT]aeiev point
Jlcti'or. iii. 2, 372, b, 10 (where
to definite explanations, set down
some of the writings which we
in writing, not merely existing
in the intangible medium of oral possess are quoted with the same
conversation. It would be easier Xpr](TT4ov) to an existing written
And an Aristotelian writto connect them with oral dis- work.
courses of Aristotle himself (as ing must be meant, since that
OXCKEN does in Staatd. d. Arid. which follows out of the i^corepWe cannot, however, iKoi \6yoi sounds perfectly Aristoi. 44-59).
base this view on the present telian, and forms a whole with
what Aristotle gives in his own
Keyofiev (together with the Stopi-
oi/Seh
'
Pliys. viii. 1,
(pafieu 5^, etc. (PJii/s.
Cado, i. 7, 275, b, 21
Tje LKo7s
Koi iv To7s
251, a,
iii.
1)
Xoyos
5);
Pe
5'
61/
Tols
irepl
Kivrjcews
name
(jiiiels
Se
ipov/jLev,
38).
1.
although
ARISTOTLE'S WRITINGS
both by the express distinction that
i^oDTepiKol
with them
Zeller's
2nd
{vid.
of
Bernays' the127, n.
p.
ed.).
2,
'
avTuv iroXXaKis.
These words,
looked at in themselves, might
refer not only (as Oncken, ibid.,
suggests) to oral disquisitions,
but also (by taking the 5topf^(^/ie0o
as the collective we ') to conver'
is
117
drawn between
'
(as Bernays, p. 38 asserts), cannot be inferred from the ^iopi^6/xeda, since this expression designates not only the exact distinction, the carefully- weighed logical antithesis,' but an]/ kind of
distinction whatever.
If
we
compare with it the perfectly
analogous use of Xeyo/neu, diopi(6fxeda, &c., in the passages given
above (p. 115), we shall be prepared to give the same meaning
to the Siopi^ofieda here, and when
*
e|&)-
and
n. 1,
n. fiaffiXeias
and
60, n.
true of Eth.
S'
eVrl
iroirjais
v.
supra, p. 58,
1). The
vi.
4 init.
koI Trpa^is
like is
erepou
TricTTev-
Se irepl
Ko?s \6yois.
my
the
ARISTOTLE
118
words
on
tween the rational and the irrational in the soul may have made
its way from the Platonic school
into wider circles (Epicharmus,
at a much later period, comes
ver}'' near to it with his vovs dpa,
&c.), and though it could scarcely
be said to be an actual impossibility to interpret the words i^car.
writings,
is
indifferent.
If,
'
and
-rrpa^is,
conversation of
but if
persons
:
8);
irepi
auT^s
Koi
This
may not mean that we are to seek
the scicnHfie defimtion of happiness in the conversation of the
educated but neither would this
be affirmed in Eth. vi. 4 init.
about that of -rroiriaLS and irpa^is,
if we were to understand the
f^ccT. x6yoi in this passage of the
The appeal to uniXey6fi(va.
versal conviction would be to
establish a general distinction of
e/f
Twv Keyo/xevcov
irepl auTTjy.
'
TToiriais
'
from
Aristotle's
and
rep
yap
irpa^is
way
this
is
aXrjde?
i.
we
T^s
i\ivxns] Koi
eV Tols i^corpiKo7s
ARISTOTLE'S WRITINGS
119
be
the
\6yois Kol iv
roils
Kara
<piXo(ro<piav.
Cf following note.
This is indicated by the express statement in the passages
quoted in the preceding note,
especially from Polit. vii. 1, Eth.
i. 13, Metaph. xiii. 1, that certain
points have been suflBciently explained even in the exoteric disthat is, inasmuch as we
courses
should less expect such discusEudemus puts it
sions in them.
more definitely, by putting the
i^wrcpiKol \6yoi (see preceding
note, Jin.) in opposition to the
Since the
\6yoi Karci. <f)i\o<ro(j>lau.
.
'
'
'
'^
Mh. End.
8,
doctrine, with
out,
ffoes
and
(2) that
refers to the
external.
former
an
is
apxh (Polit.
i^MrepiK-i]
called
ii.
10,
latter
external
which
and
3)
nor
The
latter
suit, partly
ARISTOTLE
120
inferred either from
selveSj or
tlie
facts,
There
that Aristotle's
As
Master did
all
tliat
and unintelligible
visible
truth
mind
to the lay
characteristics of the
is that,
tions,
disproved by the
The
we ought to confor his own use, he takes
themselves.
sider
all
is
texts
reader,
by the use of a
by explanations and
illustrations,
by methodical
n, 4).
many
If
it
be true
particular points of
piKbs
When Eudemus
'
tises.'
'
Cf. p. 60, n. 1.
Cf. p. 22, n. 1, 112, n. 3,
ARISTOTLWS WRITINGS
difficulty,
121
Besides,
it
is
obvious
was only a
more
their dissemination
seem to
It
artistic
'
to
communicate them to
others.
'
122
ARISTOTLE
sq.),
of non-philosophical circles
ARISTOTLE'S WRITINGS
123
and it may be very true that the matter of the former was
advanced than the systematic doctrine of the Master,
but it is entirely
as we have it from his riper years
less
beside the
mark
reader's eye.
between
and the others,
these
published
'
which points
'
or 'exoteric' books
many
indications
In the
stance
place there
stands
such
Heitz
( F(?7'Z.
sqq.)>
first
is
lectures chiefly,
Schr. d. A7'. 122
ii.
239 sqq., cf
{Aristotelia^
especially 275 sq.), and Brandis
(Gr.-rom. Phil. ii. b, 101 sqq.)
express themselves less decidedly
the
is
tlie
above.
Stahr, ibid., gives all
the earlier references Which bear
upon the question.'
Ritter (iii. 29) and BranDis (ii. b, 113) have already
'
ARISTOTLE
124
cites that other
book
itself:
it
Analytics,^
may
and yet
These
in contemplation only.
is
The
Topics
is
'-^
All four
When
ones.^
it
we know them,
which, as
to a section
is
which
compiled
but
^
;
it
'
p.
Arist.
(Itid.
n.
67,
BONITZ
1.
a,
24
eV
rtVcoj/
avWoyia-
jxou opov^
iv kripois
SidpLffTaL
aKpifiecn^pov
(cf.
/j.eu
Anal. Post.
ii.
2),
ra>u
viii.
apxv
ii.
eV
-rh
5'
kpcoTwv,
JiJL),
Tots avaXvTiKols
3
A7ial. Pr.
e'iprjrai.
ii.
15,
64, a,
36
TOTriKo7s) to
4,
ix.
b, 21,
167,
follows
is
In
Pliys. i. 8, 191, b, 2
Aristotle remarks, after a discussion on the possibility of comingfTs /xfv d}] rpSiros
into existence
*
ovTOS, &\\os
ma,
was
5'
OTi ei/Se'xeTai
Kara t^v
Ae-yejj/
Svpa/XLV
Tavra
Kal TrjV
V. 7.
AHISTOTLE'S WRITINGS
Be
Goelo
The Meteorology
work. 2
yet in
was written
it
than that
later
Be Sensu
refers to the
own preamble
its
125
and
up.
which
spoken of
is
as being
is
unwritten.
still
referred to in an
"^
The
to come.^
De Somno
lost
Generation of Animals,
There
and in a
book on Food
it is
on Plants
treatise
Us pi
^(pwv
one as yet
later
quoted in the
is
in
demonstrably later
The same
Plants,
the
Parts and
promised as in the
future."^
is
if
and behind
SicoptCTat
rovTWV iv Tols
^jl^v
ovv
irepl
III.
TovTwv
fi?i.
eoTTOj
TiQ^wp'nixivou
T)ixiv
5e ircpliv ToTs
(iffirep
eijpTjTai
(pvTwv.
On
on
1, is first promised
works which on their part
p. 93, n.
in
fxhv
(pvTU)v iv
On
dAAa
and
must we,
clearly
Meteor, ii.
the lpr]Tai
3,
in
359, b, 21, refer
6,Wois to
De
iv
Sensic, 4.
*
//.
/I.
V.
1,
539,
a,
20:
Trepi
fxtv
Trepl
more
eTreV/ceTTTat.
v.
(De
Still
kripois
3, 783, b,
tovtoov (the
falling of the leaves in winter)
iv &\\ois rh aXriov \KT0v (cf i.
Trepl fihv odv (pvTWv,
1, 716, a, 1
avra Kad^ avra x^P^^ eVttrKeTrTe'oj',
23
p. 93, n. 1).
C. 3, 456, b, 6
erprjTa: 5e
TOVTcov iv to7s Trepl Tpo(prjs.
:
ARISTOTLE
126
texts, ^
the other.
How
it cites
itself.^
are
we
all
Are we
so to
these cases as to
if it
later
one
and
assump-
The
'
^oir^s /cal
0ai/aTou,
together
avatrvoris,
of. p. 91 sq.
An. 5, 700, a, 33
many animals have the front and
hind parts near one another, olou
Ingr.
TO.
re jxaKaKia
KoL to
crTpo/jL^wSr}
rovrwv irpdrcpov
iv kr^pois [Part.
An.
iv. 9,
the same
ixu>v).
An.
tJjs
On
iv. 11,
tuv
Twv
irporepov
iiriffKciTTai
KOivfj
rrepl
irdvrwv.
tJ> 8'
But there
is
a far
24,
virdpxovai,
Sos
the
XP'^I'^^H-^^"'plainly shows that the reference
exposition.
is not to a future
Still
more violent than the
changes of text here contested is
the resource {Ar. Lihr. Ord. 118
sq.) of giving to efpTjrot, when
necessary, the meaning of ^tj^tj(rerat,
and of denying the
reference to the future in expressions like els iKe7vov rbv Kaiphv
airoKeiadca.
in
ABISTOTLE'S WRITINGS
simpler explanation,
if it
we
among
his
scholars
127
them
for a
time only
his oral
lectures.
troduced
spoken of by the
is
which
is
is
cited
itself
The
fact
Poetics.
Therefore he could
t^
since the
ovpavif, kc.
corresponds with
the
(line 18)
Siupia-Tai
fih odv (line 13). The whole passage from ^lupiarai to eijXoyov
Aristotelian interpolation.
Cf. infra, ch. xiii.
2 The Politics
i.
8, 1366, a,
21 {StriKpifiwTai yhp iv to7s ttoKlti'
If he
iu
rols
irepl
iroirjTiK^s
which,
ipovfi^v
as Bernays
{Ahh. d. hist. phil.
Ges. in
Breslau, p. 139) rightly supposes,
probably refers to a lost section
of our Poetics, and not to one of
the Politics (Heitz, Verl. Schr.
(Ta.<p4(mpov,
100
sq.).
ARISTOTLE
128
scholars.
who have
in later writings
himself'^ in
to another
author.
6ea(Tau.4voisviJUU
ex^tv
t]
/x4do5os
hWas
TrpajfJ-areias
v/juv
Some
and
avyyvcliiui.'qu
to7s
5'
v/iicov, rf/xiu
and
ri/jLuv
but
included
whom
he apologises.
distinguishes among
readers the * i^Kpoafievoi
from the rest only by striking
out the ^ before rwv iiKpoafievcav
could we get a simple address
to listeners, but the MSS. all have
*
Which
'
the
it.
^
40 sqq.
ARISTOTLE'S WRITINGS
as a
129
auxiliary to them.^
books,
The
also.
now forms
the
fifth
Yet he often
teaching.
refers to
it,
and
The
If
it
it
tract.
The
trick of carelessness in style which is so often remarked, the repetitions which surprise us in an exposition otherwise compact, the insertions which upset a
naturally well-ordered
if
never put the finishing touches to the writings in question, and that various matters were at the time of the
VOL.
I.
'
About
which
see
p.
n. 1.
89,
ARISTOTLE
130
books On the
Soid,'^
we
when, as in the
is
any
not Aristotle's.^
if
is
forced on us
a certain book
publication only,
for
we
was a posthumous
it
in such a
series
way
as
cannot have
life.
it
they remained
way
for that
work
is
cited in
many
of the books on
natural philosophy.^
Cf. p. 89, n. 2.
It
may be
xiii., init.
5
Ar. 102,
Ind.
ARISTOTLE'S WRITINGS
vidual
texfcs.
But the
131
'
exoteric
works,
'
all
from the
fact that,
for
Aristotle's
pupils,
it
seems
made
first
and were
only
Aristotle
is
in
also
of lecturing.4
on
to
Cf. p. 129
and
One
in the Metajjhijsics
130.
As,
said
on
7G and
pp.
seems to have been the
Dp,
Anima.
*
rod
at p.
130,
case
at p. 78.
77).
and the
'lojnos.
3
been
ARISTOTLE
132
to his pupils.
That theory
though
its
excluded in the
by the all-pervading
place
first
Again
by the
in spite of
fact that,
view
more
far
have been
own
if
carefully
negatived
it is
all
literary point of
use.
the author
is
Se'Set/crai
to?s
ev
S'
<j>v(riKo7s
irepl
It is otherwise in most
rovTwv).
Still more
of the other works.
decisive, however, is the form of
the references. No one uses for
the
expressions like
himself
<|)a/i.ei/ mentioned in p. 115, n. 4, or
circumstantial formulas, like ck
T6
Icrropias
rrjs
Kal
(pavephv
v<mpov
rrjs
roov
Xex^'hc^TO'i'
irepl
ra ^^a
avaTOjxSsv
"'
'''oh
koX
Trp\
and the
26,
(Uth.
Metaph.
^^.
iv. 5,
vi.
1139, b,
3,
1010,
Ehet.
a, 4,
28 and
supra),
Kaddirep iir^Adofxev (Meta2)h. x. 2,
init., xiii. 2, 1076, b, 39), Kaedir^p
i.
1,
1055,
(Metaph.
ZiciXdixiQa
&
ra
a,
iv
dioipiffafjifv,
Zi(api(Tp.4va Tjfuv
985, a, 11,
vi.
1357,
a,
oh
vii.
init.),
(Metaph.
4,/w., i.
(Rhet. i.
29),
1,
SiupiffdiiieOa,
7,
2,
i.
4,
1028, a,
1356, b,
rededopriTai
Tjfiiv
avruv (Metaph. i. 3,
cf. also those sen983, a, 33)
tences in which what has been
discussed before is summed up,
and what is going to be treated
is announced (e.g. Metaph. xiii. 9,
1086, a, 18 sqq., Rhet. i. 2, 1356,
b, 10 sqq.
So2)h. El. c. 33, 183,
a,
33 sqq.
Meteorol. init.).
Oncken (Staatsl. d. Ar., i. 58)
cites, from the Nicom. Ethics and
'iKavois
irepl
ARISTOTLE'S WRITINGS
Another unlikely theory^
which suggests
that
is
133
which
transcripts in
Aristotle's pupils
We
had
set
down the
the lecture
that
it
'
writings.
2
Oncken,' in proof of
this,
besides other
passages (p. 59 sq.), to those
passages of the Ethics in which
an audience is spoken of Eth. i.
5tb rrjy TroAiTt/cTjs
1, 1095, a, 2, 11
appeals,
ovK
ecTTt oIkio5
iTfpl [x\v
OLKpoaT^s 6 v4os
cLKpoarov
Toa-avra.
is
a very different
on the suggestion
the P^Zt^i^s alone, thirty- two passages with such formulas. No one
will believe that Aristotle would
have had to write down ail such
expressions in his lecture-book,
like a man beginning- to teach,
who is not sure of a single
word.
Oncken, ibid. 48 sqq. following ScALiGER.
O. there remarks (62 sq.) that he thinks
he has only made this supposition
probable with regard to the
Ethics and Politics, but his
reasons would hold equally for
the majority of our Aristotelian
rightly
rely
Ibid.
c.
irecppoifiidaOoo
2,
1095, b, 4
rhv
Trepl
TToAtTt/c^
aKp6a<Tis
{ap.
DiOG.
v.
we do
titles
but since
ARISTOTLE
134
statement.^
comes
to nothing.
such defects
answerable
for
The very
to Aristotle himself
'
And
this
is
the
chief
particles (proofs of
which are
to
work
in the Ztschr.
1866, 804 sqq.),
and similar points. The same is
the true view as to the questions
f. d.
Mr. Gymn.
style
ARISTOTLE'S WRITINGS
135
is
A like conclusion
have seen
might allude
to one or
we
Aristotle's
for in a lecture a
two past
courses, but
own.
from
^)
man
could
many
cases, as in the
It
seems
Natural Philo-
Such
Yet
We
Analytics followed
Eudemus
in their
the general
followers adopted
extant Meta/pliysics.^
Eudemus adopted
'^
et
the Ethics of
self
*
*
and not
ARISTOTLE
136
and
Aristotle,
into his
more the
still
letters in
These
fashion
in
which
Aristotle's
followers
clung to the
As
it
script
(see p. 128).
If
stotle
it
at his death
beyond the
circle
make
lost
And,
loss
for
Aristotle.
*
These
have
reference
xix.,
to
Phi/s. v.
2,
226,
b, 14,
and are
^r.-rom. Phil.
ii.
b, 114.
a,
ARISTOTLE'S WRITINGS
CHAPTEK
137
III
named argue
that
to
From
this
story the
the Peripatetics
who
tell
Rome
Rome
is
definite evidence,
Ad
About Andronicus
Ph.
d. Gr., pt.
iii.
above, p. 49, n.
6.
a,
cf.
Zeller,
and
549, 3,
ARISTOTLE
138
if so,
Later
critics
we should
far
'
Our
authorities
the
for
TOV OVK
XOV(riv
irKriv oK'fyojv,
u)TpLK(Jou,
5'
ro7s
Tuvra
irporiAdfv,
(pi\oao(pe1v
d/xapTLu>u.
vvu
(pepofjLepovs irivaKas.
Plut.
ov to $ifi\ia
fJLev iKeivwu
&fmvov
may
for an incident
Sulla's residence at Athens).
O^aeis \r}Kvdi(iv'
d(p'
Kal
apiaroreXi^eiP,
to.
iroAAo
duayKa^eadai.
ixfuroi
et/cora K^yeiv Sid rh irArjdos rcov
fii^Ala
e;^et^ <pi\o(ro<piv
dWa
vaTepov,
QeocppaffTO,
yur/Sej/
TTpay/xaTiicuis
oAws
in
We
Aristotle,
such
as
whom
stotle,
i.
ARISTOTLE'S WRITINGS
139
more in the
cellar of Scepsis,
till
for a
century and
Apellico found
them
if it
supplied unskilfully
missing portions,
the
and that
Tyrannio and Andronicus also had no further manuscripts they could collate
who then could guarantee
that in any
number
among
MSS., adopted
Neleus'
of his
own
Modern
Strabo's story
which even
its
gether silence.2
Schicksale
llhein.
d.
Mus.
arist.
v.
Biicher.'
Niebuhr
and
Stahr
294 sq.).
Later scholars have
mostly followed them,
2 Heitz,
Verl. Schr. d. Ar.
9 sqq., 20, 29 sqq.
Grote, Aristotle, i. 50 sqq.
Grant, Ethics
;
DiOG.
where
ARISTOTLE
140
Aristotle
to
in a canal or cellar
in a desperate
may
therefore be
beyond question that
Andronicus' edition of the Aristotelian text-books was
which Strabo
correct enough.
And
it
is
also
system and
unknown
If,
In the
first place,
it
is
philosophers.
abundant occasion,
for
he lived at
Rome
at the very
nothing
fact, in active
Alexander,
'
intercourse
first
who used
or at second
ARISTOTLE'S WRITINGS
'
141
hand.
way
MSS.
feel
of Neleus.^
On
themselves bound
it
by
his
text,^
though
if
facts.
It
may be
an
is
true that
away
as
So
far
He
frequently
contradicted
Aristotle;
but
because he attacked
it
expressly.^
cf.
ovK iv
Jkiraai
rois
avriypd^ois rh " 6
\6yos rris oixrias"
irp6(TKeiTai, us Koi BorjOhs fjLvr]fio-
likv
vivii
KoX 'Av8p6uiKos
it is not
said that he has settled the dis-
'
ARISTOTLE
142
an end, even
was due
way
every
correlate
which
it
unnatural.
to the parallel
nevertheless
Athens
is
in
It is
was
at
no
loss
for
texts
of
Plato.
lifetime,
in
many
books
or that Demetrius
them
works
or that
manuscripts objected to such uses of them that Arikept his writings closely under lock and key, and
:
stotle
ARISTOTLE'S WRITINGS
secrecy,
and
laid it as a
duty on
Ms
143
heirs.
All this
We
are
not
left,
is
we find of particular
books, but from certain general considerations also.
If it is true that the Peripatetics lost the genuine
Aristotelianism
when
the
library
Theophrastus
of
it
Eudemus
titles
also,
that he
'
^^^
in the
MUcs
Cf.pJ48,n.4,andinthesec-
ARISTOTLE
144
To do
this,
texts
especially
them
possessed Aristotle's
at a
Again,
if,
it is
included a large
number
of Aristotle's works. ^
who
writers of philosophy,
chiefly in
writings
^
;
The
place Aristotle
the Catalogue
1
Vide supra,
Heitz
still
p. 130, n. 3.
Sckr. 13) indeed thinks that if the Aristotelian works had been universally known and published, it
would be incomprehensible that
Eudemus in his Physics (and
2
( Verl.
words
of
Aristotle
so
exactly.
if
that
Eudemus had hesitated to do
this with regard to published
works, a plagiarism on unpublished ones must have seemed
much more unlawful to hira.
It is impossible, however, to re-
It
seems,
however,
3 Besides
what has been
remarked on p. 142, we have the
fact that Ptolemy Philadelphus
busied himself zealously about
Aristotelian
books, paid high
prices for them, and thus gave
to be supposed
not
that
the
p. 48 sqq.
ARISTOTLE'S WRITINGS
who
146
That he at
genes.2
all
by Dio-
events
indeed,
There
some express evidence that Chrysippus had
is,
in
SI*
P- ^^' - 1-
Cf.thescholionattheendof
ovde yhp
iv t^
waypatp^ ruv (dio<ppdaTov ^ifi\iwu.
From the same list evidently is
taken the scholion at the beginmng of the seventh book of the
History of Plants {apud Usenee,
Atml. Theophr. 2^)
o<(>pd(TTov
fiv^iav
ahrov '6\ws
TreTroLrjrai
r;'.
"Epfxiinros
literary tastes
That the
upon
lists in
at least in part
VOL.
I.
Diog.
and
v.
46 sqq.,
indirectly,
mended
*
it
itself,
he found it.
For even if we were not
it, if
ARISTOTLE
146
by
How
Aristotle?'*
Antiochus,
'
exoteric,'
must have
in fact
with
acquaintance
poses
Ari-
Ibid.
Ibid iv 28, 79
Ph.
d.
Gr. pt.
iii.
a,
cf.
503, 3,
Zbll.,
2nd
ed.
'
n. 1,
and
112, n.
3.
ARISTOTLE'S WRITINGS
147
MS.
'
fore,
his
The
vide
supra
the four books, IT.
p. 64, n. 2.
StKoioo-vvTjs (p. 56, n. 1), taken into
consideration
by Chrysippus,
*
letters,
(p. 55, n. 6)
58, n. 1 end),
and on Wealth
(p.
and
philosophers,
among which
is in-
from
The
same
the
would
statement
follow
(Simpl.
that An-
Cf. p. 68, n. 1,
Of
and
Theophrastus
71, n. 2.
this
L 2
is
ARISTOTLE
148
his follower Strabo
The
Rhetoric
is
all likeli-
is
various
clear
p. 5,
One
reading."^
(Schol. 409, b,
a,6,b, 28),
and Brandis,
b, 55, a,
8, 411,
Rliein.
Phys.
2, 185, b, 11);^ also 29,
a b YJj^twxQs rep 'ApttrTOTeAet irdvra
i.
is
b,
Eudemus
where
120, b,
remarked on Phys.
n. 3),
Eude-
scholars of
of the
KaraKoKovdwu
so closely
iii.
it
208,
8,
Eijd-nixos ivoTiffe
&c.
so 121,
apTiypdcpois']
rarov
b ev
:
KaO-nye/JiSvos,
ricri
rod
avrl
*'
dh [sc.
"
Koivij
8,
n.
2)
Which
is
We
"TrpwTTj. "
EijS-n/xos;
TOLS
Kal ovro)
128,
Kot
ypdcp^i
Etjhrjixos 5e
rov-
&C.
178, b
in Phyx. iv.
not Udpuv but
TrapaKoXovOoov,
writes,
222, b, 18,
iv rols
E(;5.
201, b
eavTov (pvaiKols irapacppd^wv ra rov
Eude'Apia-ToreXovs;
216, a:
13,
irapwv
iircKeiva "
instead
ARISTOTLE'S WRITINGS
mus
cited from
tlie
149
'
no
acquaintance with
less
it.^
The De
cannot
Ccelo
It
than
writer older
is,
(\>9opas
/cal
Diogenes,^ and
its
continuation
appears
when the
the
Hepl
in the Catalogue of
Meteorology
which
is closely
is
known
to have
it
the theory
The
(spurious)
toCto
iv
ws Trepirrhv
Trap\dci}v
T^
/iCTTjA^e
279, a:
irapa<ppd(oi}U
(r^eS^i'
^ApiarroreXovs
to
iirl
^i^Xitp Ke<j>d\aia
re\evTai(f>
ye
Ei;5.
avrhs to
'6
/col
Kal
koI
ridricn
ravra
ffwrSfxcos
294, b
shows that the first
motor must be immovable to
which Eudemus adds rh irpwrtas
Kivovv Kad' eKdffTTjv Kivqffiv.
For
TO
Tfx-fiixaTa
Aristotle
and
^
p. 136,
Damasus
2.
:
Vide supra,
That
is,
(rroix^iwu a'
j8'
p. S3, n. 1.
No. 39,
y\ refers to
if
n.
it
2 Cf.
Simpl. Phys. 153, a
(155, b), 154, b, 168, a, 187, a,
sqq., 189, b (cf. Phys. iv. 10),
214, a.
3 In
fragment
the
ajnid
Simpl. Phys. 64, b of which
:
'ETriTo/iwi/ 'Apta-TOT6Aovs
n.
Z^Jwi/ r'.
" According
to
Hierocl.
Hippiatr. Prtef. p. 4, this grammarian had written an 'EiriToyu^ of
it,
which Artemidor.
oit.
ii.
14 calls
Oneiro-
virofivfifiara
e/y
ARISTOTLE
150
unknown during
also
is
shown
much
in use.^
Movement
who used also the spurious treatise
As to the Problems,* it is more
of Living Creatures,'
Ilspl
iTvsvfJLaros?
which was
it
The
Meiarpliyncs
it
first
introduced by Andronicus
Philosophy.
Of the
EtJdcs,
obvious that
it is
it
could not
by Eudemus or
The
at a later date
we
by the author of
by
Magna
Moralia.
the
list
Politics, if
his
knows
'
this epitome.
Aboutwhichseep.87,n.
l,^rf
n.l, supra,
fin.
are to judge
See p. 79, n.
Vide snpra,
p. 100, n. 8,
1.
p.
100, n.
ARISTOTLE'S WRITINGS
151
is also
cited
of his Tripoliticus.^
is
The use
of
source Cicero
own
works
political
but
it
which he used
it
is
for his
it
we have abundant
De
col. 7, 38,
it is
2
ascribed to Theophrastus.
Whom we have rather to
seek in
Eudemus
or one of his
ad fin.
* Although happiness
i.
4,
1184, b,
3.S
is
here,
sqq., defined as
Arist.
Then the
XpVffts is wanting.
XP^o-is is also spoken of in IJnd.
1219, a, 12 sqq. 23, Mc. i. 9.
1098, b, 31, and thus it is quite
possible that only these passages
were in the mind of the author
of the Great Ethics.
*
proofs.^
litics,
Bep.
i.
25
Leg.
(cf. Polit.
iii.
iii.
9,
6.,
1280,
6, 1278, b, 8, 19, i. 2,
1253, a, 2) Rej). i. 26 (Pol. iii.
c.
1, 1274, b, 36, c. 6, 1278, b, 8,
i. 27
7, 1279, a, 25 sqq.); Rej).
(Pol. iii. 9, 1280, a, 11, c. 10, 11,
1281, a, 28 sqq., b, 28, c. 16, 1287,
Rej). i. 29 (Pol. iv.
a, 8 sqq.)
Susemihl (Arist. Pol.
8, 11).
xliv. 81) also agrees with this.
But since Cicero does not name
Aristotle in the Rejntblic, and
Leg. iii. 6 only refers to him in
very indefinite expressions, he
6, 29, c,
ARISTOTLE
152
was
is
of
we cannot positively prove it and that, when we remember the fragmentary character of our knowledge of
;
nothing strange.
The
is
and Plutarch
that the scientific writings of Aristotle were after
the
death of Theophrastus all but wholly withdrawn from
access is therefore decisively negatived by the facts.
A
belief of Strabo
when they
lost
damaged MSS.
of Sulla's
happened to any or
reasons
all
collection.
But that
antecedently improbable.
this
is for all
stophanes
^Sn'^I^'^^'^'^^^'^^^'^l-^^esq.,
470 485, 498 sq., 525, 583.
Iheir presence in the Alexandrian hbrary is clear from the
Catalogue of Diog. (No. 83), and
their having been used by Ari-
of
Byzantium and
proofs which
ARISTOTLE'S WRITINGS
153
the long
it
no support.
be denied that
many
of the
made only by
are Aristotelian
context,
repetitions
which
so condensed a
style, and
which yet can hardly be late interpolations.^ Strabo's
story, however, does not serve for the explanation of
these phenomena, for the reason, among others, that
to
yoi-ies
(p. 81,
ARISTOTLE
154
which we can prove to have been current before ApelWe must explain them really as arising in part
lico.
from the circumstances under which these treatises
were written and
were used
issued,^ in part
for
each transcript
importance than
It is clear that
commenced
it
is
probable that he
and Macedonia.
The extant
Mitylene
writings, however,
seem
much
them
before.
all to
The proof
not only those books in which they occur, but also all
that are later ^ and partly in the common references
:
1
'^
How
means,
ARISTOTLE'S WRITINGS
which even the
earliest of
them contain
155
Athens and
to
If,
then, the
right, it
many
iii.
1397, b, 31,
refers
1399, b, 12,
and in the
first
departure
ii.
1278,
5,
Cf.
'
a, 25.
Brandis,
Gr.-r'6m. Phil.
We may give
b, 116.
here a
few further
instances, besides
those already noted. Categ. 4, 2,
ttou, oXov iv AvKelcp.
a, 1, c, 9 fin.
Anal. Pri. ii. 24
Athens and
Thebes, as examples of neighbours. Likewise in Phys. iii. 3,
202, b, 13; iMd. iv. 11, 219, b, 20:
rh eV AvKcicf) elvai. Meta2)h. V. 5,
rh
30, 1015,^ a, 25, 1025, a, 25
irXevffai ety A^yivav, as an example
of a commercial journey.
Ibid.
V. 2i, fi7i.
the Athenian festivals
Dionysia and Thargelia (Aristotle also uses the Attic months
e.g. Hist. An. v. 11, &c. ; but it
is not fair to attach any importance to this),
R7iet. ii, 7, 1385,
a, 28 ^ eV AvKelq) rhv <popfji.hu Sovs.
Ibid. in. 2, 1404, b, 22, Polit. vii.
17, 1336, b, 27: the actor Theodorus.
Very frequent mention
is also made of Athens and the
:
B.C. 356),
b, 19,
ARISTOTLE
166
raust
head,
is
them
is
ripe
is
character.
author, having
come
a particular book
must be
was written
caused by the use of cross references already noticed.^ As such cases are, after all, only
exceptions in the general run of the citations, the value
certain difficulty
is
is
are, in fact,
not so slight as
124 sqq.
however, is always
the case except with writings
the genuineness of which can be
^
Cf. p.
This,
ARISTOTLE'S WRITINGS
Propositions,^
may be
itself natural
considered to come
167
It is in
first.
Aristotle's methodical
scientific thinking.
his
But
it is
made
also
evident by
Of the
be the
first.
cies,
The
seems to
book on Falla-
the treatise
on
On which
p.
n.
67,
we have
:
1,
p.
68,
n.
1,
the
decisive passage
Post. ii. 12, 95, b,
Anal.
10
fxaWov
in
see p. 66, n. 1.
Se
(pavepws
iu
rols
ARISTOTLE
158
may
now forms
be placed
book of the
fifth
the
the
is
In
It is projected in
first.
book of
or
presup-
is
cited
works
posed not only in
but also in the majority of the other tracts concerning
Natural Philosophy, while it on the other hand neither
cites
ethical
Ccjelo,^
Meteorology,
very
is
follow
expressly
the
Physics
stated
in
is
not settled.
work, extensive as
but completed after
connect those lesser
With
'^
Be
not certain.
3
Vide supra, p. 81 sqq., Ind.
Arlst. 102, a, 53 sqq., 98, a, 27
sqq.
De Anima came
is,
it.^
is
or the
it
sq.,
76, n.
given,
itself^
68
the order
Meteorology
in
the
Which we
cannot,
like
Blass
(Jihein.
'
of the references
made
on other grounds
also.
to
it,
but
^ Meteor,
i.
1, whereon cf.
further p. 83, n. 1, Ind. Arist.
98, a, 44 sqq., and the quotation
of the tract n. (cfoov iropeias in
the De Ccelo, ii. 2, given p.
125.
8 That the completion of the
History of Animals should not
be put too early is clear from
what has been said on p. 154,
n.4.
ARISTOTLE S WRITINGS
times expressly
contents.
Some
159
the
Genesis
undoubtedly
later
On
That group of
of Animals.^
and
tracts
is
which followed
treatises
it
upon
it.^
is
Mhics and
Politics, inasmuch as it can hardly be supposed that Aristotle would have broken in upon his
less difficult to
by undertaking extended
It would
different direction.
"^
This view
is
not
We
must,
nevertheless, decide in favour of the earlier construction of the Natural Philosophy texts, for a thinker
was
so clearly convinced
as
Aristotle
must be supposed
to
who
human
and
relations.
There
are, indeed,
in the Ethics
very
Immediately
^
Thus n. oiV0rj(recos, n, iJirj/ou,
n. ivvTTuiuv, n. avaTTuorjs {Ind.Ar.
102, b, 60 sqq.).
the Ethics
discussed on p. 91 sq.
after
Eth.
i.
Though
Aristotle
in
Mh.
13, 1102, a,
ARISTOTLE
160
comes the
Politics}
ences, the
Rhetoric should be
the
Poetics
be
should
later
later
than
This, however,
or
refer-
Politics
but
probably true
text as a whole. ^
we have
2)Jiijsics,
in
all
the bulk of
tlie
theoretical writ-
pensable to
its
purpose
cf.
i.
13,
1102, a, 23.
1
See
See
ch. xiii.
p. 100, n. 1.
p.
And
go to make
improbable that the Ethics, so
closely allied with the Politics,
should have been written before
tlie works on natural science.
is
it
3 Cf.
and with
p. 76 sqq.,
regard to citations of the lleta-
161
CHAPTER IV
THE STANDPOINT, METHOD, AND DIVISIONS OF THE
PHILOSOPHY OF ARISTOTLE
As
with Plato.
earlier
philosophies as
of his
favourite
method
earlier teachers in
forerunners,
and
to preface his
it
own
He
is
with
him a
inquiries with a
wont
to let
them
He
eager
is
than
it
upon
But the
Aristotle
is
ciple,
VOL.
I.
ahistotle
1X32
]edo-e, as
against
'
on the
'
against Platonic
Yet
views.^
in
it
as a develop-
ment and evolution of that of Plato and as the completion of that very Philosophy of Ideas which Socrates
founded and Plato carried on.
In the first place, he agrees
for the
Ideas in Metajjh.
Only a few
&c.
i.
9, xiii., xiv.
passages are
12,
JV:
i.
2,
and
p.
1095,
An
U,
a,
32
n. 4, see
;
ii. 2,
Eth.
1104, b,
iii.
4, 429, a, 27;
1265, a, 10.
2
Cf. also the valuable remarks of Strumpell, Gesch. d.
Aritheor. Phil. d. Gr. 177.
li- De
Pokt. ii.
6,
stotle, as
we have shown on
p.
school.
But
his
such a relation
way
is
of treating
opposite
the
Whilst Plato
to that of Plato.
puts his own view, even where
contradicts the original one
it
of Socrates, into the mouth of
his teacher, Aristotle not unfrequently attacks his teacher
the
even where they agree
main point, and only differ in
opinion as to secondary matters.
163
Essence, or,
i.e.
highest
As
converges,^
which
Aoial. Post.
^K
5'
ifMircipias
ii.
.
19, 100, a, 6
Texvvs o-pxh
iiriaT'fjiJ.'qs,
((TtI
irepl
rov
S}v
(pi\o(r6<pov cTrt-
Ibid. 1005, a,
1005, b, 10.
2 Metajyh. iii.
2, 996, b, 14
sqq.
rh clSevai 'dKaarov
.
t6t'
(TK4\^/a(rdai TaXrjdes.
2, c. 3,
ol6fi6a
8toi/ uSoi/xeu ri
virdpx^tv,
rrvp,
fihy
Xafielv;
iTTia-r'n/j.rjv
b,
33
iTTiarrtfiTj
c.
10,
1086,
rwv KaQ6\ov
^u enl irdvrwv
xi.l,1059,b, 25.
ibid, a, 28, b, 1
Anal.Post.i.U
i.
24, 85, b, 13
(TKeiv
Kal
5e
i.
init.
iiri-
eKaarou
oiSfied^
'6rav
Th vpayfxd iariv . .
ivdcxeadai rovr' &\\us
Ibid. c. ] 4, 79, a, 23, ii. 11
5t'
ixi)
IX"".
Eth. N. yi.
Metaph. i. 1, 981,
init.
7, 1141, a, 17.
a, 28, 982, a, 1,
a,
982,
2,
12, 982, b, 2 sqq.,
vi.
init.
Cf. Schweglee,
1,
Arist. Metaph. iii. 9.
c.
Phys.
yhp
i.
olSfxeda
%rav
rh.
Kol
rhs
1,
184, a, 12
yivaxrKeiv
alria yuMpiaw/nev
ras
apxas
rwv
tJt6
cKaffrov,
ra irpwra
irpcaras
Kal
Ibid. ii. 3
jMetaph. i. 2, 982, b, 9
56? yap ravrriv [that science which
is to deserve the name co^to] rwv
irpwruu d.px(ii}V Kal alriwv eJvai
dwpririK'f]V
rSre yhp
c. 3 init.
fi^xpi
(xroixeiwu.
init.
(iBfvai
iv. 3,
rt ^<rrai
Anal. Post.
(TraaQai
iii.
fir)
knowledge,'
'
is
lii.
knowledge
all
'Kp(l}r7]v
(pajxlv
airiav
eKacrrov,
oicojmfda
iv. 2,
'6rav
r^u
yvwpi^etv
1003, b, 16,
1005, b, 5 sqq.
Metaph.
i.
2,
982, a, 8, 21,
1004, a, 35.
ARISTOTLE
164
from Fancy or
'
is
the contin-
is
exclusively that
which
is
contingent cannot be
hioiuii,
but only
from
Opinion
'
'
and
'
Knowledge
being
'
the same,
all
it is
at the
same
again,
So,
time.^
'
Knowledge
'
cannot
'
'
'
'
'
'
&c.
PA.
<^.
6 pn.
tank.
6^r.,pt.
ii.
Anal. Post.
c.
y\\.
15,
vi.
2,
1026, b, 2
ala6i,(reus
'
iariv
itrlffTatrOai.
For
mained unknown to
*
Metaj?7i.
i.
1,
us.
981, a, 28.
165
all
man can
reach,
Nevertheless,
it is
To
the Platonic.
content,
which includes
a term
is
regarded as to
See Metaph.
2, 982, b,
i.
fiaWou
'YV<api(ov<ra rivos
Kr4ov eKaffrov
raya-
5' iffrl
'
Ibid.
kripav, aAA'
4\fv6epos
&KKov
Sib
avTOv
i)v,
ovTO)
roiv
ovcra
yap avT^
avTTj
avTTJs
t(,v
7]
ovk
t6 diiov (pdovephu
elvai,
Xph
oAA.'
ivS^x^Tai
vo/xi^eiv
Tnunayrepav
"
Kai6Tpai
iariv
avdpwTrlvr]
KTrjais
oifre
fx.))
fidutf
iiriartiixuv
ouTrjy eVc/ceV
Kal SiKaiws
vofjii^ono
(()afiv
Kal
(EvcKa
KotX
5t'
XP^'**''
^vSpwirds
SIxTirep
&
i\vd4pa
fidvi)
ws
SjjXop odv,
24
avr^v ^rirovfi^u
1.
ovSeixiav
r]
.
and
life
yet,
it
aficivwv
24
human
off
while,
S'
it
when
very
activity.
more
strictly
on the other
oi/Sefxia
xii. 7,
1072,
b,
rj
r]
irpa-
eVe/ceV ecTTt
tovto
'
6hv iv cKdffrois.
is
of
Aristotle,
and
distinguishes
from
sharply
essence, he
its
spiritual
all
it
yap
avay-
Taurrjy,
'
'
'
'
reivei
7]
Oewpia, Kal
Cf.
c.
vii.
15 fin.
xii.,
9,
infra.
t]
evZaijxovia.
Eth. End.
See further in chapter
1179,
a,
22,
ARISTOTLE
166
hand, he brings
it
into
exclusively an
affair
tinguishes from
(Tr/oafts-),
it
with the
relation
closer
His view
experimental sciences.
is
that Philosophy
He
is
dis-
'
also the
artistic
creative
He
soul.'
effort
distinguishes
(iroirja-Ls)
which
is
With
itself.^
'Knowledge'
Even
as to
Aristotle, as
we
shall
to
relation to Thought.
movement
that,
little
the phenomena.
Z)^ CteZo,
same
iii.
7,
306, a,
6.
The
repeated by Eudemus
^ fin., and by the author
is
Eth. i
of Metapli.
ii. 1,
993, b, 20.
essential object
167
Aristotle
>
It
must pass on
it
to the Determinate.^
phenomena.^
but
must
not,
think
therefore,
of
little
knowledge must
like reason
for a
makes
that Aristotle
for scientific
He
e^ei fikv
ra>v X-)(^d4vro}v, oh
TTuffav
ws aXrides rh
fiev
ws ovK
S>v
rh
fj.U
aX-qdes
rb
Koi
Sxnrep
fJ.v
[x)]v
aXX^
7]
yap
iiXr]
wpiafievT}
Kal
T(i)V
Kttl
'
t]
[toC]
rod
Part. An.
SAws 8
Zvvaixiv
roiv
ffo<pias irepl
Kara
tV
:
airias
Qvcriais
rS)v
.
(rv/xfie^-nKSrcov
aAAa
raU
Kal avdiraXiy
rk
fi-fire
'
ro7s
yvupi^eiv Kal
irepl
n^
roSv
(TKeypiv
'
arifxSrepov
Q^opiau
<f>vais
irope'xet
645,
5,
(coXktjs
fx-ffre
(i/xws
els
rim-
Srifxiovpyf}-
rjSovas
aixT}xdvovs
SvvafJLevois
ras
alr'tas
<t)vaei (piXo(r6(pois
Suo-xepaivetj/ iraiSiKoSs
r^v
Cv^^ ^''"''
ydp ro7s (pvaiKols
arificorepuiv
ev iraffi
5:
a,
(pvffeois
tV
ffa<ra
hib Set
Kevus
Ka\
irapaXiirSvras
jurjSei/
(irepou
fxevois
i.
rrjs
irepl
elirelv,
fldKaficv
tp7\vrai
'dnavTes
wpifffieuov
Xoiirhp
rrjs
avfifiefiriKi'
'
airoSiSduai /carci
rwv
(pavrafflav irepl
SiaXcKTiKcSs
S'
ri
excu/U.ej'
iffriv
Bnrhv,
rh Se ivepyeia
CDS
5'
iTTKTriif/.'n,
iiriffraa-dai,
dvvdfxei
T^v
icrri
ean
yap
iireihav
airopiav
Xeyd/j-evou,
SvvafjLLS
o'iv
fidXicrr''
fieya
rd etSeVai t6 ti
irpds
fXfpos
takes
(rv/x^dWeTai
(ru/ii8e)3T7K(JTO
It is
lie.^
Be
Ccelo,
ARISTOTLE
168
the content of
'
Knowledge,' and of
scientific proof, to
include not only the Necessary, but also the Usual {to
o)9 sttI to iroXv).^
He deems it a sign of philosophic
man
crudity that a
demand
should
when
in fact
^^
Where
sciences.3
coercive proof
b, 19.
Eth. N.
1094, b, 11-27,
2, 1104, a, 1,
vii. I fin. ix. 1, 1165, a, 12 {Polit.
vii. 7 fin. is not in point here).
It is chiefly as regards the ethical
discussions that Aristotle here denies the claim they liave to a thorough accuracy, because the nature of the subject does not allow
of any such result for in judging
of men and the issues of human
action, much rests on estimates
which are correct only in the
main and as a rule.'
^ According to Aiial. Post.i.
27, that science is more exact
(aKpifiea-Tepa), which besides the Uti
settles the diSn
that which has
to deal with purely scientific questions, not with their application
to some given case (v /j.^ nad'
c.
1098,
7,
a,
1,
i.
26,
ii.
'
'
'
fails
example
him, he
being
is
content
adduced). The
(Metaph.
S^
(that
according to its notion
ture, is earlier, or stands
to the first principles
xiii. 3,
1078, a, 9)
TTpOTfpwp
Ty
Sffcp
\6ycf)
tip irepl
which,
or nanearer
cf
p.
first
(Tri(rTT)fxv
(lai),
at fioAKTra
tQv
irpdorup
is
which
accurate than those which are concerned with what is constant, like
the first Philosophy, pure Mathematics, and the doctrine of souls
from a smaller
assumptions (e.ff.
Arithmetic as compared with
Geometry), or in other words the
more abstract
viTOKiix4vov [d/cpt^Seo-TepaJ
\moKiiix4vov, oiov
viKrjs),
and
deduces
that
ap/io-
of
(^ i^ iXaTrSvuv rrjs
as is also said in
2, 982, a, 26, the same
Trpoadea-eus,
Metajjh.
apid/j.r}TiK^
lastly
its results
number
iK
t^s Ka0'
i.
(of
the
169
to put
to postpone a
for
them
is
only
The
between
real difference
insists
Why,
practical needs.^
man who
the
thirsts after
all ? ^
and
all
Politics.
De
CceU,
ii.
5,
287,
b,
TO,
TTore
\r](J)dfj,
fia\\ov
ro7s
rore
Tuv \6yo}U
\6yois^
^
leiKviwcrnois
iav
rfj
al<rdT}(Ti
iriarevreov, Kal
bfioXoyovfieva
<paivoixevois.
rhv
H. An.
\6yov,
4av
els
5 ward v
rb
Cf EUCKEN, Meth.
d. Arist. Forsch. 125 sq.
See
further on this subject in the
next chapter.
avaydycofjiev.
28
comby dividing
spiritual effort
^^^^
511, b, sq.
^i.
vii.
519,
fiaWoy ^
to
dpdffovs (it
kuI fiiKpas
av ras
ei/iropias
ayair^
P^rt. An. l
5,
U,
c.
5,287, h, 31
644, b, 31.
AUISTOTLE
170
That
off the
distinction
is
note of unity
ment by the
full
but the
is
practical activity as
human
an indispensable condition
precedent of ethical knowledge.^ If it be true that
this shutting back of Theory upon itself, this exclusion
from the notion of Philosophy of all practical need and
as a moral upbringing is
'
'
'
effort
(as
becomes apparent,
it
for
example, in the
pare the
way
Man
Philosopher
'
would
'theory' alone,
also,
if left
who
criticise
for Plato's
to himself,
Eepublic on compulsion.
with those
by Plato
Least of
all
live
life
for
of the
the
attack
for distinguishing
between
x. 10, 1179, b,
b,
KiTTEE,<9^s.<Z.PA.iii.50sqq.
Besides the passages to be
cited infra, on the inquiry into
the highest good/ cf Eth. N.
'
20 sqq.
i.
1,
1094,
27 sqq.
p.
56
sq.
171
To
Even
not
is
it
however,
this,
it
is
not entirely
He
thafc
is set
reached by everyone
very high
that
be
best
never content to
call it
sees
that
it
even by the
cannot
it
is less-*
Yet he
is
is
real
this very
point.
out in
opened
His method
out.
is
highest perfection.
its
With
Greeks.
Bv
that advance he
made
among
the
as that was
As
7,
Metaph.
1072, b, 24
i.
;
2,
Eth. N.
2 sqq., x.
1178, b, 25
b,
7,
cf.
1177, b, 30,
iU^. yil 1,
c.
8,
ARISTOTLE
172
'
idea
'
all
may
be.^
As
commonly
such inquiries
set out
commonly accepted
life,
on
examples
beliefs,
meaning
of words. ^
Socrates sought
of a
dialectical
comparison
more
explicit
view.
As
of various
all
sides.
But
consciousness to
a rule, he
is
by means
opinions and
in
Aristotle
directed with
make
for or against
each view
is
and
simply
ii.
1,
notion of
from
173
is
He
dialectic.
method of
by the
it
all
left
from
of the subject.
all sides
before,
we should
we
If
did not
know
it
With
all
To
either.
idea
On
'
Aristotle the
this also
more
definite
Be An.
rd
fidvov
vvp
rwv
ii.
oh yap
2 init.
rdv bpicrriK^v
later.
Set
'6ri
\6yov 5r]Aovv
ivvirapx^iv
atViaj/
ctAAa
ilaiv
rpayu}Vi<Tix6s ;
'
t^u
koI
Kal ificpalveadai.
most perfect
oiov
ri
rb taov
\6yoi
icrri
re-
erepofi'f]Ki
'
every inquiry
deals vi^ith four points, the STi,the
Si6ri,
the t lo-rt, the ri iariv.
These may, however, be reduced
to the two questions el ecrri ixeaov
and ri eari^ rb fiecov rb fxeu yap
ii.
definition of
an
is
1.
sq.
'
aXriov
Qtir^'hai.
'
Cf
irpurov.
Anal. Post.
ii.
init.:l'rTe\^eeiri(rra<rdaiol6neda'6rau
r)}v
elScSfiev
rapes
airiav, alriai
ira<rai
SeiKvvvrai.
avrai
Siot
Se rir-
rov
fieffov
ARISTOTLE
174
There-
view
(as
we
ought to
take account not only of the idea and the final cause of
a thing, but of the efficient and the material causes
'
This
selves. ^
is
c 23, 84,
32, 88, a,
moved
it
is
from the
viii.
&v Tis
COS
ovToi
Kal
ToiovToi
ficiv
Tiv4s
'
Khv eK Tcoj/Se
So|t6 T(f} rainh rovro avfi^aiv^iv.
Gen. An. ii. 8, 747, b, 28 Ae^eoSe
XoyiK)}v [oTr^Setltj/] 5ia toGto oti
o(T(f KaQoXov jxaXKov TToppccTepw rwv
\oyiKws
S' iirKTKOirovcri
oiKficov
icrrlv dpx(>}v.
And
after a
ol
Gr. ,-pt.i.
Zelleb, Ph.
whereas in
p. 869, 1),
Cf.
of the object.
oh fiev oZv
8, 264, a, 7
definiteness
Phys.
'
doctr. 19 sq.
175
facts
he
come
own system
his
Especially
in regard to
should
first
We
find in
We
SCHLEIERMACHER,
'
Thus
We
tenable
that
Aristotle's general
and
empirical
historical
data,
- Thus Part.
An. i. 1, 639, b,
7 sqq., 640, a, 14.; Hist. An. i.
7, 491, a, 9 sq. ; Meteor, iii. 2,
371, b, 21
Anal. Pr. i. 30, 46, a,
17 sqq. Aristotle appeals here (as
in PaH.An. 639, b, 7) especiaUy
to the progress of astronomy
about which see infra, ch. ix.
the judgment
(middle).
'
Thus
which, however,
can scarcely be reconciled with his
own observations on pp. 184 sqq..
d.x\.rist.
Cf.
Eucken, Methode
Forsch.Yll
^c^.
ARISTOTLE
176
too
him with
just to charge
But
too
little
it
would be more
it
The empirical
any
and largely by the
efforts of Aristotle himself.
Therefore it was natural
that the dialectical method of Socrates and Plato, with
its logical dissections and connections of ideas, guided by
lation.
sort of
development at a
late date,
Aristotle
brought
to
it
in theory
completion.
It
him an
off.
fuller development
and the direct investigation
'
him even
his
made
91, 97)
and, through
the credit
is
modern centuries
scientific
methods
of
them
as
177
well as he then
himself to that unfolding of pure ideas which Plato expected of the philosopher,^ though his own attempts at it
were in truth but rare and partial. The ideal processes
are for ever interrupted, in Aristotle, by references to
experience, by examinations of ambiguous terms, by
criticism of other views.
The more extensive is the
which
master's.
his writings
We
artistic finish,
make
Die Methode
VOL.
d. Arist.
(1872);
cf.
esoecially
pp. 29
passim
Forschung
I.
j^
ARISTOTLE
178
him a bad
not to call
him
is
'
writer,'
accused of
'
set
He
among
ideas
distinctions
and won
procedure,
whose value
to us
again,
this point
we
to
for
we only
it
to
remember that
we endeavour
we can
On the one
two things.
it is
great.
to appreciate, so far as at
call A'ristotelian,
we
shall
so notable
up and complete
his
master's thought,
as
an error
utterly unjust.^
>
Aristotle adheres not only to the Socratic proposition that Science has to do with the idea of things, but
also to the further consequence which takes us into the
d. Phil.
see
Kant,
i.
is
truly actual
sq.
a thing
is
and that
only
its
179
is
actual only in so far as it
partakes of that ideal essentiality. Yet, whereas to
Plato this Essential Being was a thing existing by
it,
all
else
'
'
'
'
common essence of
things indwelling in the particular things themselves.
In lieu of the negative relation to which the sundering
existing for itself apart, but as a
of ideas and
phenomena had
he posits
mutual dependence. Therefore he calls the senelement the Matter, and the insensible essence the
Form. He puts it that it is one and the same Being, I
here developed into actuality, there undeveloped and
their
sible
recognise
whose aim
is
the
realism
it is
easy
Just this
his strongest
the secret of
nature or by
all
genesis and
all
change, whether by
art.
N 2
ARISTOTLE
180
Yet
Aristotle, too,
is
Plato.
the philosophy of Ideas which he inherited from
together,
Matter
Hard as he tries to bring Form and
the last they always remain two principles, of
to
still
which never comes into any true unity with the indiviis at
dual side of his being. In this way, Aristotle
of
Idealism
the
of
ending
the
and
perfection
once the
Socrates and Plato
its
perfection, because
it
is
the
whole
most thorough effort to carry it throughout the
phenoof
world
realm of actuality and to explain the
but
menal things from the standpoint of the Idea
'
'
also its
ending, since in
it
and the
possibility of ever holding together the Idea
once
have
we
after
unity,
real
Phenomenon in any
basis of the
posited, in our definition of the ultimate
that purpose to
in the Aristotelian system, and seek for
we are
take a general view of the divisions he adopted,
met
that, neither
at once with the unfortunate difficulty
in his
own
Kitter,
iii.
57 sqq.
Bkandis,
ii.
b,
130
Neo-Platonic commentators,
philosophy into
all
office
had
Aristotle
and
Theoretic
181
Practical^
of perfecting the
perfecting the
appetitive.
In Theoretic Philosophy,
Physics,
or Metaphysics.
is
into three
said,
Ethics, Economics,
and
fell,
it
Politics.^
Ari-
stotle often
Teichmuliek,
we
Accordingly
find.
part as ah instrument of
Philosophy), practical philosophy
into Ethics and Politics, and
Politics into the science of ibhe
State and the science of the
household.
Alex. To2y. 17,
gives as philosophical sciences,
Physics, Ethics, Logic and Metaphysics but as to Logic cf below
David,
p. 187, n. 2.
sqq.
ForscJi.
ii.
Die Lehre
sqq.
v. d.
Arist.
Waltbe,
sqq.
Porpli.
Pkys.
Scliol.
25,
init. Categ.
Schol. in Ar. 36, a,
a,
i.
1
e
Simpl.
Philop.
Phys. init.
Fabric Bihl. iii.
6,
Anatol. in
462 H.; EUSTRAT. in Mh. N.
init. Anon. Schol. in Arist. 9, a,
31. The division into theoretical
and practical philosophy had already been given by Alex, i/i
Anal. PH. init. and DiOG. v. 28.
.
ing
real
Pe An.
432, b, 26, c.
1139, a,
13 vers. fin. Polit. vii.
10, 433, a, 14
6,
cf.
i.
iii.
9,
Fth.
vi. 2,
;
ML
aWa
irpa^is.
Likewise, ibid. x.
ARISTOTLE
182
at
'
end
Metaph.
'
19
opBus
will,^
5'
993, b,
(a), 1,
ii.
ex**
"^"^
'''^
Koki'lffQai
speaks merely of an
of a
eVto-T^yu?;
(not
<f>i\offO(pia)
irpaKTiK^
tik}),
1214,
],
ttoWSjv
8:
a,
Etli.
End.
i.
ovtwv
5'
TO, {x\v
'6(Ta /xev
ovv
&C.
MetapU.
18 sq.
vi
1025,
1,
b,
iroiTfTiKr]
1026,
signifies not
synonymous
is
when
iiria-T'fifxr]
the latter
merely knowledge in
iwiffTTj/xri
<Pv(Tik)]
irpaKTiK)]
(pvcriK^
<piXo(ro(pia
with
is meant,
not that
science which treats of irpa^is and
iroiTjais (Ethics, Politics, and the
science of Art), but the faculty of
71
since
OewprjTtKTj
b,
(xi.
7)
efrj
c. 2,
the latter
ovdefxiS.
yap
^pSvrja-is
and
avrov
[so.
Lehre
rixvi)
(WALTER,
irpaKTiK^
'^i\o(TO(pla
and even
iiricrr-finri
iTri(rTT}ixr)
rov
i-mfxeXes
(TvixfiffirjKOTOs]
irepl
oiire
oijTc iroiriTiKfj
a,
10.
Further
cf.
EtJt.
N.
vi.
c. 2,
and on the
between poietic and
b,
20,
v. d.
cannot have
it
Metaph.
left
vi. 1,
1025, b, 22
actor. ^
however,
coincide,
183
as opposed
way
or
to
Knowledge has
do with the
to
than as
it
Aristotle
is.^
movable and
are
corjporeal,
three
first
second referring
the
to
which
that
incorporeal
is
and unmoved
these being
rSiV fxev
ovvTi
5e
r)
eV
ry
irpdr-
C. 5, 1140,
rh y4vos trpd^eus Kal
b,
&Wo
iroii^iffews
....
rrjs fxev
yap
iroi-fjcreoos
'[r}
'
7^p
lo-Tt
'
Ibid.
r4\os.
Eth.
47ciffri]p.7]
<pavp6u
aifT^
t}
evirpa^ia
1 init.
i.
1139, b, 18:
3,
oZv ri iffriv iurevOfv
vi.
fikv
....
irdvTs
yap
viroAafi-
jx)] ivS^x^ffGai
&W<i}s ^x^i-v c. 4 init. rov S' ^vSeXOfiepov &\\cas ^x^i^v ^ffri ri Kal
Cf. C. 2,
TTOiTfrhv Kal vpaKTou, &c.
1139, a, 2 sqq. Ue 6te/o,iii. 7, 306,
i^dvofxiv, h iiria-rd/Jifda
i.
vid.suj)r.
I,
'
71 IJLfv
dW
TiKTis
yhp (pvaiK^
OVK
ctKiV/jra,
evia
irepl
ttjs
Se jxaOtifia-
aKivrjra
/x^v
ov
TrpcoTTj
[sc.
hv ejev
ws eV
ri\ri.
7]
Kal irept
^jA-OfTot^m]
(iffre Tp7s
fxariKi),
(pvaiK^, deoKoyiK'f].
Simi-
1,
4,
c.
1036,
9 to c. 3/w.,
997, b, 20, iUd. 996, a, 29
3,
106J, a, 28,
vii. 10,
a, 9, xiii. 2, 1077, a,
iii. 2,
De An.
IJin.
ARISTOTLE
184
however,
we attempt
to apply the
suggested
sqq.
RiTTER,
73 sq., finds in Aristotle, viz, that a sensible subtratum is first denied and afterwards attributed to Mathematics,
and that its object is now designated as removed, now as not
removed, from what is sensible, is
partly solved by the distinction
of the purely mathematical from
the applied sciences, and partly
and chiefly by the remark that
Aristotle nowhere says that the
object of Mathematics is a x'^P*(TThv, but only that it is considered
as such, i.e. by abstracting from its
sensible nature in Metaph. xii. 8,
1073, b, 3, moreover, Astronomy
according to the common reading
is not called 'the truest philosophy,' but the oiKeioTctTTj, the
most important of the mathematical sciences for the discussion in hand still Bonitz is right
in reading
t^s otKeioTctTTjs <pi\o(ro<pia Twv fxadrjuiariKuv iiTi<m}fxS}v.
iii.
'
Meta2)n.
vi.
1,
1026,
a,
21
TTjj/ [eVio-TT^/xTji/]
(For, as is said
fieKriwv Koi xe/pcoi'
(TttjtSv.)
Se Tcoi/ 6((i}pr]TiK(2v.
He discusses
at length in Metapli. i. 2, why the
first philosophy
especially deserves the name ao^ta because,
as perceiving the most universal,
it gives the most comprehensive
:
knowledge
because
it
we
investi-
(TTTfiJ.'q iiriffT'fffi'rjs
efvot
fieffrepa
la Metaphysique d'Aristote,
i.
244 sqq.). who wishes to subdivide theoretical
philosophy
into Theology, Mathematics and
Physics, practical philosophy into
and
poietic science
gates the
that
Of
all
is
'
Rhetoric to
for
185
that Arifall
under
he himself rele-
it is
Dialectics cannot
Logic. ^
If
we were
to conclude
from this
difficulty that
theoretic and
practical
the
was
according
to
/jJAt^f. i.
'
2,
the
classification
1356, a, 25
Sxtt^
TO
ifepl
ia-Ti
1359, b, 8
(iirep
Sxt
T}^
irepl
TO.
p-qTOpiKT)
ava\vTiK7Js
rris
rh
ijdrj
fifv
T?)
<ro(pi(niKo'ts
b,
avyKurai
fxkv ck
iiri(TT'fiiuLr]s
re
Koi ttjs
rh Sh
Sia\KTiKf)
\6yois. ^i^A.
i.
1,
rots
1094,
AitjkV]
oijcras,
oTov
oiKovofiiKTiv, ^TjropiK'fiV
[r^v
iro-
aTpari]yiKT)v,
xP^M-^^V^ ^^
irpaKriKcSv
above
indicated,
to
by
So in Top. i. 1 init. c. 2,
plainly designated as an
auxiliary science to philosophy in
general, and especially to the
theoretical investigations,
'^
it
is
ARISTOTLE
186
Of the
Physics.
either
of doubtful
an
'
essential
The
system.^
second,'
again,
Physics^
exposition of his
spoken of as the
is
as
if
there were
'
'
Mathematical
the
Axioms
the
to
'First
Philoso-
phy.'3
As
later
divide
it
into Ethics,
He
'
''
the
Politics
'
mics, Military
'
Politics
'
'
from the
Tactics,
and Rhetoric ^
these
writings
cf.
and then in
Metaph.
1037, a, 14
devTfpas <pi\o(ro-
vii. 11,
KoX
Peripatetics.
^
<}>ias.
he desires to
About
TTjs (pvffiKr^s
which
first
p. 86, n. 1, siqna.
^
distinguishes in the
Metaph.
iv.
Eth.
i.
iii.
1,
n. 1.
Eth.i. 1, ]094,b, 2;Ehet.\.
Also in the first
1356, a, 25.
book of the Politics, Economics,
as far as Aristotle has treated the
subject, is taken to belong to the;
science of the State.
2,
action
187
remember that
It is also important to
div^ision,
there
is
whether we take
no place
it
for Logic.
The
in the above
to be twofold or threefold,
later Peripatetics get
which
is
Stoics
a point of
that
Logic
is
for
it.^
tion,^
Nor
Methodology.''
much
his system.^
subdivision,
narrow
for
books
contain.
'
Eth. i. 1 1094, b, 7. So also
in the lengthy discussion, x. 10.
DiOG. V. 28 Alex, in Pri.
,
'^
philosophy,
the point.
in
init., ScJtol.
Top.
41,
m,
Ammon.
ajnid
14, 163, b, 9,
logical readiness as
bespeaks of
an organ of
is
built
of course beside
Stipra, p. 91 sq.
No more
Anal,
might be
is
Ra-
ci^.
252,
trustworthy
vaisson's statement
(Z(?<7.
ARISTOTLE
188
on the
otlier
remark, that
all
physical,
Under the
logical.^
comprehends both
and this alone would prove that he could not here have
meant to indicate a scheme for the presentation of his
system, in which these two departments are kept so
obviously distinct.
then,
If,
find in his
work
his
which
corresponds with
to
of
construction
the
itself,
work
we have
as
it,
or taken
among
are
up with philosophic
criticism,
his
investigations
of
Logic,
o>s
Ka\
Tuv
irpofi\r}ixa.Tuv
liihv
yap
XoyiKai
....
jSATj/xaro
<TO(piav
d/JLoiccs
....
Korr^
iJ-fprj rp'ia.
5e Koi
ra
at
iro-
oZv <piXoalroSv
a.\i]Q(iav irepi
irphs fihv
It is of
no importance as
iri
Kal
t4xvvs Kal
iirKTr-fifMrfS
distinguish
These
of Metaphysics, of
fifth
fxaWov
we
main masses.
would be the
ra 5e
iidiKrjs
dewpias
iffTiv.
As an instance of logical
propositions Toj). ubi auj). mentions the principle, which belongs
equally to Methodology or Analytics and to Metaphysics (cf.
Metaph. iv. 2, 1004, a, 9 sqq.,
1005, a, 2), that opposites fall
2
b, 16.
189
it
have forgotten to
He
seems to
of
for Aristotle
himself describes
'
as a propaideu-
other inquiries.^
method, the
scientific
it
First Philosophy
must come.
'
it
belongs in
it
obtain
all
is
from
we
we must
it
could take
8(ra
Tivh
rris aX-ndeias,
Sc? a7ro5ex6(r0ot,
Si'
tv rp6irov
aTTaiSevffiav
twv
The very
lytics,'
to
discuss.'
Inadmissible,
on
d^idixaTa,
Analytics.
^
Vid. supr. p. 76
p. 160, n.
sqq.,
and
ARISTOTLE
190
name
of the
'
First Philosophy
the logical
in
order
'
precedes
it
all
other
material
'
Ethics follow
the Physics,
is
pre-
utterances as to Religion
in the true sense,
'
Still
for a
the superlative
this
Philosophy of Religion,
irpwr-n <l)i\o(ro<pia is
tiktis),
'^
(pi\o(ro(pia'jvpoTfpa{(f)V(riKrjs, /j.a6r]ixa-
Metaph.
vi. 1,
1026, a, 13,
LOGIC
191
CHAPTER V
LOGIC
From
We
must
not,
technique
'
In dealing with
investigations.
'
it,
of his philosophic
he does
therefore,
and uniform
full
Of the
proof.
first
section
the
Analytics
it
of Science,^ partly
aforesaid,
of the
the Topicshe
it
single
Topics
subject.
first is
the
logical
concerned with
Only
and only in so
'
i.
1 init.
r/
/xev irp66(Tis
<rv\\oyi(ff6ai
Svur)(r6iJ.0a
?is
d<|)'
ircpl
C.
K6yov virexofres
vircvavTiov.
f^o^ify 5e
r(\4ws
Cf
c. 2.
tV fJi-fOohoy,
orav
b^ioius
^TjTopiKris Koi
^xt^fJi-fV
ovtcov Swoifxeuv
t/c
eVI
Slxrirep
rovro
twv ivdexofMevuv
S' icrrl
iroi^Lv
&
rh
irpo-
aipovfieda.
"^
'
ARISTOTLE
192
far as
may be
it is
He
is
touches on
fact,
The theory
to the Syllogism.^
other
Logic, because
it is
Metaphysics
than to
involved in
construction, but
its
is
of
'
Analytica
init.
irpwrov /nkv
rivos ecrrlv
Set|tJ/
KoX
7]
(lirc^u
crK\pis, '6ti
ilTKTT'flfJLVS
PH.
ncpl ri Kal
irepl
0.11:6-
aTToBciKTlKrjS.
init.
Ko.\
Trepl fxev
airodei^eoos, ri
Kol
ii.
ovv crvWoyKT/xov
re iKarcpdv icTTi
yap
Tavrhv
Post.
AnMl.
i.
PH.
i.
1-3.
Anal.
2, 72, b, 7.
1,
that Aristotle
is
analytical method,
he proceeds from
going by an
and just as
syllogisms to
propositions, so in like
manner
iffriv.
'^
and p.
185,
treat.
LOGIC
investigations which
Logic,' Aristotle
193
we should
was
class
under 'Formal
chiefly concerned
determine
to
re-
solves into
the whole
it
science of Methodology.
It
when
composed, or to investigate
the conditions through which it
is brought about.
In this sense
it is
Aristotle
uses auaKvais
and
avaXiiiv regularly for the reduction of syllogisms to the three
figures, e.g.
Anal. Pri.
32
i.
init.
immediately before
^ofiev
ttws
TOVS <rv\\oyi(rfjLovs
eipr]fieva crxrinaTa.
els
Cf.
8'
aud-
ra
irpo-
BONITZ,
(TKOTTovai.
VOL.
I.
ecus
tt.v
tKduaiv
Th
eVl
TrpS>Tov
vp4crei eaxaroi^
atriou, t
iariv
rhy
iv
rij
elp'r]^4vov
ypafJ-fia.
riKal,
"'^^
'^"'K
lo-Xf^Tov
irpuTOv ehai
iv
rrj
avahvaei
eV tt} yeueaei.
Trendelenburg,
Arist. p. 47 sq.)
Mem.
The waAvriK}}
(Cf.
Log.
eVt-
(Ilhet.i.4:,
1359,b, 10) designates accordingly the art of scientific inquiry, or the introduction
to it, which is scientific method(TT-fifXT)
ology
of
ARISTOTLE
194
Master's
own
being the
origin
'
'
For
Knowledge.
of
it
is
the
conception of
direction
the
to
Universal
properties
with themselves in
Causes of
all
that
all
is
actual.^
is
is
till
Categ. 1,
Schol. 36, a,
Philop. in
7,
15;
Cat.
T>A^YlJi, ibid,
25^ a, 3.
'
Prantl,
is in
this
'
Conversely, however,
it
known through
only to be
come necessary,
y^ff^^
"
Fi^.s?^^?/-.
pp.163
sq.,
173 sq.
LOGIC
196
This follows in
propositions about
Ideas
'
'
the
if
but only
properties
'
it
knowledge of Individuals
must necessarily precede the scientific knowledge of
<.
of experience.
any
real
of course,
at
much
TO.
<tt6v
iari
acpaipea-ei.
For
all.
rwv voi]T(av) rd re eV
A^ydfieva [abstract no-
either, as it seems,
a^ia (pavTaff/id
ri OecopeTp
rh y^p
e'/c
TrpovirapxoixrTjs
ylverai
yvdjaewsv^hiGh he immediately
proceeds to prove as to the diff erent sciences, both as regards
syllogistic and inductive proof.
The
like in
30;
Mh.
3
996,
Metaph.
vi. 8,
i.
9,
992, b*
1139, b, 26.
and
pt.
ii.
a, 696,
02
we
'
pt.
'
i.
<-
> /
ARISTOTLE
196
'
existence of the
soul,'^
Aristotle
is
to
which a
His
lead.^
of the Ideas in the soul would obviously
of
means
by
solution lies rather in that conception
of
questions
answered so many of the
which he has
of
metaphysics and natural philosophy in the notion
Development 'in the distinction between the groundThe
work of potentiality and the completed actuality.
'
soul,
sense
I
he
says,
its
Anal. Post.
ii.
19, 99, b,
20
highest
&,a(Toi,
vld.lnf.y.
(the
tc2j/ 5'
apx^i
a^eVcov Tr,v
SLairopi)(TLV av tls
yuwcTiv
Koi TrSrepov ovk iuovcrai al ^ei5 [the
.
yvucTL-i
of the
apxa^ iyyivovrai
-ti
'
ttcos
&v yua3pi(oLfiev
on
e^iv
iyy[vcrdai.
'^
CL the section
tion of soul
and body,
exovres irporepou,
Toivvv,
Anal. Post.
loo.
cit.,
and
992, b, 33.
if ideas
^ To]}, ii.7, 113, a, 25
were in us they would have also
Still Arito move with us, &c.
himself would scarcely
stotle
have laid much stress on this
merely dialectical line of attack.
Metapli.
i.
9,
LOGIC
197
is
is
not
is
lies in its
all.
from the
different
nature as such
'
De An. ii. 5, 417, b, 2 sqq.
Aristotle here says that neither
38
b,
^ eV
irpayfia;
iirl
Anal. Post.
eVei Se
Etll. vi. 6
5'
S'
i'KKrT'fjju.r)
eV ai/rfj
Trios
avT^ orav
eV
ovK
X^iv rh
3
alffQifiTov.
De An. iii.
T^
Trpdyfiari.
/iierci,
\6yov
ecrri,
ivepyeiau
7}
airaaa
iirKTriifiT) S'
rooti
ivai
ravTa
rS}v apxoov
rh
eTriCT^^Tj
iirl
Se, '6ti
iffTi rfi
rj
vArjs
dfiolufs
r&v KaBoXov
ivicov
^iTiffri\ixii]s
Trap'
^ vovv, vovs Uv
ei
iTTicrr'fjiiirjv
eiVj
ry]s
oijr'
tt,v
ovre
(ppdvrjo'is
apxvs rev
CTTio-rij/iiT]
....
eirt (Tttjtoi/
oijre
eirj
rex^V
XeiTr^rai vovv
1143, a, 35 (with
c. 12,
which
cf.
V.
])raM.
d.
sqq.)
aficporepa
Vernunft, etc., 38
rcov iaxdrcov 4ir'
Kal yap rcov irpdorcov '6prov
vovs
ARISTOTLE
198
scribed as the
'
of the faculty of
Thought that
De Interpr.
8,
i.
h ovK
Kot t5
ravra ovk
aAA' ^ vo^lv ^ fi-ff
rh
rd Se aKr]dhs rh voeiv avrd
Se x|/eGSos OVK iariv, ouS' airdri],
According to these
aAA' ayvoia.
Post.
in
prlo7'i
In like
judgments.
bpifffxhs rwv ajxiffoav
10, 94, a, 9) is a diffis
manner the
{iUd. ii.
rod ri iariv
'
rh Tpevdos
effTL
ecrriv aiTarT]Brivai
TTcpl
rh
Kal
'
TOvTOis
ctATjfles
(ixrirep
fj
12
a,
16,
432, a, 11)
to
Kal
.
fiT]
fioi.
said
ovdh rh
a\r]des iwl rovruv rh avrh, ovrois
ou5e rh clvai, ctW' ecrrt rh fjiev
aXrjdh rh 5e \pevSos, rh fxev 6iye7v
rd 5' ayvo^tv
Kal (pdvai a\r}6hs
\pev5os ;
Dc An.
may be
it
elvai
/j.^
and
'
it is
aj/a7rJ5et/CTOS,in
which
affirmed as to the
existence or non-existence of a
aA.770es, a-vvO^ais tls ^Stj vorjixdrwv
conception, nor of its connection
us v ovTwv and ibid, at the end
Lastly,
ecTTi 5' 7] fiev (pdcris tI Kara tlvos,
with a stated subject.
Socrirep t] Kardcpacris, Koi a\7}97]S ^
when the principle of contradic6 St vovs ov iras, aAA.'
\|/eu5r?s Traaa
tion (in Metaph. iv. 3 sq. 1005,
6 Tov tI iffri Kara rb tI riv lvai,
b, 11, 1006, a, 3) is designated
aXA' as the fiefiaiordrr] ap^V iraffwv Trepi
aKr]9^s, Kal ov rl /cara rivos
cocnrep rh dpav tov iBiov aXrjdhs, et
%v Sia^tvcrBrivai. aSvvarov, here also
6 &v6pcairo5 rb XcvKhv ^ fiT], ovk
only the fundamental principle
of all analytical judgments is
aXrfdes ael, oiirws ^X^'' '^^'^ &vev
eVei Se
in question the formal identity
v\t]s. 3fetaph. ix. 10
itrX twv
rh
of every conception with itself.
aKriBls ^ t|/6D5os .
1
Be An. iii. 4, 429, a, 27 koL
Trpayfxdrwv icrrl rcf ffvyKelffdai ^
eS S^ ol \4yovre5 r^v ^vxh'' elvai
TTt^r' iarlv fj ovk etrri
SiripTJffdai
roTTov etScSv (see on this Zeller's
rh ahrjOes XeySfxevov ^ xl/evSos
Trepi Sk S^ TO. aaivB^ra rl rh elvai. ^
Plato), irKi\v ^ri oUre SArj aAA'
iv
oh
Se
Koi
i/zeCSos
nothing
t(>
is
'
LOGIC
199
thinkable.^
cognition.
ence,
it
and a basis
possibility
and
so,
according to him,
it is,
forming
its
its
own
inherent
activity.^
ovre
vor}TiK^,
71
rh
Svvd/xei
De An.
^vxns
irepi
iii.
TO.
<pa\ai(a(TavTs
8'
7]
5'
irdos
5/w.
iii.
aWh
rd
vvv 5e
(TvyKe-
irdKiv
on
iffri irdvra.
rh ovra
'yap al(rdr]Ta
7]
8 init.
XexOepra
f^Trca/iifv
ovra
TO.
\l/vx^
evreAexeto
cfSr;.
Nous
vo-qrh, effri
rj
iirKrrTjTd
aladrjrd.
ircos,
(Cf
ii.
7 init.)
De An.
airaOes
rj
iii.
4, 429, a, 15
&pa Se? ehai [before the
experiences the effect of
:
Koi
SvvdfjLei
dAAa
elSos]
rh aiadrjTiKhv irphs rd
ovtw rdv vovv irpds rd
Trendelenbueg, on
ex^i'V, (iiCTT^p
sq.;
ai(rdr]Td,
passage, p.
vofjTd
dpa KaAovuei/os
^vxvs vovs.
rrjs
Kal v
5)j
vovs,
tt,v
vofj.
ypa/x/jLaTeici}
S'
ovTcos
firjOev
irplv
^o'lrep
iv
inrdpx^i- ^vre-
ii.
5,
dvvdfjLci
we can
iiTKTT'fjfji.uv
call a
man Swdfiei
485 sq.)
this
Aristotle
knowledge
becomes
ARISTOTLE
200
we cannot
we
altogether
On the other
hand, he speaks of an immediate knowledge of those
our notions arise out of perception.^
all
truths on which
all
in
is
we gain
Of
beginning in germ.^
all
knowledge in so
cerned, or
that the
merely to cause
'
the
it
205
sq.
-fj
'
T]
'
LOGIC
For
this
201
innate ideas
It
pure
the Universal,
'
thinking activity .^
all
other forms of
which
by an ascent from individuals to
universals, cannot be the data of any immediate kind of
knowledge, but must be data of that kind of knowledge
which is the most entirely mediate of all. Our cognitive
faculties,
he
at these
prmdjpia
at
take this
way
to arrive
-,
to ourselves as only the last of these successive geneactual perception by the relation
of eVio-TTj/iTj^to the d^wptlv (p. 417,
b, 5 6ecopovv yap ylyverai rh exov
tV eTTiffT-fifi-np). Finally, in Anal,
Post. ii. 19 (cited at p. 197, n. 4,,9wpro) Aristotle says it is impossible to believe that we should
come to the knowledge of the
highest principles, without possessing previous knowledge but he
looks for that previous knowledge
not in any ideas innate in the
soul prior to all experience, but
simply in the inductive process.
:
ad pi.
2 gQ Kampe, ibid.
but it is
hard to reconcile with this exposition his attempt in the next
following pages to reduce that
true perception which is, for Aristotle, the basis of all knowledge
to some kind of Intuitive Thought,
essentially differing both from
;
Onthisseep.l97,n.4,sj^j7m.
ARISTOTLE
202
judgments, either
on the other
But,
or true.
false
by him
mediate cognition, and what we
attain by it is not judgments but ideas
not that which
may be either false or true, but that which is always
that which we may either have or not have, but
true
is
all
as to which, if
we have
again, as
all
it,
Matter and
sensible,
is
tingency, the
all
that
So,
is
is
we can never
deceived.^
is
possibility of
inseparable from
tion alone
we cannot be
attain to anything
which
is
true.^
immediate knowledge
and
that
it
perception.
But the
itself.
Cf. p. 197, n. 4.
^ Cf infra in the second part
of eh. vii., and the notes there
on these points.
.
man
has
all
not;
spirit of
can
Anal. Post.
25 sqq. ;
72, a,
2,
i.
ii.
71, b, 19,
100, b,
19,
9.
^
Anal. Post.
i.
6 init.
LOGIC
203
finds
it
or act of introspection,
which perception
is
arises
And
Aristotle does,
the perceivable
it
touches
'
'
it
or that
when he
is
it
says
is
to
relates
it
to ideas as such."^
In
this
moment
way we
intelligible
questions remain
and
consistent.
wholly unanswered
the
for
is
What
this,
is
by the
intuition of
it
act
upon our
Of what
spirit ?
Do
sort
we
doubtless, the
first
of
these
passages, Theophrastus also says
in Fr. 12 (Metaj)h.) 25
'If we
begin with observation we can,
up to a certain point, explain
things from their causes: oTav Se
eir' avrci ra &Kpa ficTaBaivcD/jLev ovk4ri dvvd/neda, either because these
have no causes, or because our
Be An.
see p.
iii.
4,
view in
429, a, 15
so
attain ?
all
of
De An.
iii.
si^r. p. 197, n. 4.
a\pa/j.4vcf}.''
6 Jin.
cited
ARISTOTLE
204
(as
does the law of contradiction), or are there also metaphysical ideas which are so given, such as the ideas of
Being, of Cause, of
God ?
but it
would take us very near to the Platonic teaching as to
the
intuition
Aristotle the
the
of
'
Forms
Ideas,
'
except
that,
since
for
The
final
is,
we
'Forms' had
for
shall
The
And
things.
all
it is
none the
less
perception,
are
product of
by
an
actual
light of the
So
with
Ideas by
Aristotle
is
recollection,
accustom
and
that
itself to receive
the
the
self-evident
that
at
the
LOGIC
ii05
knowledge which is
and that consequently our ascent to knowledge can only come by a gradual approximation to
that goal, through a progressive deepening of our
goal
its
effects to causes.
is,
in
is
That which
relatively to
The development
out of Perception.^
us last;
is
absolutely
first
is
its
than the
greater certainty
particular,
10
o-ecos.
S'
ttjs
yvwpifxwrepa rot iyyvrepov
alad-fjcrecvs, ottAws 5e irpdrepa Kol
yvctipifidiirepa rcL iroppdirepov ecTTt
be iroppuiT(xrw jxev rcL KaOoAov fidXiara, iyyvrdrco 5e rci, KaO' eKacrTa.
Phys. i. 1, 184, a, 16 Tre'^uKC Se
:
6/c
Koi
5 fin.
a,
23
Cf.
Metaph.
2, 982,
29 sqq.
1029, b, 4 sqq.; ix. 8,
1050, a, 4 Toj?. vi. 4, 141, b, 3,
De An. ii. 2 iniL, iii. 7,
22
init.
Eth. i. 2, 1095, b, 2. (Still
more forcibly, referring rather,
however, to PLATO, Pep. vii.
init. than to Aristotle, is it expressed in MetapJi. ii. 1, 993, b,
i).)
The apparent contradiclion
in PIli/s. i. 1
ecTt 5' rjfui/ Trpurou brjka koI (racprj rci avyKexv/iifua
vii.
i.
v. 11, 1018, b,
4,
Anal. Post.
Tepa
i.
Tuv
yvcopi/xwrdpcav rjfuu
(Tacpea-rfpoov
T77 (j)v<Ti
iirl
r]
65o's
TCi (xacpeffTcpa
Kal yvwpifjLcaTepa
oi)
ydp
fxaWov
^jai
'
vcrrepou
yvdopi^a
rd.
5' e/c
tovtoov yiv-
(rroix^^a
Kal
ai
ARISTOTLE
206
to us
more
The way
clear
in
perception.
can only
rests
Now
upon perception.^
is
with universals.^
speak more
accurately,
Or, to
not
is,
properties.
its
Tkendblenburg on
An.
p. 338,
De
Arist.
and Eitter,
05,
it is not the logical,
iii.
definite presentation of
as when, for instance,
ele-
Anal. Pr.
ii.
of a
such
6 Sia
S'
object,
repreas such,
1078, a, 9.
23 fin.: (pvcH
c. 3,
'
an
1076, b, 18,
manner
(johs) but a
we
'
this
fiev
etc. remark)
but the sensihle universal which is
here dealt with the as yet_ in-
'
3
*
An. Post. i.
An. Post. i.
Kad' '^KUffTov
7}
18.
18, 81, b, 6
aXixdrja-is.
roJv
The same
Be An.
Jin.,
MetapTi.
^
i.
1,
Be An.
LOGIC
207
{roLovhs)
and although in perception they never come
under our intuition in the form of a universal, but
always as belonging to this or that thing, and in a
;
universals,
is
An. Post.
eariu
31, init.
i.
iiriffracrdai.
ouSe
et
5i'
ykp
Koifi^
stance
ecrdai,
Si'
<f)avephv
alffd^ffeus
100,
KaB''
a,
ov
17:
'6ri
ouS' iirlaraffdai
eoTTiv.
So in ii. 1 9,
alcrddveTai jxkv rh
fKuaTov, ^
KadoXov
S'
aXaQriffis
KaWia
rov
avOpdirov, aAA'
icrrlv, oJov
avdpccirov
i. e.
Percep-
further
sqq.;
alffd-ffo-eas
De An.
ii.
and Ph7/s. i. 5,
12,
424, a, 21
189, a,
5.
What
and there-
memory
a general
Nor
15
contradict it, as Kampe
believes {ErTtenntnissth. d. Ar.
It is there said that know85).
ledge as Zvvaixis is tov KaddXov
a,
sqq.
'
De An.
Hence the
ii.
iii. 2,
a'ia-dvais
428,
a,
S{/vafiis
426, b, 8 sqq.
in An. Post.
De An.
iii.
3,
9 init., is called a
avfKpvTos KpiriK-fj.
4,
c.
ARISTOTLE
208
Thus
fixed
is
and science
ples, art
universal principles of
all
comprehension
a scientific
is
only to be gained by a
same process
The
result
may
in
be put
Plato
thus.
and of these in
which,
view, the
in his
and
reflection
To Plato the
different.
k^yofxev,
e'/c
Se ^vi^ix-qs ivoK-
yivo/j.vr)S e/xTreipta.
yap ttoWoI
/xurjixai
to)
apiOfjiw
fj
Kal
cvTh, TfX^VS
apxh
iku fxev
yevecriv,
-Trepi
e7rj(7T'i';|Ui?s,
Tex^V^j
^^^
yap rroXXal
ixv9\jxai
abstraction
uiO-irep
imme-
diate data
still
demand
In other
Kal
avdpcvTTOis
oTav
Sia tt]s
re'xJ'Tj
e/c
....
ifnreipias
yiveTai Se
toIs
Texj/77,
fiaTcov fiia
ojiioicov inr6\ri\pts.
vTToXriypLV oti
T^j/
v6(Tov
^wKpaT^i Kal
KaOeKaaTou ovtw
TToAAots, i/LLireipias iffTiv Th 5' oti
jraai
toIs
war'
TOLo7a-Se
a<popL<T97ai,
Kdfxvovcn
elSo^
tt/j/SI
eu
tV
v6(rou, crvfTiveyKev,
Texvns. In
the same passages is also found
more to the like purpose. In
Phys. vii. 3, 247, b, we have, /c
yap TTjy KaTa juepos ifiweipias rrjv
KaQoKov Kafjifidvouev TTi(TTi)(xT]v.
.
LOGIC
is
the
thing,
first
20d
tion
like
reason,
Aristotle
For a
in.
also
He
want of caution
the use
Cf.
eavrrjs iffriv,
we make
itself
of
it.^
never leads
is in
first
in^
exposed to error.
yap auaipeOeuros aXaQriais mev avaipeirai,
ffai/xa,
5e
alffdTirhv
dcpfxhv,
raWa oaa
earrai,
yXvKi),
iriKphu
oTov
Kal
icrrlv alo'drjrd.
yap
fxeu
a\r]97)s
dtadrjais
Kal
ru>v
iraaiv
ISiwu
vtrapx^i-
del
roTs
C^ois, SiauoeTadai
5'
oAA.'
virdpx^i'
oX(tQt]<tiv,
\6yos.
Ibid. 428, a, 11
al jxhv
[the al(rdi\(reis'\ aXr]9e7s aUl, al 5k
(papraaiai
yivovrai
al
ttK^iovs
h)]
r}
ai/atpelrV aiadrjaiy,
aladr^rhv
VOL.
oh
I.
r)
5e a^ffdrjcns rh
awavaipil
^(^ov
eV5e;;^6Taj
/J.^
Kal
Kal
li^euSeTs.
Similarly
418, a, 11
1010, b,
7] aiadrjcris ^evS^s rov iSiov
iarlv, oAA' t] (pavratria ov ravrhp
sqq.
rp
ii. 6,
oh'S
alad-f](rei.
5,
ARISTOTLE
210
He
This
is
is
natural to
in
construction
making any
who
senses.2
ad fin.
It
so wide a
be expected to take
'
simply
decessors
it
observation,
close inquiry
little
which a subjective
of our
case
his
p. 209,
to
he
Sciji>,rovTOv ^rjrelu
X6yov
seem to
natural.
TTOLVTccv
elvai
oiiK
apxn ovK
airobei^ls i(TTi.
[Metajjh.
below, p.
247, u, 2). He thinks it a self-evident proposition that we can only
decide upon the sensible properas upon the good
ties of things
ard the evil, the beautiful and the
iv. 6,
1011, a, 8 sqq.
cf.
LOGIC
211
such,
He
first
of that which
that which
is
To these
knowledge
scientific
his Analytics
corresponds.
It is
their principles,
for in the
versal Causes
therefore, of the
in
ugly
'
self illustrates
De An.
rwv
iii.
his principle in
428, b, 18 -^ aUe-^ffis
3,
iSiav a\7]di,s
fjLeu
icTTiv
fj
'6ti
yap \VKhu, ov
tovto rb K^VKhv,
fj
&\\o Ti [whether the white
thing is, e.g., a cloth or a wall],
|/euS6Tat. (So also at the end of
OTi
SfcrOai'
//eu5eTot,
C.
eTTO/ieVcoi/
virdpx^i
Kivriais
kKacrrt]
iv
aur^)
rtf
dXXa
<pi](riv
^x^'-^'
irepl rh
irdOos
Se
twv
kqivSov
aviJ.^efir}K6(riu,
\4y(a
'iSia'
Kal /j-eycOos,
&
5'
a-KaT7]0rivai
r^v
Karb.
(About these
'r]jjL(\)i(Tfii,T7](T^v,
ovSeTTdoTTOTe fieTifiaAev,
devi
a'(<T-
rh
oh
^'Stj
irepl
Kal
olov
(rv/x04fiT]Ke
\aX(TQi\(mav\
Se
Toh
TO.
We
1010, b, 14.
can only
trust the deliverance of each
sense with regard to its own
particular objects, those of sight
with regard to colour, &c. wv
5,
fji^v
rpirov
6.)
Uni-
irepl
dyK-qs rh icrofxevov
y\vKv roiovrov.
Perception shows us primarily
(as has been already said on
pp. 206-7) only certain sets of
see
De Sensu, c. i. 437, a, 8.)
Sensu, iv. 442, b, 8 irepi (x(v
TovTuv [the Koiva just mentioned]
aTTUTUi'Tai, Trepi 5e ruu iSicov ouk
airaTuvTai, olov o\pis nepl xP^^o-tos
kjX
ceive.
B7](Tiv.
Koivh
also
De
Metai^Ti. iv.
qualities.
p 2
ARISTOTLE
212
or in one
for in
all
The premises, however, from which these deducmust start cannot be themselves deduced by
Nor are they immediately given
the same method.
in any innate kind of knowledge. It is only by working
upwards from phenomena that we can reach the principles
only from particulars that we can
that underlie them
rise to universals. To do this scientifically is the business
of Induction. Demonstration and Induction are accordingly the two component parts of the scientific process,
Both,
and the essential subjects of Methodology.
Proof.
tive proofs
Proof with
and in connection
Proposition, as
till
work
(as
liis
we have
them
It
was
already ex-
separately,
and
applies
still
more
Nevertheless,
it is
Syllogism
inasmuch
as certain
definite
presupposed by
views as to
Aristotle in his
LOGIC
213
to
not only
Plato
essentials.
As
but
generally
Aristotle,
also
Aristotle
followed
speaking,
we
in
all
find that
him
But
as
we
shall find
exalted
all
and yet
at the
is
we
Substance.
He
Prantl
{Gesch.
sq.
Log. 1. 210
other general
KUHN, De Notionis
d.
cf.
Anal. Post.
Top.
7,
5,
i.
c.
i.
c.
34 sqq,
Metajph. v.
18, 1002, a, 24
102, b, 4
init.,
goes on
4, 73, a,
;
sqq.),
and the
works,
cf.
init.
p.
518
sq.
584 sqq.
* As to the distinction of the
iTvfAfiefi-qKhs from the
Kad' avrh
/Ji<?.
Waitz,
in Categ.
6, b,
16
'
ARISTOTLE
214
to
make
by
dis-
is
objects in
If this
to
several
by
accident, but
common element
is
some other
becomes a Genus.
for every
man, as
To be educated
(rviJ.^^7}K6s.
(T^^;. ibid.)
is
to
a biped,
him
/cara
vTcdpx^i-v.
Tw auTO} Koi
Hence, what is said
thin<j^ Ka9'
aJT^
bTojovv
kv\
is
(Tv/xfie^r^Khs
ifSsx^Tai virdpx^i-v
'o
Koi
1X7]
of a
true of all things
which fall under the same conbut what is said k. (tvjxcept
^^7]k6s is only true in particular
cases and therefore all universal determinations are Koff avr6.
Metaph. v. 9, 1017, b, 35: rh yhp
KaQoXov Kad' avra virdpx^^, to. Sh
(XvjxBefiriKora ov KaO' avra ctAA' iirl
is
Kad'
rcou
^KacTTa
common
If to the
'^
sucli, is
airXcos
Xeyerai.
the (rvfM!3^r)Kds,
part of eh. vii., infra.
Thus Metapli. vii. 3 in\t. ohaia in common usage means many
different things rh ri ijv elvai koX
Kol
rh KadSXov Koi rh yevos
rirapTov rovrcov rh viroKeijuevov.
2 Anal. Post. i. 4, 73, b, 26
Ka96Kov Se Xiyu} % Uv Karh iravrSs
'
avdyKrjS
virdpx^f-
tois irpdyfiacnu
'
b, 11.)
^ Such
an essential quality
Aristotle calls a Kafl' aur^ u7rcpx'oi'
a iraOos ko.Q'' avTh, or a (rvfi^iPr]Khs
Kad' avrh, understanding- in the
last
case by a-vfifiefirtKhs (the
term being used in a sense diff erent
from
that
discussed
h (rvfi^aiv^i
Metajili. v.
12,
iii,
1,
997, a, 25
iv. 1,
iv.
b, 5,
2, 1004,
vi. 1, 1025, b, 12, vii. 4, 1029, b,
13; Anal. Post. i. 22, 83, b, 11,
995,
sqq.
b,
18,
25, c.
2,
Tbendelenburg, Be An.
sq.
distinguishing
iarrl
twv
189
a,
Top. i. 5, 102, a, 31
y^vos 5'
rh Kara irXeiSuwv Kal Zia<pcp6v:
rep e^Se/
povfievov.
yope7crdai
iv
ra roiavra X^yiaQo},
'6ffa
ipuTiqOcvTa rt
iffri rh irpoKclfj.evov.^e.ff. in a man
r( ecrri ; C^ov).
Metaph. V. 28,
ap/xSTrci
airodovvai
LOGIC
215
is
made up
of the
rh
viroKeifie-
Ts (that these
two descriptions
r&
yevri
KaX
al
8ia<\>opal.
Every
consequently a Ka66kov,
but not every Ka96\ov a yevos cf
Metaph. iii. 3, 998, b, 17, 999, a,
21, xii. L, 1069, a, 27, &c., with
yivos
is
i.
9,
16,
992, b, 12,
25
sq.
vii.
and
1038, b,
13,
Bonitz
on
vnoKeLfie-
or (4) out' iu
inroKeifjLevcp
Of
3,
21)
a,
is
If,
specific differences}
differences
specific
'
'
eV
viroKeifievcp
i.e.
which are at
How
was
'
boundary between a
genus and a property will be
the
'
'
'
seen also in his treatment of Substance (on which see the first part
of ch. Yii., infra).
1
eV
Metajih. x. 7, 1057, b, 7
yhp rov yevovs Kol rS)v Sia<pop(av rh
etSr] (for
instance, the specific
concepts ' black and * white are
made up of the generic notion
distinguishing
Xp^iJ-a and the
qualities SiaKpiriKhs and avyKpinKos white is the XP^f^"- StaKpiriKhv^
black is the xpw/ia <rvyKpiriK6v).
Set yap rh
Top. vi. 3, 140, a, 28
fxev yevos airh ruv dWuv x^piC^*)"
[the generic concept distinguishes
:
'
'
ARISTOTLE
216
finally,
an object
is
whole
is
The
Concept}
(what belongs
every other],
to a genus
Tivos
6,
i.
279
a,
'
'
we have
its
therefore the
is
'
themselves, they are not substances but qualities, for they express not a Tt, but a troiSv ri (Top.
iv. 2,
6,
Anal.
Vost.
ii.
Many
uv cKacTTov fj.\v
[is
accidental
also
to
other
things], airavra 5e /i^ eVi irXiov.
ravTr]u yap avdyKT) ovcriav clvai rod
which will be further
illustrated below.
Ibid. 97, a,
Tvpdyixaros
18
we
Trjs
ova-Las)
till
we arrive
ia-rl
at a
8ia(popa, i.e.
group wv ix-qKeTt.
that which
is
LOGIC
217
ianv 6
A.070S).
The
opKr/uSs
(()opcov
e/c
tcov Sia-
genus
is
divided into
continued
ecas
eXdr]
tip
ds rh
and
since in
this series every subsequent differa8ia.<popa(ihid.
1.
15);
dpicrfj-os
in
to
way
of
'
'
special use of
elj/ot
^
;
and the
with a dative
avQp<}iT(^
rb adiaipdrcf
iffrlv elmi, Metaph. x. 1, 1052, b,
16
op ydp iffTt rh aol elvai rh
fiovffiKcp ehai, ibid. vii. 4, 1029, b,
14, cf. Ind. Ar. 221, a, 34); and
the phrase rh ri ?iv clvai. In the
second of these expressions the
dative must (according to Trendelenburg, Rh. Mus. 1828, 481
elvai, &CC.,
rh
cvl eJvai
SCHWEGLER,
Ar.
Metaph.
iv.
'
'
Being
'
whereas ^vOpwirov
elvai
'
'
ARISTOTLE
218
Concept
itself is
Plato,
(Cf.
tory.
Tl/eo't.
150,
'
'
vii. 7, vid.
'
inf.
vii. 5 fin.')
But
Metaph.
vii. 4, 1029, b, 19
^pa ixT] iuearai X6ya) avrd,
AeyoPTL avTO. ovtos 6 X6yos tov tI
ijv dvai iKoia-rcf}.
So ch. 7, 1032, b,
14 \4yco 5' ovffiav avv vKr]s rb t(
Ibid. xii. 9, 107o, a, 1
?iu elvai.
eTrl /iej/ rcou iroiriTiKoiv
dvev vXrjs
ovaia Koi rh Tt ^v efj/at [sc. rh
7]
And ch. 8, 1074, a,
irpayixd i(rrC\.
35 rh Se ri -fjv ehai ovk Ix^' vXt]v
TO irpuTOV evreXcx^tayap. The t/
?iu eJvai, therefore, goes with the
eldos.
Metaxjh. vii. 7, 1032, b, 1
iihos Se K4yu) rh ri ^v eJvai kKaffTOV
KoX T^v TTpcaTrjv ovffiav. Ibid. ch. 10,
e?5os 5e Ae^w rb ti
1035, b, 32
cf.
ej'
(^
^j/
PTiys.
elvai.
ii.
this
194, a,
2,
20
In
TOV e^Sovs Koi rov tI 'fjv elvai.
Phys. ii. 3, 194, b, 26 one of the
Kal
rh
irapdrb
eJSos
four causes is
Seiyfxa' tovto S' iarlv 6 xSyos 6
TOV ri '^v elvai Koi to. tovtov yht\
this being what Aristotle, in Me:
tapli.
i.
3,
tV ovo'iav
but immediately
afterwards Thv \6yov also. In fact,
Kol Th
t'i
ehai,
?iv
all these expressions are constantly interchanged by him. Compare, for example, the Be An. ii.
1, 412, b, 10, where ovcrla t] Kara
rhu x6yov is explained by rb ri ^u
ehai; Metaph. vi. 1, 1025, b, 28:
Th Ti ?iv eivai KoX Thv \6yov vii. 5,
rh ri ^v eJuai Koi 6
1 030, b, 26
opi(rix6s (similarly Part. An. i. 1,
;
6,
tV
'
'
'
ScHWEGLEB,
Tl ?iv elvai
= Being on
tial side
')
and thus,
LOGIC
219
monly happens
in Aristotle, the
used in the
narrower meaning of the rl ^u
latter
may
be
iii. 5,
Aristotle
mula rh
ri
^v
eJuai.
for-
Even if
Zeller,
Kol ovaias
fcrri
init.
opiajxhs
\6yos rov ri
4(rri.
6 fjikv oZv
Ibid. ii. 10
\eyerai elvai
.
(Thesameibid.
n.)
6pi<x^6s effri
Be An.
8
414, a, 9, &c.
a, 5,
2,
1,
i.
403, b, 2
and
ii.
cf.
ing note.) By
case '6pos is synonymous with
6pi(TiJ.hs, e.g.
5'
'6pos
a-nfiaivcov.
in Top.
\6yos
ix.\v
So ch.
oh. 7,103, a, 25
72, b, 23
i.
101
4,
%cti
^v
eJuai
init.
6 rh tl
b, 21,
Anal. Post.
and
i.
3,
Meta/ph.
ch. 13, 1039, a,
vii. 5, 1031, a, 8
19 ; viii. 3, 1043, b, 28 ch. 6, 1045,
a, 26; Poet, ch.6,1449, b,23. But
the same word, in a further sense,
signifies either of the two terms
of a proposition (subject and
predicate), and is therefore the
standing expression for the three
Anal.
terms of the syllogism
'6pov Se koAw
Pri. i. 1, 24, b, 16
6ts %v SiaXverai tj irpSraais, etc., ch.
4, 25, b, 32, ch. 10, 30, b, 31, ch.
34, 48, a, 2 Anal. Post. i. 10, 76,
:
ii.
10, 97, b, 26
35 et sup7'a.
2 Cf. pp. 215, n. 1, 216, n. 1.
Aristotle expresses the relation
b,
ARISTOTLE
220
is
For although a
definite relation of
Form
to
Matter does
and therefore
also to
which, in
rwu
becomes
concept
indefinite, first
definite in the specific
itself
the substratum
(inroKei-
fxevou),
See
Kol
'
yap
yeuecris
'
ovcriSov
on
ToioLVTr]
Kal
1X7]
eKacTTtt
eariv,
rwv
'
ix'^vcriv
vX-qv
rjs
r]
(pvais
oSffT'
eKaara avrwu.
Tu>v
p. 163),
ovrois
ou5'
airS^ei^iv
ou5'
aWa
LOGIC
the Concept of any object,^ yet
sense
itself,
but only
this
221
it
is
not
this object of
which
can be defined. ^
as such
uals in general.
ovK
ecTTiv
<reajs
aX\a
bpifffjibs
aireAdduTas [-ra]
5'
fiera voj]-
yvcapi^ovrai,
alard^crews
e/c
ttjs
eVreAe-
although the
Phys. ii. 9 fin.
material causes are subservient
to the ideal or final causes, still
in explaining natural phenomena
we must give both Kacos 5e Koi
iu T<j5 \6y(}} iarl rh avayKoiov [i.e.
because the physical or material
causes belong to the concepts of
ihingH']. dpiaa/jLevcp yap Th pyov Tov
:
irp'uiv,
on
Biaipecris
roiadi
avrr]
'
An.
5'
taph.
vii. 10,
1035, a,
1,
b, 14,
and
hand we
deny that matter belongs to the
concept of a thing, and on the
other are obliged to admit that
ii.
roiwSe
1),
adifxari.
Metaph.
vii. 15,
as at p. 220, n.
*
Vid.
2,
mpra,
1039, b, 27,
mpra.
p. 163, n. 2.
us
<pacrl,
Kal x^P^<^''"h-
5'
ov iroirjaei 6
avayKoiov
5'
K6yov ouo/na
dpi^S/xevos, uyuwaTov
ARISTOTLE
222
we
are
still
Within
only.
Between
earai.
ra
5e
6,Wa} Tuvra
olnv
'
Koiva
Keifxcva
avdyKT] apa
iracTLV.
virapx^i-v
Tts
elf
(Te
Koi
bpi-
Loc.
'
cit.
1.
ix7}Qfv
kxXv^iv
Xo^plsjxkv irduTaTvoWoils^'d^a Sc
TQVTU}
vi?dpx^i-v
(which
is
juovct}
really
olov
erepos
yeurjrai
Koivos dpa 6
Similarly, in De
supposing
9, 278, a, 8
Aoyos,
Cwh,
tolovto^,
6cc.'
i.
dSos
eV
rfj
Kal
vArj
twu
kuO'
two
different things.
Metapli. vii. 10 (r?VZ. mpr. p.
220, n. 2) 6 Kityos earl rod KadoXov.
are
Anal. Post.
5'
\
iarl
iras
ii.
a sense
l),andarein
'6jxoia
97, a, 37, b,
8'
direipwv
iTnarr]/j.r]v
sqq.;
iruis
;
cf
2\)j?.
A7ial. Post.
ii.
i.
evBexerai
Xafielv
994, b, 20
109, b, 14;
2,
24, 86, a, 3 sqq.
ii.
2,
s^ipra ; see
this passage), to rtva,
6 Tts dvQpoiKos, &c. {Categ. ibid.
Anal. Post. i. 24, 85, a,
1, 4, b
Categ.
c. 2, 1, b, 6, et
Waitz on
;
34; Metaph.
r6be
ri
Categ.
c. 2, 1,
Metaph.
iii. 1,
b, 6, c. 5, 3, a,
35;
LOGIC
this accidental difference
223
and the
mem-
But
and Aristotle
calls these
name
is
Froalso
What
so far as
What
Metaph.
16
De Mem.
451, a, 26).
In Toj). i. 4, 101, b, 17, he
distinguishes y4vos, Wiov, and
and as soon as he
(Tvfji.fifir]K6s
has divided the Uiov again into
opos and iSiou in the narrower
sense, he defines the latter, c. 5,
102, a, 17: 'tdiov S' iffrlv f> fx^
StjAo? luLev rh ri ^v eJuai, fiSpq) 5'
U7ra/5%et Kal apTiKaTrjyopeTTai rov
vpdyfxaros [is related to it ^as
an interchangeable concept], otov
tSiou avdpduTTov rh ypafifxariKrjs elvai
;
c. 2,
5e/CTt/cJj/,
2
Already
{loc. cit.)
he distin-
fall
under
topical
^(fop dpr]rhp, rh e'/c ^l/vxvs Kal aca/j-aTos ffvyKei/xepop (128, b, 19, 35,
Cf. preceding note,
129, a, 2).
^ Aristotle does not say so in
these words, but it is shown by
his discussions on the various
meanings of ravrhp. In Top. i. 7
(cf. viii. 1, 151, b, 29
152, b, 31)
three of these are distinguished
yepei ravrhp is what belongs to one
genus, elfSet ravrhp what belongs
to one species (cf. Metaph. x. 8,
1058, a, 18), and apiQyi.^ ravrhp, Sip
opS/nara irXeica rh Se irpay/xa eV.
This last kind of identity may
be expressed in various ways
.
Kvpidirara
dp6/j.ari
&c.
does not
KaOdirep
Kal
/mep
opt}}
trpwrois
lixdriop
Xwiricf
Toj
Kal
^<^op
Sevrcpop 8'
(5j^, Kaddirep rh iTriarrrjfJLTis
orap
'6rap
rh ravrhp airo^ody,
ARISTOTLE
224
one concept
is
different.^
there
is
Contrary
Hrau
lie
as far
fact, is
aiTo
stotle
i8ei
and
apidtxS,
same Genus,
Contrary opposition, in
Tpirov S'
avOpwTTCf},
tov avjx^^fi7]K6TOs, diov rh
KaQ'i]fx^vov ^ Th ixovaiKbv 'S.wKpd.Tei.
There is a somewhat different
Aridivision in 3Ietaj)h. v. 9.
beKTLKhv
difference pro-
whereas simple
and
ch. 28,
n. 2.
both of which
'^
c. 6, 6, a, 17; Etli.N.
1108, b, 33, as one already
in use (bpi^ovTaC) but in Metapli.
X. 4 iii'd., he puts it forw^ard in
his own name, and he there
establishes the proposition that
opposites must belong to the
same genus, by observing expressly TO. ixkv yap yivn SiacpepovTa ovK e^ei 65hv els &\X7)\a,
Toou iv
T^ avT^
(TTOP
^ia<p4povTa
'/)
>
tion, Cateff.
ii.
8,
dAA.' aTre^ei
\yTai
awTw
TO.
re
fi^
Svvara
a/xa
t&j
yvos, Kal
deKTiKcfi
TO,
irXilcrTov 5ia((>epoj/Ta
(that
yeuei, Kal
Toiv
the
ra
iv
TrAel-
TavT(f
ivavria are
LOGIC
226
povTa Twv
Oirh
avrV
ttjv
Suva/xiu,
and white],
ij
and
[like
cites
unjust],
Sohol.
84,
from the
a,
At. Ft.
6;
treatise
n.
117)
at/riKeifxe-
Aristotle's
VOL.
I.
Con-
the relation
is
sciences:
cf.
too.
cit.
1055,
a,
same
definition of
the ivavriov
Be
Ccelo,
i.
change
is
c. 5,
p.
'
The
biatpopa reKeios of
Me-
ARISTOTLE
226
Yes
to
and
contained in
is
negative expression,'*
i.e.
Between contrary and contradictory opposition Aristotle places that oi frivation and
the
jiossession,^ though he is not able quite to establish
of
kinds
two
other
the
and
this
between
difference*^
given
determinant.
13, a, 37 sqq.;
1057, a, 33.
tained
(^('.(j.
and
(pp6vn(ns
acppoavvT])
were
to
le
SiMPL.
tlie icppwv).
24 sqq.,
'
cf.
Aristotle's
CaUg.
sqci.
tlie
here: see
X. 4, 1055, a, 10 sqq., 22
Since this opposition only
occurs between abstract concepts
and not between concrete things,
tapJi.
B.
standing formula
and
Metcqyh.
" An
opofxa or prifxa aopicnov
vid. infra, p. 232, n. 2.
"^
"'^''
" "E|is and arepT^ais, e.g. ' see;
ing
'
and
bHnd.'
'
For what
ings of the
judgment
In
^.. c.
a jv^wg.^.....
the like opposition is called
durlcbaffLS (vid. n. 6, &c., infra)
.,ovu..
(pa(nsavTLKt(jeaL.'
19
Metaijh.
iv. 7, xi. 6,
and
is
1063. b,
cf.
what
fol-
x.
o-repTjo-ts
(1)
fti'
m^ %xV
Khu
fi^
(jyvrhu
oinixdTwv (rTeprj(Teaihey<iTai.(2)Uv
^x^iv, ^ ahrh ^ rh yeuos,
-rrecpvichs
exr?.
7re(|)u-
the
first
'
'
we could
we
o-repyjo-tj/
LOGIC
Notions
opposition.
'
iv. 12,
is
a kind
which have no
middle term between them (as
straight and crooked '), one or
other must necessarily apply to
those
evavria,
'
'
'
'
in the case of
a-Teprja-is
and
e^is,
it
T^
y^p
fi-fjiru
irecpvKhs
oxpiv
IXff
oiire TV(p\hv
\4yeTai
but
237
is
a middle term
yap
'6Tav
ixov
6>^Lv
It is,
^ri%(rf'.xi.
ijSr)
rv^Khv
how-
'
seeing
things,
things
'
but
also
and
blind
'
things
'half
blind.'
A further distinction of
the ivavria from the opposites
Kara (rreprjaiv Koi e^iv is said to lie
in the fact {Categ.c. 10, 13, a,
18), that in the former the transition from one to the other is
not
only
can
things
may
selves
man
Metaph.
x. 4, 1055, b, 3, 7, 14, it
is
iv r(S
5e/cTt/c(ju,
a kind of
xi.
6,
and the
ivavTi6rr]s
(thus also in
b, 17); so that,
this, these three
(rrepria-is
1063,
according to
Q2
ARISTOTLE
228
Of all these
subjects of a fourth sort of opposition.^
holds good,
proposition
general
the
opposition
kinds of
that
'
opposites
fall
of crep7]ais
and
under havriS-
avric^acns or
under
To the
r-ns.
falls either
e|is
ean
Post. i. 4, 73, b, 21 points
yap rh ivavriov t) arepr^ais ^ avri(paais eV rui avrw yevi, olov &pTLOV
:
Th
TTepiTThv eV
IJ.7]
be an
apidjj.OLS
for, to
must
r](ns,
that, in
certain
cases,
it
is
et Corr.
ii.
2,
329, b,
true
of
a mere
Trendelenburg,
sqq.,
theor.
<rr4p-f](ns.
Joe.
cit.
Cf.
107
n.
avriKeifievav
(Trep-ncris
and
also
^is
treated of
Stmpl.
Seliol.
Ar. Fr.
119. We shall have to discuss
hereafter the metaphysical signiin Ar. SG,
b, 41, 87, a, 2
fication of
and
o-TepTjffis
its rela-
and Waitz,
Ai'ist.
two
{avriipacis
and
ivavriorris^.
1004,
a,
Logic
But concepts taken by themselves cannot,
so far,
expression, and
Definite
false.
therewith
truth
first
we
it,
unit
and
anything
if
of discourse (or
affirmed or denied
is
(a7r6<j)av(TLS'y
for
which Aristotle
ment
when
is trve,
genus,
Vid. sujjra, p. 202, &c.
Interj)r. c. 4, c. 5, 17, a,
'
d.
vi.
4;
De
17
Zeller, Ph.
of.
Gr. pt.
2
As
Org.
Ai'ist.
i.
8, 14.
s
llpoTaais
on the expression
2;
Waitz,
1, 16, a,
13, c. 2,
d. Arist. i. 128,
Arist. Org. i. 368
Ind. Ar. 651, a, 33 sqq,
3, c.
BONITZ,
1457, a, 10, 14
De Interpr.
Anal. Pr. i. 1, 24,
>
7]
Be
De
'
pp. 557,
n. 5, 532, n, 2.
jxkv
Interpr.
airXri
(TTIjxavTiK)]
In Anal. Pr.
fi^ virdpx^i'V,
Top.
i.
10,
i.
104, a,
1,
24,
8 (cf.
a,
22
Waitz,
is
airodeiKTiK-^,
De
Gr.
judg-
352). Interrogation
Biese, Phil.
d.
cf.
Zell. Ph.
regards the
type.'^
modes of
or Judg-
put
is
Interpr.
''
Metaph.
discourse takes
if this
get,
thought expressed in
ment
7)
S^
Se
e/c
71
icrrip
c.
4,
17, a, 20
aird^avais
c. 5,
TOVTcov crvyKifi4vT}
fiev
airXri
irepl
oiis
17, a, 1
a, 16.
aTrStpavcis
ecr
(poju)]
rod virdpx^^v ri
fi
ol )(_p6voi. diijprjvTai.
ARISTOTLE
S30
signified
or divided which
it is
is
opposition
(contradictory)
On
is possible.'*
(ai/Ttc^ctcrtp),
them must be
such wise
in
true and no
On
'
^opiov
corresponding
S' auTi(f)d(Toos
rh
Kard
fxev r\
El. c. 1, 165, a, 6; De
Sensu, c. 1, 437, a, 14 liJict. iii.
The events in the
1, 1404, a, 20.
soul which words express are,
according to these passages, the
same in all men their designation in speech, on the other
hand, is (like written signs) a
matter of convention, and thus
differs in different persons.
- Metapli. vi. 4., ix. 1 init.
^ De Interi)r. c. 5 init.
icTi
5e ^^ TTpuTos \6yos airocpavriKhs
as
(rvfxfioAov
fioph.
irdyres
'
&Woi
Further,
eh.
crvvSeafxcfi
oi 5'
A7ud. Pr.
24,
Anal. Post. i. 25, 86, b, 33.
a, 16
The irpoTaais Kara(pariK^ is also
ibid. c. 5, 6
i.
1,
De
Inter^r.
c. 6, c. 7,
17, b,
72, a, 11
aTr6<pav(Tis Se avTi(pd(r(cs dirorepovovv fjidpiov. avricpacTis Se avTid(Tis
16
ris
Anal. Post.
ovK
^ari
i.
2,
fiera^h
Kad^
avr^v.
Cf. p. 226, n. 1
aw6(paaLS.
and
2.
'
'
'
'
Log Id
231
way
of contrary opposition,
But
in truth
case.^
a perfectly clear
from Aristotle.
As he
which by the
But Ari-
result.
regards
only
true
those assertions which assert
actuality and since this, in the
stotle
as
Cf. Simpl.
state of fact arises.
Categ. 103, /3 Bas. according to
the teaching of the Peripatetic
:
which
false,
&\r)irTOP
lvai
Hence
class of assertions
fjS-n
all
rfj
that
fj-ev
ovk
Toia ^ roia.
It is from the
Megareans that Aristotle took the
Aporia
subject-matter of the
which he discusses in the passage
cited: cf. Zeller, Ph. d. Gr.
'
pt.
cf.
i.
p. 220, 1.
De
Interpr.
c. 7,
17, b,
20:
at pp.
The
224-5, about the ivavTioTrjs.
particular aflarmative and particular negative propositions which,
dis-
He nowhere
it
marks
subject
means
which
can be expanded by
an added adjective,
itself may be put either
of
affirmatively (Si/catos &.), or negatively (^ov SiKaios &.) ecrrt Sik. ft.
means 'there is a just man,'
which is different from &v9po}iros
SiKaios i(TTi, 'man is just.'
Aristotle nowhere says that every
proposition, or even that the
existential proposition logically
considered, consists of
three
parts and the treatise n, eptirjveias even shows a preference for
selecting examples from those
existential propositions which fall
into two parts only.
:
ARtSTOTL^
232
itself.^
to
whereas there
as a special class,-
doing
for
no ground
in fact
is
so.^
proceeds
Aristotle
to
Quantity
the
consider
of
He
particulars.
judgments universal,
and dvai
and cJuai
/xr)
tovto,
fjL^
eJuai
KevKhu
inasmuch as
propositions of the last kind have
the form of ailirmative proposi)U7/
\fvKhu,
Beandis,
b,
no
p. 165, refers).
De
and ovx-vyiaivei no
but he wants to call the
former ouo/j.a adpiarov, and the
ovo/xa,
pv/ia;
and
in
c.
ing ones
concepts
OVK
made up
fffTiu
ovK-&u9p.,
OVK-&.,
OVK
of negative
ovK-&vdpcoiros,
Io-tij/
icTTiv
effriv
ov-^'iKaios
ov-SIk.
ovk-
Theophrastus called
&c.
these propositions e/c fxeraB4crws
(Ammon. De Interpr. 128, b, 129,
a., and Philop.
Scliol. in Ar.
121, a), or Kara ixerddeaiv (ALEX.
&vdp.,
Analyt. 134,
a.).
and
particular,
But
individual.''
which consists
the form of the judgment the
^
_Pqj.
^hiit in
19,
cf.
c.
13, 32, a,
31),
2,
25,
a,
4,
ruv KaB6\ov
aTTOcpaiuovTai, i.e.
fii]
ject is a KadoKov, t
ir^cpvKe
which
Ka66\ov 5e
in both the sub-
fiev
KarTjyopelo'dai,
eir\
TrXfiSvcav
but in the
affirmed of
whole extension, in the other not so.
The Analytics, on the other
hand, does not mention individual
the
subject
in
is
its
LOGIC
he
adds what he
and thus
which
judgments,'
'indefinite
is
distinction
the
calls
233
here
as elsewhere,
really has
of Judgments,
subject
connection
in
much
this
He
dis-
and
necessity,
possibility,^
Apodeictic,
/classification
/
possible
now
and Problematic
in use
for
of Assertory,
Aristotle
in
his
degrees
of
By
things.
'
only what
may
therefore rriay or
not
We may infer, if
over.
certainty,
'
is
the com-
exist
The
indifferently.^
r^v
r]5oui]v
fx)]
eluai
aya66v,
as
general.
Anal. Pr.
i.
2 init. iracra
rod virdpx^LV ^ rod
avdyKTjs U7rap%etj/ ^ rov ivdex^-
TrpSraa-is 4crTiv
e'l
'/)
trOai virdpx^iv.
3
\eyw
Anal. Pr.
8'
i.
13, 32, a, 18
iuSex^ffdai Kal rh ivdex^fJ-f-
ARISTOTLE
234
corollaries
'
vov, ov
fxi]
virdpx^i'V-,
S'
^Uvarov
avTicpdcrecos icrriv
kjl).
elj/at
fxrj
e'ivai
ix.
1)
i?lit.
'dcra
'
possibility,'
a
says that in
the possibility of the
also contained (see
contrary is
preceding note, and Be Interjjr.
BoKe7 5e rh avrh
c. 12, 21, b, 12
irav
dvvaa-daL Kal ehai Ka\ fii] eluai
yap rh Svuarhv refiveaOai v) )8a5/(,6ij/
:
'
Kal
ix)]
^adi(eiv Kal
riuveaQai.
/xt]
determining the
concept by taking that meaning
of ^vva/xis according to which it
designates a power of doing or
dvvarov,
&c.),
of the
rule,
Be
Ccelo,
from the
1.
judgment; and universal affirmative judgments cannot be converted simply. Theophrastus and
Eudemus denied these assertions,
because they understood by
'possible,' everything that can
happen, and lost hold of the state-
a,
b,
m,
73,
a).
Aristotle
LOGIC
235
ments Aristotle pays as little attention as to the Hypothetical and Disjunctive Syllogisms.
Only in what he
'
which Alexander
wrote a work (Alex. Anal. 40, b,
83, a), arose between Aristotle
and his pupils upon the question
on
dispute,
'
'
'
possible,
ciple,
that
assertorial
apodeictic, the
is
and
the other
conclusion is
Schol.
AntSTOTLB
L>36
On the
the late doctrine of disjunctive judgments.
other hand, he is copious in his treatment of the Condown the well-known
but he
This theory
most original
duce the
and
discovery.''
name
it
may
of the Syllogism
connections and
upon the
'
Syllogism
all
syllogistic
'
is
As he was
the
into
first
to intro-
the scientific
first to
advances in
combination of judgments.
'
from
them.'''
different
Vld.
S7ij}r.
Anal. Pr.
32, a, 29 sqq.
p. 230.
-'
sqq.
'
ii. 1,
i.
c.
2,
17,
3, cf. c. 13,
36,
b,
15
53, a, 3 sqq.
known
*
c.
to him.
Log.
i.
d.
264.
Anal.
Pr. 1. 24. b, ^18^
avWoyicrixhs Se ecrri x6yos iv ^
reOevTcav rivwv erepdu ri rwv K6t-
LOGIC
The
2.r/
Now
later.i
it,
judgments were
as yet unconnected.^
This
is
impossi-
must
syllogism
is
cepts,
way
audyKTjs
e|
r^
avfifiaivei
(Likewise
elvai.
Tojj.
1,
i.
1,
165,
a, 1.)
'
'
5ia
'
Ajial.
Pr.
i.
first
^
first
and in
as to bring out
principle
which
Aristotle
sqq.,
*
elusion.
init.,
{Metaph.
virodeaeis
rod
v. 2,
irpo-
1013, b, 20:
the
avixTc^pafffxaros')',
JSf.
vi.
9=
ii.
23, 68, b.
ARISTOTLE
238
elusion.
But
this result
judgments
all
with a predicate
disjunctive
may come
in three ways.
As
and
and
as
reckoning),
upon the
middle term
is
Now
there are
may
either
and as predicate to
it is
;
this fourth
arrangement can
Tpirov.
tinues
irphs
&iJ.(pcti
KOLvhv, tovto
Karr]yope(TavTas,
(poiv,
eVrl
&ix(pa}
TO. etprj/ieVa
fj
(XX'^l^^^'ra,
<pavphv
gri TrduTU (rvWoyKrfihv avdyKT} yiv(r9ai 5ta rovrwv rivhs t&p axV'
Cf. 0. 82, 47, a, 40 sqq.,
fxdrccv.
Ueberweg's
2 The position of the propositions has, as we know, no influence on the form of the syllogism.
The precedence of the major, customary since then, seemed more
natural to Aristotle than to us.
In laying down a syllogism, he
begins not, as we are accustomed
to do, with the subject, but with
the predicate of the major: A
T^ r
to the lesser.
he. cit. p. 276.
Cf.
Uebbbweg,
LOGIC
239
We
then,
obtain,
three
Figures
(o-'xrjixaTa)
is
The
ignored, and
figures, it is to
^
;
are so;;^
and that
in every
i.
570
3
sq.
Whether
or, as
Prantl
this
is
{Geseh.
a failing
d.
Leg.
i.
iv
airavTi
[sc.
(rvWoyia-fiq}']
'dpccr eJvai
Set
koI
is
ARISTOTLE
240
its
quality
and
also as to its
modality.'
rules
They
method.
syllogistic
themselves.
He
well-known moods
is
figures,^
but he also
must
upon the conclusion and upon the whole
He
syllogistic process.^
first
hgure alone as
according to his
perfect,' because,
syllogistic sequence.
'
imperfect
syllogisms,
first.
either apagogically or
ad
impossibilG^ as well
as
in
by conversion.'* These
employed in the
hypothetical
'
'
reductio
arguments
generally.'^
1
Loc.
For the
cit.
1.
27.
tirst
24, b, 22
irpoaSed/xevov
irapa
ra
^l\riix4va
t\'t]irrai
Sia irpordarewv.
necessary here to
(c. 6).
c.
1,
It is
not
defend Ari-
stotle's view,
* Ibid. c. 23, 41, a, 21
cf supra, p. 238, n. 1.
.
sqq.
LOGIC
24]
With
first
Next he provides
versa}
fitting premisses,
method of
On
this
Furthermore he discusses
lUd.
lUd.
c. 26.
c.
syllogisms.
81), is of no use
to suppose the
chief point that is to be proved.
(c.
we have then
When
it is a question
of the
concept of man as a ^^ou Qv^rhv,
then, he says, from the propositions
All living beings
are
either mortal or immortal man
is a living being,' it would only
follow that man is either mortal
or immortal
that he is a ^^ov
6vT\rhv is a mere postulate. Hence
'
VOL.
I.
he says
623 sqq.
*
Log.
Anal. Pr.
cit. c.
32-46.
ii. 1.
4k \pevSwv S'
7rA?V ov Si6ti dAA' Uti
OVK effTLu K \pv$a>v
acrdai,
ecrrti/
'
aArj^es,
Under what
ARISTOTLE
242
endo
the
'
'
conversion
absurdum
ad
'
of the syllogism
which
syllogisms
the Redudio
from
result
the
method of argu-
ment
peculiar
to
each."^
We
cannot
this
at
point
Induction, c. 23 example,
c. 24 (cf. Anal. Post. i. 1, 71, a,
9 lihet. i. 2, 1356, b, 2, 1357, b,
25, ii. 20); d7ra7W7^ (reduction
possible in the
conditions this
different figures, is discussed in c.
is
2-4.
To
koX
kvkK(x)
e|
dW^Awv
where
these
the syllogism
26
from the probable (ehhs) or cer(evaracris), c.
tain
c.
loc.cit. c.
The
^evSos,
\pev5os,
rules
c.
for
c.
17
18, cf.
the
Toj).
disputation
irpuTov
viii,
10
deduced
on decep-
tion
;
propositions in a syllogism,
c. 22.
little gall
t6
'
Man, the horse &c., are longman &c. have little gall
therefore animals which have
lived
XV.
cit. c.
'
'
Loc.
6 5ia Tov
'
8-10.
'^
is
the
'
27.
which AriEnthymeme,'
((TTj/xem),
3, 72, b, 25.
of the conclusion
calls
'
Post.
marks
stotle
'
are long-lived.'
This,
LOGIC
follow
him
these
into
much
doubtedly owe
243
syllogistic
the
care
many-sided
its
The
detail.
syllogistic
we un-
although
researches,
them
to
is syllogistic,
Scientific
second Aymkjtics.
Proof,
All proof
proof
is
It is
is
it
of necessity
Proof, therefore,
That which
is
321.
In the selection and sequence of the different sections no
strict order is observed, although
related subjects are put together.
On the division of the Prior Analytics as a whole, see BeANDIS, p.
204 sq., 219 sq.
Anal. Post. i. 2, 71, b, 18
(rvWoyKr/xhu
after giving
yvcopi/JLcorepccv
airddei^iv
Aeyco
Se
And
firKXTTifioviKov.
yap
8'
(ffrai koL
ovK lo-rat
ov yap
TroirfO'ei
iiri-
Log.
adai Se
cit.
c.
2 init.
eTriVro-
%KaaTOV airXoos .
alriav olwfuda yvdoCKeiv
olS/xcd'
iffrl
rh
avdyKr]
iiri(TTa(rdai
otov
edefiev,
t^v airoSeiKTiK^v
koI
iiri-
(rriiix-QV
/col
koI
(TVfj.-Kepa.(TfJLaTos'
rov
yap ecovrai
Trporepcav
ovtoo
[sc.
deduced]
a'T'fjfirjv.
eVSe'xeo'^ot tovt''
p.)]
%v rh irpayfid
ecrriv,
on
iKeiuov
* Ibid.
5'
4 init.
c.
iirel
aSvuaTOv d\\(i)s exetv ov iarlv
:
iirKrrTJfxr]
rh
airKcos,
iiriTrrjThi/
avayKa'iov
rh Kara rvjv
h.v
e^r;
a-rroSeiK-
ARISTOTLE
244
known
cannot even be
sary truth
is
contingent, so
is
istics
may
it
be said that
proof relates to
all
founded exclusively upon the essential characterof things, and that the concept of each thing
once
at
is
since neces-
And
scientifically. ^
its
which any
more perfect the
concej^tual
the
form of Proof secures to us concerning
nature and the causes of an object, the higher is
the kind of knowledge which it warrants and so, other
information,
therefore,
(pavephu
on
Cf note 3 infra.
Metaph. xi. 8, 1065, a, 4:
rod ael
fxhu yap traaa
iiria-TViiJ.'n
^ Karcc (rv/j.$e^T]Khs, rh Se
(ru/x^e^rjKSra ovk avayKala. Ibid.
eVel 5' e| avdyK7}s
at the end
xjirapx^i- Tepl eKaarov yeuos oca KaO*
avra virdpx^t ^at 77 cKaarov, <pavephv
OTi irepl rwv Kad' avra virapx^VTWV
i(Tr\v
7}
airdSei^is.
ovTos
cos
eu
(Tu/ijSejSTj/f^y
a-vWoyirrixhs ^
Koi
us
4irl
Si'
rh iroXv
(rvfXTrepa(T/ji.a
rh
5e
tovtccu
30 ttSs yap
avayKaiwv % 5ia
i.
Trporacrewi'
al irporaffeis
et fxev
Koi rb
ttoAv,
ovSerepc}}
Anal. Post.
iariv.
Tccv
rh
iirl
avayKoiai,
avayKoiov,
el 5'
ws
iirl
roiovrou.
virapx^i-
al
4-iri(rrr}/j.oviKal
rwv roiovruv
(rvix^e^f}K6Ta
OVK avdyKt] rh
SiOTt
Kad'
virdpx^iy
avrh
Sh,
(TvKKoyiaixoi.
Ka& avrh
awodei^eis Kal
rh
elclu.
ovk
avayKala,
ffvixiripafffxa
ovd'
olov
ei
oi
del
e/c
yap
/j-ev
&(rr^
elhivai
eXu],
fx)^
did crrj/xelav
iirKXr'fjo'erai,
ovdc SiSrt.
LOGIC
If
we take demonstration
245
as a whole,
is
it
The same
the particular.^
up from
considerations lead
ie
deeply
principles,
and that
from without.
is
it
characteristics
the
of
object
question,
its
it,
in
to another
seeing that
All demonstration,
concept.^
Its
it,
Its function is to
it.
universal,
phenomena from
their causes.
unending, or has
'
it
a necessary limit ?
Phys.
vcrepa yap 7]
iii.
koivwv
'
1,
irepl
iffriu.
:
TiKr?.
rh yetafxerpiKbv
apiQixt]-
Sel^eaiv,
'
rh
ra
'
aTfdSei^is.
i^
S>v
iJ.v
oZv
clvai
r}
r)
air6-
apid/xr]-
tV
ovk
Anal. Post. i. 7 init.
&pa ecrriv i^ ciWov yeuovs fierd^avra
2
Setlot, o'tou
yevos ^
iry,
fierafiaiveiv.
SrjXov
e'/c
'
ei
fieWei
rj
airSSei^is
aSvvaTOu,
yap rod avrov yivovs
&\\(as
S' '6ri
ecrrai.
5e7^ai
aW'
f)
'6ffa
&(Tr' elvai
rovro
&\Xr)
iiricrr'fjfJ.T)
ovk ecrri
rh erepas,
Odrepou
virh
&WTj\a
Odrepov
C.
ARISTOTLE
246
We
may
where
at a point
we
could never reach an effectual demonstration or definiThe argument excludes also the third hypothesis,
tion.^
may
that there
If the
dicate.2
an
exist
terms between a
infinite
number
definite subject
list
of intermediate
and a
of middle terms
is
definite pre-
not
infinite, it
is
brought round
either
bility of
which
is
solid demonstration.'^
Ser^at
(pavephu
ovK
again
we attempt
to
circle,'
9 init.
If
it
eariv
are
else to
'
all
possi-
arguing in
'6ti.
We
return
e/cao-Tou apxc^J^, &c.
to this later on.
^
For he says at 83, b, 6,84,
ra &Treipa ovk eari 5te|eA0eTj/
a, 3
voovvTa.
Cf note 4 infra.
2 I old. ch. 19-22.
The details
of this treatment, in parts not
:
we
that progression ad
infinitum
not possible.
that Aristotle
997, a, 7
irepi
iravruv
LOGIC
247
must
These 'principles' of
proof. 1
'
Many
conclude from
no knowledge at
this,
that
all is possible
says
ol
/xev
SXcos
elvai
yap
virodefievoi
fx.^
ovroi
(Is
iiriaraaOai,
refute
it
by reference to
quo
a circle
swpra, p. 242, n.
V.
e'l
(de
'
1).
'
ffr'fuj.rjv
his
on the subject
earlier exposition
of * reasoning in
20
elvai
t'
eiri-
KoX
ws ovk
Uv iTTiffrafxevovs ra vcTTepa 5ta ra
TTpSrepa, wv /u.-^ effri it pur a, opdcos
\eyovres, aSwarov yap ra 6.ireipa
trpcvruu Kal afieauv Kal yvcopi/JLODrepcav Kal irporepwv Kal airioou rov
fx))
&iripov a^iovffLV
76
5ei|ec6s
(pafflv elvai
8e
etTTi
yu.^
/xi]
avdyecrdai,
ovcn]s
aiiruv,
oirep
rh iiriaTaffOai ix6vov
ra irpwra
elBfuai, ovSe
el
ra
He admits
that
what is deduced would not be
known if the principles (apxal)
are not known, and that if mee/cetya
'
all
iariu.
yiyvdoffKeiv, rivcov
Set
0jTe7v air6-
(Txmfiepdffiiaros.
dj/airoSei/cTcoj/,
elvai
KwXveiv
'
yiveffOai
airS^ei^iv
euSexecrdat
r^v
yap
air68ei^iv
11.
ovhev
KVKXcf}
Koi
i^
25 sqq.
to
irptarwv
e/c
8'
otherwise
SeiKTot
know
if
avatr6-
we
eiTiffraaBai
uu
eari
airdSei^is
fx^
rh
ex^iv dTrJrjixeXs
5et|fi/ ear IV. C. 3, 72, b, 18
Se <pap.ev ovre iraaav eiriar^ix-qv
Karb.
(rvfifie^-qKhs,
airoSeiKriK^v elvai,
afxeawv avairSdeiKrov.
eiriffr-t^fx-ns
aXXa
Kal
ov
Kal
apxhv
^ rovs
e-KKXr^ix-qv
fidvov
Upovs yvwpiQifxev.
Cf supra,ip. 197,
.
n. 6,
trdvruiv
airoSei^ews, dpx"^
'Apx"^ "PX"^
C.
10
init. (A.e7cw
8'
a,
7,^ 14,
apxas ev
eKda-rcp
on
eari
[x^
ev-
ARISTOTLE
248
them.^
of im'mediate
the A^os
the
pure reason
he maintains that
case
it
B,
^just
never deceives
it
in
it
that in every
itself,
it not^
Yet
it
from which
it
The
prove^.
knowledge,
is
first
for
it
of these
is
is
it
is
axioms are
the
common
to
different
fields
of
contains an
affirmation as to the existence or
non-existence of an object, it is
a virSdeffis if otherwise, a dpicrfiSs.
&eais is used in a broader meaning in Anal. Pr. ii. 17, 05, b, 13,
sqq.
Again,
if
64(ns
a.
a, 5, 12.
from
AlT7)ixa is
virddea-is
in
23 sqq.
Aoial. Post.
distinguished
Anal. Post. i.
10, 76, b,
cf. p.
Vide
2,
i.
247, n.
72, a, 25
1.
supra,
p.
197
sqq.,
Anal. Post.
7 (as cited
supra, p. 245, n. S),andibid. ch. 10,
76, b, 10 TTciffa yap airoBeiKriK^ iiri(rT-fifir] Trepl rpia iarlu, '6<ra re ehai
riderai (ravToi S' ecrri rh yevos ov
i.
Tuv
prjTiK^),
Koi
Ttt
Aeyofieva
Koivb,
LOGIC
249
They are
relate.''
a^tci/xaTa e|
wv
Koi 4^
rpia ravTU
rivuv
2,
997, a,
In
t)]v airdSei^iy.
Anal. Post.
viroKi[X^vov
another order.
32
Uv dcpcKri
ras
init.
'6
fieyedos.
'iSiat,
olov
apidfihs,
airo-
&udiravTesSeiKvvovaivwillheiound
in the passages cited at p. 247, n. 2.
2 Vid. S2i2)r. p. 245, n. 3
Gen.
An. li. 8, 748, a, 7 ovtos fxev ovv d
Xoyos KaOoXov xiav Kal Kevus. oi
yap fi^ eK roSv olKeicoi/ apxS>u x6yoi
Ket/ol, aXXii. BoKovaiv ehai ruu irpayixdroiv OVK ovres.
Cf. p. 174, n. 2,
;
supra.
'
Anal, Post.
ras
i.
9,
76, a, 16
avKKoapxas rds
roov
fxev
i/jLireipias
Sovvai. Aeyco
S'
i(TTl
irapa-
eViCTirj/xTjs.
irepl
eKaffrou
yiKris
auras opxas
5e
[^apx^l
5ih
yicr/xaiv].
irepl
on tcra ra Komd.
irMtaTai
/xhu
Kal irepl
ai
Sh Kaff
yi,K)]V
S'
effTi
Anal. Pr.
X^iat
Se oTov rb Xcra
ovk
ra 5e Koivd
ypafifj.}jv ehai roiavSl
,
Se (payephu
et
'6ri
i.
e/cacrrrjs iirKTT-fjfnjs
ecrovrai
tj
l,cit. sujyr. p.
245,n.3,andi^i^. c. 10, 76, a, 37:
effrt 5' wv xP^^'Tot eV Ta7s airoSeiKTiKOLs iiriffT-fjibLais ra jxkv X^ia
atrh Xffoiv
ras kKaa-rov
iii,
e/c
irddv, d^Kafiara in
*
Metaph.
he gives yhos
ch. 6
rovro,
avdyKT] yhp
irepi Tc Kal
'6
u>u.
of
irpcarcav airodeiKwa-i,
How
experience.^
i/xireipiav
Kara
odov,
virapxovarrjs
eKawrov
r^v
fj-eO-
pecrecis
icrriv
irepl
[is
an
abstract
ARISTOTLE
250
He
try to analyse.
us merely judgments
he
upon given
immediate
calls
materials,
among what
im-
It is therefore
certainties.^
we
are indebted
To enumerate the
various sciences
is
science], rwv
S' ai
apxcd e|
iixirei-
pias.
1
b,
iii. 5, 1112,
practical reflection
It is said in Bt/i.
153,
that
(fiovXevais) is
concerned with to
et
apros tovto
aicrflrjo-ews
ws Set
yap ravra. Ibid. vi. 9, lli2, a,
23 sqq., Aristotle explains that,
contradiction to eiricrTijfjL'n,
in
Ka9' Ka(Tra,
-/)
olov
TreVeTrTai
(pp6uT)arLS
is,
like
uovs,
an im-
'
eVxctTOu,
OVK
01)
effTiv
iin(Tri]ixT\
[the
sensible properties of things]
dAA' o'la al(T6av6fida, on rb iu toTs
fxaOr^fioTiKols ecrxaTOv rpiyauov (i.e.
the last thing obtained in analysing a figure is a triangle). Here,
therefore, the judgment ' This is
explained as a
is
a triangle
matter of a1(TQT]ais (and so also in
Anal. Post. i. 1, 71, a, 20) and
the minor premisses of practical
syllogisms, such as * This deed is
just,' 'This is useful,' &c., are redAA.' a((rQ7}<ns,
'
ovx V
Even
''wf i^icou
is
not to be found
although (as
is
Now,
indicated in c. 9
here to be taken
Jin.) a(<rd-nais is
as in Polit. i. 2, 1253, a, 17, in
'
'
ciples.'
2
xii.
For proof of
infra.
this,
see ch.
LOGIC
He
in Aristotle.
251
all
unconditional,^ so that
it
Law
this principle,
of
cannot, that
to say, be
is
the highest
it is
no demonstration
admits of
it
all,
one
error.
No
of Contradiction.'^
it
ing
He has, however,
it.^
Metaph.
'
^ffiaioTdrr} 5'
Siaipevffdrjvai
rrjv
iv.
aZvvaTov
yctp
irdvTes^
^u yap avayKalov
^vvteuTa
'
Tuv
Tvepl
^v
yvcopLixwrd-
avaryKolov elvai
1005, b,
3,
apx^ iraauv
carefully
rh)v
fj.^
yvwp'iQovffiv
ical
avvrrddeTOv.
ovtwv,
tovto
ovx
uTrdOeffis.
2 Line 19 (xi. 5 mit.)
rh yap
avrh ufia virapx^iv re Kol fxij virdpX^iv a^vvarov r^ aur^ Koi Kara rh
avr6 Kal Hffa SAAo TrpoffStopicraifxed^
:
'
tiv,
Kas Svffx^p^tas.
\oyi-
ivavria 5'
5d|a S6^ri 7} rrjs apTKpda^ws,
fpavephv '6ti aSvvaTOv d/xa viroXafifidviiv rhv avrhv elpai Kal /xij eivai rh
avrd
afxa yap ttv e^o: rds ivavrias
5d|as d 5tei)/ua'/AeVos Trepl roirov.
irpordcr^i
ra
elcoddra'),
iffrl
'
vai Kal
on
Se'xeTai
djx(^(t),
r^
auTcfJ
^ ddrepov
jxkv
dW'
irij
fj
irij
Odrepov 5e
fiefiaioTdrr] tcou
airXcos.
that
3 In
this sense Aristotle in
Metajjh. iv. 4 sq. confutes the
'
'
'
'
ARISTOTLE
252
sophistical
misuse of
it
to
of
different properties in
By
blished the
Law
down
of Contradiction, he lays
that of
an incontestable Axiom.
tlie
But he does not expressly deduce the one from the
Excluded Middle
as
other.
Though
The
verification.
undemonstrahle
starting-point of
it is
all
demonstration
is
tion
is
i7iit., c.
presupposed.
6 (of.
c.
4,
'
'
arguments
coinciding broadly
with the Platonic Thecctetus he
every
(paivS/uLeTov
must be a nvl
(paivofjLeuov,
make
'
x^"^"'
dictum
the
everything a
would
Trp6s ri.
ovliv
cf p. 230, supra.
.
LOGIC
253
Induction.^
and
all
demonstration
scientific
goes induction.^
And by
knowledge comes
to be.
'
Cf with what follows the
references on p. 242, n. 6 supra.
The name * iirayta-yh] refers either
to the adduciTig of particular
instances, from which a universal
proposition or concept is abstracted(TRENDELENBUEG,JE'^<^?;^.
Log. Arist. 84 Heyder, Vergl.
d. arist. und hegel. Dialehtik,
p. 212 sq.), or to the introduction
to these instances of the person
to be instructed (Waitz, Arist.
Org. a. 300). In favour of the
latter explanation there are certain passages, in which ' iirdyeiv
has as its object the person
knowing as 2'op. viii. 1, 156,
a, 4
iirdyovra ficv airh ruv KadcKaaroy iirl ra KaOSXov, but especially A?ial. Post. i. 1, 71, a, 19
OTi fiev yap irav rpiywvov e^et Sutrti/
opQats "iffas, vpopSei, '6ti 5e rdSe
rpiywvSv iffriv, a/na iirayofxevos
irplv 8' 'iraxdwa^ ^
iyvcipiffev
.
.
'
'
AajSeTv
Tiva
(TvA\oyi(Tixhv,
tffcos
c. 18,
rpdirov
fidp
81, b, 5
in the latter
its
exoj/ras aiffdrjanv
y^iUy
'
Eth. N. i.
Zellee, Ph.
1095, a, 30
i. 491,
2 and see p. 205, n. 2 supra.
^ Besides Induction, Heyder
( Vergl. d. arist. und hegel. Dial.
232 sq.) finds in Aristotle (Phys.
i. 1, 184, a, 21
sqq.) indications
of another process, by which we
should proceed from the universal
of sensible perception to the concept, as the more particular and
definite
just as in induction we
go from the particular in perception to the universal of the conBut he himself rightly
cept.
observes that this is only an
induction reversed (though this
case is not usually made very
-
cf.
2,
d. Gr. pt.
ARISTOTLE
254
We
undemonstrable element of thought need not necessarily be abstracted from experience, but that Aristotle
rather regards the universal axioms as apprehended by
the
But
sees
activity
this
of reason
as he
gradually
only
is
'
yLa/iiov
35
?)
Si'
eTraycoyris.
Ibid, at line
Eth.i.
S'
al fxkv
'
7]
fxhv
yap
(TvAXoyLajLLCf.
apxv icTi
t]
Kal
auWoyL(r/j.us
Si'
e'/c
671-070)7775,
/xeu
Sr?
r]
Se
eiraywyr)
rod KaQoXov,
tu>u KaQoKov.
Se
eiVii'
d7ro5et|ei.
fj
jxkv a7roSei|is
e/c
IMd.
iiraycoyrjs.
S^
Sf;Aov
iirayayfi
i.
12:
OTt
XoyKTfjLos
indav(i)Tf:pou
Kara
Kal
rh
rrju
To7<i
/jlt]
[e?5os
{xey
ecTTi 5'
Kal
7)
Top.
X6ywv
Se
to,
tj
airh
KaQoKov
p.\v iiraybiyr)
aacpearepov
aXffQiqffiv
rh Se ci^A-
itrayccyr]
inl
Si'
irpccra
TO.
e'7ra7w777,
.
S'
19, 100, b, 3
7}ixLV
KadeKaffTou
(podos
ii.
tj
t]
dSui/a-
yvupi^nv avayKalov.
etTTi Se
SiaAe/fTiKwj']
tS}v
5'
cctti
rcbv KaBoXov,
Kal
yvoopiixwrepov
Aoyiff/jhs
Tovs
Hid.
a,
35
'^
See
p.
S7c2)ra.
3 See also
the citation infra
(in note 1 on p. 256) from To^f.
i.
2.
LOOIC
255
as
a mutual relation of
minor premiss.
It
and the middle of the syllogism have the same extenIn other words, no cogent induction is possible,
unless a predicate can be shown to be common to all the
sion.
it is
to be predicated.
To meet
certain.
this difficulty,
it
was requisite
to
to find
for the
im-
instance.
the Topics.
The value of
nor that
dialectic consists,
an intellectual
it is
teaches argumentation as a
it
it
P. 242, n. 6.
Cf. Anal. Pr.
(UeV^
it is
inasmuch
.,
rh bk
fin.
ovK e|
delKvvffiv.
:
Even
if
knew
24
ii.
Ihid. c. 23,
Set Se voiiv rh T [the
68, b, 27
lowest concept in the inductive
syllogism] t^ e| airavrcov rcou
yap
rj
KaB^Kaarov (rvyKeiiJ.evov
airdvrojv
T^
in
says,
discipline,
fine art
as
down
he
we supposed we
'
AUISTOTLE
266
It
is
ciples
nothing
left for
probability.^
What
all
the world, or
the
least
believes, is
presumption that
carries with it a
it
rests
since
upon a
it,
it
real
experience.^
Tojy.
'
i.
a0'
Koyov
avKAoyi^ecrdai.
syllogism iTnxeipr)iJ.a.
Thurot,
sur Ao'lst. 201 sqq., compares the dili'erent statements of
Aristotle on the office and use of
Dialectics; but he has laid rather
too much stress upon the partial
inaccuracy of Aristotle's language. Cf. on the Tojncs also p.
<)8, n. 1, supra.
tov irpoTeQevTOs
iravrhs
e|
fiKr\ixaTos
p-ev
fxeOodov
bvi/r](T6fji.eda
7]s
Ttepl
npoQ^ais
evpuv,
'H
TTpayfJ-anias,
rr\s
vTvepauTiov.
ipovfxeu
jX'qQ'kv
SiaAeKTLKhs
^oimevos
'/)
^)
to7s (ro(pois,
TOLS
eudo^oLS.
t)
Ibid.
[XP''7(T'i/ios
yv/Jij/ aalai',
i.
irpayfxaTela],
y]
irphs
irphs
yLuofxeurjs
iin(Tri]jxas,
dwd/xevoi
'dri
irphs
ajx(p6repaZiaTTopTi<raipaov ev kKacrrois
Koicrrrjv
fxev
6/c
tV
iir Lffr'}]yL7]v
ap^ci^v.
irporeQela-av
nL(rr-r]fJiriv
apx(*>v
avrcov SieAdelu.
/xaXiara
iariv
ras
rovro
5'
ifStoj/
c^eraariKT]
airaauiy
Tf
yap oZaa
fj-eddSuu
J'Jtudes
rpia
TCLS
.
ev5o^a Se ra doKovvra
rols irAeiaTOis
Ka\ rovTOis
8e
avWoyi-
avWoyicriJLos 6 e 4uS6^ccv
KacTLV
avroX
koL
6v5o|a)j/,
virexovres
irpo-
irphs
apxo.s
ovre
pdSiov
ovre
Karacppovriaai
rh /nhu yap
iroWovs viroXa/xfidveiy
e'xeij/ ri (Trj/jLeiwSes rh ivvirvia irapfX^rai iriariv us e^ efiireipias Aey6/xvov, &c.
Bth. i. 8 init. vi. 12,
1143, b, 11; Bhet. i. 1, 1355, a, 15
(cf.the beginning of ch. xiv. infra).
For the same reason, Mh. vii. 14,
1153, b, 27 appeals to Hesiod
("E, K. T)fx. 763)
(pv/JLT] S' oij ri ye
irdjxirav air6\\vrai,
^v riva Xaol
iroWol
and Synes. Calv. Enc.
c. 22 (^Ar. Fr. No. 2) quotes as
irdvras
ireiarOTJuai.
i)
Aristotelian
iraXaias
elcri
'6ri
[sc. at irapoifxiaC]
(piXocrocpias
ev
rats
iyKaraXeififxara irepiffwOevra
LOGIC
267
and the
by combining the
its deficiencies
different points
of
and,
of
finally,
raising
by
difficulties
this
testing
process and obtaining a ground for a scientific exposition from their solution.^
way
These
dialectical
elucida-
gate result.
hik ffvvrofxiav
Polit.
5,
ii.
With
(on the
n. 1
'
To7s
Ilapot/xtat).
Metaph.
iii.
Sio-TTopTjo-at
airopovfxfvuv
iffrl,
ayvoovvTas rhu
JV. vii.
rwv
I.
twv
\veip
Seff/xSv,
t)
yhp
TrpArepov
ovk tffTiv
&c. Eth.
5'
S\ Soavcp iir\
TiOfPTtts tA <paiv6fjt.eva
fin.
&\\(i>v,
VOL.
effrt Se
Ka\S)s-
Sc\
led
on into the
vvvai
irepl
ix6.Ki.ffTa jxkv
ravra ra
irdvra
irddr],
el
evSo^a
ret
Se
fi^,
rcb
ihv yhp
\in)Tai re ra dvffx^pv koI KaraXeiinirai to. evSo^a, dedeiyfievov Uv elTj
irKitffra
koX
Kvpidorara'
iKavws.
Cf. De Coelo, i. 10 init.
Anal. Post. ii. 3 init., and WaitZ
on this passage also Phyg. iv. 10
;
Unit.:
fiovKofievois rrpoijp-
cviroprjffai
yov rh
is
init.,
'
'
ARISTOTLE
258
which brings us
to philosophic knowledge.^
It is true that neither this theory nor the actual
ments of modern
science.
Whether we consider
mena
themselves,
we must admit
it
Of
consists in
that
it
shows serious
the
all
instances
and in considering the principle on which the inductive method rests, the main point is to inquire how
we are justified in concluding from all the cases hiown
us
to us,
a law for
blamed
none
But
it
Aristotle's position
The
not complete.
Metaph.
lo-Tt 5e
&v f]
iv.
2,
v 5ia\eKriKh
1004, b, 25
ireipaffTiK^ irepl
<pi\oa-o<pla yvoxTTiK-fj.
we have
p. 255.
and
LOGIC
already indicated, has tried to
invention of the
dialectical
'
259
fill
But
throughout.
it
facts, if
only for
on
which guesses, inferences and fancies
have, or at least may have, become mixed up with
Even where Aristotle is dealing
actual experience.
with actual observation, he falls, in many respects, far
short of the standard which we are accustomed to set
views, that
in
is,
As
the conditions of a
to
controlling
or
others,
As he
tive
we have
is
own
observations
his
in
all
perception,^
so
it
It
is
true
is,
on
that he
this side of
it,
much
to
an extraordinary
because it
uncertain which animal
sible, partly
is
is
often
meant
now be
by
this
verified
or
^)
have been
that name,
partly
known
to us.
s
ARISTOTLE
260
Most of
found to be correct.
of course, are
these,
many
His
altoo-ether neglect.^
Part.
33 sqq. (cf.
Lewes, AHst. 394), that he had
made experiments on the development of the embryo in the egg,
since he there remarks that we
often find in eggs, even on the
third day, the heart and the
'
An.
iii.
liver as
4,
665,
a,
isolated points.
So in
iii.
1,
425, a,
All the
more odd is
it
that Lewes
d.
Arist.
590, a,
a,
p.
22)
H. An.
30 {Gen. An.
iii.
1,
2, 560,
752, a, 4) ;
vi.
2, 413, b, 16; Be
H. An.
471, a, 31
vi. 37, 580, b, sqq. (if this was
really an experiment, and not
rather a chance observation).
Then again there are others in-
Be An.
Respir.
ii.
iii.
troduced with a
An.
later
iv,
Xiyovffiv,
Gen.
765, a, 21 (which is
1,
on disputed by himself),
and
name).
Some
ments are
science in
their value.
general,
re
LOGIC
261
To
that he
is
careful to correct
attention to
authorities,^
he
and
is
many
some of
untrustworthiness of
Where he
myths.''
tion,
the
his
accepted
lacks adequate
might be a tendency to close an inquiry too precipitately, he gives us warning that we should first weigh
all
we
before
decide.^
ledge of
all
may
to us
EUCKEN
for the
know-
4t/rTvx'fjKaiJ.ev.
hand, in
29,
jra<rt
Tjdcs, /x^
TTphs
'
(popds.
''
Th
(pi\o(ro(j>ias
supra, p. 169, n. 8.
Si^yv:
vide
ARISTOTLE
262
but also an observer of care and common sense. Nevertheless, we find that glaringly incorrect statements are
not rare in Aristotle, and occur sometimes in cases
where, even with the simple methods to which he was
limited, the correction
And
still
In his
basis.
and by basing them
on various popular assumptions he leaves them without
any sure foundation. He shows himself but little
has
itself
no adequate
inductions he
Cf.
is
experiential
EucKEN,
loc.
clt.
155
491, b, 2)
that
man
35).
hand
is
'
'
stotle distinguishes, in
20, 479,
b,
17,
the
De Respir.
(T<pvyixhs
or
Man.
LOGIC
skilled in the art of analysing the
263
phenomena methodi-
to its causes
its action,
and of unravel-
He
mastered
even
has not
the best
technical skill of Greece was possible to him
methods of establishing and analysing facts, of checking observations and theories, or of applying experi-
ment
He
to science.
expected to attain.
rather would
it
There
is
be strange
is
were otherwise.
we
note in his
human thought.
titude, correlation
we
scientific
collected
laws of
and
and
it
was necessary in
all
ranges of
be
ARISTOTLE
264
should really
them.
stated
was not
received,
appraised.
Many
of the
latter critically
which we find
absurd, were probably taken by Aristotle from others
in all good faith, and were not doubted by him, merely
because the knowledge of nature which he possessed
gave him no reason to think them impossible. When
we
are surprised
often
assertions
built hypotheses
obvious to us at
falsity is
how
think
tools
ment.
must have hindered every sort of helpful experiTo fix time without a watch, to compare degrees
meter these and the like were the tasks which the
natural philosophers of Greece had to set themselves.
Where
is
difficulties that
for
The
the world in
LOGIC
265
to
appreciated
we
if
try to judge
To enter
an application of them to a
place to
But
the
point of
field
Topics.'^
all
As
scientific
research, so
which
strives.
is
Definition
Knowledge
is
is
the starting
cept
Definition,
it
is
'
'
We
In the
first
Heyder, Vergl
d. arist. u. hegel.
BialeUih,
247
Kampe,
195 sqq.
Kassow,
p. 173, n. 2.
sqq.,
and
Erkenntnissth. d. Arist.
De
p.
and
AUlSTOTtn
266
is
be de-
all
affirmative,
and
is
admits
of demonstration,
may
as
be
definitions.^
Indeed,
once
seen at
must
demonstrations
start
from
seems to be
it
'
that^'
Here, however,
is.^
is,
The one
itself.
'
what
we must
we must draw
'
first
and
know
a distinction.
it
>
Anal
Post.
also.
ii. 3.
ovk
8t:
?)
fl
lo-rtv.
Anal. Post,
sqq.
*
ibicl.
cf c. 7, 92, b, 12.
^bid. c. 7. 92, b, 4.
.
90,
b,
28
LOGIC
267
the one
be
as we have described,
definition,
Therefore
it
follows that,
real definition,
we endeavoured
* everything
that is itself
the cause of life is a self-moving
number; the soul is itself the
cause of life, &c,* this would be
'
ism
4,
1030, a, 14.
way we
insufficient, for
in this
241, n. 3.
of the philoso-
F/<^. sw^^r, p.
Which one
know
not
also
ARISTOTLE
268
but always to a
'
that.'
never brings us to a
But although
what/
definition can
neither be obtained
possible to reach
experience in the
it
When
first
instance
and we
which links them to their subject, we are so establishing by demonstration the essence of the thing
if
we continue
and
Although
we
it.
may be
us to find
it,''
and in
may be
said
to
essence.^
This process
is
Loc. cit.
c. 7,
92, a, 37
Indue-
is not dependent on
and the conception of
UrieffTivfjovK e(rriv,nottheTiia'Ti.
&.pa
fibs
tion
'
fill
13.
*
Anal. Post.
Koyifffihs fikv
ii.
rov ri
8 Jin.
ffv\-
itrriv ov ylverai
oirr^ &t/ev
ti
4<ttiv
airo^ei^eus
ov
ianv
eTs
rh
&(rT^
'
ten yvwvai
fxhv
earriv
\6yos rod rl
icmv
airoSel^ews
(rvfjiVfpaffiJ.a
the
LOGIC
269
From
tions of Definition
we
method by which in
to the
practice
is
it
an object
arrived at.
can only be
its
causes, Defi-
who
scholars
dates the
[follows
i
Altai. Post.
'
ovK
rl
fifv
'4rp6v
specific
ra
flffiv,
tt,
jxiv
C.
ii.
Sri
Afieffa
rwv 5'
Koi twv
Koi
apxal
Cf.
iroiriffai.
Metaph.
35: SrjXov 5' 67rl
iffriv avairodeiKTos.
6,1048,
a,
kaOiKaffra
Kiydv,
^TjTeTi/,
ffvvopav;
rfj
Kal
ix.
rS>v
iiraywy^ h fiovXSfieOa
ov
dAAo
Se7
Ka\
and above,
Travrhs
rh
p.
'6pov
avdXoyov
253.
for the
differences:
fffn 8e
aXriov,
elucir
ruv
It
To
yL6vov rh
fivai
genus
is
rl
irphs
aWcL
'.
is
than
'
itself.
Top.vi.4:;ct^.205,n.2supra.
ARISTOTLE
270
prior
contents,
its
Inversely
off.^
we
obtain
same
the
and
tlie
for
if
mining
characteristics
the
differentiae,
for
these
simply the
are
scientific
But
these,
turn,
in their
are
an order of supe-
riority
and
inferiority.
order
the
finition.3
definition,
in
not
implies
fact,
mere
but also
the
enumeration
of
completeness''
Bearing this
Loc.cit.\^].,h,2^;cLsvpra,
p. 215, n. 1, 216, n. 1.
irpSrcpa
Kal
yvcapiixdrnpa,
gives
and
Sta^opot.
s
Anal. Post. ii. 13, 96, b, 30;
cf 97, a, 23 sqq.
* Tci
eV Tcj} rl ecrri KarriyopIt
ov/xeva, at rov y4vovs Sia<popai.
.
is
vi.
on
ii.
p.
Anal. Post.
ii.
13. 97, a,
23
LOGIC
progressive division
is
271
is
equally
And
accept
it
for,^
Summa
down
Genera through
to
the lowest
deduction must
added
cause
all
the intermediate
And
species.
since
members
scientific
introduction
creates
new
of a
upward scale
and every
cause,
a corresponding differentia,
must exactly
it
corre-
Post.
25;
ii.
96, b, 15-97, b,
13,
Toj).\i. 5, 6; Part. Anim.
2,
Ph.
3.
d.
Aristotle
See Zell.
ARISTOTLE
272
no more
sqq., &c.
b, 8
An.
i.
1096,
iii. 1,
5, *410, a,
a, 19,
xi.
1065,
9,
200, b, 34
13
Uth. N.
23 sqq,
cf.
i.
De
4,
TRENDE-
'
X. 2, 1053, b, 21
xi.
1059, b,
1,
1070, b. 7 Eth. N.
ibid. Anal. Post. ii. 7, 92, b, 14
Top. iv. 1, 121, a, 16, c. 6, 127,
27
sq.
xii. 4,
cf.
is
LER on Metaph.
a,
on
iii.
(more
It
identity,
such
as
arithmetical
iV.
v.
7,
LOGIC
why
all
273
one,
among
the sciences
principles
first
expect
it
the
we
*
peculiar sort of
If
it.^
which
find one
be true that
it
First Philosophy
a science of
is
'
we must not
principle of being.
On
we should
we
the contrary,
inquire into
any single
shall find it
that
is
own
all
be considered,
or,
This
is
it is
PH.
and Bhet.
6 fin.
cannot
i.
That which
be deduced from any
iii.
other thing (the highest prinmust be explained by analogy, as, for example, the concepts
of Matter, of Form, &c. cf Meciples),
'
VOL.
I.
Tpa
/xirj0'
iii.
icrrlv
4iri(TT'fifji.r]
eVepot
2,
yivos
T7JS
8'
e/c
fiij'j^
997, a, 21
TO,
6/c
-K^pl
oZv rd avr6
avfifiefirfKSTa
avTTis [eTTio-T^jwr/s]
ere'/jay,
rwu avr&v
rwv ereptav. Metaph.
at apxal
'6ff(ou
avTwv
Kad'
eVri
8o^a>v.
avrk
QeuIbid.
Toaavra
fi^pr}
(f)i\o<ro<plas
ocranrep at oixriai
vdvs y4vr\
^x^^''''^
"^^
e<rrlv
vndpx^i y^p
^v Kal rd 6u
TovTois.
this
infra.
AUISTOTLE
274
CHAPTER YI
INTRODUCTORY INQUIRIES TOUCHING ARISTOTLE's
METAPHYSICS
1
All
The Categories
stotle,
fall,
according to Ari-
When,
mean
to
him merely
the
Categories
neither
which
would be utterly foreign to his Realism, nor are they
merely concerned with logical relations. What they exTrendelenburg, Gesch.
Katcgoriecnlehre {Hist. Beitr.
i. 1846),
pp. 1-195, 209-217;
BONITZ on Aristotle's Catego'
d.
H.
(first
published in the SitzvngsheHclit der Wiener Akad., Hist.pMlol. ATZ. 1853, B. X. 591 sqq.);
PrANTL, Gesch. d. Log. i. 182
SCHUPPE, Die
sqq.,
90 sq.
arist. Kategorieen. (^Gymn. progr,
;
essay
Vo7i
C.
init.
ruv
Kara
ix-ql^jxiav
/)
irov
^x^iv v) ttoi^Iv
9 i/iit.
fxcTa
:
v)
i)
irorh
-fj
/ceTo-^ot
irdcrx^iv.
to'ivvv
To^).
^
i.
ravra Se?
twv KaTTjyopiwv,
virapxava-iu at ^7]de7(rai Trrapes [opos, yhos, Uiov, av/j-fiefinSiopia-aadaiTayfj/r]
iv
oh
irov,
irore,
Keladai,
ex^iu,
iroie7y,
iraax^iv.
^ Aristotle
uses various expressions to designate them (cf.
Trendelenburg, loc. cit. at p.
6 sqq., and BONITZ, ^vt stipra^ at
p. 23 sqq., and in the Ind. AHst.
METAPHYSICS
press
all
is
276
Not
sions of categories
may be treated.
378, a, 5 sqq.).
rh.
(^scilicet,
7ej/r7
De An.
He
tov
calls them
ovtos, cf.
Metaph.
1,
vii.
1034, b, 9)
BONITZ
or
(ttjs kottj-
(with
whom
LUTHE,
'
'
The same
can be spoken of.'
is conveyed also by the
meaning
modes
of assertion,' or Karriyopiai
rov 6vros (Pht/s. iii. 1, 200, b, 28
Metajih. iv. 28, 1024, b, 13, ix. 1,
1045, b, 28, xiv. 6, 1 093, b, 19, &c.);
the latter phrase implying that
every such assertion is concerned
with being. The meaning of
predicate,' which Karn]yopia often
has in other places, and which
;
'
avfi-irXoK^v
KeySfxeua,
among the
&\\a
8e
Karriyopenai aVrrj
Trjs ovorias
TTJS
ii\rjs).
For instance, in
the
may take on
in a 2Jf"oposition, it by no means
follows that such an idea, when
regarded out of this special relation and with reference solely
to the content of the idea itself,
is to be regarded as signifying
anything dependent, or in the nature of a property or avfjifiifiriKSs.
Strumpell is mistaken in
saying (Gesch. d tlieor. Phil. h. d.
GriecJien, p. 211) that the categories treat of the various ways of
predicating or the distinctions to
be drawn in the ways of combining
concepts, though in other respects
he correctly apprehends the
merely formal character of the
a substance-concept
categories.
^
Mttaph.
V.
7,
1017,
a,
T 2
22
AniSTOTLE
276
and
to have a different
meaning according
to the rela-
tion in
ffrj/xaiuei
tity,
'
KaTO,
ovTusv,
'
'
'
'
'
m^
METAPHYSICS
any
and
object
physical or
its
ethical
properties.*;
and the
the
Form and
such as
Possible, of
The
which it is predicated,
no new mark and Aristotle concludes from this, '6ri ravTha-Tjiiiaivei
object, of
ircos
kvL
2,
\6ycf)
dr}\oi>iJ.va (3Ieta.j)7i.
1003, b,
iv.
22),
vii.
b,
5,
3,
1030,
16).
Metaph.
1061,
Upon
a,
15
sq., cf.
b,
Unity,'
cf.
also
(where in paris
of measure
X. 1 sqq.
ticular * unity
treated of), and the references at
and see also
p. 272, n. 2 supra
Heetling, Be Arist. notione
unius, Berl. 1864, As to the hv,
see particularly Brentano, Von
der mannigfachen Bedeutung des
Seienden.
*
For this reason such a concept as Movement (or Change)
is not put among the categories
'
it is
iv. 1,
120, b,
viii. 4,
how
1029,
the cate-
would it be a category if we
were to accept the belief of the
later Peripatetics (which is not
established by Metaph. v. 13,
Simpl. Categ. 78, 5,
1020, a, 26
29 Bas.) that it belonged to
less
'
'
ARISTOTLE
278
purpose of 'categories'
is
They
are
may
In Aristotle's
not real con-
us,
'
'
'
'
METAPHYSICS
Of the completeness
actuality
does
it
if
'
ruv Karrtyopicov
namely, the ten enumerated in
exo/xev Ttt y4v7]
TTOcrhv,
iroiovv,
irdffxov, Sto-
279
how he came
us
tells
to set
SAAt]
ris
ruv
Ibid.
Karffyopicou.
trocrhv
Siaip0ei(Twv
c. 5,
410, a, 14:
TTocrhv
T(^5e
TO(TavTax(t>s XrjirTeov
KaTr\yopiai hn^p'f)vrai.
bffaxSis
at
Metaph.
xii.
1069, a, 20 nrpwrov
rh iroihv, elra rh
TTOffSv;
vi. 2,
1026, a, 36: ra
T7JS Karrjyopias, oTov rh
o'x^fJ'-o-'TO.
jxkv r\, rh Se iroihv, rh 8e iroahv, rh
Se iroS, rh Se ttotc, /col elf ri &XXo
(rr]fxaivi rhv rpSvov rovrov ; vii. 4,
koI yap rh ri iariv
1030, a, 18
eva fiev rp6irov (njiuaivei r^v ovaiav
Kai rh r65e ri, &\\ov Se (Kacrrov
7}
ohcria,
elra
rcov Karr^yopovfievuiv,
Kai '6aa
a,
33
iroahv, iroihv
Likewise in Meta^yJi.
vii. 9,
1034,
some of the
categories,
he refers
at
the rest with a mere
&\\ai Karriyopiai,^ as to something
well known, and in Anal. Post.
i. 22, 83, b, 12, a, 21, the impossi-
to
bility of
argument
an
is
infinitely extended
proved by the asser-
ARISTOTLE
280
is
; ^
so little indication
that
we
of
are
sion
qualitative,
quantitative,
and
local (Phys. v. 1 sq.), inasmuch
as those referred to in
Categ. c. 7 trov and irore are re;
verb, for 7roi6?v and irdo-xeii' translate into a general concept the
force of the active and passive
voices, as K^lffdai renders one side
of the intransitive, and ^x^iv the
special force of the Greek perfect. But, in the first place, as
'
'
such
have
demonstration
seems
to
rrjs
Tttftcos
tcov
'^^vSsv
oiiBefiiau
'
'
'
'
METAPHYSICS
^81
of
We
among them.
Next
Thing.
is
to
It is
be found
the
and,
among the
distinguished the absolute
from the relative and that he
went on to divide the former
into (1) inherences (material =
action
&c.) as by adjectives
and passion as well by substantives (irpa|js, v6lQo^, Sec.) as by
time not only by adverbs
verbs
but also by adjectives (x^iChs,
;
'
'
'
'
form cannot be
found. Beentano, loc. cit. p.
grammatical
'accidents,'
latter,
(iroO
'
'
ARISTOTLE
282
ties:
first
(in the
qualities
From
conditions
sensible
And
of
he ends the
list
existence
Space
and
Time.
strict sense
This
for that,
In
fact,
the same. 2
It
categories
number.
not
is
is
somewhat
the categories
ar-
Aristotle himself so
over
all.^
always
and
of Possession
he passes
Situation,
in
enumeration .3
'^
ovv
^ yap
that in
Cat. c. 7, contrary to the otherwise constant rule, and even to
the order given in c. 4, irp6s
precedes iroi6v.
No satisfactory
reason can be found for this, but
it would be rash to conclude anything from it against the genuineness of the work, since a later
writer would probably be less
is
permit a divergence
from the order given than would
likely
to
Aristotle
himself,
for
whom
it
S>(TTf
Anal. Post.
^ h>
T(j3
i.
22, 83, a, 21
ri i(TTiv [^KarrjyopelraQ
^ iroahv ^ Trp6s
^ Trotiraaxov ^ irov ^ ttotc, Htup tv
kuO^ cvhs Kar-nyoprjOf}. Ibid, b, 15
ray4vr] rSiv KaT-qyopiwv ir^wepavTai'
'6ti
iroibv
t)
fcoibv
^ troahv ^
ttoiovu ^ ttoo-xoj'
ova-ia to
fj
'irp6s ri ^
^ irore (the
latter are op-
ttov
which the
et
r^
irork koI
t^
koI
iroieTv
rpcTs eJvai
t^ Trp6s
^
irdarxeiv,
Kiv-fjffeis (of.
avdyKi)
p. 279, n. 1
325.
d.
Gr.
pt. 1,
METAPHYSICS
283
them by the
seem to Aristotle
natural that he should find a round number of cateBut we cannot well suppose any further congories.
nection between his doctrine and the Pythagorean ^
for a
decirnal
Platonists,^
which made
it
at first
nor
is
the conjecture^
much more
probable, that he
used as occasion
at a full
arises,
enumeration of
Among
p. 12.
3
sqq.
place, there is
of the ten
categories among the Platonists
and it is not likely that information about so notable a point
would neither have been transmitted through their writings nor
*
In the
first
no trace whatever
the
later Peripatetics,
And
to us.
much
the most
is
We
represented
ARISTOTLE
S84
important
is
the
is
a Quantum.^
Quantum
here be
set out in
is
if
is
extensive
(rd^Ls)
without position,
The undivided,
is
mark
has a measure.
(Oeo-is),
if
then
non-extensive.^
is
it
or the unity by
distinguished,
tinguishing
if
a constant Quantum,
it is
the quantity
a quantity
fitly
individual Substance.
parts
may
is
"*
is
of quantity, that
it is
measurable and
As Quantitas belongs
Metaph. v. 13 init.
iroahv
XcyeraiTh diaiperhvels ivvirdpxovTa,
'
to a divisible
'
signifying
as
sense,
numerically distinct
anything
(apiO/j.^ /).
and Kara
(rv/jL^efij]-
Cat. 6 init.
ibid.
Trendelenburg,
is
viii.
17 Jin. the (ttoix^Iov
defined as that ds 6 ^laipelrai
[sc. rX] ivvirdpxov [Acc] ws fj\7)v.
Similarly in viii. 2, 1043, a, 19, cf.
Gen. An. i.21,729,b. 3 wsivirndpXov KoX ixSpiov hv evdvs tov yivofievov
(Ttafxaros fiiyvvfifvov rrj vXr}.
Ibid.
c. 18, 724, a, 24
Ua s 4^ vA-qs
:
ylyveffdai
rivos
....
ibid.
p.
82,
treats
loc. cit.
Cat.
c. 6 init.y ibid. 5, a, 15
Aristotle does not here ex-
sqq.
press
the
opposition
of
that
(of
body
former
line,
of the latter
surface,
time, num-
ber, word).
*
Metaph.
X.
1,
1052, b, 15
METAPHYSICS
285
and substantial whole, so Qaalitas expresses the differences whereby the conceptual whole is divided; for
under Qualitas, in the
stotle
Ari-
As
distinction,
activity.^
quality as
rwv
fall
TrdOr]
be measured by them.
second, aper^j and KUKia. With regard to the Sia<popd see supra, p.
Therefore Quality ex215, n. 1.
presses a determination of form,
for that is true of the 8ia<t>oph
Meta^yh. viii. 2, 1043, a, 19
%oiKe
yap 6 fihv Sid rwv Sia<pop(ov \6yos
Tov eWovs Kal ttjs ivepyelas elroi, 6
sqq.
Further
marks of
iroahv (Cat. c. 6, 5, b,
11 sqq.) are that nothing is opposed to it, and that it is what it
is and neither more nor less, and
that the concept of equality and
inequality belongs peculiarly to
it.
'
(devre-
pai
ova-iai)
i.
T^s
irpctTT? fitv
ovcrlas
5ia<popd
yap
.
iroiSTris
.
to Se
Kivovfi^uuv y
Kivov/xeva
To
5' /c
tcDj/
fuwapx^VTuv
ttjs
v\r}s
fiaWov.
3
TTotoTTjTos
told,
ARISTOTLE
286
He
mark
unlike. 2
But
To the category
of Relativity
is
aSwafilav
fl
Aeyerat (a class which, however,
cannot be strictly distinguished
from the e|ejs and Siadea-as see
Trendelenburg, ibid. 98 sqq.
KaTo, Svva/jLiu (pvcriK^v
Svua/xis
later).
(which
fall
'
tial properties.'
2 Cat. c. 8, n, a, 15;
on the
other hand (ibid. 10, b, 12, 2G),
the eVoj'TJOTTjs and the /xaWov kuI
rjTTou ( = ditf erence of degree') do
not belong to all quantities. The
notion of Similarity, cf Tojj. i. 17
'
15, x. 3,
1054, a, 3, and ijifra, p. 287, n. 2.
' For, on the one hand, the re-
iVetajjh. v. 9, 1018, a,
mark
and in
expresses
(i.e.
KitffQai),
BURG
would
{Cat.
c. 8, 11, a,
delenburg,
5
Thus
^(rrt
rh vpSs
iari
T^
ibid. p. 117.
Cat.
c.
ri ols
7, 8, a, 31
rh elvai ravrdu
where
METAPHYSICS
the least
reality.'
of Relativity
,2
however, he
this,
287
In
is
or
a, 26, c. 8, 146, b, 3.
Metaph.
'
supra
ut
[for
Trpos Tt TTc^yTwr
rb Se
which Alex.
oijT ivepydc^.
Mh.
iV.
i.
1096,
21
Ttapa<pv6j8i
:
toutci ficv yap wv /xia t]
ovffia, Hixoia 8' S>v rj TroicJrrjs fiia, iffa
unity
others.^
Teendelenbukg,
dep/xavriKhv
pressions as fiCTprirhv,
tallies
in Gen. et Corr.
KOTtt
(2)
iradr}riKr]V,
Stoj/orjToV.
ii.
Svvafiiv
like
The
6,
333, a, 29)
TTOtrjTi/cV
the
first
Kal
iiriffT'nThp,
two kinds
1, 200, b, 28.
3fefaph. ibid. 1021, a, 26
In the first two of the cases
is called t<^
adduced the trpds
oTrep eVrli' &Wov Acyeardai avrd h
'
iarlv (double is
that
which
dfpfxavTiKdu).
dnr\daiov,
dep/xavrov
In the third case
rjixiffeos
warms
avrd \4ycadai
it is Tcp &\\o
(what can be measured or thought
-irpbs
has
its
at first (c. 7
elyai
Aeyerot ^ oirwaovv
dWws
irphs
the
Thus in
e'|iJ,
Cat. c. 7, 6, b, 2,
Siddeais,
atadrjffiSy
iiri-
ARISTOTLE
288
The remaining
Aristotle mentions
the cate-
of
us
how
to
Among
division is again
ties,
is
all
that
made between
Of the
qualities,
qualitative
determination
that
to
is
say,
they
form
^
;
o-T^/tTj,
Ti,
7,
8, a,
'
As to
METAPHYSICS
289
that
is
With regard
to activities, the
is
that of
Finally, as
silentio.
Where and
In
the
When.
elSos,
and
irpos
That
is
73, b, 5.
Kol
Ph'i/s.
VOL.
I.
i.
1,
185, a, 31
aWwv xwp'O'Td^'
r^v
irapa
ovffiav
viroKeifjLfvov
rrjs
base.''
Xeyerai
(but what is asserted wa^' viroKeilx4vov is a Gvp.^cfiy}Kbs in the further sense Anal. Post. i. 4, 73,
b, 8
Metaph. v. 30 fin. &c) c.
Ka\ yap Troffhv Kal
7, 190, a, 34
Koihv Ka\ irphs Tpou Kal Trore /cot wov
yivTai vTroKei/jLeuov rivos hia rb
ix6vr)v r}ju ovaiav fjLTjOevbs Kar' &\\ou
\4yadai viroKei/xevov to 5' ^A.A.o
TrdvTa Kara rrjs ovcrias
iii. 4, 203,
b, 32:' Metaph. vii. 1, 1028, a, 13,
Ihid. 1. 32
irdvTMV rj ovffia irpooTOv
:
ception
iart
XP^^V
c. 4,
(cf.
1029, b,
vtmpov yap
[ttjs outrtos]
traaai at
Karrtyopiai.
Gen. ef Corr. i. 3,
317, b, 8. Hence in all the enumerations ovcria goes first.
Cf. also
infra, ch. vii. init.
*U
ARISTOTLE
290
An
Being as such,
must
Actual.
Fird
Tlie
2.
As Science in general has for its task the investigation of the grounds of things,^ so the highest Science
must be that which refers to the last and most universal
For
sense experience.
it
are
principles
universal
since
most
is
because
the
It gives us the
is
knowledge which
to itself, in that
it is
of knowledge.
It gives us that
Vide supra,
may
we
it
serves.^
163 sqq.
especially
p.
is
shown
For
cite
diroiavovv
apx^f^KTwv, al 5e
rcov iroi7iriKa>v fiaWov.
Se
X^ipoTex^ov
Oeccp-qTiKoi
Hence
riva'i
'6ti
jxlv
nZv
aiT'.as
Koi
apxds eariv
(TT'fip.T],
Srj\ov.
t)
cro(pla -rrepi
iiri-
Metapli.
is
airoLVT^v olv
avrrjv
2,
i,
TrlirTsi
jx^vov uvofxa\jTo(pia\-
twv
(982, b, 7)
twv dprm^vwv
iiriffrrj/jLTiv
to
is
summed up
thus
all
end to which
(981, b, 30)
/xTripos tojv
which dominates
establishes that
is
knowledge
all
It gives us that
'
most
removed from
furthest
It
points
it
instruction
this
It gives us the
principles.
all
being com-
else
knowledge which
most
iiri
t)]v
rh (y]Tov-
deTyapravT'nv
dewprjTiK'fjv.
Mh.
sqq.
1026,
TV. vi. 7.
a,
21
Metapli.
t'^v
vi. 1,
Ti^fjirdrTiv
rh rifxidoTarov
[eirio-TT^urj?/]
Set irepl
yivos
rSiv
elvai.
avTT] 5e
METAPHYSICS
set forth
include
291
themselves to
conception of
all
world. 2
This science
'
Metaph.
TOVT(j}
iv.
is
(ttiv
4iri-
Of cope? rd Ou ^ ou Ka.1 to
virapxovTa Kad' aur6. aunj S'
Tiy
^f;
i]
ou,
akKa
Trepl
passim.
See the previous note, and
see also Metaph. vi. i
at apxal
Kal TO a^TlO ^'TJTCtTOt Ta>V OVTWU,
SrjAou 5e
on
f)
oi/ra.
Every science
Ti Kal
iroi-i](ra(Tai
\afiovffai
to
is
proceeds
(TTXfir]
last resort,
that which
a'jTa virdpxovTa
t^ yivei
aTToSetKuvovcriu
^ ayayKaidrepov
fia\aKu>Tepoy.
el i(TTiu
i<TTi
jXT)
irepl o elaiv
d^ioius
?)
5e oil'
Th yevos
irepl h
Keyovffi 5to
Th TTis avT7]s eJvai Siavoias t6 t ti
irpayfiaTevovTai ovSev
So
with Physics and Mathematics, ihe former being concerned with that which is moved
and in which the Form is not
separated from the Matter, the
latter being at the best concerned
with that which is abstracted
from Matter and Movement, but
which does not exist of itself as
immaterial and unmoved (cf. p.
it
is
(pvcnK?is
aXKa
ye
irpoTepas
ovde ixaOrjixaTiKTjs,
The object
a/j.(po7v.
of this science
is
the
x'^'Pi'^rh koI
aKivTjTa
avdyKT} Se irlvTa fxev to.
aXTia a'iSia elvai, fiaK'ffTa Se tovto
ARISTOTLE
202
names Theology/ and its task is to invesand the ultimate grounds thereof,
being
ultimate,
are necessarily also the most
as
which,
universal, and concern, not any part of the actual, but
Aristotle also
the whole.
It is true that the possibility of
such a science
is
we were
if
to a special science,
how
described above
Again,
scope the
its
inasmuch
at
as all sciences
to
all
make
any
to
is
it
definite
is
draw
into
procedure,
of scientific
principles
since in this
it
sciences
special
each r/enus
is
up among the
And, on the
or
science,
it
is
relate.^
is it
to be a single science, or
If there
all classes
more
of the actual ?
them
then
it
is
if there is
a First Philosophy
nothing else besides natural substances, Physics is the first science ; tl 8' l(ni ris ovala aK'vrjTos,
ovra p ui/.
Metajjh.
init.
oTi irpujT-n
'
fccu
ii,v
e^rj
t)
decoprjcrai Koi ri
'bv
ravrrjs
'
all
vid.
mpra.
-
b,
26
Metaph.
Ibid.
;
ct.
iii.
1,
995, b, 4,
c.
c. 1, 995, b, 6, c. 2, 996,
sujjra,ch. \.j?ass7m.
METAPHYSICS
objects of knowledge,
293
Finally
ot
we may
is
The
alternative
first
to say
stances
known by
cannot be
same method
the
of
demonstration as qualities.^
Aristotle
remarking
that not only that which falls under the same conception,
to
or
is
somehow
either that
ties
which
is
named Being.
in question denote
opposites
fall
it is
'
'^
Among
the
For these
science."*
all
25.
the case
lead
all
2,
are
is
Substance,
is itself
All
This, he says,
as regards Being.
diflSculty
ov '^ap fi6vov
aWh
a-vfifiefirjKOTa ra'is
ivavTiov, Sec.
enumerated
in 995,
1003, b, 34 sqq.
1004, a, 1(5 sqq.
The furtl er
Apories of the third book, which
are concerned not only with the
concept of the First Philosophy
but also with its contents, will
be mentioned later on.
b,
20;
cf. iv. 2,
-I
%ii. 4,
^
1040, a, 34 sqq.
this point see
On
p.
221,
supra,.
* Mttapli.
iv. 2
rb Se ov
Keyerai fih iroXKaxus. a\ha irpls
(v Koi /n av riva (ftvaiv (for which
:
later
apxhy) kaI
ARISTOTLE
294
other sciences,
all
As Philosophy
Being.
general
in
has to do
many
Being determinate
general, so
distinguished
is
distinguished
science
from
As
Being
is
with
sections of
in
universal
sciences.
It
It abstracts
ties
others, in order to
itself
it
from
which
all Being.^
The objection that Substance
must needs be treated in other ways than that
appertains to
itself
ovx
... TO,
ivra \iyeTai, to.
on
ovaiau,
d/jLwvviuLccs
o-j(rlo.i
ra
ovaias,
(pOopal
8'
oShs
S'
(Is
7)
(TTepriaeis ^ TrotOTTjres
^ yevur]TiKa ovaias, r) rSsv
irphs T^v ovffiav heyojj.4vuy, ^ tovtuiv
Tivhs aiTO(\>a(r(is
ovaias Sih Kal to
fxT] hv ehai fir] ov (pafj.4v. The consideration of One also belong-s to
this science, for the ev and the ov
are (ilnd. 1003, b, 22) TavThu Ka\
t)
ir)
apxh
X'jyq}
OTI
(pvais
Tw
Kal
aiTiov,
dr}Xovfxva
Kal
TO,
ovTO.
iravTaxov
ovTa.
trpdjTOv
aWa
aKO\ov6e7u,
T]
aAA' ovx ^^
.
^prrjTot Kal
7]
8f/Aoi/
^'''
ovu
dewprjaai
jULias
Kvpiws tov
Kal 4^ ou to,
h \4yovTai. t
Se
iTnaTTifiT]
wairep
St'
ovaia,
twv
oixriwy
h,v
Sioi
Metaj)h. iv.
Mctaph.
2,
1004,
a,
2,
&c.
-7)
iroi7]TiKa
jx'a
25, b, 27 sqq.
oti irddr)
iv. 2,
1004,
a,
9 sqq.
fj
ov
avTo7s.
As the mathematical
and physical properties of things
form a special province, ovrw koI
ovTi p hv ecTTt Tivh "(Sia, Kal
toGt' eVrt nepl wv tov (piKoaoipov
iTriaKf^aadai Ta\r}dis. Ibid. 1005,
a, 8.
This is further illustrated
in xi. 3, 1061, a, 28 sqq.
ToJ
METAPHYSICS
which proceeds by deducing its
296
essential attributes
would
To
ever.
would
much
Being in
In
fact,
its relation to
p.
251.
Methodology
By
Aristotle,
sophy.^
3.
The forerunners of
problems in the
he found
it
way
him a
series of
necessary to obtain a
new
solution.
The
First of
Is there
all,
how
Or is there,
assumed ?
somfthing uncorporeal, as
and above
beside
'
vol..
It is
MetapJt.
1.
that,
iv. 3.
* u 4
ARISTOTLE
296
Are the
2.
is
from matter as a
which
is
and
essential
What
is
is
that
Is
it
there
The first
?
was the common view which hnd latel}^ come out, bluntly
enough, in the Nominalism of Antisthenes the second
was the theory of Plato the third that of Parmenides
and of Eucleides
after him^'V^
3.
two
tosfether in thougrht ?
actual
unity
answered.
two
could
ideas
be
reconciled,
be a delusion,
while
the
knowledge.^
d.
Gr. pt.
1,
METAPHYSICS
297
corresponding
relation
things
in sensible
4.
that
How
of
explained
itself,
as to the theory
is,
?
How can anything
How is movement possible,
come
to be or cease to be ?
or change ?
difficulties
all
Plato himself so
far
was truly
To the
it
all
that
actual.
first
questions
clearly in view.
of the diroplai,
besides
is it
Is the
'
other
'
Are
there
is
of one kind, or
of Plato ?
is
'^
such
Metaph.
iii.
just mentioned,
(xi.
1,
23),
iii. 6, viii,
as,
34 sqq.
1060, b,
2, 997, a,
1059, a, 38,
2.
that the
c. 2,
ABISrOTLE
298
particular things
of sense, passing
and
indistinct as
^
and that
all
however, as
of
we
question
to be
parts
difficulties.
all
manner
sought
the
latter
material
minations."*
be adduced.
we have
to
explain their
we name when
On
character.
the other
And as
in the assignment of genera and species.
between these again there arises immediately the question, whether the highest genera or the lowest species
ought to be treated as the true
'principia.
all
The former
individual existence as
The
latter
would be
its
Metaph.
iv. 5,
b, 8.
2
^
T^
999, b, 3 sqq.
Metaph. iii. 3 Trc^repoi/ Set
Ibid.
iii.
4,
apx^s
uTroAa^u-
b, 21).
"
Metaph.
iii.
v.
998, b, 14 sqq.
Among the
(xi. 1, 1059, b, 34).
varied and often intricate forms
of Aristotle's dialectic, it is only
possible to state here the leading
line of reasoning.
METAPHYSICS
On
299
tlie
it is
the
is
unlimited no knowledge
all
The
lie
case
An
the Ideal
or
contained in the
is
all
latter is
existing independently,
Theory of Plato.^
particular
and since
possible,
is
of universals.
universal
of a
is
further inquiry,
of
at
universals
stantial,
all
must
opposite opinion
Number)
as in
the
proposition
(e.g.
affirm
is
Those who
nature.
different
first
accept
by the
argument that you cannot treat the One as substance
Metaph.
(cf. vii.
ibid.
18
10(50,
iii.
4 init.
c.
6 fn.
xL 2
init.,
In the
first
sq.), xiii. 6,
b,
19.
Mctaph.
iii.
ovv fXT\94v
ovOev au
ian
999, b, 1
4,
irapa
vorjThv
etr]
ra KaO^
et jxkv
e/cacrro,
aWa
iravra
TToo-oii'
Qiwpriffai;
there mentioned.
is
called
llie
oiffQ-nra,
Metaph.
iii.
4, c.
161, 4.
expression for the
5, cf. p.
question
,p'n.),
/
'^
or
rh
(iii.
4,
6,
1008,
e/
a,
Only another
above is the
Tt>
yap
KaO^KaiTTov K^y^iv
et'Set
apid/j-ff
c. 6,
eu
5ia<ppei
1002, b,
ARISTOTLE
300
question whether
bodii3s
themselves as their
substrata,
to be
and cease
to be, as
The
jirincipia
as
it
is this.
seems, be of
accidental.^
except in so far as
^individual
if
it
Individual things,
entities, exists
only potentially.
And
finally,
be whether both
If
not.
it
between them.
Metaph.
ot these
we say Yes,
difference
iii.
4,
1001, a,
If
3
xi
1,
1059, b, 27,
c.
2,
1060,
a, 36.
Metapli.
b, 12 sqq.,
iii.
and on
must
passage.
*
We
As Plato supposed, in
full
METAPHYSICS
301
we have
If they be
how
to explain
it
can be
another the
in
unchangeable,
How,
Being.
which
for
example,
The
arises.^
like dif-
it
is
stated above
those relating to
ception
Metaph.
iii.
4,
1000,
Ibid.
4.
Aristotle
1070, b, 17) that
the linal grounds of things are
only analogically the same for
answers
xii.
{ibid.
<
bers (^Metaph.
viii.
1044,
3,
a,
2,
init.'),
but also in
6 sqq.)
cases:
cf.
b,
12:
itdvTu>v,
Mvtaph.
KofiToi
&c.
many
other
6, 1045,
\6yos iirl
viii.
avrhs
ARISTOTLE
302
cases
same.
does
it
arise out of
If a
The other
of cold).
impossible, because
a definite time
^;imilar case
is
it is
come
alternative
is
equally
to be that
which
it
already
is.^
the
In
all
principles of philosophy.
where
Cf. Phys. i. 2 Jin
Lycophron and others "are blamed
for running into difficulties by
the inference that one must at
the same time be many: lixrirep
1
re Kal
ovK iuSex^fi^vov ravrhv
TToAAa eivai, /utj ravTiKeiiieva 5e
ev Koi 5vvdfii Koi
lo-Ti yap rh
cj/TeAeYeia.
Cf. Phys. i. 6, 189, a, 22, c.
190, b, 30, c. 8 init. iUd. 191,
h 10 sqq., Gen. et Corr. \. 3 init.
ibid. 317, b, 20 sqq. Metajjh. xii.
^^
Y
'
i.
c.
6,
METAPHYSICS
The contributions which
303
his forerunners
had made
He
primarily
philosophies
which made
first
it
and he further
and
final causes.^
The
by him because
moving
the universal
qualities
The same
all
He
is
thinks
the
that
See
De
it
overlooks the
Caelo,
iii. 5,
Metaph.
988, b, 29 sqq.
l/^to^7i. i. 8, 988, b, 26 6^ew.
et Corr. ii. 9, 335, b, 24
* Gen. et Corr. ii. 1, 329, a,
De Coelo, iii. 5, 304, b, 11, cf.
8
8,
i.
i. 3,270, a,
14; Phys. 1.7,
190, a, 13 sqq. iii. 5, 205, a, 4.
' Aristotle, indeed,
generally
ibid.
puts
ARISTOTLE
304
that
we ought not
earthly things
to the universe as a
of
clitus is in conflict
The
to
whole J
with the
Law
of Contradiction/'^
His assumptions as
to
the
by Empe-
elements
in
'
the
Sphere.'
ments
is
being,''
which are
matter
known
to us as
fire,
water,
Metaph.
'
iv.
5,
1010,
15
a,
See Zellee,
600
sq.,
and
483,
Metaph.
Pit.
d.
Gr.
i.
1.
989, a, 22-SO;
329, b, 1, c.
7, 334, a, 18, 26, c. 6 init. ihld.
i. 1, 3 4, b, 10, 3 5, a, 3, c. 8, 325,
b, 16.
In De Cwlo, iii. 7 init he
^
Gen.
et
Corr.
i.
H,
ii.
1,
He
&c.'^
is
remarks
not explained
ments.
^
Gen.
ii.
3,
et Corr.
330, b, 21.
i.
8,
325, b, 19,
METAPHYSICS
305
Atomism.^
of motion
in the
'
Empe-
from
first
since
scope
He
is left,
to a sensationalism which
The
criticisms on the
kind.
Aristotle
plausible basis.
and
positions,
if
we
divisible
cicl
seems to lie
atoms as their ultimate
Dc
Part. An.
Gen.
et
Zellek, Ph.
Corr.
d.
8;
i.
Gr. part
i.
cf.
viii. 1,
6J5,
De
3.
d.
iii.
Gr. pt.
8,
i.
iii.
986,
a, 25.
sqq. (cf.
VOL.
et
Corr.
ii.
6,
333, b, 2
1)
1,
640, a, 19
Phys.
4.
b,
Gen.
i.
252, a,
De An.
i.
5,
409, b, 23-410,
27
'
cf.
ARISTOTLE
306
constituents.^
coming of
as a combination of
Rather does he
again must be
divisible.^
He
which
and
sqq.
in Phys.
3
Gen. et Corr.
c.
2,
iii.
Gen.
17 sqq.
6 sq.
et
Corr.
Phijs. vi. 1
sqq.
2,
317, a,
De
Gen.
c. 9,
et Corr. i.
327, a, 14
;
Ccelo,
iii.
4,
8,
325, b, 34
De
Coelo,
iii.
iUd. c. 7, e. 8, 306,
303, a, 24
shall have more
a, 22 sqq.
to say on this subject later,
" Be C(eIo,m. 4, 303, a, 17 sqq.
29 sqq. b, 4 cf. Phi/s. i. 4 Jitt.
viii. 6, 259, a, 8.
4,
We
;
i.
303, a, 20.
METAPHYSICS
from being necessary
to explain
307
phenomena such
as
the characteristic
teleology of nature,
are.''
his
doctrine
concerning
the
and
soul,^
^
;
his
is
so closely
'
Phjs.
on this
-
Be
7-9,
iv.
cf. c. G.
More
later.
i.
i.
33 sqq.
ii.
300,
8.
b,
28 sqq.
275, b, 29, 277, a,
13, 294, b. 30, iii. 2,
With regard to the
7,
Demo-
De Cado, iv, 2,
influence of Aristotle's attack upon the changes
iii.
Mefaph.
a, 378.
xii. 6,
Aristotle's criticism of
nature by Democritus,
of
very
similar to Plato's criticism in the
Phcedo of that proposed by
Anaxagoras.
^
I)e Catlo,
i.
see
is
Zeller,
ibid. 797, 2.
**
2,
1071, b, 31.
where
as to the
Gr. pt.
^
See Zeller, Ph. d. Gr. pt.
788 sqq., and Gen. An. v. 8 vers.
fin.,
Empe-
a, 8.
Zeller, ii2U
822.
X 2
c,
ARISTOTLE
308
docles that
it
objections.
The
open
is
for the
number
infinite
it is
number would do
mistaken inasmuch as it would
also
so
bodies have a
magnitude,
natural
Since
also.
their
all
constituent
and since
all
in each thing, as
Anaxagoras was
logically obliged to
kinds of matter.^
Further, if primary matter is to be
looked for in the simplest bodies, few of the o^ioiojxepi]
could be considered as primary matter. ^ Anaxagoras
recognises the existence of change in things, but the doctrine of the unchangeability of their constituent parts
is
The continuity of
bodies is negated by the infinite number of their constituents,"^ in spite of Anaxagoras's weak attack upon the
theory of em.pty
is
space.''
Anaxagoras
Empedocles.'"^
The
original
'
Phys.
i.
4,
7 sqq
187, b,
Calo^ iii. 4.
For a furtlier
remark as to tlie infinite in space,
see Plujs. iii. 5, 205, b, 1.
I)e
''
De
Ccelo,
iii.
4, 302, b, 14.
Gen. et Corr. i. 1
Pkys.
20o, a, 19.
Further objections of a similar kind, but not
especially directed against Anaxagoras, will be dealt with in
^
iii. 4,
mingling of
it,
all
was
kinds of
would be unthinkable
De
viii.
^
;
infra.
a, 22.
10,
327, b,
META PHYSICS
but
if it
substitution of
'
matter
it
COO
would lead
to the
'
him and
Aristotle freely
be
to
hand,
it
still
inasmuch
unsatisfactory,
as,
on the one
it
mis-
With regard
first
to the Eleatics
little
point
is
'
different
'
meanings of unity
(e.g.
Melissus).
they talk
its
attribute to
unconditional
and predicate, of
185, a,
tiling),
'
=*
P/n/ft. i.
2,
10,
i.
3 init.,
Phus.
iii.'l,
8,
46.
ARISTOTLE
310
that
thing and quality, so that we cannot even Fay
as
Being
between
Being is without distinguishing
'
'
which
if
latter,
there
we
attribute to
as
it
quality
necessarily be something other than Being, i.e. notThe Eleatics assert the unity of Being and
being.
^
fact
'
Being
only a com-
is
'
'
(e.g.
divisibility of
it
as extended
They deny
all
'
ment
upon
rests
similar
misconceptions,
inasmuch
as
'
Zbller,
''
ibid. p.
Phys.
i.
562
3,
sq.
187,
sq.
a,
3;
cf.
Metaj)h.
Zeller,
ift^rf.
Phys.
i.
iii.
4,
1001, b, 7; cf.
541.
8, cf.
Metaph. xiv
METAPHYSICS
of an infinite
311
number of
actual
How
less.^
we
unless
can
it
is
limitless
and motion-
One,'
is
things,
an absolute
philosophy.
to
it
fine,
What
is
itself
Phys. i.S
init.',
cf.
Zeller,
ihid. 554, 3.
19 sqq.
989, b, 29 sqq.
5 MetajjJi. i. 8, 990, a, 1 2 sqq.
iii. 4, 1001, b, 17, xiii. 8, 1083, b,
8 sqq. xiv. 3, 1090, a, 30; De
^
Phys.
Metajjh.
Cailo,
iii. 1
i.
2, 185, b,
i.
Jin.
8,
size,
was
'
the centre
Zeller,
'^
cf.
all ?
'
Metaph.
xiii. 6,
1080. b, IG,
Zelleb,
ARISTOTLE
312
we
to
deny
and
caj)rice.^
marks with
Aristotle
censure.''
earlier schools of
damental reconsideration.
later schools
is
no account
What
and the
unreal.^
Metaph. i. 8, 990, a, 18
Zeller, ibid. 862, 1), vii.
1036, b, 17
'-'
cf. xiv. 6,
1093,
11.
a, 1, 10.
203, a,
1.
Metajjh.
(cf.
i.
5,
986, a, 6, 987,
a, 19.
'
'
10,
ihid.
ii.
METAPHYSICS
813
to
and
any metaphysical
Of the
basis.^
lesser Socratic
and the
and the Cynics, in regard to their theory of
knowledge and ethics.''
actual,^
to
as
His own
He was com-
him
to
The former in
Aletaph.
iv.
treatise
^
on the
Cf.
Zeller,
fallacies.
1143
Ihat even the Ethics of
Socrates are one-sided, is shown
by Aristotle in Eth. Nic. iii. 7,
Metaph.
c.
vi.
11, 1116, b, 3
13,
1114, b,
3 (cf. Zeller,
ihid. 220, 1).
Aristotle here confutes the Megarian principle, that
the merely possible is actual, by
=
ix.
it
it is
destroj^ all
but also
possession of skill or
all
the
passages cited,
ihid. at pp. 94, 2, and
1113, b, 14 sq.
sqq. 1117, a, 9,
17 sqq.
proving that
Thus
no architect.
The former are spoken of in
Metaph, v. 29, 1024, b, 32, viii. 3,
1043, b, 23 (cf. Zeller, Hid.
252 sq.), and in Eth. Nic. x. I,
*
&c.
Supra, pp.
14,
56
sq.,
162,
ARISTOTLE
314
in
no
spirit
of jealousy or detraction
that
Aristotle
Ideal
Theory,
as
such;
secondly,
first,
against the
against the
later
and, thirdly,
Pythagorising statement of the Theory
the ulticoncerning
against the principles laid down
;
'
'
it is
his convic-
Aristotle. ^
Ideal
it
p.
197 sqq.
METAPHYSICS
devoid of
all scientific
results to difficulties
315
it
leads in its
soluble,
phenomena,
He
established
is
it,
not
there
is
The
and must
be attainable otherwise.
Ideas
is
is,
thing of which
it
said to be
is
'
the Idea
man
;
'
for in the
avTo).'^
'
man who
is
But
Metapli. i. 9, 990, b, 8
1079, a,
3fefaj)h. iii. 2, 997, b, 5
TToWaxfi S' ext^J'TOjy SuaKoXiav,
ovOevhs 7)TT0;/ 6.TOirov rh (pdvai fiku
flval Tivas ^vcreis irapa ras eV ry
ovpavw, ravTas Se ras avTas (pdyai
Tois aladriTols it\t]v Uti to /x^v
diSta rd Se (pQaprd ' avrh yap dv*
sqq.
Cf.
xiii. 4,
&\Ao
S'
obSev, TrapaTrXi^aiov
TTOLovvrcs
TOis
(pdaKoua-iu
dp0pJi}Troeide7s
deovs
dvai
yuei/
Se
ovre
Kal
irpoffTiQ^vTts
rots
t5 p7j/.ia rh ahrh.
Ibid.
xiii. 9, 1086, b, 10 cf, Eth. N. 1.
4, 1096, a, 34, Eud. 1. 8, 1218, a,
al<Td-r]Tois
10.
^
Metaph.
1078, b, 32,
i.
9 init.
xiii.
4,
ARISTOTLE
316
to
belongs.^
it
which
This proposition, in
fact,
sum-
it is
(as
if this
Yet
when once
divided
it is
among
it
must
is
follow that
artificial
products of
kinds
all
and
;^
to
would be true of
it
in the
them that
Thus
under a
in form
inasmuch as
there
must be
it
must
and subordinate
many
make up
a con-
Substances, and
it
Metaph.
i.
991, b, 1
9,
aSvvoTov, cJvai x^P^^ ''"''''
Koi ou rj ovaia; xiii. 9, 1085,
:
Z6^mv Uu
oiiffiav
1039, b, 15.
2
Metaph.
24, 85, b, 18
^^' P^'
^
i-
real Substances,
^^7,
Metaph.
cf.
Zeller, Ph.
d.
2.
i.
In the first of
these passages we should read
oTov rd y^vos, us ylvos, (.i^uv (sc.
5,
1079, b, 34.
i,
9,
many
1084, a, 27
990, b, 11 sqq.
4, 1079, a, 19,
Anal. Post, i.
irapiUiyixa ^CTai).
*
Metai)h.
i.
9,
991, a, 26.
METAPHYSICS
317
to be Substance,
is
be a general concept
Or
again,
if
it
many
for it is
individuals.^
of which
this
of other
individuals,'^
individual,
numerically one,
is
it
which case
it
be
is
the
we sub-
clearlv cannot
it
like
is
it
Of Ideas of
itself
in
it,
Aristotle considers the assertion that the Ideas contain the essence of things to be inconsistent with the
the Ideas
'
^),
all
cannot exist by
and concep-
tion of them, in
itself separately.^
Similarly, he argues
'
c.
c.
8,
1033,
1031), a, 3,
b,
1085
19,
xiii. 9, 1080,
1040, a, 2G sqq. cf.
1003, a, 5.
Metapli.
9, ut sujjra.
'^
Metaph.
i.
9,
i.
992, b,
a, 32,
iii. (?,
9, xiii.
103!,b, 15
from
vii.
Cate(j. c. 2.
15, 1040, a,
8-
vii. 6,
Mctaph.
27.
cf.
passpge,
p. 515, svpra,
9,
a, 23.
Metaph.
vii. 16,
13.
JSIetapli. vii.
14; cf.
P^f-
iv.
1,
Plujs.
ii.
2,
209, b, 33
sq.,
628
sq.
193 b, 35
.sqq.
cf
ARISTOTLE
318
their objects.
aad as
further objection
is
among which
there
is,
for if
an
them. 2
Even
if
that what
is irporepov
and var^pov
and After,
and can consequently be included
in a relation of Before
in
no
common
generic concept,
in no idea, but
(109G, b, 25 sqq.) only in a rela(Vide supra, p.
tion of analogy.
276 sqq.)
Metaph. i. 9, 991, a, 2, vii.
13, 1039, a, cf. vii. 6, 2, 1031, b, 28.
Aristotle expresses this objection
here by saying that the doctrine of
and therefore
'-'
c.
22, 178, b,
same name.
METAPHYSICS
less
no means
319
say that
still
it
could
by-
fulfil
As
appearances.
is
Even the
own
for Plato's
references to
if
then they are not truly the essence of things, and therefore the
hand, could
we
itself,^
And
no sure con-
to
any know-
assumed
? ^
creased
if
All
we
MetapTi.
i.
mit.\
2 Metaph.
i.
9,
be vastly in-
and
Numbers, and
so interposing
5,
will
these difficulties
991, a, 12 (xiii.
9, 99 i, a, 20, 992,
1079, b. 24), i. 6,
987, b, 13, viii. 6, 1045, b. 7, xii.
10, 1075, b, 34.
3 Metaph. i. 9, 991, a, 8. 19 sqq.
b, 3 sqq. (xiii. 5) 992, a, 24 sqq.
b, 7, c. 7, 988, b, 3, vii. 8, 1033,
b, 26, xii. (], 1071, b, 14, c. 10,
1075, b, 16, 27 Gen. et Corr. ii. 9,
a,
28
(xiii. 5,
335, b, 7 sqq.
1217, b, 23.
his school in
cf.
Etli.
End,
i.
8,
* Metaph. i.
7, 988, b, 6, c. 9,
992, a, 29 (where, instead of lib,
li o should be read).
" Metaph. i. 9, 991, a, 12 (xiii.
5, 10 r9, b, 15), vii. 6, 1031, a, 30
sqq. cf. Anal. Post. i. 22, 83, a,
32:
ret
'yap
et57?
x'PfTw
r^p^ri-
fffiaTO.
ARISTOTLE
320
it
to cut off
school, led
He
of
of
may
all
ways of escape
for the
Pythagorising
dictory
is
objects.^
He
in
character
are
quali-
and numerical determinations, which are quantiremarking that two numbers make up one
number, but two Ideas do not make one Idea, and that
tative,
tative,
among
make up numbers no
quali-
thrown out by Plato and his school and the devices they
resorted, to in order to maintain a conceivable difference
Metapli.
the answer:
i.
if
9, *.>91,
b, 9,
with
568
Cf.
pt.
i.
sq. 854,
^
Loc.
992, a,
2.
cit.
i.
9,
991, b, 21 sqq.
METAPHYSICS
321
them.^
It is not,
objections to Ideal
also to the
Numbers
magnitudes would
of
be
themselves.^
The
position
equally dubious;
for qua
must go by ideal numbers, and qua mathematical they must go by mathematical number ^ and
from the way in which the theory of magnitudes is
ideal they
without
it
line,
must be
and a
solid
all
in
and
Ideas,^'
know
the
constituent parts of
23,
VOL.
1.
it
all
is
find
Numbers
impossible to
* Mitaph. i.
9, 992, b, 13
xiv.
109O, b, 20.
Ihid. i, 9, 992, a, 10
xiii. 9
1085, a, 7, 81.
;
3,
Cf. Zellek,P/!. d.
028 sq., 805.
"
Gr
pt
ARISTOTLE
322
materiality.''
nor as universal
nature of
substance.''^
the two
'
and
itself,
Mttaph. i. 9, 992, b, 24
against which, indeed, his own
distinction of demonstrative and
inductive knowledge might be
used.
2 This is suggested, without
'inn.
One can
the
universal
is
only a
expresses
Metaj)U.
1087,
12,
how
when no
asks
of unity
The notion
substance.
He
1086, b, 19,
xiii. 10,
a. 4.
MetapU. xiv.
2(>, c. 2,
1089, b,
1087, b,
1,
1 1
cf.
4,
Zeller,
Of
ther
cf.
Zeller,
ibid.
p.
10/w.
Fur851 sq.
METAPHYSICS
323
may
be driven to explain
will
'
'
One
is
distinguish the
by
As
a special principle
the Great and Little,' this conception indicates nothing but bare qualities, or
rather,
bare relations and these, indeed, of such a kind
as
itself.4
for
'
could least of
How
which
thisfirst,
altogether perverse.
escape the
'
Metaph.
and
33,
X. 2
xi. 2,
xiv.
1,
1060, a,
36;
36
cf.
.wy^?'^, p.
'
monism
sqq., b, 13,
*
init.
Metaph.
1,
20 sqq
Metaph. 1091, b,
'
16, 22
^ 3fetaph.
i. 9, 992
b
1088, a, 15 sqq.
'
1
'
c
,
'
Y2
xiv
ARISTOTLE
324
This assumption
ciple of not-being.
Being
only
and
^
;
it
would
itself is
not necessary
is
According
Being and
Clreat
the manifold
from
movement
or of
^c.,'"^
'
and not
of substance only,
'
If
all
is
the
first
still it is
is
comes
to
be,
is
which
this
it
is'
Ever)' thing
which
(thont to
it
which
hecome.
?'x
The nature
of matter in
He had
in
as the
it
Bad
side of the
'
Ibid.
i.
9,
992, b.
7.
Metaph.
xiv.
1091, b, 30 sqq.
32 .^qq. Phys A.
;
Ph.
d.
Gr. pt.
i.
init.
xii. 10,
9, cf.
p. Gl-1.
c.
1075,
4,
a,
Zeller,
Ml^TAPllYSlCS
.325
matter tends to
own
its
annihilation,
it
into
Further contradictions arise in the considerations that the Great and Little (as was above remarked
itself.^
of the
'
existing for
itself,
cannot possibly be
so,
which
is
way
If,
finally,
we
deduced from their ultimate principles, distinct statements are entirely wanting. We ask if they arise by a
mixture, or by a composition, or by a generation, and
is no answer.^
We are nob told how out of the
One and the Many could be produced those units of
which numbers are composed,'^ or whether number be
there
There is no deduction of
uneven number or of any of the rest except
the
first
the
first ten.^
We
duality which,
by
its
are not
which
is
is
to
'
xiv. 4, 1092, a, 1.
P/ti/s. iii. 6,
203, a,
c. 4,
sqq.
Metaph. xiv.
^
;
xiii. 9,
5, 1092, a, 21
1085, b, 4 sqq.; cf. c.
7, 1082, a, 20.
sqq.
][Jetaj)h.
i.
9,
991, b, 31.
ARISTOTLE
326
not arise by
tlie
Tbere are a
sufficient.
upon a misunderstanding of
cannot
Ije
Plato.^
Nevertheless,
it
weak
its defects.
Among
which he uses in
the arguments
two which stand
jirst^
all
that
all
all
the concepts
Metaph.
Cf.
xiv, 3, 1091, a, 9.
257 sqq.
^
In the direction
991,
a,
Trivrwv
5t
(xdMara
METAPHYSICS
327
him the
recognise in
we may
Natural Philosopher
spirit of the
him
superior to
His powers
facts.
are
in dialectic
to give currency to
But he
skill.
is
is
determined
common
there
is
cause.
wedded
of Nature.
So
far the
own answers
turn to his
It is
time to
ris, ri
e^dr]
to7s
SiairoprjCreiev
rk
Aerot
al(r9r]Ta>v
rots
(f)0ipoixvois
ovT )U6To/3wA7js
and at
avTols;
TrapaSeiyiiiara
e'xetj/
avToou
(TvfxfidK-
aiSiots
yr/vofi^voLS
yap
ovT
'
nore
rwv
Kal
KLvrt(Tws
20
avra
r&Wa
t^ 5e \4yeiv
eluai
/cat
/iT-
KivoKoy^lv iari
ri
24
oAws Sh
rovro
Xiyojx^v
fxlv
and
(pavepcov rd a'iriov
e^aKa/j.^v
rrjs /iera^oATjs),
so ihid. 992,
kc.
(ovSkv
yap
odev 7] apx^
ARISTOTLE
328
CHAPTER
Yir.
CONTINUATION.
Tiue
M dn
I/iqairi/
of Metapliysics.
are tlires
Tii:<:he
discussed.
it
follows
which
is
must precede
all
other investigations.
To
this question
common
is
classes,
Aristotle, as has
answer
the universal.
It
was
in the inaccurate
Plato's view,
ception of
and he
the
felt
same
that
it
relation
statement of
fundamental error of
Platonism must
start.
The first question for Philosophy, therefore, must be an inquiry into the conception
of substance,' which is an inquiry into the relation of
'
the
individual
to
the
universal.
But inasmuch as
way as to throw
See
p.
METAVIIYSICS
essential actuality
to
the
329
of the
side
individual,
made
it
had
becomes detached
To him Form
meaning.
developed into
which'
is
full actuality:
undetermined
is
The
Form.
to
univ^ersality,
relation of
Matter in opposition
accord-
fine,
Matter to Form
is
;
Movement.
the fact
first
the
first
is
concerned.
will
In the following
three heads.
(1)
the Ihiiversal.
the universal as
it
is
It
bination
of
essences,
Aristotle
Theory in
from
ARISTOTLE
330
the thing
many
itself.'
universal
is
in
of things
or,
thereby
and not
all
we
the
get
things
them
ra iroWa
%v nrapa
Plato's
Kara ttoWmp.^
bv
su
Seep.31G,n.l,s?(/;;vi'.
'
of Substance''
Metaph.
5),
-'
34 outco
yap \iyo;j.ev to KadeKaaTov rb
apidfjiCf} eu, KaOoKouSeTO eirlTovTwv.
Be Interj)r. 7, 17, a, 39 Part.
iricpvKiv
iii.
9i;9,
4,
b,
An.
i.
4,
(pavephu
avdyKfiS
c.
31,
ixpa
oti
imdpx^i87, b,
oaa Ka96\ov
e|
to7s -npayixaffiv
32: rh yhp
ciel
Ka\
is
not any-
cannot be Substance.
itself, it
name
is
For
distinct.
If,
thino- subsistino'
as
substituted Aristotle's
is
iravTaxov
Ndaph.
is
KaOoAov
1017,
V. 9,
It
used in various
elvai.
(pa/ihv
b,
35
yhp
See also
ret
Kampe,
160
b, 4 sqq.
Erkcnntnissth. d. Arisi.
sq.
/jeu
De An.
iii,
by
'
'
METAPHYSICS
senses,^
but
it
831
thing
else,
derivative.2
Or
Being
again. Substance
which
individuals of which
it
than
something other
predicated.
is
It is
always in
denotes not
It
itself.
'this
The
individual alone
which
is
that which
is
is
fidXiffra
465, b,
of
over' a,
% jUT^re KaQ'
K4yiTai firir' eV
X^yojXivt],
Tivhs
tIs
tTTTTOS.
rU
viroKeifjLeuov
viroKeifxhcfi
avOpooiros
Cf. further
f)
TreNDEL-
ENBURG,
ovfflaoTiovKad'vTroKeifxivovA^yeTai,
aWa
Kara tovtwv
rh
36
Ka9' ov ra
1028, b,
ia-ri
cKeTz/o
Se avrh
to.
&KXa
8'
vii. 3,
vTroK'ixiv6v
aXXa
Kfyerai,
Kar' &\\ov.
tovtov diopiffreov
/UTjKreTt
yap
So/cet
eJmi ohaia rh
vvu fxev
ovy tvttcp e'lprjrai ri ttot iarlv rj
ovala, otl to firj Kaff viroKeifitvov
a\Aa Ka0' ov ra &\\a. Cf. Anal.
irpxrov
viroKe'/xeuou
PH.
27, 43, a, 25
i.
Longit.
V. 3,
6.
rb hv
jVetaj)h. vii. 1 init.
\4yTai TToAA-axiis [in the different
(pauepov ori. rovrwv
categories]
irpwrov *ov rb t'l iffTiv, oirep (rr]fxa\vei
ra S' &\Aa Aeyerat
tt]v oixriav
oura t(j5 toD ovtws uvtos ra fxiv
*
iroaoT-qras
Sec.
di/ai,
iixrre
ra Se
Tro'oTTjras,
to irpwTcas ov koI ov
t\ ov
[what
is
and applies
itself
airXws v ovaria
1030, a, 22 rh ri
'hv
ovffia
virdpx^i-
p. 289.
h.v
eiTj
c.
7,
See further on
AmSTOTLl^
332
being.
otlier
as
number
of substances
'
foriy
a-iTOAS
Txy
tvojotccv
HaAcoj/ ri
?;},
eV vTroKnixiva's
v)
ovaxv
ovy
aSvywoy
rjSy
fj.}}
ov(TL-jiy
Anal. Post.
^IvoLi.
where Aristotle
b, 5,
i.
calls
4,
/ca9"
aWh
[sc. Aeyi/xej/a]
ana
a9"
Ae'yw,
ra
Ka9'
vKOKeiu4yov (ru'x^e^rjKjTa.
Mctaph.\\.i. 1, J02S, a,27: that
be
which supports
to be
said
eicaoToy
t]
qualities is
obcria kciX rh Ka9'
rcoy
all
/x(:y
aWvv
yh.p
KaTriyopyjixiray
o-ji)y
X'-^P'-'^t^v,
a"jrr] 5e fx6vr]
c. 8, 102!), a, 27:
TO xaipio-Toj/ Kal to rods ri vndpx^iv
;
5oKu
fidKia-TaTrj o-jaia
c.
lU/JO,
1,
rb roSe ri
c. 10, 10:')o, b, 28
KaldKov S' ojk
ecrriy oiiaia
c. 12, lOvJI, a, 27:
r] oua'.a
hy tl Kal roSe ri arj^uaiyei
cos (/)a;.teV;
c.
13, 1038, b, 10:
a,
] [)
oxxriav kxl
TvpwTT]
ovcria
'ihios
eKxaru)
??
essence
oyx
Kai
di.a
iii.
G,
a,
Koiyjy OV To'Se
T7
Trp6s Tl
(Tr}:j.alyi.
(payepoy
6ioopoi'(ri,
Te
TO-'jTjiy
5);
on
o-j9fy
tcov
obQtv
(TrjiiayeL
rctr
/cat
KJiyrj
KaTrfyopovixeyaiy
roSe ti,
dAAa
Toi6y5e
c. 16, 1040, b, 23
Koiudy
fxy}9ev ovar a
obSeyl yap uirdpx^i V
;
O'jala
aW
rj
avrfj re Kal
r^ exoyri
i<rrh, TO, 5c
ov
;(OJ/3(rro, ovffiai
eKeTva.
dAAa TOioySe tl
tQv toiovtwv tl
(This holds even of
ri,
TTws
rj
.",
e/f
77
Tavra re
certain
Ibid.
JU
to say,
is
of a
in so far, that
common
forth the
set
TO
/cal
.
oTov
o re
And
&y0p(O7ros Kal
further on.
Otherwise the expression SevTepa
ovala does not occur in Aristotle.
As, however, he elsewhere uses
((foy.
so
for
'third
class of substances,'
MJETAPHYSICS
substantial character with the
333
substances, so
that
the
in a higher
applied to them
at
all,
it is true of them, as of
every universal, that they are not a This,' but a Such
not substantive, but adjective and that they express,
'
'
'
The
The
stances only.4
so-called
o/, ^
'Cat.
o,
c.
19
2, a,
sq., b,
^3^1
.
{),
,.
^5^;^iU:7rao-a5eot;(no5o:iTc8e
iTv^uLueiu.
Of. nrptiTai ohaiai
o^^f^''l''"t^'^P'l^t
u, D,
Ti
holds unconditionally:
this
5e
iirl
tifv
fi'iv
Tt
aKrjdfs ye,
o-ij^aij/er
vTTOKii^Kvov
aAAa
kuto.
ov
o5o-7rep
irpxTT) ova'.a,
ttoWuu
avdpwTvos
That
this
is
true
secondary substance of
dependent of
it
e.a.
in the
sentence 'the body is white'
KfvKov is eV viroKeifievcp on the
other hand, in the sentence
man is two-legged,' S.Vow is
not 4v VTroKifi4v<f}.
A further
peculiarity of substance is (Cat
c.
5, 3, b, 24) r6 f,r}dh avrals
iuavr'ou ehai.
And yet Aristotle
himself remarks thkt the 'same
:
'
ARISTOTLE
334
stance.
For
only.
it,
it
is
individual
the
In contrast
class of substances.^
perties of a definite
witli
its qualities
is
it
be considered sub-
name
which
substances alone
its
original
sense, belougs.
knowledge
is
not without
its difficulties.
it
If
all
is
is
ultimate
object of knowledge.
recognition of
reality,"* it
is
must
individual substance,
(^ihid.
1.
:}3)
is
it
sus-
ceptible of no diiference of
degree, no greater or less. For
while, perhaps, we might say
that one is more or less of a
man than another, yet we
could in no sense say that he is
more or less 'two-legged.' If,
'
finally {ihid.
4,
a,
10, b, 3, 17),
we
this
knowledge
the
first
is
the
place,
of quantity and
And
ceptions.
may be made
If
relate, in
If
follows that,
it
(rvfiaiuei.
Bas.,
by
who
Cf.
Simpl.
explains
A'at.
iroid
ns
2f>,
ovaria
ttoiJttjs ovcriwSris.
-
See p. 162.
Ibid,
MetajJll. vii.
and
p. 219, n. 1.
iK^tvo Se (j>avep6u
n. 1.
1030, b, 4
6 irpdyruis Ka\
rb ri ^u ^Ivai roiv
See also p, 219,
ovcnuv ianv.
4,
on
METAPHYSICS
knowledge
335
of the individual,
is
and that individual things furnish, not only the startingpoint, but the whole essential content and object of
however, Aristotle de-
This conclusion,
knowledge.
He
cisively rejects.
is
it
itself all
addresses
This contradicti(m
it
it
is first,
first-
Aristotle himself
He
distinction.
that knowledge
says, without
is
is
substantial
it
individual es-
is
illustrates
both propositions
God
is
individual Substance.
The
Even
alike.^
fact that
Substance
Aristotle
the difficulty
,"*
recognised the
'^
full
weight of
first,
1086, b, 33 sq.,
Anal. Post. i. 31
1)81, a, 7
i. 1,
in regard to the second, Cat. c. 5,
Metapli. vii. ]0,
3, b, 14 sq. ;
1035, b, 27, c. 16, 1040, b, 21, xii.
5, 1071, a, 2.
* Metajjh. in.
icrn S'
4 Ifiit.
Metapli.
xiii. 10,
;
ARISTOTLE
83G
indeterminate and
is
jiofise,
Knowledge, considered
tliat
is
The
positions
certitude of that
Such knowledge,
their certitude.
therefore, as Aristotk^
its
known by
otlier
hand,
if
actuality, then
ought to be precisely,
it
is
original
(put individual,
tlie
knowledge of
better
vvv
Toov
elre
5'
i-KiaT-'riixriv
KaOoAov
c.
at apx^i,
ix\v
ovv
.A';?.:
et
ravra
(Tvjxfia'vei
ovOeu yap
iaovTUL ovaiaL
rctiv Koivwv ToSe ti (rrj/iaiVet, aXKa
TotoVSe, h 8' ova'ia toI^ ti, as he
says before,] et 5e ii)] KaOoAov, aAA.'
US ra KaOeKaara, ovk tffovrai im[viz. ovK
(TTT]Tai
KaOoKov yap
iravruv. CI.
Metaph.
Metaph.
n. 1 supra.
also
xiii.
at itn(Trr\yiai
^\. 2, \OQ>0,h,
1039,
vii.
18,
10
see p. 1G7,
and
and not,
which should be in
known and
See especially
p. 220,
&c.,
svpra.
^ Tc^ huOoXov \6ya}, as Aristotle
expresses it, Metapll. vii. 10 (see
pp. 220 sqq., svpra).
*
See p. 205, n. 2, Siqyra.
^ Rassow'S solution (J.m^f)^.
de Kotiords Definltione Boctrina,
p. 57) is equally unsatisfactory.
He appeals to Metapli. vii. 10,
1085, b, 28 (where, moreover,
after the words us KadoXov, which
stand in opposition to the following KaQ" e/cao-Tov, we have simply
an iliriiu) and c. 4,
atd tries to solve the
contradiction by remarking that
in definition and in science generto supply
1029, b, 19,
METAPHYSICS
If,
conceding
this,
we were
337
genus had
than the species, but that,
on the contrary, for us the species had more than the
genus we should thereby place ourselves in opposition
in itself
more of the
essential
word,
all
who continually
Substance, in the strict sense of the
individual Substance
US as such.
it
There
is
individual
number
itself,
itself, in
point
would be possible
it
difficulties
of individuals.^
to seek
From
this stand-
a solution of the
together clear.
As perhaps that of the sun
or of the moon see p. 222, n. 2,
sujjra.
^
Metaph.
Ua
hpiOfK?
ttoAAcDj/,
oiou itvOpdirov,
:ZccKpdT7,s
VOL.
I^
r-
ARISTOTLE
338
ultimate principle, absolute certitude for thought coincides with absolute actuality of being, but that, in all
That
would
misses
is
how-
He
draw the
distinction.
that
knowledge consists
all
this solution,
in the cognition
of the
universal,
alone.
not that
because
knowledge
are
/'V3
is
incapable
individual as such.
It
is,
incompatibility
its
Aristotle's
view
to
the universal
of perfectly
knowing the
directed
iii
^pite
of
is
The
is
to
further
degree
afford.^
of actuality also.
it
And we
shall
also
find^
AsG. V. HERTLiNGdoes,il[/.^.
Form
terial world.
Arist. 43, f., remarking- that the form of universality is not in all spheres the indispensable condition of knowledge,
resource
u.
h.
H^e
it is
the only
we have
in face of the
partial unknowableness of all material things,
"^
METAPHYSICS
339
Form with
"reality
pure Form as
to the Actual
it
is
which
Possibility.'
It
known
which
to that
in universal concepts,
limited by no element of
is
i.e,
mere
namely/that
its
it is
two main
pillars,
the assump-
was
it
its
know-
object.^
How
theory,
is
is
worth in things.
presents it pure,
Since Kittee, iii. 130, called
attention to this difficulty it has
beeH further discussed by Hey'-^
dee
followed
by Bonitz, Arist,
Metaph. ii. 569.
Schwegler'
Arist. Metaph. iii. 133.
Cf. also
Strumpell,
sq.
3
541
Cf Zeller, Ph.
.
sq.
d.
Gr. pt.
"
AUISTOTLE
^40
{I)
We
the Actaal
had distinguished
tl:e
and
the Tossihle.
In the Ideas
to Plato.
lie
that
it
alone
He
ances.
different
is
object of knowledge,
and
from knowledge,
is
it
object of
'
contrary,
itself,
is
Of
noi*
we
Form
sensible things
a proof;
it is
the
Form, indeed,
Becoming
all
Metaph.
y'n.
iariTapara
et?j
11,
15 (see p.
which
of.
il/id.
ovv tir^Qh
kx9' e/catTra, ohOkv hv
^uev
eVtg-TTj^uT?
ohdevos,
iv.
ou5'
5,
ei
fi-h
ris
eTriffrvfivv-
ovdh
chai
^ti
aKivoTOv;
1010, a, 25: Kara rh dSos
ai^iov
arravra. yiyvaaKO/xsv.
ov5'
METAPHYSICS
Becoming
of
341
as tlie
itself originate in
such
case
supposition
infinitum^ for if
not
could
be
ad
carried
could,
it
be true
it
Ei5os,/lop</>^,
Ao7os(see
p. 211),
aWa
'
fii]
T(
^IKoyov
iKeiuT]
which
TOVTO
e<TTai
elvci
t^v
yiyverai.
ohaiav
iffTai
as that
[o,7crta
becomes]
v\t]
iroTe
iXT)TC
yap
ei
/x-fje
iKeipT],
ovQkv
54
tovto
rh Trapdirav,
el
Tiuos
[e.f/.
out of brass]
koI h
(ru/u.^e^r)Kcs
t6
Kai
on
eV Travrl
t^
yevoix4vc()
vAtj
ean
rh jxlv ToSe rh Se
ToJe
c. 9, 1034, b, 7
oy fi6vov
54 TTcpl rris overtax 6 \6yos Sr]ko7 rh
fi^ yiyv(r6ai rh elSos, a\\^ irepl
Taurcou Sfio'cos riav irpccrav Kowhs 6
cpeari, Kal
;
&c.
It is
xii.
Trap
yap yuera^SaAAe:
rroielv
icrrlv ov
tV
(T(pa'tpav
apdyKT] 54 arripai.
\4yco
arpo-yyvKov v)
Trou7v, oAA' eVepdj/
merely as one
imo TiPtjS
rod irpcvrov
KLvovpTOs
h Se, 7] uAt/ els h 54, rh
eibos. fis &TTeipop ovp elcTip, el /x^
ixopop xo^Khs yiyperai crrpoyyvKos,
dAAa Kal rh crrpoyyvXop ^ 6 _j^aA/cJs
wairep
.
le.r/. a ball]
oj^eThviroKeififvov ^01(770^ x^^'^^^'j
ojTU)s ovdh TijV acpalpav el fx^] Kara
yiyverai.
Xa^Kdv (TTpoyyvXov
it,
ti,
S'
on
r6v
olou rd eidos
Kal
ei's
ri.
vcp'
ov
rl Kal
fx\p,
viii. 3,
1043, b,
I hid.
1(5, c. r.,
070, a, 1 5
1044, b, 22.
1
ARISTOTLE
342
all
fall
would remain
Here again
for
Becoming.^
It
Being nothing
finds
that
it
for
also,
ex nildln
Aristotle
niliil fit.
which comes
all
Becoming out
to be
of that which
in
starts
is
by
saj^ing
the process of
and
in a relative sense
way
to become.
/'.s'
not.
it is
that which
an uneducated
man becomes
is
to be in
If, for
example,
it
In
tion.
fact, it is
that
is,
it
actuality.
is
is
whose essence
it is
to be pure possibility,
w^hicli
the
a substratum
is
All Becoming
but as
educa-
All
say
tured,'
'
or
'
METAPHYSICS
becomes that whicli
343
comes to be out of
it
opposite-
its
ivociv d)S
rh
rh
fiev
ovx
S'
vTro/xevou.
yap
fikv
ovT (TvuTiOe/xcvov
Tis
Trifi\e\pp,
viroK(:7(T6ai
KoX TOVTO
el
aXK'
ye ovx eV
raiirov rd
iivai.
Koi
rwv
i^ airavTuv
Se? ri ael
ei'Set
dicapKT-
vTrofxevei.
fievMV 3e TOvTwv
yiyvojxivcav tovto
Koi
iariv %v,
ou 70^
Kol to d/xovacij
avdpccircj}
TO
Td yivSfxevov,
api9/j.y
.
virofjLeuei,
/!/
5'
rb
^'TOyUtVei
Td fjLev fi^ dvTiKdfievov virofxevei (6 yap dvQpunros virolj.euei) Td fxovcriKdv Se /col t6 djxovaov
ovx
yivoiT'
tiv
(pavepov.
This he goes on
elp7)ix4vu}V,
Th
OTi
(TVvQeTOV
yiv6/j.(uou
dirav
i<TTl,
^ Th auTiKeiiueuov. Xeyw Se
dj/Ti/ceTff^jtt fxhp Th &/nov(rov, viroKu(r6ai Se Tdv cLvdpwTrov, Kal t)}v fxkv
fxevou
d(rxvi^o(Tvpr]u
tV
Kal
tt]v
djuopcpiau
CLTa^iav to dvTiKe'iixevov,
XaXKou
Tdv
t)
tov Se
^ t6v xP^*^^^
(pavfpdv ovv
OTt yiypeTaiirciv iK re tov vTroKfifxe-
Td
i)
X'i(jOv
vTTOKeifievou.
fiopcpTJs
CCTTt
Se Td
e'lSei
ej/,
Se
OUTOS,
fi^
yap
/c
avTd
olov
fx)]
KaTCL
(TVlJLfie^V,K6s
'
eVrt KaQ''
ov, ovK ivvirdpxovTos yiyve-
TTjs
(TTepi]aeu3S,
it is
man,
becomes what
not cultured from being-
for example,
he is
uncultured]
ovTOs, &XXos
Xdyeiv
15
Kara t^p
Gen.
ivfpyeiav.
b,
S'
SvyajLuv
et Corr.
Tpoirov jxfv
Kal
t^j'
3,317,
Tiva Ik fi^ ovtoi
i.
dXXov
i^
dei.
Cf. Metaph.
2 (an exposition in complete
agreement with that of the
Physics); ibid. c. 4, 1070, b, 11,
18, c. 5, 1071, b, 8, iv. 5, 1009, a,
30 and p. 841, n. 2, svpra.
See infra, and Phys. ii. 5,
205, a, 6.
Xcyd/xevou dfxcpoTfpws.
xii.
'
ATIISTOTLE
844
not change into their opposites, nor even act upon their
opposites.
Becoming
ignorance
Thus it
Becoming presupposes some Being on
all
which underlies
which
to become, but
is
it
derivatively.
is
it
to
receive,
opposites
to that
and
which
and
in
in so far it
to
is
so not in itself,
is
place of
them
it
has their
come out of
its
it.
own
Cf. besides
the
above nn.
nomena
not
eno\igh to
assume two principles standingto one another in the relation of
opposites, aTropTjtreie yap av tis ttws
7)
Ti
is
it
iruKvoTrjs
7]
ofjLo'ccs
TLOT'os,
eari
t/V TrvKforriTa.
Sh Ka\ aXXr]
oiroiaovv ivav-
irc(j)vK(v
kc
/jLu
v)
c. 7, 190, b, 29
ws 5vo \kt(op ehci
5ih
rets
-/)
aW'fjAMV
yap
but
tion,
it
It
iraffx^^v
ravavria
it.^
As
hZvvarov.
AVe obtain three principles (apx0 {^hid. 191, a, 12)
we take
METAPHYSICS
34.5
a presupposition of
it is
cannot ever
itself
same substratum,
imperishable
it is
This begin-
also.^
TO
'0 irc<puKev
i(t>'rTOa.i Koi opdyeaBai avTov tear a t)]v kavrov (pvaiv.
TO?s 5e (Tv/x^aivei rd ivairiov ope-
PJnjs. ilnd.
1.
31
Xeyai yap
ou yiperai ti
ivvirdpxovTOS ^))
Gen. et Corr. i,
Kara
n.
As arfprjais constitutes
of itself no independent principle,
but merely belongs to matter as
such, i.e. to matter as still form-
fill.
aWccv
Kol
Toov
4k
Svyd/xei
yiverai,
Tuv
(pvffLKccu
iuavTido'eoou,
ovtos
oh
Ka\
ivavTiccaeu'v']
tSov
ipepyfia ov
x^^P'f^T'h H-^i'
[sc.
fhai
t]
krepov.
'
See p. 341, n. 2, siqyra. Phys.
i.9, 102, a, 28: ^(peaprov KaXdy'ev
eire
yap
e'l
iwndpxovros
ol'
(pOeipeTai, eis
eiTe
rd
Kai
To
TO SeKTlKdu,]).
besides followir g notes
VTCOKtlfXevOU,
342, n. 2,
0'e7i.
Corr.
i.
10, 328, b,
Be
1/A77
/j-aAia-ra
jxkv
aWais
Ta7s
i.
3,
rd
tV
erepxv 5e
i/'Atjj/-
koI
foregoing nn.
Cf. the foregoing and the
viroKi/j.evov.
*
ytieTajSoAaTs
983, a, 29
Cf.
next
less, it is
De An.
ii.
1,
412, a, 6
yeios ev ri twv ovtcov t^v
ovalav, TttUTTjs 5e t^ fxlv as v\t]v,
% KaO' a'.Th juev ovk iari rode rt,
eTfpov Se fjLOp(pi]v Kai elSos, Kad'
t/Stj Xeyerai ToSe tl Kai Tp'nov t5
e/c
Tovrwv.
(Tti
S'
tj
jxlv vXt]
:
\(.')0jxv
and
Se
to-Ti
3fetaj>k.
TOV.
Ka\
(xv/xfiefirjKos.
All.
S'
elSos.
2,
ddos ivreXex^ia.
So
414, a, 14 sq.
Coi. et Corr.
ii. 9, 335, a, 32
ds fxev ovv uAtj
ToTs yf.vvr]To7s icrriv c'hiov rh Svvac. 2,
ARISTOTLE
10
the
sideration of
rhv
Ka\
eivai
yiyv6/j.eva
20: airaura 8e
a,
(pvcTfi
"ifj
^Ii'tapli.
elvai.
fir]
1032,
vii. 7,
distinction
e^^'
rexvrj
rj
to,
Ihid.
Svvdiu.^1.
&AXr}s
iufpyeia oAAtj
X'Syos
20
1.
ipepyeias
1.
rod
27 ^
:
(Ufpyeia;
c.
)>
i//'i/.
12
ws
rj
r;
Kal
uArjs
/u-hv
5'
r]
eVxij/
S"
a,
Koi
r?is
yap ws
v\7]
iJ.op(pT}
on
ei'Soy?
iarlu^
[^oviTia
\0V.\,
rrjv ivepyeiay
rrjs evepyeias
1045, a, 23
vXr) rh Se
rh jx\v Bwdfiei rh Se
ijLOpcpf]. Kal
ivfrpyeia
ix. 8, 1050, a, 15
7/ vk-q
earrl Svvdixei, on eA9o( tiv els ru
orav Se y ipepyeia ?), rore
elSos
KOI rod cfSou?
5'
(I
iarlu
c.
rh
G,
fieu
'
iv
eibei
r(f
h.
ovcr'a
.
'.
<>
easily
be
%Kacrrov ; Aristotle
ix. 7) replies by means
iffrlv
{Mctaph.
of
distin-
Th6 former
ditions of things.
refers to the relation of substance
to attribute; the latter, to the
relation of the earlier to the
later condition, of the incom-
But
plete to the complete.
since the very essence of matter
consists in possibility of form in
actuality, we can conceive no
case in which more than a
grammatical change
in order that we
the latter for the
And vice
sions.
necessary
substitute
former expresis
may
verm we may
in
METAPHYSICS
between which
we
all
object
is
first
Form, and
is
in
is
want of a
definite
If
it.
a product of
anything, then
we
shall
namely,
or
thinkable
on that
account
equally
is
is
it
b,
1,
ii.
8,
19o,
5,
can
always
be
shown that a
matter
b,
27:
all.
in Possibility
Metapli.
viii.
5,
1041,
fXTa^o\^ els
ocra 5' &vev rod jj.Ta^d\eariv
/ult],
ovk eari tovtcdu
Cf. vii. 7 (previous n.)
oa-cou yet^ecris
i<TTi Kol
aWrjXa.
vX-q.
'
precisely
the
also
Knv
dwd/xei
all
is
all
them
of
is
Subject,
it is
ivepye'a
therefore,
and
receptive
that which
the
which
but
belongs,
it
everything
predicates
In other words,
thing as
can become
but
become
determination by Form.
nothing,
If
that a given
all
347
-1)
Td
Suva/^ei
liu.
A somewhat
ARISTOTLE
348
we
that
If conversely
take
everj^thing
it
its way
we think of the end of its growth
attained, we obtain the pure and com-
merely
is
on
to completion, if
as
fully
plete
of
realisation
conception, to which
its
no matter that
formless,
The Form,
attaches.
corresponds with
is
and Form
perfect realisation,
its
nothing
still
Just as a statue
in
contained
is
existence
actual
Form which
Fioni
this
Zvvau.is
we have
cation of
which
second
iViGaning: of
Aristotle's applito the naaterial in
it
determinate
power
resides,
b,
12,
J)e
where
and
salts
alkalis,
444, a, 1, where
scents are called ^wa-
Sensii,
fragrant
5,
man
is
ra
Mctaph.
Karaixyji'ia.
v.
23; Phya.
fxeis.
a, 18,
and
cf.
Cf.
BONITZ,
b, 10.
minate form.
'
material as
UpdoTT] uAtj is
the
mentary differences
,
Mdaph.
'Ej/f'pyeia
ii.
1,
19.3, a,
28,
1014, b, 28.
h\d. Arist., 786,
v. 4,
or eVrcAexeia
(in
differs
without distinction.
p. 379 sq.
from com-
Cf. in/ia,
META PHYSICS
849
ceptibilityindeterminate,
capable, indeed, of
made
yet
undeveloped self-existence,
becoming a
By
into one.
definite reality,
but not
When accordingly he
Matter with potential,
being, he means to say that the former is the totality
of the qualities which the latter does not possess but
contains
into
is
existence.
full
Form with
identifies
actual.
capable of acquiring.^
the
centre
of
nite qualities
indifference to
all
8'
i'aTi
7]
vpayixa
G,
ojtus
fir]
duvdaei.
iu
1048, a, 30
ivepyeia rh virapx^^v t5
ix.
jVetc(j?/i.
Socrirep
\iyo/xV 5e
\eyo/xeu
Svudfxei
oToy
^v\y
kA
i-rricrT'fijxovj.
CLV
Svudrhs
7eia.
rfj
Tj
SriKou
rhv
fx)]
diwpTjcrai.
8'
iirayooyrj
iirl
Qewpovvra,
rh S' iuep-
tcov
^ir}Ti7i/,
dAAot
on ws rh
TO oiK)ho;xiKhu, Ka\
T'b iyprjyopos irpbs rh K%dv5 )u, ical
rh bpiav trphs rh [ivov [xku o\piv Se
t^ai', Kal TO cLTroKzKpijXivov iic rrjs
uAtjs irphs T7]v vKr\v, kxX to arreip')a(rp.4vov wphs Th auipyaffTOV. tj.vTrjs Se TTJs Siacpopas BaTtpov jxopiov
eoTCi} 7} ip^pyeia affixpia-fi^vr], OuTepcfi
5e Th 5uvaT6v
c. 8, 1050, a, 21
^5' vnoKeiPJnjs. i, 7, 191, a, 7
Kt\ Th
avdhoyov crvvopau,
Kj^ofjiovv Trphs
jueiTj
(pvais iirLCTTrjTi]
Kar avaho-jiav.
thinffs.^
avdpiavra x"-^k^^JS t)
Trphs KKiv7]v ^v\ov 7} irphs twv 6.KK00V
Ti
T(i}y
irphs
ix<ivToov jxopcp^u
Th ap.op(pou exet
flOpCpT]!/,
OJTOtS
7]
v\r} Kzl
Xa,3e7v
irplv
aVT7]
ITphs
t^v
OVaijiV
iii.
'^
See p. 848, n.
su'/ra
Mctapli vii 3, 1029, a, 20
1
KaOeKuara
^ovAo/xeOa hiyeiv.
yap
ojy
A/yoj
8' v\7]v
^ KaO^
iroahu fir,T
a\jT))u fxiire tI
&\\o
Aeyfrat
oTs liipiTTai TO uv; c. 11, 1037, a,
jx^Ta txkv yap t^s uAtjs o-jk
27
lanu [A070S], aSpiffTov yap; ix. 7,
el 5e' ti ian irpiiTou,
1049, a, 24
/j-iiTi
jULijOkv
ix7]kIti
t)
vivov [of
TovTo
viii.
see p. 315,
n.
5,
ARISTOTLE
350
it is
we
shall see,
which the
infinite is that
by analogy
by supposing a
substratum for things of sense in general which is related to them in much the same way as a special material
To Form, on
is to the things that are made out of it.'^
Matter, as such,
we
form]
a-pKr/.trVoi'
(fat
IQlOVTOlf
Jlr C.rln,
?}
V\l]
\\\.
KO).
S, HO;!,
pud/J.i((T6ai,
[the
cVrt 8e
TO
oApiffTOU.
1),
17: aeiSes
Oh
ih
jxaKinra yap au
a-iofxpoy
elj^at
tov iUous
viro
^f^puxo^J^^v^n'
Hot
It is only
tnroKdf.ceuoi'
o'utu) dvi'aiTO
Kaddirsp iv
of
it,
and
limitation,
defniiteness,
all
unknowable.
is
that
rw
Tif-uxw
'
e;^6i
aTreipoV
7]
vXrj
to
dAAa TTpiexeTai, fi
dyvwaTov fj aireipju
ahvuaTOv,
yeypuTrrai, Tt iravdex^s.
By aweipou Aristotle under'
Form
intelligibility.
Uireipoi'
'
i5os
aroirov
dyvoxrrov
Sid Kal
yap ovk
5e
Kal
Kal
t6
airetpou
iariv
ywev
'^
METAPHYSICS
351
immediately
Matter in
Form
itself indefinite
the
is
of
definiteness
Form.
itself
When
the
Form.'
But
just as
in
may we
recognises, indeed, in
being which
is
pure
Form
the
Divine
many
Spirit
all
substances.
all
Yet he
without Matter.
all
Forms,
things, but as
other individual
In like manner
matter
itself
'
it
3retaph.
viii.
(5,
1045, b, 17
all
bodies.
qualities, yet is in
ARISTOTLE
362
matter
is
finds, for
To
figures.
something
cori)oreal, stands to
as corporeal
same relation
Hence we see
else in the
Thus
express.^
Phys.
'
iii.
roiovrov
Ha-Ti
5,
204, b, 82
au^a
ovk
alffdTjrhv irapa
otherwise
the four elements must needs
resolve
themselves into this,
which is not the case. Ge7i. et
Corr. ii. 1, 329, a, 8.
Ibid. 1. 24
Tj^els 5e (pafiev fxhu ehai riva vX-qv
ffToix^la KaXovix^va,
Ttt
Tuv
(ju^fxaTcav
TavTTiv
rwv
aladT^Tcov,
pauTLeio-ec^s.
e|
^s
KaXovfieva (TT0ix^7a.
320, b, 12 sq.
'^
lo-Tt
aAAa
oil
Metaph.
Se TTjs
viii. 6,
rd
yiverai
Ibid,
5,
i,
J
ddrov Xoyov rh
5'
r]
avrh
Kad'^ aiirh
eari yap
rj
vX-q
aAAa r65e
t)
10,
c.
vot]tt]
103G, a, 9
iariv rj Se
:
alaBr}Tii
5e
r)
iv
toIs
cf.
tj
/xhu al(Tdr)r)]
Metapli.
Kal at dpxal
/cot'
S'
;^ej/
.
alcrd-nrois
ivepyeid iffrip
vii. 11, 1036,
b, 35 ^(TTUi yap vXr) ivicov Kal fir]
aladr)Ta)V Kal iravTos yap vXt] ris
icTTiv t fi-f] iffri ri riv dvai Kal eldos
rh
tj
oTov
tan
Kal
5'
j/otjt^
fj-euvXr)
aia-erjTi),
Ibid.
vorir-i].
i/Atj
1045, a, 33
^uef vo-qr)]
y'Arjs
in
&s
xii.
ra
5'
oXtio.
ws,
h.v
alaQ-qTccv
aoifxdroov
rj
Se
METAPHYSICS
353
specific
Similarly in the
in physiology, in
zoology, in
psychology, the upper and the lower spheres and elements,^ the soul and the body,^the male and the female,'*
applies
them
He
Form.
in precisely the
and in general
show the possibility of several properties belonging to one and the same thing.
By them he
explains the relation between the passive and the active
to
'^
d5os Koi
7/
(TTep-nai'i
TovTwv
'iKaiTTov
Kal
t}
dAA.'
vKt].
'^Tipov irepl
eKaarov
en
c. 5, 1071, a, 3
rpoTTov T(p avdhnyov apxo-ial avToi, olov iucpyeia Kal Sui^a/jLis.
yeuos iariu;
5'
uWou
aWa
/col
&\\(cs.
irX^v
r^
See
Be
VOL.
Gen. et CorrA.'i^,^\%,
335, a, IS.
^ jjg j^,^
[[ |^ 412^ b^ 9 s;q
q.
2, 414, a, 13 sq. and often.
*
Gen. An. i. 2 i/tit., ii. 1,732,
a, 3, ii. 4, 738, b, 20, and often.
AEetapll. i. 6, 988, a, 5, V. 28,
1024, a, 34.
)]12, a, 12,
b, H2,
p. 219, n. 2, supra.
C(elo,iv. 3,4, 310, b, 14,
I.
ii.
8,
Be An.
ili. 5.
'
5,
riva v\r]v.
Cf
xii,
Be An.
ili. 5.
A A
ARISTOTLE
354
understanding.^
in the
The elements,
second.
material of
all
as Actuality in the
for instance,
its
own
peculiar
in
its
Form
While the
as a specific metal.
soul in general
is
is
'
tlie
other
hand, as we already know,'* Matter never actually presents itself to us except as endowed with Form.
We
may therefore
Matter
lies at
Form. The
the foundation of
all
first
purely form-
things
lie all
but
it is
ultimate
We
b,
n. 2, p. 351, n. 1, p. 301, n. 3
4,
ii.
and
supra.
32
'
Cf. p. 352, n. 2.
See
compare
*
Cf.
1,
a,
320,
29;
x^^^s TCfauaAv^adai
elsTrjVTrpdljTriv
x^^W-
See p. 351, n. 1.
Phys. viii. 4, 255,
An. ii. 5, 417, a, 21 sq.
and
'
Be
p. 348, n. 1.
passages
knowledge
Y^.^i.%,n.\,e.g.Metaj)?i.\\i\A,\OU,
a, 20: yiyvovrai 8e irXdovs v\ai
rod ai/rov, orav daripov t] crepa v,
oTov tp^ey/na e'/c Xnrapov koX yKvKeos,
d rd Kmaphv e'/c Tov y\vK4os, fK Se
v\-t)v ttjv
p. 352, n. 1, 5?/^r,
the
ascribe potential
quoted
a,
33;
METAPHYSICS
not only to the
man
of learning
355
when he
conceived as
is
and even
the learner,
to
man
But the
in general.
we have
to distinguish
mere capacity
to be, except
is
in the habit of
the
of Cause
efficient
and the
These,
however, on closer
MetapJi.Y.
ovvTos.
Anal. Post.
'
KadevSwv
y^ca/nerpris
On
Apxai.
tov iyprjyop-
the meaning of
Mctaph. v. 1,
with the comments of SchWEG-
et Corr.
i.
7,
Gen. An.
v.7,788,a,14;also7*o<?Z^. c. 7,1450,
b,27; Waitz, ^7'i,v^. Orr/ i.457 sq.,
the Ind. Arist. under apxh, and
p. 247, n, 2, sujfra. 'Apxv indicates
the lirst in every series, and in
this sense it is used for all kinds
of causes, but more especially of
first
causes,
ducible
i.e.
from no
higher.
Cf,
fihi/
1,
i.
2, 72, a, 6
Tojj. iv.
121, b, 9.
/i^e^
5' 4(tt\v 6
AX
ARISTOTLE
356
two
mentioned.
from
its
But
concept.
not different
actualise a
is to
is
it
is
first
sets the
it
whether the
hai
Ti i]v
ueeu
7]
Kol
(Trdaeccs
Kivr,(Tcos
lastly
rh
Mctapk. i.
T(\os Kul rayaOov.
ra 5" atria KtyeraL Terpax^s,
iilit.
wv fi'av jJikv alriav (pa/xlv ehai rrjv
irepav
ovaiav Koi rh ri i)V eluai
Se T7V ^\r]u Kal rh viroKiifxe/xov,
'i^
rpirw
Se oOeu
rerdprTjv
Se
7]
avriKei/JLeuriv
aWlav
Kal rayadov.
1044, a, a2, Anal.
Pod. ii. 1 1 init., IJe Somno, 2, 455,
b, 14, Gen. An. i. 1 init ,\. 1, 778,
ravrr],
Ihid.
b,
7,
rh ov
viii.
'iveica
4,
and elsewhere
of.
Ind.
Fhys.
xii. 7,
ii.
rivos the
end
in
is
one
the
'
alria
Kal
(Tcofx-drccv
ili^vX<^v
i|/inj/rj
airia,
fully.
18
5u'AiJ.ei.
of these three
identified with the
So Metaph. viii. 4, 1044,
third.
taws Se ravra (i.e. eldos and
b, 1
Gen. An. 1.
rekos) &ix<p(c rd avrd.
yap alriat
vir6Kivrai
init.
1
rerrupes,r6 re ov cVexa w5 reXos,
causes
is
ravra
fikv
METAPHYSICS
manner we
357
which is God,
Form, the ultimate end of the world and
the source of
its
Aristotle in his
oZv
ios
eV Tt
riraprov
Tp'.rov Se Kol
is
t)
uAtj koL
'6dev
ii.
T]
1,
ahia
Kivovcra
virdpx^i
irpdoTT],
rd
Kol
and
elSos,
\6yos
c.
6,
where, as in i. 1, the
formal and the final cause are
identified, and only three principles are enumerated: the r4\os
or ou eueKu, the apx^ kivtjtlk^ koI
742, a, 28
?5os]
Kal
aVTt]
%<TTIV
Koi
U)S
7]
t^ yivu
at
avral
a'.irep
yap
iikv
7)
fiopcpT]
us
iffTiv
tV
5e? 5e Kal
'
Metaph.
'
5'
us
tp'ittjv
ti
uAtj,
t]
see
p.341,n. l,fin. Meta2)h.\\\.linit.:
iravTa to. yiyvofiepa vtt6 re rivos
yiyuerai Kal eK tivos Kal ri. Of the
ixp' ou it is said f urtlier on
Kal
ixp^ ov, 7) Kara rh eJSos Xeyo/xevr]
irpoffvTrdpx^i-v.
xii. 3,
(pvcris
7)
yiyvofxevcp]
avT7] 5' eV
aW(f.
tV
Kal
Kal
oIk'ixs
ttjs
All.
ii.
5e r^xvr] fiopcp^
Part. An.
'dXAcf.
&vev vXrjs
yap
iarpiKT]
7]
vyieias
ttjs
t]
ri
Xiyu
-fju
b, 28
4, 740,
ruv yivojxivuv
i.
1,
S'
elvai.
:
iv
610, a, 31
Corr.
ii.
9,
fx.op(p-h
Metapli.
Kivovu
xii.
iv
di/dpctiirois
by
4 fin.
/jihi/
(read
(irel
ro7s
avOpurccf),
5e
rh
<pv(riKo7s
approved
duOpuTTOS,
iv
larpiKT]
iffriv.
ARISTOTLE
358
final,^ in
and that of Form or concept. ^ This is the only distinction, therefore, which we must regard as fundamental that between formal, efficient and final causes
For though the
is merely a secondary subdivision.
;
and
and
it
only in the
separate."*
the
Form
Again, as the
is
and
it is
ii24, b,
it
is
15,
not
Cicn.
et
Curr.
that as the ov
i.
7,
eVe/ca
K0L'r]TiK6v.
dalv
5vo alriai
rh i^
oLvayKTis.
The opposition is indicated in 1, 17 in the words a.px'n
p, 642, a,
aZrai, r6 0'
ov
6.pa
eVewa
Koi
yap
T]
(pvais
which
/maWou
ttjs wAtjs,
with
1,
v.
is
in P/u/s.
*
plant.
^5iov
icrriv,
rris
rhv
apiOfihu, (iOev
^
iv
irAeious,
nacrai
See
p.
avr6v
r,
'
wv
fi'ia
Kivrjais iariv.
318 sq.
srijjra.
rhv
METAPHYSICS
once the passive subject of
is at
cause of
all
359
all
all
irddos
is
process of determination,
nothing, that
determinable
is,
in
itself, it has no
But though Matter is
wholly devoid of any such active and positive force,
quality
or
operative
force.^
it
every obstruction
that
And
so,
To what
plastic
and antagonistic
to
The
first
is
to be explained
by
in
is
no sense
Though
this
yet
it is
efficient cause,
Though
ends.
ditionally
Geii. et Corr.
'
ovv
^cra fxep
it is
not necessary in
7,
324, b, 4
e^et
to
itself, it is
so con-
rb
Kiucla-Oai,
rh
t)]V
TiKuiu,
immediately.
How exclusively
passivity was limited by Aristotle
to Matter, appears especially iu
jxt]
eV vKri
p.op<p)]v,
ibid.
kSv
1.
ii.
18
9,
t/S'uAtj
ri
y4po5
ov.
v\r} iraOrjri-
his anthropology.
ARISTOTLE
360
riato
distiiig-iiished
yiyuerai)
JJir.
cf.
1.
(512
sqq.
Aristotle
tinction.
87;
Metaph.
Pc;,s^.
ii.'u, 94, b,
1015, a, 2(5
sqq.,vi. 2, 1026, b, 27, xi. 8, 1004,
b, 88) Cf. Mctaph. xii. 7, 1072, b,
rh yap kva-yKOLOv roaauraxoos,
11
TO fx-ev I3:a otl vapa ryjv opjjLrjV, to
Se ov OVK civv rh ev, rh Se /x^ eV5eXo/i6j/oy aWws dAA' airAcos.
Part.
An. i. 1, (i8'.), b, 21: rh 5' e| audyv.
5,
iir)s
ov
iraaiu
(pvcriu o/noLccs
fxiv
awAuis
virapx^i
....
To7s
to7s
kuto,
virapx^t 5e t6
aiBiois,
rd
5'
i^
avdyK-q.
8'
av ris aTropr}<Tie
TToiau Xeyovffiv avdyK7)v at keyuvres
e'l audyKrjs' tuu /idpyap Svo rpdiruv
ovSerepov olov re virdpx^iv, rww
'lacos
diaspKTjj.ei'wv
Toov
on ovx
rpoircov, dAA.'
rovro 5'
iarlp wa-iTip e| uTrofleVews. Gen.
An. i. 4, 717, a, 15 ttuv rj (pvcris
5id rb avayKa7ov Troie? 7) 5id ro
7)
fifXnov ii. 6, 748, b, 16: irdpTa
oiou T &vev Tavrrjs eJvai.
avdyKris, ttj
%VQKd Tivos
iv.
a/xcpOTcpas tcls
e'l
ws
Tr\))u
5t'
v\7)v
Se Kal
dfxoius
'
iiKr)
Pe An.
So/fg? 5e
aTr?\a>s
ncriv
alria
TTcos
dinov,
ai Kivr,a^is
ai
416,
9:
ii. 4:,
rov
r)
tt/s
a,
-rrvphs
rpocprjs
<pv(Tis
Kal
rrfs
rh 5e crvvair lov
ianv, ov firjv air\us ye
av^^<TQ}s hai
fiev
Kal
\y6fjLvov
ravrr\s.
aWafiaWov
Gen.
7) ^vxriii. 9, 335, b, 24 sq.
it is
not the matter which is the pro-
et Corr.
and moved
it is
;
METAPHYSICS
361
8e T7JS
rhu \6yov
rj
kuto,
eueKo.
Kexprirai, x4yup.v.
Eudemus
ajmd Sim PL. P/12/s. 63, a, that
matter and aim are the two
this
is
the statement of
causes of motion.
Within the
sphere of conditional necessity
there is again (Gen. An. ii. 6, 742,
a, 19 sq.; where, however, 1. 22,
we must read, not ov IVe/ca but
with Cod. PS. and Wimmer
rovTov u.) a twofold distinction
made between that which as
efficient cause
conditions the
production of
anything and
that which is necessary to it as
the instrument of its activity:
the former must precede in origin
the thing which it aims at producing the latter must follow it.
Cf. on the whole subject Waitz,
Arist. Org. ii. 409 sq.
Part. An. iv_. 2, 677, a, 15
KaTaxpVTai fxev ovv fviore r] (pvais
;
c.
8 Jin.,
mention
is
made
of
phenomena oaa
yiveaOai (rv/xfiaivei
fx^ VKd TOV aXX' e| avdyKrjs Koi 810,
T^u alriav t^i/ KivrjTiK-fji/. According to Metajj/i. viii. 4, 1044,
b, 12, the eclipses of the moon
appear to serve no end
vei 6
;
ovx
^TTOJs
ARISTOTLE
362
We
shall hereafter
and how many phenomena he accounts for by the resistance of Matter to Form.
Again the same property
of Matter is also the source of all contingency in
By
Nature.^
'
the contingent,'
carefully
first
examine
to
stands in general
all
that which
is
neither contained
KareXOuu
to S' av^drovTov yivoixivov rhv <t7tov
ofxoicas 5e
(rvfj-fiaivei.
Koi ^X
rcf)
with contingency.
Whether
'
'
its
is
That
yevifxcvop
iii.
the
normal.^
{ibid.
who was
conception,^ under-
being,"*
viOfQai
Aristotle,
this
existence
also of all
of
freedom
5r]\ovvTi
Sea 5e
iirdpx^i, (rvfififiTiK6Ta
firfderepoos
further, t^
/iiev
avrh, rd 5e
6r(f}0vv
evl
virdpx^iv
and
fievov
/col
T(f
Svi/ardv,
KoL
avTCf
cf p. 234, n.
[xij
on ivS^x^-
p. 218, n. 4,
on avfificfirjKos.
Metaph. v. 30, init. ffvixfie-
p. 214, n. 3,
^
firiKos
AeyeTai
ft
virdpx^i
fji-fv
Ttv*
METAPHYSICS
363
first
place
all
all
final
many
It follows
from
this
The
latter
of
its
perfect accomplishment
'^^
owing
to the inde-
owing
to the
design.^
ally
contingent or accidental
same
1026
t^ ttoKv.
definition is given
b, 31 sqq. (xi. 8).
e|
The
vi.
Phys.
2,
ii.
5 init.
Be Cwlo, i. 12, 283, a, 32:
rh fifv yap avrcfiaTSv icTTi Kal rh
aird Tvxv^ Trapa ro ctel Kai rh a>s
;
iirl
ii.
8,
Ccclo,
'
ii.
8,
289, b, 26.
b, 31,
19, a, 7.
^ Be Interpr. c. 9, 19, a, 9
there must be contingency, '6ri
:
event
is
uAtj
alrla,
(XTai
irapa t5 ws
rh
iirl
fj
-ttoXu
iubexofx^vr]
&\\u}s, rod
(see p. 345,
n. 5, svjjra), v. 30, 1025, a, 2i: ovSe
S^ aXriov copicrixivov ovdev tov
a-i;^)8e)37?/coTos,
aWa rh tvx^u,
tovto S' aSpiarou. Cf. n. 5 infra.
See pp. 3G0 sqq. s^qjra,
(rv/i/SejSTj/cf^Tos
vii. 7
'
See
u.
3,
sniira.
Phys.
ii.
ARISTOTLE
364
its
Now,
since these
Contingency,
in
sense of the
Aristotle's
may
obedience to a purpose
is
or cpnception of an object
eo'Ti
Siavo'as
ii.v
(pv(T(ios.
TO,
5r)
(pafXiv flvai
oaa anh
ysvrjTai,
avixfieP-)]Khs
a'jTo aXriov
Kol
.irpaxdeir]
airh
rh
tvxV^
ovv /ca9'
rh 5e /cara
/xlv
oi>pi(Tjj.4i/ov,
yap
&j/ T(f hi cru/xfia'T].
It is chance,
for instance, if one conies to a
place for another purpose and is
rewarded in a way he had not
aupiarov
(TvfxfiefirjKhs
thought of
OLTreipa
he (Metaj)h. v.
30) digs a hole and finds a treasure
or if
place
or
if
desires to sail to
is
carried to
another or, generally, if from
action directed to a definite end
one
l:ie
and
yhrjTai, ov
e|cD
a'lTiov,
activity in
That which
realised.^
is
is
it
But
unessential
and there-
tion
uxTT
atria, Koi
7]
iireiBi]
rvxv
aopiara ra ovtus
197, a, 20).
Akin to this, but unimportant for our present investigation,
is the coincidence in time of two
5,
'
OVTOS,
METAPHYSICS
3G6
on the
After what has been already said about
non-existent.^
it
While
it is
becomes
From Matter
'
clearer
still
'
Aristotle is
is
apt to
'
Anal. Post. i. 6, 75, a, 18, C.
Mctaph. ihid. 1 02G,
30, 33 init.
b, 2, 1027, a, 19 (xi. 8).
2 MctajjJt. vii. 5, 1030, b, 21
sex
,
is
ix,iir\hu\eB,i\\eKaQ' a-jTavTTapxovTa;
but
aurrj
Koi
7;
Siacpopa
fieXavia,
kot^ r^y
crw/xart.
rh avrb
hih
(Tireptxa
OrjKv
An.
iv. 3,
v)
&ppij/
Cf. Uen.
767, b, 8 sqq.,
ii.
3,
in
remarked
by Engel,
Ueb.
d.
ARISTOTLE
366
we
Similarly
sliall
as imperfect
formations
Matter that
must
w^e
from tlie
follows
This
general consideration that all
Change and Becoming presupposes a material (sec jj.342,n.2 sq.
suj^ra) which, as Suvdufi ov contains the possibility alike of
being and not-being ( Gen. et
'
Cor?',
ii.
Metaph.
vii.
and
7,
eCTt
[Or as this
203, b,
4,
5'
ovdiv Svudfxd
dtSioj/.
\6yos 8e oSe.
rf/s avTKpda^ws
-KCKra
iffriv
aua
diiua/JLLs
[the possi-
t})
S'
iv^ex^lJ-^vov
Hvai
(xri
2, init.).
sqq.)
overcome
^ yap ovala
ovk eufpyeia,
iffri
Ka\
27
otrcoj/
/nera/SoA./;
Furthermore,
its
6.K\riXa.
o(Ta
PdWeiv
ecTTiv
Tj
S'
/ur/,
oea
vii. 10, 1035, a, 25
ovv (TvviiXriixixiva rh elSos Kal
ravra fxku
iarlu
i/Atj
v\7i
jx^v
it
and cor-
(pdiiperai
ravra
els
oaa Se
/jt.^
forms,
of immaterial
ou5'
i<rri
1070, a, 15
yivecris Ka\ (pOopa rovrcav, aAA'
dWov rp6irov etal Kal ovk clcrlv
olKia re rj dvev vkrjs Kal vyieia Kal
irav rh Kara rexvr\v not the form
as such, as we must understand
said
is
xii.
3,
^8'
10G9, b, 24
irdvra
5' i/'At/i/
ex^t
3, 465,
TrdfTri fxeu
rh
ei/dv
eudex^Tai,
irau
8'
elvai
would
be
independent
exist-
MBTAPHYStCS
said of all badness
ences
'].
ovv,
orav
^ rh
fi-ff.
Metaph.
ix. 9, 1051, a, 15 ;
Aristotle seems, indeed, to assert
the very opposite of this avdyK-r)
8e Koi itrl Twv KUKccv rh Te\os Kal
iuepyeiav eJvai
x^^P^^ '''VS
Suua/iiecas
t5 70^ Suvduepou ravTO
&!J.(pci) ravavTia.
Srjkou &pa on ovic
eVri rh Ka/cbj/ Trapa to irpdyfiara
vaT^pou yap ttj (pvffei rh Kanhv rrjs
'
tV
'
'
But
Suvd/j.e(i}s.
this only
means
minations (see
what
p. 234, n. 1, S7ij)ra)
merely Swdfxei hv we
cannot attribute one of two
mutually exclusive qualities,
such as good and bad, as the
Platonists had done in explaining matter as evil (cf. I)k\ i.
to
is
5i(X(p6opa
is
rwv KaKwu
There
no imperfection in the eternal,
since
7i(f
it
367
ia-riu.
admits that
Seo/jLeuT]
ixera^oXris
rj
(pixns
yap
ou
And
SO we
shall find that Aristotle traces
all imperfect forms of natural
existence to the resistance which
the matter offers to the form and
by a parity of reasoning he would
have been forced to refer the
aK\rj
oi55'
iirieiKTis.)
ARISTOTLE
368
feet
Matter,
things at least
and Form.
all
those
Aristotle
certainly
of the
definiteness that
he recognises
and
man, incorporeal beings free from any taint of Matter,
which we must nevertheless regard as being also individual existences.^ Yet when the Form becomes actual in
the rational part ot
anv material,
it is
had he
not, as
we
wholly
vague.
"'
Aristotle himself has not
overlooked this objection. He
meets it {MctapU. viii. 4,1044, b,
eVi Se twv
6) with the remark
(pvcriKciy jiifv aiSiwv 5e ovaiuv &\\os
:
aXXa
fx6vov
Kara
Similarly xii, 2,
1069, b, 24. The ether, for instance, of which the heavens and
the heavenly bodies consist, is
said to have no ei'avTiwo-is and
therefore to be subject to no
It has
chano-e in its substance.
T6irov KivoTiv.
why the
On
each of
Aristotle.
METAPHYSICS
369
The Form
or Concept
is
always a
and capable
173, n. 2.
2 3Ietaph. viii. 8, 1033, b, 21
the form
oipifffxivov
ovK
f(TTiv,
aWa
iroiel Kal
But this
mark of
the distinctive
is itself
Seeuotesatpp.216, 221,&c.
supra.
1035, b, 27 sqq.)
Toiovde
elSos
i(Tri
rh fih \6yos rh
fiep iv Tqi
ttSei
ooai
evavTi6Tr}T(s
S' i/Arj,
\6ya) flfflu
voiovai Siacpopav, Hcrai
VOL.
I.
5' cV
fxeXauia
ov
TTotu
Se
us
v\t]
yap
6 6.v6p(i}iros,
Sia<})opay
tj
i/Atj-
[a specific
ovk avdpccrrov
yap
is
K tovSc roidvSe.
through-
difference]
<5
t^
'irepov fxh',
members
form).
of
it
{e.g.
their bodily
B B
ARISTOTLE
370
out
but
it is
several individual
the contrary, the
former always resolves itself
Metaph.
finally into the latter.
koli.
xii. 5, 1071, a, 27, it is said
Tu>v eV Tahrf^ et'Set eVepa [sc. to.
fiSej,
aW'
(TroLxeld eVriv], ovk
OTL ruiv KaOcKaarou 6,\\o, Vj re a)]
elSos
rh
v\7} Koi rh Kivr\<Tav Koi
Kal 7] e/j.^, r(^ Ka66\ov Se Xdycp
While, however, accordravrd.
essence
things;
no room
or Socrates.
The only
of
Callias
on
ground of individuality
the matter
v\r]
18).
(1.
(etrrt 5'
T]
fiiv
of Metapli.
/meu
in
Kol iffTi
T^
is]
lies
(veffTi,
fore
for
viii.
ovaiaTh
vXt]
1,
is true
1042, a, 26
viroKfi/xevov,
&\\ws
^Woos
\6yos Koi
5' 6
rdSc ri hv ry \6y(f)
rpirov 5e rb iK
rovTCov, ov y^vecns fiSvov Ka\ <p6opd
i(TTi Koi x'^P^^'''^^ air\u>s), and of
the similar statement, Metaph. v.
8 (see p. 3 72, n. 2, i7ifra). The form
is a rJSe in so far as it expresses
a definite kind of being (man,
but it becomes the
beast, kc.)
form of a definite individual
thing in being united with a
Considered
material.
definite
an
elSos of his
own
different
from
1, it
is
'
/J-opcph
iv
rep
T]
fxopcpr],
XcopjcTToV
icrri.
universal,
and
as
conclude,
union it is a
not true to
Hertling does
it is
(Form
If.
Mat.
that Phys.
iv.
5(5),
3,
'
Still
less
in such passages as
individual
Metaph.
Forms of
xii. 5,
1071,
a,
METAPHYSICS
871
sensible things.^
Every Individual
20 {apxh
\ov
'
'Ax'^^ecos, &c.)
itisCasHERTLiNG-
Moreover,
"(Siou elSos
(Metaph.
xii.
we
we
BB
ARISTOTLE
372
two terms
'
is
If Matter
ently.^
an Individual.^
object of sense
is
suppose that
sible to
and
'
its
individual
the cause of
it is
all this,
own
rather
indiffer-
'
impos-
it is
Form only
distinguished from
'
must
contri-
it
Form.
to
iari ri
-^ju
See
Plato
2
ivavTicos
e.g.
Meta2)h.
1.
6,
988, a,
Kahoi
5'
o-vfifiaivfi
yap
ot /itv
Trjs
e/c
(paiviTai
which,
>';
r^
els
V)
Kai
TovToou,
i.
9,
7]
e'^ty
Kad^
227, b,
(paiveadai
Se (pvcris (here
ris
'
ert
rpirr]
De
(Kaffra.
is
Form as such
7)
ck
Ccnlo^
219, n.)
something
differ-
and
cKaarov.
eirel
yap
alcr9T]Thv
airav
eV
t^
vKri
sjtecies.
of multiplicity,
METAPHYSICS
373
a higher value,
when we
we have
as
seen,
Substance,
is
always
is
and
if
universal,
Form,
and if
the
therefore
Matter
just
to
then
we cannot
is
and that
of
'
and have
(uTTOKStfisvov)
substratum of
all
it
primitive Substance of
all
for Aristotle to
Matter the
also recognised in
admit
Yet
it is
impossible
this.
its
Moreover,
Aristotle
He
there
are
which
2
'
*
27;
iii.
1080,
Kal
A7a;
S'
tV
Substance.'*
4,
6e
fKaarov
.
is
belongs,^ so that
b,^ 5,
(eiSos
it
'
Form with
expressly identifies
Form
Trpdirr]v ovalav
ovaiau av^v v\r]s to
it
rl ^v ehai),
ARISTOTLE
374
of the thing.
im-
Substance (ovald)
is
and
strict sense of
whether we are
to assign
it
the word.
The question
is
to a
Form which
or
self-identical.
In
his Metaphj^sics
the Matter, or
in
it
altogether.
in the Form, or in
Whole produced by
exist, things
(rwu
fxhv
5'
'
and
1017, b, 23
(rv/xfidivei Sr; Kara Svo rpoirovs t)]V
ovffiav \4ye(rdai, t6 6' vrroKeififVOV
Metapk.
V.
<E<Txo.Tov,
8,
fjir}KTi
Kar^
6,\\ov
hv r65e ri hv Kal
[where, however, as
X<*>pi<tt6v f?
8CHWEGLER and BONITZ rightly
remark upon this passage, we
\4yTai,
Kal h
Xoopiffri^v to
cf. viii. 1
METAPHYSICS
the combination of
Bat
both.^
He
from satisfactory.
375
answer
his
cannot
that Matter
admits
far
is
the substratum of
it is
Nor
amid change.^
Matter
the
TOiovrov Se
rb
being
latter
;
kKaffrov
rj
fiop(ph
Kal
we may
'
369, n.
a,
6,
Be An.
sujjra)
(see p.
Ind. Arist. 545,
ii.
23 sq.
2
Metapli.
3,
Xo^p^fTrhv
SoKfl
Meta^yh.
conceive of a Substance
on
5'
eV
irdaais
viii. 1,
1042, a, 32
vKt] hr\\ov.
t]
IMdAx.
ralsfjerafioXais. Cf.p.344.
yap
/xeu
Tjfxus
Kal
v\r]u
ar(pi](Tiv
fieu o'JK
rr}v
v\7]v,
oudaficis.
vXrfU,
rr)V
Be An
ii.
rijv
7ra)9,
Kad^
areprtaiv
5e
r}]u
5e
ffrfpr](riv
(see p. 669,
n, 6, supra).
5'
%ari
1029, a, 27,
several reasons
vii.
after adducing
in support of the view that the
Form,
only poten-
former
the
actually,
how can we
for
f/5os.
ifnd. 0. 2
maintain that
sufficient to
it
title,
is
tially so
is
altogether of this
it
all
\onrhp
tV
alcrdrirwv
fin.
ris
7]
ris
etVetj/
<pavfphv
5r/
yap ws
eVepyeia
7}
Svpdfiei,
ovcriav
iffriv.
ruv
Ibid.
iK rwv elpTJixevoy
7}
fxkv
'6ri
^s ivcpyciav
v\7],
7)
7)
Se
5'
Kal ttws
ws
rpir7]
'
fiop<p^,
r)
CK
ARISTOTLE
376
show how
Form
in itself
us
Finally,
it
is
why
ivepyela.
:
Kal
T^v
oTov
fiop(pr]v,
t}
oIk'u irdTepuv
irXivOcoy Kal
Tt>
?5os
fxaWov
T?is
vAris
irpoTcpov
Kal
Kal
rod ef afKpolv
xpSrcpov fffrai line 29 rh eldos
xal rh ef a/x^olv ovcrla SS^eiev &j/
iy,
rrjs
r^y
vKrjS.
fikv
'
Aristotle
Mctaph.
viii. 3 init.
iyiore
XavOdv^L trSrepov crrjfialpei rh tvo/xa
(TwOfTov
T
ovff'av ^ T^ju ivepy^iav
'
ehai fiaWov
b, 2,
vii.
ii.
5,
c.
1,
412, b, 11.
10, 1035,
a,
Mcfaj)h.
1 sqq. b,
METAPHYSICS
377
or Matter separately. ^
Forms
conclusion that
Substance.
On
harmonise.
fails to
is
to
always Universal.
is
On
He
how
explain
may
cannot
coexist in one
and hence the above-mentioned contraAt one time the Form, at another the
Individual which is the product of the union of Form
and Matter, appears to be the Actual. Matter causes
philosophy,
dictions arise.
Metaph.
15 cited at p.
vii.
219, n.
viii, 1,
TovTwu
1042, a, 29
TpiToi/ 5e
rb
and matter],
[form
e/c
oZ
c. 3,
1043, b, 10
ou5e 5r/ 6 avdpwiros
t6 ((^ov Kal diTTovu, aWd ri
:
iffTi
ovaiav Xiyoi^v.
audyKT} Sh Tavrrju
AUtSTOTLB
878
among
the
also
vital
him
to solve the
had stumbled.
others
as well as
all
tinction of
especially, as
of this
problem.
of
its
becoming Actual
Everything
that
it
is
that
is
to
become actual must be potential and conis potential must at some time
;
become
actual, since
and
Cf.
pp.219,
369, n.
5.
n, 2, 351, n. 1,
De An.
ii.
1,
412,
b, 6, c. 2, 4 14, a, 19 sqq.
2 Aristotle, indeed
(^Metaph.
ix. 3)
what
is
never to be actual
Nor does
Aristotle
mean
METAPHYSICS
379
Matter of
itself implies
provoked by
for
it,
On
is
by
ness to Matter
Form
to
is
tov
6p4ya6ai
deiov
ayadov
Kal
7,
(icjov
1072, b, 3
ibid,
a,
26
ws
Kivel
rh
oi)
ipdo-
hp^Krhv
Kivovjx^vov.
no
mere
to is
of art ovdffi'au
fioKrjs efKpvTov,
Spfiiju
1023,
jx^ra-
e;^et
a, 8,
Cf. Metajfh.
Post.
ii.
11,
94,
inner necessity,
b,
37,
dvay/crj
where
Kara
rijv
it)
itself.^
xii.
the
is
it
it
But the
distinguished
compulsion, audyKr] "jrapa
t)]v 6pij.^v, and the falling of a
stone quoted as an example of
the former (similarly Metaph. v.
5, 1015, a 2f3, b, 1, c. 23, 1023, a,
17 sq., xii. 7, 1072, b, 12
cf.
(pvaiy Koi 6pfi})u, is
from
Hektling, Mat.
Form,
u.
91).
sq.
b,
35
and
if
he seems to do so in individual
passages, yet is the distinction of
each from the other so loosely
defined that in different passages
the same is assigned to both.
Thus motion is usually called the
entelecheia of matter, the soul
the entelecheia of the body
(cf. Phys. iii. 1, 200, b, 26, 201,
a, 10, 17, 28, 30, b, 4 viii. 1, 251,
;
a, 9
Be An.
27, b, 5, 9,
ARISTOTLE
380
The
Motion.^
correlation
therefore
(3) Motion
and
the first
we have
guoted.
its
own end
thought,
in
happiness, is called
energeia, while on the other hand
that which is subord inate to an end
outside itself and ceases with its
attainment, e.ff. building, walking, &c., is called motion.
(On
these two kinds of activities, ?;.
also c. 8, 1050, a, 23 sqq.) Metaph. ix. 8, 1047, a, 30 again
seems to appropriate eVreAexeta
to the state of completion, eVe'pyeia to the activity directed to its
attainment, or to motion (Sok7 yap
life,
in
other words,
is
it
(pavfphv
202, b, 7
a-rrXMs ivtp-
what he meant by
and
An.
Form and
Causes.
Cause of Motion.
the definition
of
its
'6ri
:
Klvrjffls
Kivrjffis
iariv
c.
2,
cVreAexeja rod
METAPHYSICS
381
The movement of
Actuality.'
which a house
can be made, into an actual house. But motion is the
entelechy of potential existence only qua potential and
not in any other relation.
for instance, out of
which a statue
is cast,
brass,
made
KivrjTov
into a statue.^
f)
kivi]t6u
4>a/iej/ Stj
tV
viii. 1,
25
a, 9
X^tav Tov
KH/7JT0V p Kiyr)T6y. So
Metaph. xi. 9, 1065, 'b, 16, 33 see
preceding note.
That only this transition and
;
t'
by
means
Pleasure,
e.g., is
said not to be a
is
quoted
definition is
explained.
sqq.).
a, 9, sqq.
xi. 9,
it
(and
1065, b,
Brentano's explanation
second
bronze
place, when,
e.g.,
the
which is potentially a
statue is formed into the statue,
its KLVT](Tis
becoming
kudpihs,
its
i.e.
bron7e,
Aristotle, however, has
stated the meaning of his definition
unambiguously
in
the
and
ARISTOTLE
382
is
clear,
only applied to
be
movement;
particular
for
case of
tlie
special or
movement
sucli
is
always
some
sort of its
own.
general notion of
by which Potentiality is actualised, the development of ^fatter by Form, since the material (pia
material is mere Potentiality which has not yet in any
process
destruction.
It
all
sumed by
that wheu he
Aristotle.^
It follows
refuses to regard
is
never as-
said,
as
must be accepted
as a relative one
h^
on other occasions^ employs motion and change as synonymous terms. The doctrine, however, of the different
kinds of motion belongs to Physics.
We
is intermediate between
and actual being it is Potentiality struggling
into Actuality, and Actuality not yet freed from Poten-
potential
tiality
in
other
distinguished
from mere
Potentiality
its strictest
'
E.g. Pliys.
It
by being
is
sense
is
an
by
directed
iii. 1, 201, a, 9
2 initAv. lO/fin. viii. 7,
261, a, 9, and 2)assim.
sqq.
c.
METAPHYSICS
to
383
an object
instance,
is
only an unaccomplished
motion
is
opposite
Hence each
effort. *
particular
that which
there
it
is also
it
it
Motion
7}
re K'vqcris
Se' aXriov
areX^s
areAes rh dvvarhv,
ov iarlv rj ij/epyeia.
It is therefore neither a (rreprjcris, nor a
5' '6ri
irpa^is
7]
'
Kiv7](Tis
rh
8e
Meiaiih. ix.
5e
Twv
6, 1048, b, 17
eirel
irpdlewv wv earl irepas
:
irpa^is
Kal
ov yap
fiefidSiKev,
owS'
a}xa
fiaBi('ei
o'lKoSojuLel
Kal
ajxa
areXijs fxevroi
7}
yap
"tiv,
7)
iii.
;
7, 431, a, 6:
rov areXovs evepyeia
airXws evepyeia erepa 7) rov
Kivriais
S'
rereXea-fxei/ov
2
1, 224, b. 26 sqq.
Metapli. viii. 1, 1042,
32,
2, 1069, a, 13:
eU
evavrictxreis hy elev ras KaQeKaarov
PItys. V.
225, a, 10
a,
xii.
fxera^oXai
avdyKT) Si] fierafidXXeiu r^u vX7]V Svva/j.eu7]v &iLL<pco
eirel 5e dirrhv rd hv, fieraBdXXei
trau eK rov dvyafxei ovros els rd
evepyeia ov.
Cf. p. 342 sqq.
at
ARISTOTLE
384
Form upon
the
which moves
Potential or Matter
itself
we always
even in that
it
the soul
as
we
is different
from
Even
in cases
yet another
it,
5,
but
also be at rest
neither can rest and movement
of
it
in the
must
self- moved
be dependent
kripas
Svvd/xews.
See
further,
:U1 sqq.
2 See preceding note and Phys.
it is impossible
iii. 4, 255, a, 12
that a (Tvux^^ ^al avfx.cpv'ks should
be self -moved
^ yap %v Ka\
p,
ffvvfX^^
M^
Metaph.
?l
ix. 1,
1010,
a,
28]
aAV
iroitiv
that
TO
8e
Nothing
Trdcrx^^^-
is
e'lrl
Kivrj ri
rcJov
ai^'vx^'^
opcoficv,
orav
avra
aWa
T(V /x\pvx(^i^
Kal
av/x^aivei
Kive'tcrQai
ravra
yepoiTO
ttu
(pauephu
257, b, 2
advvarov 5)] rh avrh aiirS kivovv
irdvTr] KLv^lv
aWh avru ^epoiro
yap av oXov Kal (pepoi rrjv ahr^v
(popav, ev hv kol aTO,uov tQi ei'Sft,
&c., Tt bicapiarai on Kivcirai rd
KivrfTov, &c.
(see p. '68'^, n. 1).
Therefore, we certainly hear nothing in Aristotle of any Identity
of Mover and Moved
(Biese,
Phil. d. Arist. 1. 402, 7, 481)
:
c. 5,
'
'
'
MBTAPHYSICS
seed
38$
is
is
the thing
effected is the
is
therefore, is the
common function of
both, though
it
takes
\
Metaph.
'
oel
e/c TOX)
ix.
Svud/jLei
1049, b, 24
liuTos yiyverai rh
8,
&vdpcoTros
e'l
/jLOvcriKOv, del
1050, b, 3
(pavephu (in irpSrepou rrj
euepyeia Suj/a/tiews
koI uiairep
:
ovcTia,
efTTOyuei/, Toil
xpovov aelTrpoXa/ufiduei
xii. 5,
a, 9
(I
1071, b, 22 sqq.
c.
6,']
072,
aWo
ivepyovv &Wa}S
ii. 1, 734, b,
'6(Ta. (pvcrei yiverat ^ rex^V vtt^
21
iuepyeia uvros yiverai eK rod Svpdjiiei
roiovrov.
Phys. iii. 2 fin. fldos
Se del o'taerai ri rh klvovu, ... &
del
eJuai
Kal &\\a}s.
aet
Gen. An.
icrrai
orav
TTOS
apxh foi
Kivfi,
e'/C
TOV hvudjXei UVTOS
duOpwrou.
Ibid. c. 7
viii. 9, 265, a, 22
Metaph. vii. 7,
c. 9 >/*., ix.
^fin., xii. 7, 1072, b,
30 sqq. Be An. ii. 4 init. iii. 7
init.
cf. also p. 355-6, mpra.
Phys. viii. 4, 255, a, 34 sqq.
[Only an apparent exception to
TTOiei
av9pu)irov
KaKelvas
dvdyKrj,
oTav ws
UuauTai [under the conditions
which limit their activity and pas.
'
TToirjTtKij,
waTe
(Ke7vai 5e
to);/
ivaiTiuv^
that
necessity forced this powder of
-choice to be exercised on both
alternatives, opposite effects must
be produced at one and the same
time).
For even in the case of
the latter, so soon as the choice
has been made, the result necessarily follows
oiroTepov yap tv
if
6peyr)Tai
T(S
tovto
Kvpiws,
OTavwsSvvaTai
Troirjaei,
irad-nTiKui
ovTOJs e^et
eo-Ti
TOV
avTuu
d/j-a iroielv
Finally,
it
tV
7}
Svuafxii/ ov5'
SvuaijLis (1.
22).
'*
irrational
VOL.
I,
effect
necessarily' produced
when the active and passive principles are in the condition ws
SvuavTai TToielv koI irdax^iv and
the general reasons of this have
already been stated at p. 378-9.
is
C C
AMISTOTLJ^
386
moved
>
where
3,
iii.
this is
De^
material thing.
426, a, 2
'
ci 5' i<Triv
r]
An.
r/
yap rov
2,
Kivriais Koi
KoX rb iraQos iv
TTOiTjo-is
iii.
tw
ttoiov-
iroirjTiKov
/col
To3
iroirjais
Traaxo!'''''
koX
o.\?C
See further
-noLodvri.
2
7/
t]
Trddrjais
ovk iu
p.
rw
358-9.
Cf. p. 378-y.
3
v Kivnais iuPhifS. iii. Jin.
TeAe'xeta rov Kiurjrov f] kiv7]t6v (rv,u'2,
)3atJ/ei
tovto
5e
iiioff oLfxa
0i|et
Koi irdcrx^i.
rov Kiv-qriKOv,
vii. 1, 242,
rh 5e Trpwrov
assumes
{Phys.
viii.
which
dWa
Kivwv
TraucTjToi Kivwv, kivovv Se eTi iaTiv
(267, a, 5;. The law of inertia, according to which motion persists
Kivovfxevov
/xev
d/xa
OTav
moved, is conceived
of by Aristotle as not merely a
momentary one giving the tirst
impulse only, but as lasting during the whole continuance of the
that which
is
obvious especially
from his account of the motion
motion,
is
How
to say.
sqq..
Be
Cwlo,
iv.
3 Jin.),
it
METAPHYSICS
Indeed, this appears to
yV even
of what
V through
touching
it
the
latter,
thinking subject as
manner God,
however,
Form
to
is
Matter
it
its
acts only
object
related
^
and
to
by
the
in like
we
in
is
contact
him
387
Form and
sents,'*
as
is
eternal as
and that
it
repre-
it
end.-^
if it
and
first
so a
they were at
to move.
rest,
But
since
if it
it
was of
moved by anything
else at all.
'
Cf. p. 203, n. 3.
Metaj)7t.. xii.
iii.
9,
4,
...
lOTl, b, 19,
429, b, 22,
'*
vov (x^
(ixTTe
'[
&</
CC
ARISTOTLE
388
with
tlie
we should
in this
before motion.
It is
movement
motion
equally impossible to conceive of
is always conditioned by
movement
a
of
The cessation
movement which puts an end to the first. As
as destructible.
another
the
perish.'^
never created and it will never
this point of view is infrom
Motion
although
*\ Yet,
which it has its limitain
aspect
another
there is
finite,
'
tion.
it
principle,
Since every motion presupposes a motive
involves
general
in
motion
that file idea of
follows
the assumption of a
moved by anything
first
else.
of moving causes,
should be involved in an infinite series
motion, because
which could never produce actual
and without
cause
first
a
to
us
they would never bring
kuI
Kivwiv, ^iVep 6
ehai
The above account contains on h.v6.yK7]
'^"^"^ '"' ";'5'^^'^\. With
in
discussion
the
XP''^^^
of
essence
the
pasThat motion must reference apparently to this
PJnis viii 1
1
ianu
et S^
251, b, 12
KivU^cos aple^lhs ^
viii. 1,
b xpovos
iixrirepKaco^popos?)
K.u^<r.<is
^ yaprhavrh
-.dOos.
The same
METAPHYSICS
that,
389
moved produces
own
its
motion, since
moved
cases,
however, resolves
it is
the
vi^hat
become
and hence the same thing
cannot at the same time and in the same relation be
both moved and moving. We are forced, therefore, to
admit a primum mobile. That principle, again, might
be either something moved and therefore something
The first of these
self-moving, or something unmoved.
is
to
the
itself into
second,
for
'
Phys.
rrdwra
aW'a^vvarov
(jydapToi.
Kivn-
and
criv
agreed that
neither efficient nor formal nor
even final causes permit of a
regresms ad injinitum.
Metaph. xii. 6, 1071, b, 4
^v.
Metaph.
avajKY]
ii.
(a), 2,
viii.
where
5,
cf
vii.
it is
='
aKiurjTou.
eJuai
TWf ovTuv,
riva
a'iSiov
ouaiau
et
Tracrai (pdapral,
v)
ael
yeu<rdai ^ (pBaprjuai
c. 7, 1072, a, 21 : eo-rt
'
Kivovfxevoy
Kivrjcriv
ean
Toivvv
Phys.
&irav(TTou
ykp
ael
.
koL % kivu.
viii.
xii.
7,
5, 25G, b, 20
1072, a, 24 (as
;
ARISTOTLE
390
an isolated one in Aristotle's pliilosophy. Actuality in the highest sense is synonymous with Pure
Form devoid of Matter the Absolute Subject which as
is
not
perfect
Form
is at
the Universe.^
from the
first
consumma-
tion in God.
And
formed the
actually
thesis
this
God
In the same
from
two prin-
reflection
upon
A well-known fragupon
the witness of
laid
he
stress
what
ment shows
existence of
the
to
universe
beauty and order in the
justifitheir
Nor are these arguments without
God.'*
J)
Trepl
toIs virvois
niaffixovs
yap,
yivo^hovs
koX
eV
<P'n(T\v,
Tavr'r]s ^vBov-
naurelas.^ orav
virvovv Kad' eourV
ras
ry
tovtwv
ovv,
vire-
^i\o(ro(ptas(as to
death,
&\Ko &X\ov
fieXriov, cariv
rh
apa ri
/col
ix.
20
fjLCTedpuiv.
dXX' avh
TTjv
<Tv}xfiaiv6vr(i)v 5td
^vxhf'
fihu
(f)'n(r\v,
aWa
8)/
Koi airb
/xevoi
eeloj/."
e'/c
uor^ffav ol
yap
ruv
ficB'
fierewpcov
T]^4pav ^ fxev
BeaffdifiXiov
rev rSiV
iuS/JLiaav
elval
irepiiroXovvra,
roiavTTjs
Kiu-ljcrews
curiov.
rS}v irepl
rovs iv
also
In the brilliant
from the
11.
i^r.
14 (prob.
(piXo(ro<pias
in
METAPHYSICS
cation in
i391
his
certain points of
in
an obscure
The beauty
intelligence.^
connection of
human and
the divine
its parts,
the
and
stars,
the
inviolable
whom we
shall
Being placed
far
whom
alone
iV.
D.
minds us
ii. .37,
95,
all
which
re-
the beginning, of
Plato's picture of the dwellers in
si
the cave {RejJ. vii. init.")
essent, qui sub
terra semper
habitavissent
accepissent
at
'
autem fama
et auditione, esse
et vim Deorum
deinde aliquo tempore, patefactis
terrae faucibus, ex illis abditis
sedibus evaderein haec loca, quae
nos incolimus, atqueexire potuissent
cum repente terram et
maria coelumque vidissent, nu-
quoddam numen
solem
ejusque
tum
magnitudinem pulchritudinemque
tum etiam efficientiam
cognovissent,
quod
is
diem
efficeret toto coelo luce diffusa;
cum autem
terras
Oonse-
nox opacasset,
tum
omnium
turn crescentis
eorumque
senescentis
et
ortus
ratos
ARIS7VTLE
892
in
in
spirit of his
Kex(^pi-(riJ-^vov Tt KoX
/)
T-V Ta^LV,
v)
aucporepws,
tlxrirfp
GTpdT^vjjLa.
In the case of an
array the good resides as well in
the general as in the order of the
whole in the former, however, in
a still more prhiiary sense than in
the latter. The universe is com:
IDared to
an army
TCTaKrai
ttws,
ex^^ ocare
ouTcos
Tvphs
/jltj
OoLTepou fXTjOev,
eTvai
OVX
KOlI
Barepw
a\K' iari
tl.
irphs fiev
avTOov
7]
(pvais iariu.
Xcyco
5'
oTou
whole system.
The
Speusippus,
like
If,
we accept a
we
eoiKC S'
6/c
rwv
7}
(pvats e7reja-o5iw57]S
(paivofxevooy,
oiaa
wairep /jlox^VP^
rpaycpSia.
We have the same
point of view in I&. 16, preserved
us only by an unknown
to
scholiast, where Aristotle says
given several apxaK they must be
either ordered or disordered. But
the latter is impossible, since
from disorder no natural order,
no K 'ifffxos. could have arisen ei
Se Terayjuevai ^ e| kavTUV iraxQil'
aav t) virh e^ccOev Tivhs alrlas ; but
even in the former case exovcri ri
Koivhv rh avvdiTTOv avras KaKelvo rj
The comparison of the
a.px'horder of the world with that of
an army is further developed in
Sext. Math. ix. 26 sq., which
perhaps follows Aristotle Ilepl
:
<piXo(TO(pias.
sqq. 485).
T]
<pv(Tis
METAPHYSICS
unity of the world and
393
its
is
most important
in his
motion
is
treatises
that Aristotle
his theory of
itself
the condition of
The further
change.
all
characteristics of the
Supreme Being
Motion
must be continuous (crvvsxv^), and so
must be one and the same throughout. But such a
being eternal,
it
also,
it
single motion
is
single motum.
eternal as motion
is as
itself.^
is
single and
unmoved;
which
that
since
is
sary
'
and
Phys.
primum
It is
6,
259,
a,
13
the
Trpc^TTj otStos
motion
moving
presupposes
cause.
Cf.
a
p.
it
is
of
the
single
single
itself
the
absolutely
an unbroken and
consequently
this unconditional
viii.
is
moved, being
necessity
is
the law by
^ In Fr. 15 (preserved to us by
Simpl. Do Ccelo, 130, 45, K.,
Soliol. in Ar. 487, a, 6), from
)(
394
ARISTOTLE
is
held together.^
it
is
It
is
further
Only that
incorporeal.
on
by nature
"^
which there
But
that
all
is
merely potential
no element of unrealised
is
the Potential
is
The
the Aristotelian fragment.
passage in Plato's Republic, ii.
880, D sqq., as Simpl. remarked,
served as the original of it.)
The same reason is assigned
also in the De Ca-lo, i. 9 (see p.
395, n. fi) for the immutability of
God, and in Metaph. xii. 9, 1074,
b, 2(), for the doctrine that God
must always think the same
ex. p. 397, n. 2.
thing
;
1072, b, 7:
eVet S' eo-Ti ri kivovv avrh oLKiyriTOU
bv, ivepyfia ov, zovto ovk ej/Sexerat
xii.
7,
e'l
avdyKr]S
aW'
airXws
avayKa7ov']
&pa
TotauTTjs
ovpavds Kal
rj
apxvs
^pTTjrai
e/c
(pvm^.
Afrtaph.
ix. 8,
1050, b, 6 (follow-
quoted at
is
possibility.^
A Being that
necessarily material.
Metaph.
^^
is
is
T^
5'
^
TovTo avrd [relatively to
that], 'o \yTai eVSexec^at |U7j elvai
[the former, if I say, * it is possible
the latter, if I
for A not to be
say, it is possible for A not to be
in this place, or not to be so great,
or not to have this quality ']
airXais Se rh Kar^ ovcriav [but that
whose
is absolutely perishable
substance can cease to be]. ovOiv
&pa Toov a(p0dpT(i}V airXus Swdfiei
ovSt ruu e|
iorlv hv airKccs
airXus,
'/)
'
'
audyKiqs ovtuiv.
3 Metaph.
xii. 6, 1071, b, 12
there were a KivtyriKhv which
did not realise itself in action
there would be no eternal unineVSe'xeTot yap
terrupted motion
T^ Svvafiiu ^xov fjL^] ivcpyf7v. But
this would be equally true, et
:
if
ivepyficreL
'
METAPHYSICS
395
Only the
subject to
is
Moreover
all
is
always
But the limited cannot possibly produce an inactivity like eternal motion, for its power is just
limited.
finite
incorporeal,
primum
indivisible
motionless, passionless,
dvvarhv
fxev rohl,
from which
ovk
etTTot 5e,
immediately follows that we can never say of anything which by its very nature
it
'
xii.
Cf. p.
f),
ravras
vXtjs.
aWo
847
sq.
and Mefaph.
1071, b, 20:
Set ras ovaias
aiSiovs
yap
^ Plujs.
viii. 10, 266, a,
10
sqq. 267, b, 17. Metapli. xii. 1 jitu
" Metaph. xii. 7 (see
p 394, n.
;
a,
35
n.
1,
supra)y
Ccelo,
i.
9,
ovpavov
c.
8,
1074,
279, a, 16
SedeiKTai
ivSe-xcrai
oijre
on
&pa
(pavephv
Kevhv oOVe
on.
cf.
De
e|&>
Se rov
ovt'
eanv
yeueaOai
aufxa.
ovt tSttos ovre
((TtIu
;(;p(5j/os
e^oodev
'
ert
toIwv
eJua.i
auev
ye koI
SeT, et irep
Toov vTTfp
T^v
e^coTOTCtf
TTayix4v(av
alwva.
After some remarks upon
the expression ali^Vy Aristotle
proceeds rh rov iravrhs ovpavov
riXos KaX rh rhu irdvTa xP^^^v Kal
Tryi' aireipiav Trepte'^oy
riXos a'lwu
everything which
We
<popav,
iTvuivvjxiav,
Kal
ro7s
ddduaTos Kal
dWois
dcTos.
06 ev
i^^prrjTai,
S'
dfxavIt,
is
rarov)
must
be
unchangeable.
ARISTOTLE
396
By
a converse
process,
it
that
which
moves are
it
motion, or God,
(to rt
rjv
primum
mobile and
The cause
single.^
of
centred thought
is free
Thought.
in other words, is
from materiality,
all
Form
is
all
or,
self-
even the
for
soul has
corporeal
constructive
is
(TroirjTifcr))
nor practical
end of both
is
(irpaKTi/cr)) activity
external to them-
because
aWo
ovT yap
[nom.]
it is
Kp^lrrSv icrriu o ri
KLU-fjaei
oijT
Ix*'
is
on
irXdovs
ovpai'ol
Sxrirep
el
'
yap
di/dpcoiroi,
apiOfj.^
Se
'
'
'
eVreA-exeto yap.
Simpl.
Cf. p. 400, n. 1.
Ccelo, ii. 12, 292, b, 4:
T(p S' uis &pia-ra ^xovri oitdeu Set
TTpd^ecas eari yap avrh nh ov eVe/co,
however
7]
Kot
6.iravcrrou
5^
v\6y(os, unless
Klvr^triv
we
Kiuelrai
alter KivelTui
'-
De
'
METAPHYSICS
from Actuality
Thought
the
397
faculty of thinking
But
(Oscopla).
from actual
no undeveloped
potentiality
finite
rupted thought.
consists of
fect activity,^
fection.2
God, therefore,
and
vitality
and
is
He
the source of
is
all life.^
liJth. JV. X.
8, 1078, b, 20
S^ QoivTL rod TrpdrTeiv acpaipov-
rcp
fxivov, Ti Se
luaWov tov
Troi7u, ri
deii}p'r]TLKi]
ttv
eXr].
koX
tuv
man
(d avOpunipos vovs 6
twv
arvv-
tirety:
t)
v6t](Tis
"
ihv airauTa
Metaph.
avr)) aurijs
aloova.
vSvffis
[actual
9, 1074, b, 2o
rh 6ei6TaTov koI
ri/xiwraTov voe? Kal oh fxcra^dWei
^is
x^^P^^ 7P V fi(Ta^o\}] koI
Klu-qais ns ^'Stj t^ tolovtov.
Metaph. xii. 7, 1072, b, 28
(pa/xev Se [5^] rhv dehv ehai ^<^ou
dAAa
tyvafiis,
to avvex^s
alrcf rris voi](Tu>s.
Ihid. 1075, b,
7 (following BoNiTz's text) pure
reason is indivisible as is therefore the discursive thought of
avdpcairivwv 5^
TaTT]
7]
ravrri ffvyy^v^cr-
Metaph.
v^aifxoviK(ara.TT].
1074,
c. 9,
28
we cannot think of the
divine thought either as resting
or as in a state of mere potenb,
tiality,
for
et
fxr)
thought] iariv,
v\oyov iviiTovov
iivai
SrjKou roivvv
xii.
on
=*
ARISTOTLE
398
nothing but
itself.^
is
thou"-ht
Still
God be
alrictiv
Metapli.
70^
dAA.'
(Te/xyhv,
Kvpiov,
1074, b, 17:
tiv ejfrj to
9,
j/oeT,
ti
exet wcrn-ep
tiv
et
Kadevdooi'
i'lT]
xii.
fxridev
'
e'lre voel,
.
ti voel
ri.
'
tJ)
eavTO
yivuxTKei
taj)h. xii. 9
^ eTr' iviwu t]
rh Trpayfia ; eVt /xev rSiv
T\oi7]TiK(iov avev v\7]S 7) ovaia Kal to
7]
iinarr 7)1X7],
iin(rr7]iJ.ri
avTh
e(TTai,
voovixivov
efre
avTh
[?],
God.'^
(cf. c. 5
Kal
and
c.
tov
voriais
7]
De An.
fiia.
iii.
7 mit.')
4 pn.
eVi /xev
icXTi
Th
1075, b, 7:
exov v\7]v,
&c., see p. 397, n. 1, supra.
^ This view
is set forth in
the passage immediately following that quoted p. 394, n. 1 5ta
uMetajjJi.
xii.
9:
Th
fii]
adiaipeTov irav
ycay))
KivovvTi]
7}iJuv.
iifuv
TjSoi/^
icTTlv
S'
t^
[sc.
irpdlncf)
o'ia
'
0VTU3
ixkv
7)
ivepyeia
[so
BONITZ,
following
Alexander,
rightly
instead of t] tjS. iv4py.'] tovtov koI
Std toOto [i.e. because not God's
activity alone, but activity in
general, is pleasant, for in this
passage, as often in this book,
lucidity is sacrificed to an excessive brevity of style] iypifyopa-is
atcrdTjffis v67)(ns
Kal
jxviiixai
^iSkttov
Sid TauTa.
t]
^AxiSes Se
l\ vdrjais
tj
METAPHYSICS
These
Divine
Spirit
attempt to find a
first
Theism.
intelligence
self-conscious
as
the
contain
concerning the
Aristotle
of
propositions
.399
we
very threshold
solution of
which
is
theistic speculation
God
how
are
we
systems of
all
from
and
body and
of
yet preserve
his per-
Aristotle represents
vice versa ?
self-conscious Spirit
Him
we may
sonality,
God
as
outV fov
Ko.Q''
71
the more
Tov
uor}Tov
iuepyd
Kal
Se
ttJs
e^ajj'.
vovs,
ovcrias
Sicrr'
eKUVo
passage
OavfJiaarTSv
^W<-. x. 8,
earai
kuO'
aiirijv)
this
.,
as
Further cf
3, sujjra.
citedatp. 397,
n. 1; iJ/*^.
eXrovT] (pixris
154, b, 25
airArj eXr], del r} avri] irpa^is ijSioTT]
vii. 15,
t]
koX
w5i,
[i.e.
vdrjcris
ert
Se
'
Se
jxaKKov
5e'
ye virdpx^'^- V y^P vov
ivepyeia (o)^, e'/ce?i/os 5e t] ev^pyeia
ivipyeia Se t/ KaQ^ oi/tV eKclvov ^corj
at p. 397, n.
{t)
6;^ei
^a>)/
{^evepyiiv
blessed state.
On this meaning
of deupla vid. BONITZ, Tnd. Ar.
From 1. 18
328, a, 50 sqq.)
Se
et
'
Qavixaciwrepov.
xa^P* ''75<'V
1323, b, 23
and
t^
Fulit.
vii.
1,
&s cvdaifiwu
fxev iari Kal /xaKapios, Si' ovOhv Se
tuv
i^coTfpiKcov
^ecfJ
ayaQuv aXXa
tc^
ttoios
tis
Si'
ehai
ARISTOTLE
400
That neither
7rpa|ts
and that
the
7rpd|ts
then is
aTTOueTfiai XP^^" avrols ;
question
Se -Ko'ias
TrSrepa ras SiKtxias
ctAAa ras
ras i\fvdpiovs ;
ai 5e (Tuxppoves ti &z/ (hu ; All
these being inconceivable (5ie|lovai Se TTOLVTa (paivoLT^ av to. irepl
TUs 7rpa|ets fiiKpa. Koi avd^ia deuv),
avSpelovs
.
,'
fj
he concludes
t^>
8/j
C^vn,
&ic.
(ren. et Corr.
i.
than Trotetv.
conception
These details are much too explicit to permit the assertion
(Beentaxo, Psychol, d. Arht.
247 sq.) that Aristotle desires to
deny to Deity only such actions
sive
'
action
universal
must be ascribed to God on any
view) as result from a felt need,
and that therefore, while denying that irpdmiv contributes anything to the blessedness of God,
he does not deny that it belongs
to Him generally. Aristotle does
(irpdTTiv
'
quoted above).
Nor
is
it
any
objection to this view that Aristotle elsewhere {Eth. vii. 15, see
p. 398, n. 5 fin. Polit. vii. 3, 1325,
b, 28) speaks of God's -rrpa^is, since
the word here used in the wider
sense in which it occurs in Eth. vi.
2, 5, 1139, b. 3, 1140, b, 6 (where
it is said that irpaf^is differs from
;
in
cvirpa^la
METAPirVSICS
401
actions which
e^coTepiKoij
elsewhere
are
simply
called
Kal
(d dehs
voiova-iv).
336, b, 31
&
r]
(pvais
Gen. et
oiiShv
Corr.
{arvucirK-fjpwcre
fidrrfv
ii.
10,
rh oXov
mundane
iUd.
to be
thtj
p.
vovs
iroiTjTiKhs,
cates causality
VOL.
I.
and merely
indi-
in general with-
But
this
7]eiK)) e^ts
(Mk. vi.
2,
1139, a, 31)
impossible
to reconcile with Aristotle's conception of God. Furthermore,
it is
of
Nous
10
he
atae-nriKhv,
and remarks
iii. 9,
10,
'
D D
ARISTOTLE
402
solution
is
'
wholly unsatisfactory.
On
On
of thought.
is
mined
as
changes
these
much by
the variety of
of intellectual states.
conditions
and
its
Aristotle
is
in
deter-
by
by destroying
objects as
life
self- contemplation,
xii.
and
dAA.' iKeivr]
any such
'
On
effort is inconceivable.
has expressed
himself
with* a
no room
Neither the view of
AH
any
.S91, n. 2.
supra) offers
either.
Aristotle
is
diarovTou
iffriv.
If
we
Aristotle's
justification
>vntings.
10 (see p.
no support to
in
that
METAPHYSICS
less
weighty.
Aristotle describes
403
God, as we have
also more
and the ground of
extends
its
him
While we
belief in
care to individuals,^
Providence which
we may
'
D d2
ARISTOTLE
404
But if we attempt to
bring t*hese convictions into harmony with his theology
as above discussed, we are met by many questions to^
which
vj
noi]easy to find
it is
In the
place,
firsl?
it is
an answer.
obvious that
if
God
exercises
thing
He
else,
Here,
we have
itself,
moving
Form, without
however, we
already alluded
that
'
is
apparent beauty,
is
real
good)
desire
is
object)
and not
vice versa.
starting-point or principle.
by the object
in motion
two
of the
Cf. p. 421,
and
Eth.
S),
ix. 7,
117'.), a,
b,
7;]fi
4,
series
.SO,
p.
but
ii.
I>,
JJsAn.i.
Part. An. ii. 10,
a, 7, iv. 10,
NoTjr^ 56
7}
Thought, however,
of thought;
is
the
is
set
and in
and as is obvious
the series of being and
good. The expression refers to
tt^e
Pythagorean and Platonic
doctrine of the universally prevalent antithesis of being and notbeing, perfection and imperfecly point out,
Thought, therefore,
absolutely intelligible,^
4G0 sq.
Gen. An.
2G;
29
is
1177, a, IH, b,
27, 7;{7, a, 10
4U8,' b,
^'ij%,
beauty
from
tion,
1.
3o,
(fcc,
METAPHYSICS
Being stands
this
defined
first,
40o
as
and
communicates motion to the
rest.' 2
God, therefore, is the primimi mobile only in so
far as He is the absolute end of the world,^ the
Governor, as it were, whose will all obey, but who
never sets his own hand to the work.^ And He fulfils
tual.'
'
that which*
moved by
is
it
God upon
Without doubt
where
Metaph.
sort.''
1004,
a, 1, ix. 2, 1046, b, 2,xiv. 6, 1093,
b, 12, i. 5, 986, a, 28; Phys
iii. 2, 20U b, 25, i. 9, 192, a, 14;
Gen. et Corr. i. 3, 319, a, 14.
Metaph. xii. 7, 1072, a, 26
see BoNiTZ and Schwegler.
2 lUil. 1072, b, 3
Kiv^l 5e <ws
ipd>lj.pov, Kivovjxcvov (better Cod.
ET
is
denied of
n.
1).
cf.
iv.
2,
'
5e
Kivov/x4}'Cf>)
raAAa
KiV7.
As
if
be the
are the
The
subject,
however,
is
moves
it,
relevant
and
it is
therefore
when Brentano,
ir-
ibid.
'
'
xii. 6,
i
7,
324, b,
aXriov ws oOcvtj
But
tan
Se t^ iroirjTiKhv
apxh
God
Trjs Kiwfjcreus)
(see
iroi-ncris
p.
400,
quite another
it is
fin.
first
KivrjTiKhv aXriov
mere existence He is
;
cause
being
efficient
only
in virtue of his
final cause.
Nor is it
sufficient to discredit this s'atement to adduce passages in which
God is described in general as the
moving or efficient principle of
the world. No one doubts that this
is so.
it
ARISTOTLE
406
this
system.
the
doctrine
unity of formal,
and
efficient,
We
find in
ultimate
and their
final causes,
it,
moreover,
Unmoved and
issue.
the
Moved meet
enables Aristotle
It
to
make God
central,
the
controlling
Him
principle
of the
in its machinery
on
supernatural Being.
and
definite point,
attraction w^hich
is
is
its
motion to the
it
(and Ari-
Cosmos
is
sary to show how any such statement can be reconciled with those
Him
it
and
with the
Cf. p. 412, n.
own
1.
is the
thought,
METAPHYSICS
407
The notion
theory.
As Theophrastus easily
discerned, IV. 12 (3fetajjh.), 8
ei
e<pe(ris,
S)]
SA\cos re Koi rod
'
apicrrov, /j.era
at/
i7j
Tci
i/zuxrjs,
PROCLUS,
ScHRADER,
Tim. 82,
Arist.
cfirpvx
Similarly
Kivovfieva.
dt}
(of.
Volunt.
Kal Kivelrai
irphs
tV ecpecriv ;
We are not, of course, there-
ravrrjv
'
without an
efficient
principle.'
is
said
that
God
motion by causing
the
causes
desire
for
so obscure
Further,
own
his
is
perfection,
if,
it
as
is
which
this
desire is produced
(Meta])h. v. 15,
1, 1046, a, 16
sqq.). It is impossible, therefore,
for him to attribute to that which
owes its motion to something else,
any independent efficiency of its
own.
On the contrary, the
efficient and the final cause, as
has been shown at p. 356 sq., he
conceives of as in essence one.
ZvvafJLis
iradririK^
1021, a,
15,
ix.
ahistotle
408
motum must be
the
mohile,
it
primum
for
motum
is
contradiction that
is
voTjrhv
God moves
onl}^
"
to the
of efficiency.- Similar
action of God Himself is that of
the spheral spirits, which produce
motion in their respective spheres
as being themselves the end of
the motion cf p. 405, n. 3. It is
still more strange that Brentano
.
Moreover, he asserts
vice versa.
contact
'
to juxtaposition in
he endeavours to
but not
in
exclude
;
must be
It is true that
explicitly states.^
idea
in contact' with
Nous
(to
'
'
METAPHYSICS
of existence in space forced
upon us
409
its
still
God
circumference.
is
For since
taken to be motion
absolutely
centre,
'"^
we cannot
Again
is confined to
the unvarying exercise of uniform self-contemplation,
so, in his relation to the world, He has no other func-
To explain the
'
^^^
Phys.
viii.
7,
see p. 421
- Ilnd. c. 8sq.
De Coelo,\. 2;
J/e%^7/. xii. G,_1071, b, 10.
;
Phya.
viii.
Metapli. xii.
2^
6 fin.,
6/;^
c.
8,
^ fin.
1073, a,
c.
s<l%
P%.
Cwlo,
^,
viii. 10,
267, b, 6
i?^
n. 5.
i.
n.
9,
6,
ARISTOTLE
410
infinite diversities
means of this
Aristotle himself admits as much with reference to the heavenly bodies; and accordingly he adds
to the first mover a number of subordinate but equally
possible.
whose business
eternal substances,
made
must, however, be
of
all
it
is
to cause the
The same
to account
provision
for special
motion
As
it
some
we
Only
operation
its
for
is
it
do to
will not
equally general in
orbit
to its
own
particular nature
question rises
and Form.^
Here a new
forces
and
in finite things
Or what
as they
For
we
are
3Ieta2)h.
fuller
xii.
8,
1073, a, 26.
see Ch,
explanation
mtaph.
AWcos
/col
&K\o
dWus.
xii.
6,
1072,
a,
IX. infra.
-
God
wo-auTOJs
ivepyovv.
el
5e
23
METAPHYSICS
the changes of birth
411
What
?^
them
to be God's creatures
^
;
We
and
cannot suppose
such a
to
'
'
and
to
and
Him we are
order
dpxh,
come
to the first
i.e.
until we
of the
member
ARISTOTLE
412
but
it
series
in
the
tirst
each
Kivovy);
which has
impulse to the
question
in
given the
whole
and
repeated from
Brentano, 249,
Brentano,
does.
p. 240, indeed,
believes that the eternity in time
of immaterial substances as little
dispenses with the necessity of
an efficient principle for them as
the eternity of motion dispenses
with the necessity of a mover
in other words, he endeavours to
reconcile the eternity of the
world with the theory of its
creation by means of the conception of an eternal creative
activity in God.
But upon the
principles of the Aristotelian as
'
arises with
world, distinguishing other beings from Him as so many independent substances, would involve himself in a palpable contradiction were he to hold that
the latter are eternally created
by the former. Creation as an
act proceeding from a personal
will must necessarily be in time,
and an individual being in order
to produce other beings must
necessarily exist before them.
For only causcc im7nane7ites\m\e
of a creative activity in
God we
METAPHYSICS
413
Aristotle's
as the result of
God.2
finally,
If,
the
ancient
Greek view of
is in
the
open
own
away
his
another side.
He
difficulties.
Forms
as the
eternal
no
iroiitv
belongs to
As
is
shown
in reference to
the forms p. 341, n. 2; in reference
to the universe as a whole, p. 887.
But,
rest,
is
worth?
meta-
xii.
9,
2, supra)
If nothing
attained by the thought of the
divine spirit, wherein consists its
We
may, moreover,
as-
ARISTOTLE
414
substances
(the
spheral
spirits,
wholly unex-
&c.)
plained.
it
The
object
definite
of Divine Thought, according to Aristotle's
only
not
Himself:
God
than
statement, cannot be other
ex-
forms, which
cluded, but even the specific concepts or
remote
remain
must
essence,
internal
their
constitute
different
from Him, since they are always something
alone
which
that
below
far
stand
from Himself, and
and perfect
can be matter of his thought viz. divine
Aristotle anticipating to the eternal thought of God
:
sumethat
existences by an anticipation of
the conception of a harmonia
pra'staMUtn., to the unity and
perfection of the ultimate reality,
the unconditioned spirit of God,
which
'
and
p.
577
n.
'
METAPHYSICS
415
Form
is
neither
anything.^
to
we
Again,
find
no analogy
divine thoughts
the proposition
indeed,
is
it
that there
is
directly contradicted by
no change in the thought
all
Him
Him
struggle to return to
this striving,
like
motion, to
all
by means of the
Nor
forces.^
is
it
it-
it
For supposing
immanence
of
the Deity
their
shifting
dualistic theism,
should arrive
dynamic pantheism.^
n. 2,
,
See
p. 398, n. 1,
svpra.
gee p. 330
and
and
'Eiria-T-fifif)
p.
373
sq.
and
is
the very
ex-
at
is it
system
of
impossible to
sq.,
mpra.
'
Instead of Aristotle's
properties.
v/e
4y^.5?/;;r.
P. 397, n. 2, supra.
Cf. p. 404 sq., p. 344, n. 1,
p. 379, n. J, and on the
still
more
AIIISTOTLE
41G
quite uncertain
the
how we
particular
From
his
that he placed
them
side
by
without explaining
side,
finite
factors, just as
Matter
is
It is true
not attempt to deduce from Form or Deity.
iroXva'yaBov
the
ovk
system,
his
of
unity
tliat the
KotpaviT], is thus
Unmoved to
the
Moved or,
in
taj)7i.),
Kdyov
rh 5h fi^rh radr'
7
SeTrai irKelovos TrepI
:
icpeaeus,
iroia
/col
rivwv,
i^d-q
rrjs
eVetS^
TrXeiw
spheres] Kal
at <\>opal^ rpSirou
nva
rh av-hwrov [? we
should have expected dyadhv ov
virevapnai
/col
&pi<jTov'] Kal
ov xf^piv acpaves.
e^re
r^v
PhI'sics
CHAPTER
417
VIII
PHYSICS
A.
has to deal, as
corporeal
reality
though,
we were
proper subject,
in
treating
of
this
its
some
Natural Philosophy
occupied with the aggregate of corporeal existence
which is subject to Motion.' All natural substances
is
we
of natural existence
everything, in
to them.
ifc
Cf. p. 183, n. 3.
De
(pvaews
Coelo,
iin(TTi}fir]
init.
ax^^hv
7]
Tr^p't
irXdar-n
rrjs
Tuv yap
cTt
Se
irepl
Toiaxmjs
ras apxds,
oixrias
dcriv
avveaTciyrwv ra fxeu
i(TTi acafxara /col fieyeOr] [as the
human body], to 5' exei (rSifia Kal
fiey^dos [as man], t^ 5' apxal rwu
fXOi'roiu
wsm.
VOL.
vuLi.
<picrL
elaip [as
I.
1, 298, b, 27
eVel 5^ ruv tpia^i
^cyo/nevuv to yueV ea-Tiv ovaiai ra
5' cpya koX
irddv rovrwv [by ovaiai,
:
i.
and the
the soul]
iii.
irepl
(Tco^uctTwj/
<pv(TiKal
(p{)aus
duai
ovaiai
7)
iaropias
iraaai
a-wjuaTa
yhp
nepl
at
^ fiera
Eg'
ARISTOTLE
418
It
not
bodies are
Mathematics may be
indeed,
subject to
is
it
distin-
of
'
motion
and
rational
former
irrational forces,
may
realm of Nature.^
Yet
vi.
oa-n
Be
avv
i.
a,
rod
Qiupriaai
fJ.^
All.
102G,
1,
^vlas
^vxn^
(pvaiKOv,
vhr]s
ttjs
403, b,
1,
7.
a, 21, '62.
the
193, b, 31
as well as the
FuTt'.An. 11,64:1,
-
Phrjs.
ii.
2,
mathematician
[sc.
Sih
ovai
(pvaiKols^
Kal x^p'^C^''
'
av/jL^efi-nKev.
7P \V
X'"/"'^'^"
rh ^\v
iari
yap irepiTrhv earai Koi to apTiov,
voi](rti.
etc.
Kiviiaectis
ixvev
oarovv Ka\
we are met by
Form and
this question
Kiu-ncrews,
oLudpooiros
<rap^
Se Kal
ovKeri.
Cf
183, n. 3, sv2)ra.
Form
Metapli.
iffTiv.
is
is
Does the
dis-
drawn between
'
which
The
act in either of
nepl
between
and
/car'
av^V(riv Ka\
aWoioiaiv
KaT
IfxaTiou,
etc.
'
(pQiaiv, to.
8e
kX'vk)
.^ovSefiiav
5e
koX
dpfi^v
as he
proceeds in the rest of the
chapter further to explain. ^ 3IetajjJl. xii. 3, 1070, a, 7
v fih oi
r^xv-t] apxh eV &A?^cfi [similarly ix.
exet
/nerafioKris
ifKpvrou,
_
"*
C. 13,
22, b, 39.
PHYSICS
419
it
first alternative.
is. 2
Form
The essence of
only by its
becomes what it
it is
causes
final
the material
If,
therefore,
it
is
material, so
Nature is the cause of motion and rest in everything which possesses these conditions of being originally
force.''
thing
Phys.
193, a, 9-30.
1,
1014, b, 26.
Phys. ii. 1, 193, a, 28 sqq. c.
Metaph. as above,
2, 194, a, 12.
1. 35 sqq.
Part. An. i. 1, 640, b,
28, 641, a, 29, b, 23 sqq.
For a fuller discussion of
this point see i/i/ra and p. 357-8.
* Part. An.
:7
i.
640, b, 28
*
Metapli.
ii.
V. 4,
'^
v.
4:
Jin.
\cyoiJ.4v7]
t]
irpdirri
iarlv
7;
ovcria
rj
rwv
4v
77
77
apxv
rrjs
Kivi\<Tews
koX
')fa.pKaraT^vp.op(p))v<p'u(TisKvpia}T4pa
fj
dvdira\iv.
Phys.
oUffrfs rrjs
ii.
1, 192, b, 20: us
(pvaews apxvs rivhs /col
Kivfjo-eus.
2,
E 2
ARISTOTLE
420
one
side
force
considers
lie
her a
attributing to
with accuracy
'
On
the
life
and
He
which
In a
except by the
On
mains.^
regards
the
analogy re-
beings as individual
living
life
to
He
them, and he
how Nature
When
insisting
of divinity, he denies
'
it
to
proper place.
^ By
analogy is meant, not
identity, but similarity.
Cf. with what follows BeanDlS, iii. a. 113 sqq.
'
'
'"
As
in Part.
An.
ii.
10, 656,
is
PHYSICS
and from
this point of
as a whole
is
421
demonic*
Yet there
are
and a share
in
divinity
view
is
God
as
conceded to
is
natural
all
the
first
cause of motion,
Him
So
far
motions in the
all
On
we
of the
primum movens
if
to
conclusions
sphere
are impossible.
we have
Mover a series
still more necessary in order to explain the
much
greater variety of movements in the realm of nature
to assume a train of independent substances endowed
with motive power of their own. How the harmony of
these movements or their conjunction in an orderly
system
'
is effected, it is
Dhin. p.
hard to say.
S. c. 2, 463, b, 12
dreams
Saifxovia,
'^
rj
Be
(pvffis
a\\' ov Oeia.
Cado, i. ^ fin.: 6 Oehs Kal
Gen.
rovro
^32: edas y'ap
^vvajxius epyop, ^ris Kal t6S avu1326,
a,
cannot be by the
It
viroipx^i.
X^*'""'
The
dflai
alriai
/xoTpa,
as to
svjjra.
Mh. N.
vii. 14,
1153, b, 32:
ARISTOTLE
422
universe; and
would be
it
illegitimate
to
attribute
Consequently
on the
in his writings.^
it
it
or,
should
that of Motion.
is
to
In
we had
therefore
analysis of physical
special sense.
what
we
'
Eth.K.x.
9,
1179,3,22:
et
yap
Tis
evXoyov xatp^"'
Kal
ciTj
ry
6
'""^
ovToi/s
t^ apiffTcp
povs)
lndXiffra
Kal
Tovs
aya-rraiuTas
troiuv us
ruu
Koi
fiivovs
trpdrrovras.
the
as
analysing
(J)i\q3V
opOws
on
fidXicrO^ virdpx^i,
(ro(f>(fi
60<pi\4(TraTOS
that
sq.
By
5e
380
p.
exists potentially.
&pa.
Aristotle
is
ovk SStjAov.
It is obvious
here arguing
ternal operation.
sujjra.
Cf. pp.
389sqq.
PHYSICS
423
kinds of movement
may
if
we examine
increase or growth, to
increment
is
that which
a,
it
its
form
in other
change {fieTafioXi})
from being to being,
from being to not-being, and from
kinds
of
transition
cf Simpl.
c. 5, 229, a, 30
Phys. 201, b, who extends the
statement to the Peripatetic
school in general, remarking, however, that Theophrastus, among
others, did not keep strictly to
elsewhere
this use of language)
larly
orif/ination.
Kara
in the text
(Kiuriffis
KOTCt Trddos
and Kara
them Phys.
calls
fieycdos,
roirov,
viii.
7,
as he
260, b,
tion
rates
T)
Motion
four kinds
the
StVrjo-Js,
third and fourth of which, however, may be resolved into the
Cf. viii. 10, 267, b, 9
first two.
Pe An. iii. 10, 433, b, 25
sqq.
Ingr. An. c. 2, 704, b, 22 i3fot.
An. c. 10, 703, a, 19); the
again
latter
e\^is,
&(ris,
is
of
6xV(ris,
statement mRhet.i.
5,
1361, b,
An.
ii.
8,
ARISTOTLE
424
tive
these two
is
for
duces
it
active
every transformation
it is
produced, of an
converse
is
without locomotion.''
Even the
tion,
one
If
last species of
is
were to assume
end of
existence,
movement
in space.
an absolute beginning
such a transmutation
could
or
not,
begin
But
or end.
sense
birth
and annihilation
Phys.
-'
lloiuv
'
IS
tlie
physical sense
synonymous
to Aristotle with
Trdax^Lv with aWoiov-
aWoiovv,
aOai.
^
(TLs
viii. 7,
fi^v
yhp
aWomThv,
pificoTpov
7]
Kol Tra9r)TiKou
6om
kWoiw-
rod aWoiwTov, f,
ivT\4xia tri Se yuco7]
toiovtou.
Gen.
et
i.
6, 322, b, 9, 323, a, 17:
ov yap ol6v re irav rh Kivovv ttoicTv,
finep rh iroiovy o.vTiB'{]<TofXv t^
in this absolute
nrddos -
1, of, p.
^
386.
other
Ge7i.
PHYSICS
being of some
and
sort,
425
is
ends
existence
its
Its
beginning
the
is
its
in
different
far as generation
individual object.
aod
and
Conse-
else.^
quently,
so
end,
it
the
sur-
ceases to exist.^
If on the contrary we regard the
universe and not the individual, then generation
and
destruction coincide partly with composition and
division, partly with the transmutation of
materials.^ Now
both of these processes are occasioned by movement
in
space.'^
cause
mean
-^j
all
'
'
a,
...
T'i
7 hv
S6^i
^"^',
7]
aW
p.
^^-^"^o^V.
o?n " ^^^? .T^"
319, a, 20,
P'
'
10,
11.
336, b, 24.
IMd.
Cf.
,^
(ren.et Corr.
i. 2, SU, a, 20:
yevetris air\rj Ka\ <bdoph ov
(TvyKpmec Kal SiaKpia-^i,
Urav
fan yap
MeTa^a\A77
/c
'AKKoiacris is
rovS^
els
{,Trofx4vovTos
<peopd.
*
b 31
where he argues that geis effected by definil e
becoming transmuted
and determined in certain ways
by the agency of efficient forces
destruction, on the other hand
by the conquest of the passive
sqq.,
neration
materials
dW
matter
roSe o\ov.
form.
produced by change
'
over
Cf. P/ii/s.
the
determining^
viii. 7,
260,
b 8
ABISTOTLE
426
Since this, as
produced.
we saw
tion,
Again, if
movement must precede all generation.^
movement in space precedes generation, it must of ne-
and destruc-
said, Aristotle
had done.
opinion, be
his
transmutation of
materials.''
Kol
jjLOLvcoais
dvayKH]
ZiaKpivSjxeva
Kara
roirov
lj.eTa^6.A\iv.
^
Gen.
Fliys. ibid.
et Corr.
ii.
261,
10
a,
sqq.
init.
- Pkys. ibid, b, 7.
It is here
further pointed out in proof of the
priority of movement in space,'
'
Final Causes
Corr.
ii.
ment
in space
init.).
So
also
move-
PHYSICS
rise
427
Lastly,
if it
for in the
philosophy of a
is
development, and that the importance of Aristotle's natural philosophy consists, to a great extent, in having
first
made
this
consciously given
of development possible
notion
it
it is
ation,
and
left
'
us nothing but a
and
clear that
movement in space
alter-
of un-
is
thinking
ARISTOTLE
428
Aristotelian pliilosophy.
went
so far as to
make
therefore a substance.
be impossible
to
'
an element of
it
Aristotle begins
infinity
pose
to be a body,
it
superficies
or if
it
body
Then he shows
For sup-
inconceivable.
is
that which
is
is
limited by
Lastly,
and more
especially,
an
be
composite,
this
'
things, and
all
by proving
the
since,
not
is
body
infinite
It could not
And
to think of
In the
first
it
as
simple
is
equally
impossible.
no
all
it
and
quite impossible
infinite.'*
it is
abides,
and
to
which
it
its
tends
and this law determines the difference in weight between bodies every body without exception must exist
;
n. 2,
-
Phys.
i.
7 init.
and
Be
Ctelo,
iv.
PHYSICS
move
either
429
straight lines
up and down
former
is
movements.
movement
end.2
rotation round
no centre the
; ^
'
'
would take
infinite
ceivable space.^
shape
is
is
latter,
being
The
we
indeterminable, which
argument
is
formless
is
is
c. 7,
an
infinitely heavy or an infinitely light body is an impossibility, since it must either exhibit infinite speed or be absolutely immovable.
As is shown, at unnecessary
length, De Coelo, i. o, 271, b, 2ri
sqq. 272, b, 17 sqq. c. 7, 275, b,
'
12.
'^
De
Coelo,
i.
6 init.
Also
c. 7,
21
sqq.
275, b, 15 sqq.
^
IMd.
Phy.
c.
vi. 7,
6, 272,
238,
a, 36.
a,
Aristotle's
yap ov
firiSev
tout'
eVrl,
^o>
words
e^cc,
ov
are
aAA' ov aei
:
aireipSv
iariv,
6 see at p. ^^Q,sup.
715, b, 14
^ Se (pvais
((xvyei rh direipov
rh /xev yap
&iripov oTeAes, tj 5e (fivais ael ^T/ret
rehos
The objection {Phys. iii.
4, 203, b, 22 sqq.) that infinite
space presupposes also an infinite body, he afterwards sets
asidc(iv. 5,212, a,31, b,8, 16 sqq.;
^
Pliys.
Gen. An.
iii.
i.
ARISTOTLE
430
minable magnitude.^
number
division,
De
of
Ccelo,
i.
9,
'
occupied.
Phys. iii. b Jin. on
iuepyeia ovk effri (TUfxa
'
(ptxv^pbv
e/c
TdUTOJv.
c.
(5,
ovv
fxkv
&ireLpou,
206, a,
1(5
fxi]
Phys.
IdTiv
iii.
6,
uireipov
itiit.
ibid, b, 24.
:
otl
ctTTAis,
5'
el
iroWa
els
increase.^
infinite
see p. 395, n.
siqjj'o) by his peculiar definition
of space as the boundary between
the enclosing- and the enclosed.
The boundary of the world itself
is,
therefore, according to his
beyond it
iew, not in space
there is no space either void or
cf.
ixeyedr],
dneipos.
Hence we
8,
uto/jluv
ypafi/uLwu),
but
it
would
PHYSICS
431
may not
actual
The
existence.
magnitudes in space
sibility of
indefinite
is
divi-
we
yet
an infinitely small
particle. The multiplication of numbers has no limit
yet there is no infinitely great number.^ In a word,
therefore argue that there
is
its
extension
division,
It is
number, on
TO
ever
no proof.
Phys.
'
iii.
6,
206,
12 sqq.
a,
Keyerai
rh
5^
rh
elj/ot
fxev
Kar'
iu4pyeiau
ftprjrai,
XctA.6irbj/
ypafj-fids
ovk
S' iffriv
aveXuv
'
actual,
&(rr6
Xafifidvciu
rh
ws roSe
dAA.'
c.
7,
iffriv,
fx4v
ivepyeia
5' oti
'
ctAA.'
dei
dWa
ciffirep
merely
'
4v
Swd/xei.
reckoned
that
the
among
Infinite
'6ti /j.kv
oh yap
ras
aTd/xous
AeiTrerat ovv Sufo/tet efj/ot
diaipecei
Set
ecrt 8e
^ir^ipov,
%(Ttiv
ov
Tt
&c.
is
6.ireLpov
become
direipoy
is
'^
in both directions.
AiasTOTL^
432
an
as
infinity of force.
This
is
also,
however,
is
manifested
we may
Space,
first pl^ce,
and
same
space.
with
tified
the
No more
matter of bodies,
can
since
is
in space
scribed.
be iden-
it
this
may
is
also
is
nor is
it
circum-
not regard
it
as
this distance
may
and move
exist
it
it.2
The place
surrounds.^
is
surrounds
world.
it,
and space
in general
Cf
trpwrov.
De
Coelo,- iv.
3,
310,
b, 7.
'
as it is called
as opposed to
It is also called 6
"iSios tJttos,
Phys.
iv.
T6iros Koiv6s.
irpSjTos
init.,
rdiros 4v
iarlv cKacrrov
by the
limits of the
'^
Phys.
iv. 5,
means, however
(c. 4, 212, a, 18
212, a, 31 sqq., viii. 9,
265, b, 1 sqq.) that just as in the
case of a ball which spins round
its own axis without otherwise
moving- the circumference is as
sqq.
c.
5,
PHYSICS
438
Time by a similar
Time cannot exist without motion, since it is
only by the movement of thoughts that we perceive it.
Aristotle obtains the notion of
process.^
Yet
it is
another slower
faster, in
in one case
is
whereas time
movement
its
inseparable
itself is
is
universally
always equally
is
It
fast.
but
is
different
from
number
unit of this
It is the
it.
of motion in respect to
what
the
is
'
is earlier
'
Time
now.'
now.'
is
occasioned
It is this that
makes
now
moment
sent
as
'
'
it
we
know
already
distinction
stationary
between
the
as
them."^
the
centre,
circular
its
their
the highest
heavens move only in a certain
respect, and are in space only Kara
(Tvfifie^rjKds, and in so far as their
] tarts
move and are in space (^Be
(
position,
V, 5,
'o'lo,
so
waves move.
'
Phys.
'ApidfjLQs
Kiwria-ews
VOL.
I.
(Tvi/X'f)!f
Kara
1 1 Jjn.
to
;
Be
'
oKoDS
TTcpas
XP^^*^^
Swdfief koI
Siaipe? Se
ael erepov
avr6
ravrd
Aristotle's
rh vvv,
-p
icTTiv
fj
'
/xev toiovto,
dh avvSe?, del rb
ARISTOTLE
434
Space
is
If
the enclosed,
Aristotle tries on
him inconclusive. Movement does not need to be explained by such an hypothesis, since we can imagine that
to
Condensation
enters.
air or other
may
be referred to
into steam)
may
rare-
(that
exit of
th-e
when passing
into air
phenomena
The vacuum
elements to reach their natural place.
would rather put a stop to the possibility of motion.
^
one direction
no distinction of natural
localities.
On
it.
221. b.
De
3.
11-28 see
Phys.
;
c.
8 mit,
c.
No
would
special
immutable.
the
It
Phys.
Coelo,
i.
p. 895, n. 6,
iv.
7,
iv,
9,
it
12,
279, b,
mpra
s(
214, a, 24 sqq.
PRYSICS
436
vacuity,
Nature
Again,
if
bodies
fall
hypothesis
tlie
any reason
assign
to
for
of
in
rest
medium through
which they are moving, everything would have to fall
or rise with infinite rapidity through the infinite rarity
On
of the void.
greater masses
fall
of the
if,
ceteris paribus,
Lastly,
how
are
we
to
conceive that an
Phys.iv.S; ct Be Coph,
iv.
p. 442, infra.
J^^
&fxa
5e
P'^\on
5rj\ov
^-
^'
P^'
a,
11
iv
ju^
iwircipx^i
nwarhv
(xooixa,
de
-^
ova-qs
Kiv^crecos ;
et
S-fj
FF
ianv
2
ARISTOTLE
430
ginning nor end.^ On this point he suggests the remarkwhether there could be Time without a
able question
:
soul ?
make
should
a mistake
if
we sought
to discover in this
Time
modern
remark any
so vast a.n
philosophy.
importance in
to us.
apiO/xhs
Kiv'cr^ois
Xpovos
v)
Kiuria-'s
ael
Ibid. 1.
elvai..
^hai ael xP'^^^'^dye xpo""". ^avephv on
2o
avayKt)
aWa
fjL^v
avdyKfi
9.
a,
279,
world there
apid/xhs
is
direp
Kiv^cnv,
Kal
elvai
xpovos irddos ti
i.
De
Kivfjcreajs.
'
KLvhae'jos
KiurjaLS
8'
&Uv
Cf. p.
supra.
B,
esp.l. 25:
apie/xelu
Coflo,
outside the
14
no time, for xP^vos
395, n.
r)
el
Se
a.
10 sqq.
'aXXo irecpvKev
"^ ^"XVS^ fovs,
jUTjSei'
^ux^
make an
Tis, e^Trep
stars,-^
beneath
it
as the substratum
Time
Da
we must
A II. iii.
488, b, 25).
3
i.
2.
d.
Gt. Abth.
PHYSIOS
4a7
We
its
which
is
surrounded by
moved on
object
counting subject.
when Time
He
is called
the
number
of motion,
we must not
rather as something
it
pertaining to motion,
where
bodies cease,
Time
P. 428, supra.
says, therefore, Phys. iv.
the movements of
1, 208, b, 8
simple bodies (fire, earth, &c.)
'
He
show
ov fx6vov
'6ti ea-ri
ri 6 rdiros,
real significance).
^ j^gg p. 429, n. 5, supra.
* Phys. iv. 5, 212, b, 4.
* PAys. iv. 11, 219, b, 6.
* De Ccelo, i.
see p. 435,
9
;
n. 3, svf>ra,
and
p. 3&!", n. 6.
ARISTOTLE
438
that
'^
how
ment has
ad
divisible
continuous
all
that time
infi^dttDn,''
and space in
P/ujs^ y.?>:
a^ia
fxev
ovv
aTreaQai Se wv ra
fxera^v oe els
irecpvKe
Trpwrou acpiKvMai rh fxerafidWou
jpe^^s 5e ov fxera Tr}u dpx^u
o(Ta eV ere>(^,
a-Kpa'dixa,
t)
/xouoy SuTos
firiShv ixera^v
TauT^j]
4(pe^r\s
oil
fX^l^^vov
8e
eVr
[join with
iariv.
[immediately suc-
cessive] t
....
tv 4(p^ris ov d-wT-nrai
Xiyu) S' elvai avv^x^s
Corr.
323, a, 3.
v. 4 init.
motion is
either yiv^i or Met or avKws juia.
For other senses in which motion
is said to be one,' see ibid. 228, b,
11 sqq. Of. vii. 1, 4, pp. 125, 139,
-
i.
6,
Phys.
'
After
magnitudes are
it
is
this
only with
time
is
re aTr\S>s
auvexv
fxiav
^^i^ai
[^k\v'I](T iv~]
koI
a,
20
t-^u
dvdyKr) koI
et
(Tw^xhs,
fiia.
*
Ibid, b, 15 sqq.
Fhys.
V. o, 6.
*"
Ibid.
vi. 1 sq.
2, sicjjra.
The
see p. 430, n.
indivisible unit of
;
<
PHYSICS
439
infinite
in
infinite
is
indivisibility
motion nor rest are possible.^ He discusses the divisimotion and of the body moved, ^ remarking that
bility of
every
alteration
completion in an indivisible
attains
its
beginning
is
never
and
any distance
These conclusions
movement
for
investigating the
by asking^
Pky.
vi. 2,
Ihid.
c.
3,
233, a, 13 sqq.
and again
c. 8,
lasts
Phys.
vi. 9, cf.
c.
2,
and
233, a,
p.^Sll,
supra.
^ Phys. viii. 10.
At the end of this chapter.
**
440
ARISTOTLE
the necessity of a
if
there
primum movens^ he
beginning or end,
it
must be movement
^
:
in space, for
other,'-^
case the
movement without
is
first
ment
circular motion
all
If all
move-
in
circular, or mixed,-"* a
endless duration
Movement
could.
in
straight
cannot
line
has terminal
points
at
which
repeated,
it
it
''
and though
infinitely often
stitute
ceases,
may be
have
movement
Circular motion
is,
'
Phys.
viii.
sq. supra.
^
Phys.
viii.
supra.
'
enables
it
to
move
'
lUd.
Among mixed
forms of mo-
we must
this division
tion
reckon
it
**
261, a, 31 sqq.
in
all
An
PHYSICS
without changing
sure for
its
441
place as a whole.
all
whereas in rectilinear
movement
is
It is the
rapidity increases in
primum movens
How
of the
mea-
entirely uniform
"*
between
sorts of
matter
Three
Is there a qualitative
?
Is there a quali-
Is there such a
com-
PItys.
viii.
9,
265, b,
cf.
p. 398, 4.
-
of elementary
motions
bodies: in
other
words, the downward motion of
heavy, and the upward motion of
light bodies.
is the case.
Phys. viii. 9, 265, b, 8 sqq.
^ The
seventh book of the
Physics is passed over in the
above account, because it was not
originally a part of the work (see
p. 8 1, n. 2, svpra). Its contents are
as follows.
After it has been
explained in c. 1 that every movement must have its source in a
3
AltlSTOTLE
442
qualities ?
questions, Anaxagoras
own
his
system.
among
man who
occupies one
In order to form
well as the philosophers of antiquity.
an impartial judgment of Aristotle in his contest with
the mechanical theory of physics, and to appreciate his
own views, we must never forget that we have not here
to do wdth the atomistic philosophy of our days, but
with that of Democritus, which differed from
it
Mo
co'lo.
but the scantiest rudiments of the methods and processes of observation which we have to so boundless
He had
to
define the
elementary physical conceptions of an age whose observations did not extend beyond the reach of the naked
eye,
Of
all
our
sq.,
Cf. also
1220
sq.,
mathematical,
ences
{Arist.
optical,
ThierTtuiid^,
sq.) to Aristotle's
ing heat.
method
and
419
in test-
PHYSICS
physical instruments,
443
lie
nomena, the conditions of chemical combination, pressure of air and its effects, the nature of light, heat,
combustion, &c.
in
physical theories of
modern
on which the
science are
based, were
would have
under such circumstances
Aristotle had developed views in natural philosophy of
which we could have availed ourselves without alterabeen more than a miracle,
It
if
and consider
differences of shape
only original
it
mathematics, because
superficies,
'
it
which brings us
Cf. supra, p.
262
sq.
Qf^
logically to the
assumption
270
sq.
ARISTOTLE
444
of indivisible lines
magnitudes
into points.^
Again
it
bility of bodies.^*
difficulties
view of physics
less
important.
surfaces
of
air
experience
shows that
all
its
water.^
little
bulk;
culties
cf.
ad fin. 868.
Ccelo, iii. 1, 299, a, 6, 300,
Cf. Gen. et
a, 7, c. 7, 306, a, 23.
since the
Corr. ii. 1, 329, a, 21
IMd.
'
Ph.
d.
'>
pp. 807, 2
2
diffi-
es actually
tion
respect to
Plato, indeed,
'
much
Again, while
b,
Zell.
pt.
IMd.
De
De
8 iuit.; cf.
i. 679, 3.
306, b, 22 sqq.
c.
Gr.
ficies.
311, n. 5, 6 supra.
irpdoT-r)
uAtj
De
305, b, 31,
306, a, 26 primary atoms of the
elements cannot be divisible (nor
are they according to Plato and
3
Ccelo,
iii.
7,
'
c. 5,
De
312, b, 20 sqq.
how we are to
interpret these objections in the
mouth of Aristotle.
s
De Ccelo, iii. 7, 306, a, 1 sqq.
Zell. Ph. d. Gr. pt. i. 676, 1, 2.
ready been shown
PHYSICS
triangles are left over/
and that
a superimposition of surfaces
assumed by
Plato.^
445
as easy to think of
it is
as of the
composition
is
water
and
earth,
In the
last
qualities
disruptive force
Plato thought
made
comparative immobility.
are hard to
move
in their
it
Aristotle
is
therefore
56
Ibid.
sq.
Be
Jbid.
1.
20
cf.
Plato, Tim.
which
Casio, iii. 1, 299, b, 23.
306, b,
c. 8,
9.
comes
Zell. Ph.
d.
Gr. pt.
i.
771, 4 also,
iii.
7,
306, a, 6 sqq.
cf.
De
ARISTOTLE
446
it
also is
fiir
may
homo-
bodies.^
is
it
clear that
already
know
the reasons
we
attribute a distinct
why
Aristotle
is
not inclined
atoms
tlie
and
if
among
size,
developed from another.^ If all the atoms are homogeneous, one does not see how they are separate, and
why they do not join when brouglit into contact with
one another.
materials,
If they are
composed of heterogeneous
the cause of phenomena
in this circumstance,
It is certainly hard to
a cohesive body could be
constituted of such atoms. The
collision.
how
see
ways, but of the atoms of Democritus, which act upon one another
only mechanically by pressure or
"
Seep. 331
De
CopIo,
sq.
iii.
Cf. p. 306, n. 6.
4,
303, a 24 sqq.
riirsics
447
tact,
which
way
is
if certain qualities
warmth,
like
it
In the same
for instance
them
were
however, equally
is,
suppose them
to
endowed with
definite
properties.
Again, there
is
move themselves,
and
from what
different
is
moved
is
either inside
in which case
them
they
object.
"*
things.
fire spherical,
Ari-
sphere they
is
accustomed to
of gravity.
like Aristotle,
attract each
science
all
Democritus,
bodies mutually
atmo-
is
caused by
326, a,
<
lUd.
'
(ren. et
lUd.
Corr.
i.
326, a, 1-24.
Ibid, at line 24.
8,
326, b,
2.
p.
j,
8,
326, a, 8.
4t8
ARISTOTLE
air,
the atoms
all
fire,
fall
vapour, &c.
fall
downwards
empty
Aristotle demonstrates
interstices.^
that this
no above or beneath in
infinite space, and consequently no natural tendenc}downwards all bodies must fall with equal rapidity in
hypothesis
is
false
there
is
make them
But being equally unphenomena which have to be
are.
On
as
ancient science.
779
Zell.
Cf.
sq.,
791
Ph.
d.
Gr.
i.
sq.
cognised
this, not,
re-
however, as a
vacuum
but this
PHYSICS
449
space.
ground
own nature
of its
disposed to
and by virtue
itself light
rise,
Although
else.
tire
all
downward movement
be the heavier,
bodies be composed
if all
must
it
empty
or are
it
may
size,
nevertheless a
of earth
and he says
sible,^
manifest
is
it
when we
consider
phenomenon
homogeneity in matter.
If gravity
Cf./*Ays. iv. 8, 216,a, 13: 6pajfi^uyap rh fxei^co f>oirr]V exovra fi fidpovs ^ KovipOTTjTos, icLV ToAAtt d/jLolus
'
[in
IffOTaxri
a vacuum].
Tjj
&pa irdvT
of rb] 56
Ty
eo-rai
dAA' ahvvaTov.
[as
rh
Iffx^'i
piiav
TToielv
ix^yedci SiacpipouTOi'V
VOL.
I.
(putriv
twv
apayKa7oi'
ravrov
Koi
vKrfV,
ixi\Q'
airXois
elvai ixt]Q(v
oKiycou
[small atoms]
5e
jx^yaKuv fiapvrepa tlvai.
et
tovto icrrai, (TvixfiriffiTai iruKhv
a4pa koX iro\v irvp vSaros eJuai
tovto 5
fiapvrcpa Kal yijs 6\iyris.
eVriV aSwarov.
Cf. previous D.
Ibid. C. 5, 312, b, 20 sqq, (where,
/xiKpa
however, in
ihv
Se Suo,
1.
to.
32
we must read
/iTa|i/
irws eo-rat
text).
G G
Aristotle
450
it is, it
may be answered
vacuum than
a small
lump
of gold or
He
stuff.
we
concludes that
^
;
and
when
ingredients.^
Not only
but they are also subject to qualitative transUnless we admit this, we must explain
formation.
(jnality,
apparent transmutation of
tlie
matter
either
(with
Be
Ciclo,
XX.
308, a, 21 sqq. 309,
b,
Cf.
Elements, infra.
^ Cf
De Cceh,
P. 4i4 sqq.
.
'
iii.
7.
PHYSICS
451
As
corporeity.2
Atomists,
it is
to the theory of
is,
Aristotle thinks
Experience shows
us a metamorphosis of materials in which the elementary properties of substances alter. One substance
passes into another, or a third
When water
is
formed of several.
phenomenon is not,
changed.^
is
made from
air,
air,
a body
Be
Cu'lo,
that
iii.
air.
7,
Conversely,
305, b, 28
The meaning
we may suppose
is
the ele-
when
that underlies
air is
all
produced
the elements
10 sqq.
l)e Cmlo,
iii. 7, 305, b, 1.
989, a, 22 sqq.
Gen. et Corr. i. 9, 327, a, 14
Metapli,
sqq.
i,
8,
ARISTOTLE
452
How
the vessel.
is
this to be explained
it
even bursts
on the hypo-
thesis that
it
'
its
flesh are
formed from
bones and
water
is
How'
atmin.
and perish
fire is
are
we
to conceive of such
must be
and dissolution?
which they begin and end,
'Jliere
ing, else
we should be driven
<n*ession in
two
to suppose
Be
an
Becom-
infinite pro-
directions.
formation
definite points at
whether absolutely
we have already
seen,'*
or such
as above, 305, b,
view of gravity
precludes the admission that the
greater weight of water as com-
due merely
'
o sqq.
C'atlo,
Aristotle's
is
to its greater density. The atomists of that time could not pos-
riesAristotle'sobjectionsarevalid.
Gen. et Corr. i. 9, 327, a, 22.
^ Ibid. ii. 7, 334, a, 18, 26; cf.
Be Ca;lo, iii. 7, 305, b, 1. Cf. p.
457
sq.
*
iii,
4,
6,
and
PHYSICS
453
why
for
No more
can
it
we
Hence
For
as one of transformation.
if
and
Lastly,
how
are
we
to
imagine the
Empedocles
and Democritus made bodies enter each other by means
But not only can this hypothesis be disof pores.'
'
As is proved at superfluous
and with some obscurity,
length,
in the
sqq.
-
De
Be
CoelOy
CopIo,
iii. 7,
305, a, IG
6.
iii.
De
Cwlo,
iii.
4,
803, a
24,
ARISTOTLE
454
divisible,
do so
will not
either.^
movement
of the
their
Where
alteration.
the former
had
assumed
Aristotle
the
operation
of
His predecessors
impulse
he extended
by
is
which he understands
and passion
re-
and
it
real
The
movement,
are contained in the correlation of potentiality and
actuality.
AVhen two things meet, of which one is
actually what the other is potentially, then, so far as
'
action
'
and a change
is
is
28,
Gen.
C. 9,
rai fxovou,
ijlov
rh
irdarxovri.
vdOos.
iroiovv
rovro
avri.Qi\<Toixev
8'
oh
if
T(j3
Kivr\(ns
aWoiov-
o'tou
oAAa rb kiuuv
rroielt/ ItTTiv.
^
e'lirep
*'
all
Ihicl. c.
9 init.
riva Se rpSirov
ovcri
rfj
5'
rirrov.
ov
PHYSICS
455
Where one
contact.
it
is
possible
where both
inevitable.^
is
it
an opposite condition.
patient must be
different
and
generically
so the old
but specifically
similar,
moot point
as to
whether likes
by the law
patient are
"^
and
like itself.^
n. 3, sujjra.
Gen. et
Kal
'
It has
p. 386, n. 1,
'"
Sih
nal
CorrAhid.^2^,
eijKoyov
depixaivuv
oXus to
Hence
kuI
to
a,
t6 re irvp
^pvxpov \l/vxeip,
^5rj
ARISTOTLE
456
the patient
so far as
it
form,
is
it
is
determinate
'
form
'
matter,' to which a
communicated by the agent.
In
is
be capable of receiving
agent
'
is also
inasmuch as
must
it
similar in kind.
it, it is
If the
upon
is
without passivity,
is
for as
conditioned by
why
reason
all
and
material,
is
on
irdOos
its
own
active influence
is
subject in
to actuality,
its
offers
it
occasions,
and being
to
divisible at all
force."*
of materials
two or more
is
Body, as poten-
The
to change,
e.
nowhere
points,
active
operation
part.'"^
its
avrijv elvai
ruv
us
clireTv
tV
avTiKi(x4vu)V oTrore-
which
upra.
For the above, see Gen. ct
Corr. ihid. from 324, a, 15 to the
end of the chapter ; and cf. c, 10,
'^
328, a, 17.
*
Gen. et Corr.
P- 454, n. 8,
i.
supra).
9 init. (see
Ibid. 327,
a, 6 sqq.
Tlie y4vos
stands to the elSos generally in
the relation of matter; see p. 219,
mixture^
materials,^' in
n. 2,
must
^
i.
According to Gen.
et
Corr.
10.
PHYSICS
neither the one
is
merged
457
is
In other words,
formed which
is
consists neither
it
but in
When
chemical combination.
two
preserving
its original
particles,'*
new
material,
wholly passed
into
wherein
they
is atradis
23
sqq.).
This
but
aWoioiXTis.
fM^is
is
1.
13, 328, a,
not a case of
-Ibid.
ftirep
S'
328,
10:
a,
Se? fiefiTxOai
(pa/nev
n, rb
fiix-
i.
879, n. 2.
^ ^vvdeais,
{ibid. 328,
a,
as distinguished
5 sqq. cf. Metaph.
ttws
koI
h^}
elvai,
ivepyeia
uvtos tov
5'
SwdfisL
ixev
yeyovSros e|
^n cKaripov
airep fiaav irp\v /xixSvpai koI ovk
airo\a)\6Ta .... aw^srai yap t]
SvvafMis avruv, just because they
and
can be again separated
sqq.
In later usage com1. 31
kripov
avruv,
AltlSTOTLE
458
occurs
when
and when,
^
;
its qualities
and
lastly
Where
affect
when they
many
in
each
other
at as
these con-
such
in
mixture.'^
Aristotle
is
is far
from being
mediate
merely
plete mixture of
fiiJ.7x6aL,
tliis
Dc
"
with that
confined to material
is
kind
(^to
Scnsu, c. 3,
440, b, 11), as distinguished from
a mere compound of smallest
parts was called rj 5t' o\ov Kpacris.
This is the case when their
material is of the same kind but
their qualities are of an opposite
character ibid. 328, a, 19 sqq.
cf, p. 454, stfj^ra.
31
^ Ibid. 328, a, 18 towards the
end of the c, where the above is
thus expressed mixture takes
place iTre'nrep cVrlr evia roiavra ola
Tvavrr)
goes further,
satisfied
phenomena.
tions of
He
mechanical physicists.
rraOrjTiKo.
Ka\
ffra
what
re
v-rr'
ivSiaipeTa
Aristotle
[according to
says,
ibid.
328,
b, these
another]
causes
final
ravra yap
i(j)9dp6ai
oijr
jiarent mixture]
jxkv h
h.u
iv6pi<TTou iv iradr]TiKdv
Ibid. 328, b, 22
ri
Se
fii^is
eVwcts.
PHYSICS
450
Our researches up
has
its
is
goal by which
its
is
If everything which
End.
determined.^
End.^
its
its
movement
in general
is
the
so
stotle
strives.''
Ari-
human
action
directed
towards an end.
of
'
p. 462, n. 2.
and
li^ee
sqq.;
p. 404,
p. 396, n. 3.
p. 379, n. 1.
De An. i. 3, 406, b,
De Coclo, ii. 1, 284, a,
25
27
sqq.
Metaph. xii. 6, 1071, b, 37.
Aristotle rejects this theory in
;
He
any motion at
all.
It
would be
inconsistent
with its perfect
happiness that it should be intermixed with the body of the
world and, burdened with the
latter, should have uninterraittently to produce, like an Ixion
with his wheel, a motion which
how
it produces it,
Lastly, the
soul cannot be opx^ as asserted
in the Phcf-drus, if, according to
the Tinucus, it comes into exist.
ARISTOTLE
460
refers not only the
movement
which communicates
is
body J
to the
moved by them
He
human
as the
tlie
immortal
of nature,^
life
Every
we
shall
see,"*
for
sort
vital activity is
is
follows that
by regarding nature
Cf. p. 373 sq. and see the section in the next cliapter concerning the Spheres. Aristotle is so
'
Phys. 283 m.
Lchie (I. At. r.
Siebeck, D.
d. Lehen d. Univer-
cf.
which reason
a part of the man and of the
in the
is
same sense
in
same nature
is
as a living whole,
due, not to
iheprimum movens,
yeyouf irore
5e
Kiv7\(ns
ovk nixra
Kiveladai /xrjShv,
-/)
outus
iyevero
oijT
((TTtti,
^ojtj
tis
Qr.
3
i.
Gen. An.
yiuerai
d.
586, 2.
5' iv yrj
iii.
virdpx^iv, iv
S'
vSwp
vSari irvevfia, iv 5e
At the commencement of
Chap. X. infra.
PHYSICS
461
always
perfection
nothing
plete in her
and
is
we may
of her productions
far
nature
strives, as far as
art,
own purpose
it
is
its
is,
them repay
investigation.^
'
G42
i.
sqq.
7}
<pV(TlS
OvSeV
1T010V(TIV.
^ICLTTIV
\\.
ohK
8, 289, b, 26, 290, a, 31
iCTTiv iv Tols (pvaei rh ws irvx^v
:
least of
as
aTroAeiVet ri TaJv
ovQkv
TTOif'i
Likewise
r]
(pvffis.
Si6-irp ei
yivos ^(f>ov rh dpicrrov
^iXriov w5i, ovrus koX ex^t koto
(pvffiv. Even in the most insignilicant products of nature we may
perceive the effort after perfection cf foil. n. and Eth. N. x.
Xffws Se Koi iv ro7s
2, 1173, a, 4
c. 11,
rh Ka?^hv eV rots
a, 15 (cf.
14)
ii.
12,
694, a, 15
iroiii
rrcplep^ov.
432,
b,
21
ri
(puais eV
rh
iroiel
VSxo/A6'a,''
c.
fieAriarov,
uiiShv
r}
De An.
(pvcris
rwu
/x^re
(pvais
iii.
9,
iroid
T/ff/r.
An.
ouOev
iroieT ixdrtiv
c. 4,
c. 2, 704, b,
'S6;^ojueVajj' T77
739, b,
15
dW'
ovaia
dei
Trepl
19.
v <pv<ns
/c
rwv
eKaarov
'
(pav\ois
icrri
ri
(pvaiKhv
dyadov
'
ARISTOTLE
402
is Form, but the form of everything is determined by the function for which it is designed.^ All
Becoming has its goal, and the terminal point of all
motion is also its end or object.'- This pursuit of fixed
designs in nature is demonstrated to our experience by
the order and coherence of the universe and the regularity with which certain effects are produced by certain
It is impossible to ascribe to chance what
means.
he shows,
birth
human
hib
Se't
/j-rj
ari/JLUTepuv
Tuiv
irepl
(iri-
(cfccv
him, saying
ovTco
also,
yap
Toils
rvxovTws aKTC
jx)]
Ti)s
jxaKiaTa
t)
tliere
(T]Ti](nv
ry)u
jXT)
(ivTos Tivhs
iv
npos
iTp\
Se?
God was
tliat
Kal
eVe/ca tivos
(pv(rOi)s
ov
'
to
5'
y^youe r^hovs
rrju
rod
Ka\ov
cited
Tw
epyq)
'
ra
/jl^v
yap
dvvd/uLeua
^ 6 XiOivos.
2
(pvais
action, inas-
otj(Tr]S ^cttl
irphs
irepaiuei iJ.r]Bephs
KLvrjffis
r)
(ixTTe
edTl
KaKovjXiv
TOIOVTOV,
TL
OTt
12
b,
Pliys.
(pvcTLv.
(pvais
T]
(paucphv
eJuai
flJ.iro5i(opTOS,
7]
St]
ii.
1,
Kal
193,
AeyoyueVrj
oos
init.^
apa
415,
wff'n-ep yap 6 vovs 'iviKa tov
b, 16
TTOte?, Thv avTov TpSirou Kal r] (pvcris.
^
Phys. ii. 8, 198, b, 34, 199,
b. 15, 23 Part. Ari. iii. 2, 663, b,
Gen. An. i. 19, 727, b, 29, cf
28
Dc Ccelo, ii. 8, 289, b,
p. 302, n. 5
26 ovH ecTTiu iv to7s (pvaei Th cos
eTvx^v, ou5e tJ) iravTaxov Kal ira(Tiv
vndpxov TO otTTo tvxV^'
.
lxnp(pT)
(pxxxLs.
Be
Ail.
ii.
f]
4,
PHYSICS
much, that
403
is
pletion of nature,
other.
If
large,
final
first
It
to the whole
*
Phi/8. ii. 8, 198, b, 32-199,
h, 26, cf. viii. 1, 252, a, 11
1, 641,
289, b,
391, D. 2, suj)ra.
airiai,
aWa
(x^v ovd4u
Kara
Trao-t
b,
Tci^eajs.
12-30
Part. An.
De Cwh,
i.
8,
ii.
\Pavt. An.
7}
(pv(Tis
J/e/ca
641, b, 12:
1,
i.
rov
iroie7
iravra.
iffrXv
ahrols
apxh
7)
rexvr),
ovtws
iv
roh
tal
irpdyixaa-iv
&\\r] ris
alria roia^rrj, ^v exo/xeu
airias,
et
y4yove,
rd ^ya TO dvrjrd
Kal
fiaWou ^
rb yovu reray-
'
ovpaviois
eV
ro7s
5'
V/xas,
rb
ervx^
irepl
r)
irepl
ra Burira /xaWov.
ol 5e
rS)u fiev (cfJMv %Ka(rrou <pv(rei (paalv
elj/ot
Kal yevfffdai,
rbv
S'
ovpavov
=*
aXriov
naWou
5e
yhp rovro
tj
rivos
eveKa
'
ARISTOTLE
464
Even
reasonable
Art,
lie
Moreover,
artist unconsciously.^
reflect,
it is
We
tion
immanent
design,
point
to
essential
so
Aristotle's
'The
saw.'
aud
p. 307, n. 4,
d.
(paivcrai Se irpuTH]
039, b, 14
[sc. alria] %v X^yofifv iveKci tiuos
1,
Kal
rols
avufffr-nKoaiu.
(pvcrei
(pvcrei
i-noUi
^<n'' ei
iv ry
rix^y
artist,
TTotel
v\r)v,
larpiKt]
ov^fv
'
yap
TTcttrx^* ^''^^
oiov
ouTa,
cnraOri
avTT)
iroiovara
'"''^^
rj
vy'ieiau
vyia^o/iituou.
ii.
6,
744, b, 21.
cf.
Gen.
PHYSICS
But
465
We have al-
ready shown (p. 359 sqq.) that Aristotle finds in matter the
Both
precisely that
is
it
towards
definite
many
This characteristic
make
realisation of her
yet she
still
endeavours as
em-
lost.^
exceptions
to
rules,
and feeling
satisfied
when her
See p. 361, n.
G/m. An. ii.
1,
(5,
supra.
744, b, 16
SxTirep olKOpSfios
troiTJcrai
ri
xPW'r^v.
He
points
VOL.
I.
sqq.,
PaQ't.
An.iii.
2,
663, b, 27,
HH
ARISTOTLE
4GCj
It is
phenomena
irregular natural
all
He
regards
them
result
we may
Moreover,
matter.^
Metapli.
versa,''
ii.
n. \, 2, supra.
&\Xa}s
ex^Jj',
context)
is
as
and
Kara
ecTtJ'
evia
bpBws
fvcKci
t^x^V
^^ ^'^
'''"
purai
repara
eVe/ca tow.
3
f'ari
ri,
An.
fren.
iv.
4,
770, b, 9
irapa tpvffiv
r^v ws
iirl
oh iracrav ciAAo
5'
ro ttoKv
yap r^v
irepl
so also
roiavTT]
Nature
is
irapa
(i.e. d)8e)8aios).
'
motion) Kvofx4vwv,
'
rovTO
S'
5' vKiis
to
ficvei
KpaTovfxeurjs,
fia\i(TTa
rr\s
ov
Kad6\ov
(TtI (oJov
Cf.
TO Te'pas avaTrrjpia rls icrriv.
also 767, b, 13: to 5e repas ovk
KoiX
rov
eueKoi
avayKa'ov irpos r^v
T^v rod T\ovs alriav, aWa Kara
aviiiPefirjKos
^
Phys.
avayKa7ov.
ii.
8,
199, b, 1
et
5)/
famous, although
ally known that
it is
it
not gener-
comes from
orav
ii\i)U
T]
fx^
Kpari](Tri
Kara ro
r^u Kara
eTbos ^ixris.
Cf. previous n.
* Gen. An. ii. 3, 767, b, .5: h
ioiKws ro7s yovevaiv ^'5rj rpoirov
rivh. repas iarlv.
* Polit.
i.
6,
1255,^ b, 1
yap, &(Tirep e| avQpuirov
a^iovcri
iK dijplwv yiveadai
&vdp(t}irov Ka\
jjL^
9r)piov,
ovrw Ka\
e| ayadSov
ayadov
'
PHrSICS
467
members
among the animals we may discern a further malformation in the case of single tribes the
mole, for instance ^
or, to speak more accurately, we may distinguish
between more perfect and less perfect animals such
as
have blood are more perfect than such as have
none
the tame than the wild;^ those which
possess but one
:
centre of organic
with several.^
Kac
rcou Sov\a,u,
avf^fialue^
8h
^o\\aKis rovuaurjdu.
Lt. znjra the section in Ch.
X. on 8ex
on.
JU
Animals
ID
^\
^''''^'
'^- 1^'.^^^' b, 2,
Trai/ra 7ap eo-Ti ra (.cfa uaud,5r}
raAXa^apa
Tou&uepcc^ou.
IZ, b.hj, a, 8.
the
^^'
il>
h/jjass2m.
2 p. and
'
ii.
Cf.
c.
^^
-t\r''-b
ravc^5;
^^''''- c-
^^^' ^' ^^
^Z^Lf.f'^^^^"''}''''^'^^'''''
from
that of a beast.
Btst. An. IV. 8, 533, a, 2.
e
^
it
consists in a
Part. Aoi.
mere capacitv
iv.
5,
682, a
HH
ARISTOTLE
4C8
in a less
see,
^
;
and they
we
shall
lowest stage of
mentary
development and in
its
Aristotle
outline.
though the
life,
what appears
inorganic'^
whole
is
to be
life.
That which
temporal origin
ment out
wliich
is
first
the
in
inorganic.''
order
tlie
it
beginning (that
thought)
of
It follows that
the
also
organic to
eartlily existence.
is
complex exist-
perfect development
as a
over Matter
Form, and
of Matter into
comes
more
since all
least possible, in
Form
absolutely
is last,
most rudi-
Thus Nature
its
recognises a degree of
of
too, as
which he
He
first
ToTv
(pvTo7s
^veari rh
ijTTOV Se ^L^pdpdiTai.
^ See
p. 460, n. 3,
cveKo. rov,
supra
and
ra vcrrepa
tV
yeveaei irpSrepa
(pvaiv icrrl, koI -rrpwrov rh rfj yevecrei
TeKevTa7op
rcf /lev olv XP^^V
trpoT^pav r^u vXrjv avayKa7ov dvai
kol
yev<Tiv, rcji Xoyqs 5e t^/j/
kKaarov fxop<pi]v. Metapli. ix. 8,
oiraj/ eir' apx^f /SaSi^'ei
J 050, a, 7
rh yiyv6fiivov koI t4\os apx^ yap
rh ov eucKa, rod reXovs 5' eVewa ?;
ycueffis. Seealso-p. 205, n. 2, supra.
^ Part. An. 646, b, 4.
Meteor.
oel Se, fiaWov
iv. 12, 389, b, 29
Srjkop [ti eKa<TTOu} iirl rwv xxrrcpwv
koX '6\oos '6(ra olov opyaua K2) fveKd
rfj
tV
PHrsiCi^
469
CHAPTER IX
CONTINUATION
The Universe and
B.
the
Elements
inquiries into
His pre-
which we
live a definite
beginning in time
such as Anaxagoras,
Plato,
is
world we see
is
among an
only one
declare
to
begotten.^
itself
that
our world
Although
Wehaveaclearerideaof the
true nature of man than of flesh,
bones, &c., and a better idea of the
nature of the latter than of the
elements. T^ 7^^ ov fi/Ka ^Kia-Ta
ivravda StjAov oirov irMlcTTov t^s
uAtjs
wo-Trep yap ei ra e(Txo.Ta
rov.
outV, V
t]
5'
ovaia
&\\o
ovOh &\\o
Trap'
v)
On
was the
and un-
Aristotle
eternal
is
upon him/
Xricpdeiri,
infinite series of
some,
the latter
cf.
Zell. Ph.
d.
in his system
Gr. pt.
i.
it
is
not
sq.
past.
iind. 498,
^
De
Ca-lo,
*
Fr.
'^
Jin.
As he says himself
i.
in the
Cic. Acad.
18), quotes
ii.
probably from
AklSTOTtS
470
it
it,
from
change,"''
it,
Aristotle, indeed,
time.
result in the
nowhere expressly
treatise n.
(\)i\oao<pia<;
sq. Hn])ra), at
(sec p.
nulla
On
is
produced by
it.^
states this
to us, although
He contents himself,
in
/xTa)8oA.^
ttjs
TrpuTrjS.
it
to
PHYSICS
471
with
trine,
For
if
which
primum movens
the
is
unchangeable, the
effect
it
same.
is
is eternal,
It
as a destructive, force.
from Aristotle's
follows also
immutability
made.
Not
absolute birth
have
had
consllio
inito
and destruction
beginrjing
novo
whence
may
it
i.
w bile
find
no place in Ari-
ilt.
from Metaph.
ix.
8).
The
with remarking
(c.
10,
280, a,
ARISTOTLE
472
stotle's system,
is
as
presupposed by
is
The question
any origin of the world in time,
actual character and constitution.
but only of
its
The universe
is
the one
This opposition
terrestrial,
and
at once revealed
is
a contrast
we
subject
lie
to
different
demonstrate
argues, are
movement
compound
from the
two,
the
to
its
necessity.
tirst
different
movement
in
space.
But
The
it
rectilineal
circumference,
are the
laws.
is
of both.
essentially
seems to him to
capable of
in space
first
two
recognise
to terrestrial corruptibility
are forced to
realms,
movements form,
or
vice
versa,
and
If these
must be
certain
sqq.
Zell.
P/i. d.
Gr.
pt.
629,
and destruction,
That it was the observation
of this which led Aristotle in
'
the
first
instance to
make
his
PHYSICS
473
Those, on the
movement, must be
formed by combination from them, and receive their
contrary, which exhibit a composite
particular
bias
is
and
violent.
movement must be
other, the
more
also rectilineal,
unbroken and
is
contrary
Accordingly there
must
the
exist
two
one origin-
ment.^
it is
Rectilineal
either
movement has
which exhibit
for the
move-
opposite directions
it
must be of opposite
natures, destined
is,
they must
which
is
out contrariety.
it
It
it
So the body
must likewise be with-
fall,
and in
fact it
It is
light, since
it
open
to dispute.
ARISTOTLE
474
natural motion.^
its
motion
is
for circular
'-^
crease
which
finally,
there
is
12
all
2,209,
a,
is
bodies,
and where
TUerhinde, 393) in
casting a doubt upon Aristotle's
clearly expressed meaning, mereIv on the ground of the actual
clitliculties that beset the theory,
(Aristot.
He
a, 13. b,
avaWoiuTov,
u'iSiou
But he cannot
prove that the motion may not
341
special proofs.
it
does
not
direc-
make the
not,
then,
consist
of
different
'^
sq.
'
Be
Cudo,
i.
3, 270, a,
13-35.
PHYSICS
475
were
full
of air or
fire,
by them.
body
is
superior to
We
all
no evidence of the
heaven or
its parts.^
and such a
unnumbered
this conviction,
its
'
derives
treatise
tion.
it
from dsl
dslv^
from the
restless rotation of
De
Ovlo,
o\)
airfipdKis
Se?
o.<\>iKV7(TQai
Ccelo,
3,
270, b, 11.
vojui^eiu
U^as
els
5ls oAA'
ras avras
^;uay.
JDc
See Meteor.
where the same reason
in almost the same
270,
339, b, 27,
i.
b,
19.
given
words, and JMetaph. xii. 8 ad fin.
See infra, the section of Ch. I'X.
on the Heavens, and Ch. XII. pt. 2.
is
Plato, Crat.
410, b.
ARISTOTLE
476
De
and
Be
is
elementary
Meteor,
Codo,
i.
3,
matter.''^
3,
i.
389,
270, b, 4-25
b, 19 sqq.
following these
3Itmdo, c. 2, 392,
passages
bu
a, 5.
ri\)ni tlie
3, l',M\,
twv
Meteor,
i.
KaXov/neuooi'
3,
cf. ih'id. c.
therefore,
o-ToixeTa
;>
(following n.).
we understand by
terial
substratum
'
(EfiENTANO,
;
Heetling,
material
is
it
/jioi'op
340, b, 7
(ef, p. 488, n. 3, infra), erepov a-wfia
iTvpos T Kal &cpos
and De Orlo,
i.
2, 2G9, a, 30: ovaia crco/naTos
aWf] irapa tus ivravQa (rvardcrfis
diiorepa Kal Trporepa tovtoop airdv;
four (nuix^7a.
Gen. An.
I), 29, it is called irt^pov
If,
d.
meant by the
is
a'ihioL
(TToix^iwv
ruiv
that
in tlieso ])assages
(listiiigiiislicd
ii.
The conclu-
'
(Kampe,
Erliennt-
oiiic
otherwise with
Sf
e^f
ovcriai.
vAr]u,
'
01;
7)
icara r^irui'
(pva-iKol fxiv
frrajy
'
70^ evia
roia.vTi]v
aWa
Matti-r,
kli'-)]t%u.'
means that
Aristotle
we understand by
which
thing
vTTOKiifxevou
uAtj
that
made,
is
yepeareus
Kal
if
of
the
<p6opas
jx^ yevP7]Ta
'6iTa
aWa
irSdip
izoi
viii. 1,
1042, b. 5
ex^i/cat
050, b, 20
ouS' e*" Ti KiPOv/j.pop aidiop, ohK effri
Kara hvpafiip kipov/j.pop aAA' ^
iroSiP TTot
[only in respect of
(pddprrjP exeij/
c.
8,
PHYSICS
mutation,
477
it
it
it
The
circular
ment
movement
is
all
it
respects.
is
If
move-
But, as we have remarked, rectimotion follows two opposite directions, upand down,
toward the circumference and toward the centre. That
is rectilineal.
lineal
and
qualitative.
The
materials we cannot explain either, with Plato and Democritus, by the mathematical qualities of atoms, or,
with
denied of them in
as it is denied of
immaterial Nous, or that it
be attributed to the latter in
rovTov
same sense
locality
5'
[l.p.
vK-nv
ffOai']
Tov irSdey
ov9h KuXvei
iroi kiucT-
uwapx^iv.
former
latter
less
is
rfj
flSos
v\r)
Kal
noptp^,
fj./xiyfi4vov.
the
Still
likt}
is
same sense
It
is
the
the
can
the
as to the former.
called OeTos, Meteor
339, b, 25
also, similarlv, Be
Ca-lo, i. 3, 270, b, 1], 20
^ wpdrtj
ouo-/o
tmv acoudruv, rh vpurov
3,
'4rep6v
g^e
p.
473
sq.
ARISTOTLE
478
of one and the
We
have
point
first
They
confine
thing merely
it
as
some-
relative.'^
sition of rectilineal
Again, since
it.-"^
it
includes
In the second
rather
we must imagine an
intermediate element, or
Of
water and
Earth
air.
devoid of lightness
devoid of heaviness.
centre,
is
fire,
these four
fire is
all
straight to the
other bodies
the
'
Be
20
PHYSICS
rises
above
Water and
other bodies.
all
479
air,
on the
Water
relatively light.
is
air heavier
Under no
than
fire,
possible circumstances,
fire,
but lighter
fire
sink of
them is withdrawn.^
earth
weight of wood,
We
may
by
definitely
for instance,
another
process
of
reasoning.^
more
All
'
an empty one
3
just
ibid. c. 4, 311, b, 9.
in
Aristotle,
referred
theory
the
to, finds
passage
in
this
an
explanation of the
difference between absolute and
specific gravity.
*
Be
The same
ideas
occur, in a somewhat
different application, ii. 3, 286, a,
12 sqq. It is there said that the
towards
of
'
intermediate elements,
'"
For what
ii.
2, 3.
ARISTOTLE
480
reducible
to
four
warmth,
dryness, moisture.^
cold,
The
attributed to Hippocrates.
origin, cf.
cxlvii., civ.
avOpwirov
recognises (c,
init.)
205, 241,
i.
We
passion
the elements, on the
other hand, stand to one another
in that particular relation of
action and passion {ihid. 329,
b, 20), which the treatise on
birth and destruction chiefly dis;
cusses.
e^p^ilv
Ibid. 329, b, 24
Kol ^vxp^v KoX vyphu Koi ^r]phu to
-'
ra 5e t^
yap iari
rh (TvyKplvov to. dfxoyevT] [from
which it follows that fire separates
heterogeneous elements], x^/vxpou
/j.(u
r^
dvai
iToir)TiKa
iradriTiKa
K^yerai
'
d^pfxhv
ra T
vyphu 8e rh aopiffrov
evopiarov
ttv,
opcp
olKcicp
5k rh a6pi(Trov
^r}phv
5v(r6pi(rrov 5e.
(Cf.
The
3Ieteor. iv. 4, 381, b, b, 29.)
qualities Xeirrhv, iraxh, yXi^xpov,
Kpavpou, /xaKaKhv, ffKKripov are reduced to these primarj'^ qualities
diepdv
and
fie$pyfivov
kinds of moisture,
narrower sense and
dryness.
^ Meteor,
rerrapa
iv.
SicapiaTai
form two
^-npdv
in its
of
ireir-nybs
init.
5e
eirel
Se
TTiffris
(fiaiuerai
PHYSICS
we
481
i warm and
or air;
cold
dry, or fire
warm and moist,
and moist, or water; cold and dry, or
;
earth. 3
These are the four sorts of matter of which all
composite bodies consist, which are excreted from all.
Kal
6epix6rr}s
opl^ovffai
stituent parts of any kind (cVuttdpxovra), and thus even the component parts of a conception or a
demonstration, as well as the
form as constituent part of the
thing, but in a more special
sense the
iwirdpxop
us uAtjj/
(BoNiTZ, Ind. Arist. 702, a, 18
sqq-) stands for the ultimate
material constituents of bodies
themselves, that els % SiaipeTrai ra
&Wa
^f/vxp^r-ns
Kttl crvfi<pvov(rai
ra
ofioyevrj Kal
vypaivovcrai
tSAAo ra
Cf.
c.
^rjpaivovtrai
Kal fiaXdrrova-ai,
vypa
Kal
|r/pa
SfioyeyTj, Kal
/j.^
Kal
(TKXripvuovffai
Se
Kal ix^rafidXXova-at
ra
Spi^S/nej/a
koI
ra
Kal
is
ffcafxara effxara,
Gen. et Corr.
3,
c. 3,
els h
ii. 2, 329,
b, 7, 13,
330, a, 30, 33, and Meteor, i.
2, 339, a, 13, he calls the latter
(heat, cold,&c.) both arroix^la and
apxal, the bodies of which they
are attributes, ottAS adifxaTa, Ind.
Ariit. 76, b, 15 sqq. Again, they
are frequently called (noix^7a
with the addition ra KaAovfxcva
[Phys. i. 4, 187, a, 26, iii. 5, 304,
b, 33.
Gen. ct Corr. ii. 1, 328, b,
31, 329, a, 26.
Meteor, i. 3, 339,
b, 5.
Gen. An. ii. 3, 736, b, 29.
Metaph. i. 4, 985, a, 34 t^ ws eV
:
^\r}s
elSci
\ey6jLLva
ffTOix^^a'],
YOTi,
I,
efSei
1014,
a,
raKKa
iKuva 5e
fnjKer'' els
Sia^epoura [^Metaph. v.
32 cf. i. 3, 983, b, 8],
;
(rdfiara
SiaipeTrai,
ev-
Gen.
i.
Corr.
et
1 init.
TiKwu)
ii. 7 init.
Meteor.
(ruu aTOX^ioiv rwv ercojULa;
Be
ii.
Coelo,
2,
iii.
II
ARISTOTLE
482
all
own
Their
are resolved. ^
primitive
elemental
which
is
as ice
fire
by an
is
water.
fire
flame, on
evaporation;-^
Metaph.
or
caloric,
is
Oepfior-nros,
ipvxp^rrjros
I)e CVelo,
Gen.
ii.
3.
\l/vxpi^T'nTOS
ia-Ti
'^KacTTOV
aWa
IjliktSv
^qpov
OjULOLOU,
TTUpoeiSfS,
4, this is
controverted;
cf.
Meyer,
*
25
TO
Si=
irDp
7]
yci.p
rwes
^(xrlv
dep/jLOv.
elcriv,
5h Oep/jLorriros
virepfioX^
is
7]
1]
/lej/
(I ovv
vypov
irii^LS
icrrai
koI
ttTi^ls
443 a'
t]
Kpva-raWos iari
\^vx,pov, Kal rh irvp
8.
et Corr. \i.^,'m,h,2\:
Se rh -rrvp Koi 6 arjp Kol
Tuv clpr]jj.4vwu a.n\ovVy
fifu eariv, oi
no constant
is
(eais virepfioAai
Gen.
ovK
et Corr.
iii.
the contrary,
v.
'
3,
Elemental
C^(Tis
oUr
e/c
f/c
irvpSs.
made about
340, b, 21, c. 4,
341, b, 22; cf. 1. 13: irpwrov (ikv
yap vTch r))v iyKvKXiou (popdu itrri
fire.
Meteor,
i.
3,
like
'
little
motion.
had
Heraclitus
with heat in
fire
identified
general (see Zell. Ph. d: Gr.
distinction
the
588 sq.)
i.
between fire and the heat of
;
fire
^- ~, c).
Crat.
^^. 413,
^,
-V-
PHYSICS
483
of moist
tation
distinctive characteristic
the dryness of
of water, the
moisture
warmth of
Since, finally, each element includes a passive
and an active quality,*^ it follows that all act upon and
'
'
fire.2
may
pass into
the
all
rest,
Meteor,
yap (p\h^
/tec
2,
ii.
355, a, 9
-^
vypov
Kal ^T]pov fjLTa^a\\6vTwv yiyvcTai
Kal oh rpe^erai [with which that
which is improperly called rpotp^,
Long. nt. 3, 463, b, 24, Vita et
M. c. 5, 470, a, 2, does not conflict]
ov yap 7] aWi} olffa Sia/mevei
ovOeva xp^vov ws elireTj/.
Ibid. c.
3, 357, b, 31
Kaddvep rh tuv
peouTcov vBdrcou Kal rb rrjs <p\oyhs
Sia
(Tvi/exovs
pevfia.
-
Vita, et
M.
Gen. et Corr.
aW
470, a, 2.
331, a,
c. 5,
ii.
3,
3 ov fi^v
ottAcDs ye rerrapa
bvra [to (rroix^la^ kvhs eKaarou
:
iari,
yrj
\l/vxpov,
[xiv
vSccp
^ vypov, a^p
^rjpov
5e
/xaWov
\f/vxpov
5'
^
fjLaWop
vypov jxaWov ^
^aWov ^
Irjpou.
Mtteor. iv. 4, 382, a, 3.
In the latter passage Aristotle
says, among other things, that
earth and water alone are inhabited by living beings (on which
vide below), because they alone
are
uAr;
rSov
acafiaTuiv.
For
although cold is held by Aristotle
depuov,
TTvp
Se
depjuov
from
iSialrara ^r}pov
/j.hv
777, vypov Se
ridefieOa 5e vypov awfia
tiSwp, ^ripov 5e yijif (iv. 4, 5,
382,
iiSup
a, 3, b, 3)
and since dryness
and moisture are regarded as the
;
{Be
ARISTOTLE
484
opposite to opposite
all
opposed
more
this opposition
opposed.
difficult
is
is,
the
in one of
them occasions
the other
requires a second transmutation before the metamorphosis is complete. For instance, by removing the
it
appears, earth
is
common
metamorphosed
are wholly opposed to one another are
by an indirect process those which are but partially
;
directly.
directly into
into air or earth, indirectly into water ; air
directly
water
earth;
into
indirectly
fire or water,
into water or
fire,
Gen. et Corr.
ii.
air.^
4.
earth directly
Thus
all
the
PHYSICS
485
strated/
self-
and
if its
For
if
by
force,
earth
its
its
is
natural place,
having
it,
must move
then
all
to these
mediate spaces.
Hence
it
is
impossible
that
there
air,
'
619,
'^
&aT
and
ZeLL.
Cf.
and
sether,
ibid.
ii.
pa.
d.
Gr.
i.
680.
^ Meteor, ii.
it
3, 357, b, 27
asked, irorepov Kal rj QaXarra
:
rov
rh
TrKi]6ovs
KaOdirep rh
rris
(pKoyhs pev/xa.
(pavephu
^paSurriTi rris /aerafioAris eVi irdvraiv re Koi (pOopau clvai Koi yeveffiu,
Sr?
v^iv
av/j-fia'-
b,
29
ARISTOTLE
486
and
if all
bodies
no body
it,
has no matter
If,
it is
single
must manifest
answer that
this argument
would be only conclusive if there were an extra-mundane
matter in which this concept could incorporate itself,
us
in
its
kind, although
it is
we ought
now
in
Be Cwlo, i. 8,
21 sqq. 279, a, 11.
c.
'
9,
278, b,
'
Ibid. 279,
a,
out'
Sxrr'
ovt vvv
number
Toijvo/xa
/xh
<rr)ij.aivi, Trdyrt),
tj? 5'
oij.
koI
jx)]
ry
PHYSICS
487
Furthermore, the shape of the universe is determined by the nature of the five simple bodies. Since
circular
motion
motion to the
is
rest,
lie
the other.
mined by
it
their distance
in spheres
centre.
during an eclipse, from the different stars visible in the north and
the south, and the fact (already
touched on 296, b, 18) that falling
bodies do not move in parallel
lines but only at similar angles
towards the earth. With regaid
to the last,
there
doubt whether
it
is
had
room
for
been ascer-
move even a
488
AklSTOTLJE
its
us of the
material,^
'^
fact.3
its
Around
spheres first of air, then of
spherical. 4
fire.
Aristotle, however,
remarking that
composed partly of moist and partly
of dry vapour, the latter produced from earth, the
former from water and the moisture of the earth the
what we
last,
call air is
drier kinds
their
where Aristotle
that
'
the
DeCcelo,\\. 14,
natural motion
is
toward the
'
the earthquake.
* The proof of this,
De Coelo,
ii. 4, 287, b, 1 sqq., is as follows
PHYSICS
489
body.
same point
'
Meteor, i. 3, 340, b, 19 sqq.
341, a, 2, c. 4, 341, b, 6-22; cf.i.
7, 344, b, 8, c. 8, 345, b, 32
ii. 2,
354, b, 4 sqq.; De Ccelo, ii. 4,
a,
287,
30 on the difiference be;
which
Coelo,
*
ii.
4.
lUd.
to the
same
point.^
early
all
viz.
all
those
bodies
of
equal
bulk that
ARISTOTLE
490
The
finer
its
matter
the more
is,
world
indeed, in
as,
'^^
Still
re(iuire.
we cannot regard
matter of the
the
Nature, in Ari-
process,
heaven,
as
it
aether,
which composes
the
approaches
terrestrial
atmosphere.^
heavens, Aristotle
the argument is a
It is obvious that
Aristotle accepts the globular
form of the earth on the direct
evidence of the senses, and
merely adds these other proofs
as supplementary evidence.
explanation
lame one.
>
Unci. 287, b,
acpaipoeidrjs
iffriu
olv
'6rL /j-ev
6 Kocrixos SriXov
(paivofifucov,
no
terres-
trial
cal form.
(x\v
yhp
&v<i}
Kal
fJ-^XP''
<T^X'i]VT]S
Kampe is wrong
dAiKpives, Sec.
the
in supposing that it is
air as the matter of the fiery
region and not the fether that is
here spoken of. The &v( M^Xf"
aeX-f-iurjs does not mean the region
below the moon, but the upper
regions reaching down as far as
the moon, and lying between it
and the starry heavens. Moreover,
accfia
'drepov a4pos
cannot
We
inroTeOeKTuv ofiaAccv
Viav Kivrftrecov
Kiur](Tiis
SiarrcoB'p
Kal rerayfie-
ra vepl rhs
TcovtrAavu/fiepwv (paiuSfieya,
PHYSICS
491
move
and from
T^} (re\r]V7]s
Teas
il
eJpai
5vo qiero
acpaipas,
en
ra
rrpocrde-
(t)aiv6[xeua
ments and
Geminus, in Simpl. Phijs. 64, b,
and what the latter says of
the
old
following
astronomers
Eudemus and
partly
Sosi-
(paivofieva airoBdcreiv,
Twv
irXaviafievoov
erepas
a<paipas
... to
oZu Tr\rj6os tuv (Xtpaipwv eoTco
Toaovrov
rh 'yap avayKoiov
ixdrrovas
fiia
&c.
eTi/o;,
fieu
a(peia6a>
Be
Coslo,
ii.
5^ Tovrwv
Ka\
tV
(ilTeTv yikv
f'^i
fiiKpas
his views
iroTcpov avdpcairlvus ^
IffKovffi,
charm,
rdfieda
ei
:
Kara
Kal
fiiKphv i<pair-
observation, cf ibid.
.
c. 1,
639, b, 7:
ouTco
Ti]v dcTTpoAoyiav
Se?
Kal
ihv
(pvaiKov
KaX
ra
to
Sciicvvovffiv,
fx^pi]
to.
rh
ra
^ya
irepl
ARISTOTLE
492
from west to
could
move
east,
i.e.
freely in space
star
in
its
stotle does
sphere,
both
he
phenomenon must be
of the heaven or the
this
movement
which were
stars,
is fixed,
'
stars,
The
immovably
PHYSICS
move independently,
493
case
in this
for
how
could
we
In this case
are fixed.
to
circle,
although there
two.
Hence we
is
no
real connection
between the
them.^
rate.
more rapid
stars,
Mere
rolling,
how-
is
the least
their
own
with
them]
spheres, but
koI
move
eVSeSe^ueVa
toTs
and setting
289, b, 32.
their form is de-
monstrated,iJ*<^.c.ll,bothbythe
shape of the moon in its different
phases, and by the teleological
argument that since nature does
nothing in vain she must have
given the stars, which require no
optical delusion,
* Cf
also Zell. Ph. d. Gr
i. 681, 1.
* In
his refutation of the
doctrine of the harmony of the
spheres (c. 9 /w.), which we
KvK\oi5
2
<f>epe(reai,
That this
is
and
ARISTOTLE
494
Now
sphere revolved on
its
own
it
rate.
many
tlie
spheres
was bound
stotle
Ari-
kind of movement.'
may omit,
is
Unequal motion
presupposes
change either in motum or
viovens, or both, but this is impossible with
regard to the
heavens.
For it is obvious to
the senses that the parts of the
(highest) heavens are uniform
in their movements, while with
regard to the heavens as a whole
the same conclusion is forced
upon us when we consider that
unequal motion is only possible
where force is either added or
withdrawn, and that every with-
PHYSICS
495
All
for the
way
Cf. p.
in
xii.
7,
Ari-
asks,
stotle
6er4ov
there
vdrepov filav
ovaiav ^
jr\elovs, Koi irSffas ; and answers,
1073, a, 26: eTrel Se rh Kivovfievov
avdyKf] vTTo rivos KivctaQai, Koi rh
c.
roiavT7)v
t)]v
tV
airXrju
(popau
a*'*"''
^<^'
^vhs,
^v Kiviiv
(pafxcv
r^v
Kd(TTr}v
tS)v
(popwv
utt'
CLKiviirov
aiBiovs
Kal
Kal SLvev
dKivi^rovs
fieyedovs.
KaB'
avrds
BeENTANO'S
b, 1 )
De^ Ccelo,
:
avruv
aW'
ii,
Tifiels
fxdvov
ARISTOTLE
496
must be
as
many
'
souls,' to preside
The
therefore,
empty
The centre of
interspace.^
system
this
is
and
called
the
outer spheres are uppermost, the inner are nethermost,
and each
so
Siavoovfxeda
'
inroXafifidveiu
Kal
irpd^^cos
(wrjs.
It
is
animated by a
spirit
but
the
(see
ii.
vol.
285,
2,
cfxrpvxos
Kal
So 284,
b,
ii.,
29:
a,
itself
init.^.
5'
moved
Be
Ccdo,
ovpavhs
32
1,
world-soul
'
'
ii.
4,
287,
a,
5 sqq.
Coelo,
i.
6 init.
and elsewhere,
ii.
4,
287,
a,
8,
PHYSICS
497
to
the northern.^
and
peculiar
self -moved
;
to
(285, a, 23)
TO oQiv 7] KiuTjais, the right hand
rh d</)' ov, the front to icp' o ri
Kiurjais.
(Cf. Inyr. An. c. 4, 705,
b, 13 sqq.)
If we apply this to
the world, that is tlie right side
of the irpwros ovpavos from which
its motion proceeds in other
is
own
'
its
is
Tt 5e|iOj/ Koi
iravrhs (rd/xari
ball
VOL.
I.
e7r6i57;
Se rivis elffiv
e^Trep
o'i
(pacriv eivai
K K
ARISTOTLE
498
motion,
being
but in
all
uniform, without
is
witli
way
its
how we
el
dimiv
Tt
left, exist ov
dWa
Kol
avT^
b,
11,
tov uinaOev
Kal TO Se^LOU tov dpKTTepOV TljXlWTtpov (t.houiih it might; bo said
with equal truth, ws 5jd to tcls
KOLTw Kal rh
dpx^-s
eV
irpocrBiv
TovTois
TavTO.
iJvai
are,
under the
One
motions of both circles.
would suppose from Arikt.
Metaph. xii. 8, 1073, b, 18, 25,
fSiMPL.
Be
b,
I'.KS,
3(1,
that
Eudoxus and
from that
of Callippus
addition of the
o-(pa7pai aveXiTTOvcrai) that this was
not the case. Plato's proof that
the spheres of the planets are
carried round by the sphere of
the fixed stars appeared to them
Only those spheres
fantastic.
they conceived of as connected
with one another which belonged
differed
only in
the
PHYSICS
499
For
this
of Cnidos,
observation,^
On
fastened.
in
since
it
to the
same
planet.
Aristotle,
on
r^s reKfVTa'as
exovcr-qs
Kal^rrjs^
iv iro\\a?s
Tf\vra7a
ff<pa7pa
ei/
yap
&crTpov
crcpaipais
4v5e5efj.4uv
ties this
De
12
a,
V.
daily revolu-
its
concert
Simpl.
'
Be Coelo,
Sohol. in
Ar
in
498
svpra, p. 451, n. 2
K K 2
ARISTOTLE
500
west.
into
its
it,
revolved
course in the
the
The
ecliptic.
round by the
surrounding spheres, but differing from them in direction and the period of rotation, were
meant
to explain
motion of the
spheres.
stars
star itself.^
two apiece
for the
more probable
'
theories of Eudoxus and Callippus, see besides the scanty allusion in Aristotle (^Metaplh. xii. 8,
1073, b, 17; SiMPL. ibid. 498, b,
5-500, a, 15, who depends partly
upon the work of Eudoxus
n. Taxwj/, partly upon the account
of Sosigenes, but has not altogether avoided falling into mistakes, and Theo. Astronom. p.
276 sqq. ed, Martin, in whom,
however, his editor (p. 55 sq.)
points out serious errors. In explanation, cf.lDELER, ibid. 7osqq.
Schwegler,
a, 23,
first
this astro-
theory,^ without
this,
remarking
of
Eudoxus
=*
PHYSICS
that his
own
501
first
sphere assigned
superfluous.^
rectification
in
it,
round in
its
course
all
For
if
each sphere
those
of another.
accordingly, inserts
'
as
many
completely
ABISTOTLE
602
as the
movements
by
neutralised.^
It is only the
its first
moon which
requires no
is
interru])t.
Aristotle,
consequentl}?-,
adds twenty-two
Tpwu
aveXiTTOvaai
1(pa7pai
ply ras
(sup-
not
(r<f>aipas,
does, SiMPL,
ib.
as
Sosigenes
1071, a, 2-12'*,
'spheres which serve to turn
vvpdv(i) Kivfjcreis,
i.e.
communicate
to
them a motion
of the next
above them, and in this way to
keep them in the same position
opposite
that
to
relatively to
irpcirriv
a'(pa7pav
rerayixevov
ihid. 1074, a, 1
Theophrastus
sqq
of
retrogressive
spheres.
Ari-
altogether.
and
&va(TrpoL,
some, but
less
all of
(SiMPL
them
ibid.
starless spheres
stotle
PHYSICS
503
we add
if
unmoved
entities
giving in
all
fifty-six
poreal
sun
from
many
whom
eternal incor-
spheres proceed.^
not
fail
to
conceiv^ed,
accordingly, as
earl}^
epicycles
triumphantly against
'
it.^
of retrogressive spheres
rectify
Metaph.
'
ibid.
Simpl.
cf.
Krische,
500, a, 34 sqq.
iMd. 206 sqq. Ideler, ibid. 82
ibid.
star.
dpiffTov
Sei
vofxl^eiv,
ravras
erepa
dWa
(pixris
dirad'^s
[sc.
dudyKT] rdv
dpidfidv elvai rSiv ovaiuv. eire ydp
fl<riv eVepot Kivoiev
tiv
cus reAos
&c.],
o{i<rai
(popas.
rovTOV
ibid.
Mm.
xii.
Zell. Ph.
Simpl. says,
ARISTOTLE
604
One
Aristotle called
object,
single motion.
'
first
heaven,' as
celestial world.
most perfect
or the
is
it,
In
it
accomplishes
single sphere
its
its
it
purpose by a
an innu-
carries
motion
Its
is
better side
Moving without
right to
right.'^
no Atlas
to support
ihid. 500, a,
40
it
nor any
asks
De
how
Ca'h),
it
is
ii.
12,
that the
Aristotle
number
of
first
neath
Him
lies
nearest to
direction,
trouble,
sail to
carry
it
from
requires
round by
it
yap
Set
eKacTTris
C'^^js
koX ttjs
iroW^v inrepox^v
7r/?coT7js TTphs
{voriffai
apx^s
eluai ttjs
at
all,
it
has
See
See
p. 494, n.
supra.
p. 497, n. 1, supra.
PHYSICS
Its
force. ^
motion embraces
605
and generates
all
all
perfect
is
Instead
we
are required to
left side
and uniform
its
Their
course.
itself, it is
'
See
p. 459, n. 5.
De
Coelo,
iffnv
eTs Kcu aiSios [d ttos ovpavhs
Aristotle, however, has principally
view
itpwros
in
the
ovpavhs, which,
in i. 9, 278, b, 11, is called by
preference simply ovpavSsI dpxhv
ovk %-)(^u)v rod
fxiv KOI TeAeuT^i/
1 init.
ii.
iravrhs alcovos,
iv avrcp
rhv
exw^
Se koI TrepiexoifV
&,iripov
xpjyoj'
fieu
Kiv7)(riv
aWa
oZaa
rj
KVK\o(popia reAeios
t)]v
apxv^ t^v Se
iravKav.
The
&<pdapTos Kal
airaO^s
irdarjs
ayeyrjTos,
Oui^Trjs
$ti
5'
Sutrx^peias
rb
/xrj56/Ams
Piaias
irpoaSelffdai
KuXvovTa
Karex^i
(t>4p(rdai irefpvKSra avrhv SAAws
yap rh roiovrov iiriirovqv,
irav
avdyKijs,
ri,
Kal
Sia-
I. 9,
els
Kal fxopos
279, a, 10
TeAetos ovros ovpavSs icrriv.
The
Kal
ARISTOTLE
606
from the
circle are
these motions
is
produced.'
affected
by the
a further proof
is
Nevertheless,
which
of the
of
of perfection.-^
elements, so
As
is
the aether
tlie stars
They form
tlie celestial
Cf
De
ovpavhv KoL
to,
deiSrara robv
(paivo/j.e-
vuv.
Metaph. xii. 8, 1074, a, 17
(see p. 503, n. \, supra). The stars
are therefore called 0e?o auixaTa,
Metaph.
ibid.
1.
30,
De
Ccelo,
ii.
likewise the
heavens, ihid. 3, 286, a, 11.
* Part.
An. i. 1, 641, b, 18:
t6 yovv TeTayfjL^vov /col rh wpiff12,
292,
b,
32;
fi4vov TToAu
fiaWov
ovpaulois
Trepi
'/)
(pa'v^Tai iv ro79
v/xas to
S'
^A\ot'
28
fidvos
&u
'
eiirelp fiopiov
ovtos
tov iravrds
aAA.'
oifdev
icrriv.
ws
By
pirrsics
Aristotle,
like
507
Plato,
animated by rational
spirits,
and ascribed
these
to
There-
of knowledge which
it
motion
in
space,
admits
Be
any
of
Ccelo,
it4^vk4
i.
Tis
kind.
2, 269,
Similarly,
14
a, 30, b,
&XXr)
ffdjxaros
oifcria
....
etTTt Tt
Sevpo Kol
fffiivou
rijv
irep]
i]ij.as
rtxrovrq}
ipvcTLV
ra
Trapa
<rd>/xaTa
ra
Tepov K^xcopi-
rifiicoTepav
a<l>aT7)K
'6<T(firep
e;^o'
tuv
Plato,
Efij?.
i.
Phrsdr.
he
is
describing
the
it
a reflection of those
ing
all
ultimately
where
Platonic
motion
also
is
modes of
1
Eth.
vi. 7, 1141, a, 34:
avOpdirov iroXv OeiSrepa r^v (pvffiv,
oTou (pavepdorard ye e| wv 6 Kda/xos
avv(rrriKj/.
De Ccelo, i. 2 see
preceding note.
^ Part.
An. i. 5 init.
the
beings in the world are either
unbegotten and imperishable, or
begotten and perishable o-u^/Se;
j8T7/ce
5e
irepi
fjiXv
iKeivas
ikdrrovs
Ti/xlas
rjfuv
xnr-
e<paTrT6fie6a,
'6fxa)S
Sia
t^v
clxTirep
rifitorriTa
Trap' Tjfuv
rvxhv Kal
avriKaraXXdrrerai ri
ra dela
CoelOy
ii.
Cf. also Pe
12 {suj)ra, p. 169, n. 3).
(piXocrotplav.
ARISTOTLE
608
self,
perfectly conscious
is
Aristotle
him-
of this connection
the difference
of materials,
no other reason.
for
if
forces
them
to
move
in
another.''
But since everything that
moved must be moved by something else, it follows
and
p.
xii.
8,
e
p.
i.
68G
2,
475, supra.
1074, a, 38:
sq.
svpra,
Metaph.
TrapaSe'So-
roaovroy
vaXaicov
(laiv
Koi
ovroi [the
TTfpie'xet
<pv<riu.
Ttt
irpoarriKrai
Se
re
starry heavens]
rh 6e7ov t^v
\onra /xvdiKoos
irphs
rijv
ircidcis
'Skrju
^Stj
rcou
irapaTrAy^o'ia
rois
elpri/meuois
'
wj/
ovaias elvai deicos tiv etprja-dai vojxia-eiev Kal Kara rh eiKhs iroWaKis
evp7)fxevf]s eh rh Svvarhu eKdirrr/s
Kal
rex^ns Kal
<piKo(ro<pias Kal-KaXiv
5,
6;
Athenaq.
Svpplic.
c.
Clemens, Strom, v.
Euseb. ihid. 5, 1
Chalcid. in Tim. c. 248 and
elsewhere; cf. Keische, Forsch.
22, s, 88 p
D;
591,
1)
mean
sq.
477
sq. sup.
PHYSICS
509
swiftly
all
it
is
Meteor,
'
2,
21
339, a,
5'
6,vu)
(popais,
lixm
rijv
dvua/xiv
Kv^epua<rdai
....
oicTTe
rOsv
TTvp
(xkv
avTov
irciaav
avrov
iKilQiv.
(rufx^aivovTwv irepl
KaX yrjv koI to.
Kivifa-ews
See
'^
p.
480, n.
del kiuou-
340,
c. 3,
3, sujjra.
i.
It
is
fiit.
stars
virh
TTJs
iKeiuuv
(popas.
Motion
is
fastened,
stars,-*
nor yet
it
/xeu ovv
5ia to eV de'pt
ts 5id T7ji> TrKrjy^iv rfj
ylyverai irvp' tu)V 5e &v(i}
avTct iKQepfxalverai
^4pffdai,
Kivr]<Tei
eKaffrou iv
avra
ixkv
r^
fi^
ff<paipa,
(pip^rai, Sxtt^
iKirvpovadai,
rov
S'
ijcdepixaiviaQai,
IxaKurra
Se/xduos.
6 i\ios
Sih
koX ravry
TeTvxVKev ei/Se-
S^
nXrjcnd^ouTds re
avrov Kal a.vi(Txovros KoX virep tj/jlols
uvros yiyverai rj depfidrrjs.
That
ARISTOTLE
510
so slow of
fire
effect either of
generation or of destruction.
sun
makes
But the
The
unequal.
it
is
and death
is
Whether
witli the
latter with the remoteness of the sun, the one with the
approach of warmer and the other with that of colder
and
cold,
when
celestial
!sing-le
body
like
this,
is
'
'^
'
'
iuaur ias,
tj
rij (popa
tt] auwjULa\tla.-
5uo
Kivriff^is
.
rris fxhv olv avvtx^*"^ ^ '''^^ oXov (popa alria, rov 54
TrpoaUvai koI airUvai ?/ ^yKKiais
avfxfiaivii yap ore fxlv iroppoo yiveo-dai ore S' iyyvs.
aviaov 5e tow
SLaarr^/jLaTos uvtos auw/xaXos earai
.
rj
Kiurjais
PHYSICS
611
same.
still
by causing
their
The
materials of the world are thus continually conducted in a never-ceasing stream of reciprocal trans-
The endlessness of
below. 2
this process
communicates
The substances
no right
thus
'
the
left
H^xpi
(rviJ.iJ.eT plus
rivhs
'
awjxara.
Kal
iJ.erefia\\ei/ viro
/j.^
i]Sr]
tcu
tov
irXrjaioi^,
Siea-TrjKea-av.
fieTafiaAAei
SnrArjy ovrrav
iroiovari
Terayfxevr].
363, n. 4.)
Gen.
7
5e rh eJvai
et
Corr.
aixa 5e StjAoj'
awopovcriu, Sia ri
e/c
10, 337, a,
rovrcav '6 rives
ii.
kKacnov roov
5'
rh
t) t^ fii] eJvai,
rovro
dSvvarov ev airaffiv vndpx^tv Sid
irSppo} TTJs
crco/ua-
\enrojj.evcf)
x^pw
'6\ov
evSe\.)
dpxvs
rpoircp
6e(is
iroi-fiaas
dcpiarraaOai, rqi
(TweirAripoxre
evreXexv
rh
(better
ri]v yeyeffiy oVrw
ARISTOTLE
512
mutation
is
for as the
it
and equal
at fixed
intervals,
is circular,
and
'
movement
as the
kind of
circle,
all
itself.^
mena produced by
He
[in this
nature]
in
irvvbipoiro to i'ivai
way no
hih.
be left
rh iyyvrara dvai
,a:ap
will
kKacrruiv apiO/xhu
fiioi
fx^^c'^
'^'*'
Kal eV
icrriv,
aTriouTos 5e ^6i<ris,
XP^'^V ^Karepov.
tffcf
It is
sqq.
cf. c.
(see p. 484,
on
the
those
circle
of
14, 22;), b,
P/i//s. iv.
treatise is
:
offa
a-v/j.-
Twv
rbu ytiTvivvTa
aco/uidToov, irepl
ocro
ei'577
and
yeviffis
and
finally
''
sqq.
2'.]
fiepcov.
and
generation,
mony with
,sujr/'a),
TT/s
describes those
first
fiery circle;
pheno-
Kol
/ueprj
Kal
irddt]
tSsv
iv.
'
'>
fxera
TOTTos
TTJ
tovtov
6.
fxiv hivrepos
after the fiery
64(Ti
[i.e.
and again
Kal &epo5,
''
i.
Ibid.
9 init.
iii.
6,
378, a, 15 sqq.
IDELER.
PHYSICS
513
which
offers a
of animate existence in
we should
its
chemistry.
In the
first
of
these
and organic
sections
various
this
Milky Way,
inflamed
its
'
'
See
p. 83, n. 2, sujpra.
^{eUor.
i.
were thought
4, 5.
Cf pp. 482,
n. 4, 479, n. 4,
490, n. 3, and 509, n. 4.
"J^'i^.c. 6-7, especially .344, a,
16 sqq. and c. 8, 345, b, 32 sqq. In
3
of the
nature of comets which he here
gives, Aristotle endeavours (344,
b,
18 sqq.) to explain those
meteorological
phenomena
{e.g.
VOL.
I.
to forecast.
On
L L
ARISTOTLE
514
no
less
world,
returns to
it
is
always yielding a
Its
salt
and
bitter
taste
is
for
are generated
in other
its
The reason
given,
it
remains
p. 484, supra.
'
iMd.
i.
c. 8,
of this
340, a, 26.
is
'^
of
Ihid.
i.
c. 9.
'
Ihid.
ii.
c.
1-3.
PHYSICS
behind in the
sea.
Dry evaporation
515
and
this refrigeration
warm
the earth in the shape of wind.^ Consequently, the alternations of wind and rain depend upon the fluctuations of
one another.^
terior
of the
earth as
are
may
In the earth
itself stones
damp
become metals.^
At the end of the third book of the Meteorology
into water,
ii.
i.
12, 348, b, 2
De
Somtio,
3,
457, b,
2.
sqq.
ARISTOTLE
516
bodies.
the
not properly
is
four
warmth and
and
Taking
start.
regarding
moisttire as
in
latter,
several manifestations.
their
when
tion
generation,
ruption,
substance
its
cor-
is
Among phenomena
may be reckoned
Of the two
iraffa
Meteor,
eVrt (pQopa
irpwTOV jxkv
yevecris Kal
7}
iv.
378,
1,
KaOoXov
ol)V
b, 28:
7]
aTrArj
7]
Kara
avTiKeijxivr) (pdopa
(pvcriv.
Ihid.
1.
eKaarr) (pvcrei
at
elprjfxevai
yewwai
Se
Kparovvra
5
avrai
S'
Kparfj,
a.7Ti\iia
rrjs v\7]s.
Kara
fxepos
ylverai, rij
ivavTiov
[wAtj] elalu
Swdixeis iradrjTiKa'.
rh depiJ-hv Kal ^vxp^f
Ibid. 379, a, 2
fidXicTTa
jiieu
5'
orav 5e
/x^
fxdoKvffis Kal
airXfj yepecrei
Koivov
7]
Kara
Tcoj/
yap
c^i/zts.
olKeias Kal
utt'
ttjj
L. 16
eV
Kara (pvaiv
aWorpias
a7i'>\iis
5'
vyp<^
eKacTTC}}
6ep/j.6r7]ros
depfidrTjros
'
auTTj 5'
irerpis, iriiravffis,
rh opi^fiepov
'<^i^i.s,
6im]<Ti$
PHYSICS
passive principles moisture
in its nature the
more
517
easily determinable
therefore,
is
moisture,
characteristics of
must
This com-
bination produces
we
its
is
own
definite
soft.^
form
a form of dryness."^
and
Homogene-
warmth and
as effects of heat,
a7re\|/m, wjucJttjs,
as effects of
Cf. Meteor, iv. 2 sq,
IMd. c. 4
elal 5' al jxkv
/xdoXvais,
cold.
cold/'
crrdTevcris
oixol6i' ri T(f
u\l/Cf)
&\Arj\a irdcrxovcip'
rb yap
TCf ^vpcfi aXriov rod Spi^eaOai
Ka\ 8ia rovTo e| afxcpoTv icnl rh
upifffxepou (TWfia. Xey^Tai 5e tS)V
Trphs
'
vyphv
.
(TToix^lcov
ravra
5ih
diravra
ra
yri,
2, stip.'].
upiff/xeva
SSaros.
^
vessel.
Ibiff. c. 5 init.
Ibid.
Ibid.
5-7.
8 init. c. 10, 388, a,
20 sqq. On the nature of homogeneity, cf. Part I, 879, 2. Homogeneous bodies (ofioio/nepri) are
defined in general as those composed of one kind of material,
'
c.
c.
dfxoiofjLfp^s
which
is
we
have
6fioii5-^s,
ARISTOTLE
518
we
In
physics which
is
therefore here do
o\ov rots
more than
Part. An.
fMopiois ^/toeiSe's,
9,
between elementary
homogeneous and organic bodies.
In a quotation from this dialogue
occur the words {Ar. Fr. 1482,
Eudeinns
planation.
may be known.
For a fuller
account of Aristotle's treatment
of the latter subject see Meyer,
Arist. TJderhmde, 416 sqq. 477.
'
Ibid. c. 12.
5 Aristotle gives the following
account of Light, De An. ii. 7,
We cannot
Be Sensu, c. 8,
418, b, 3 sqq.
439, a, 18 sqq. transparency is a
;
common
^ toiovtov rivhs
At the
same time he controverts (De
An. 418, b, 20; Be Se7mi, c. 6,
446, a, 25 sqq ) the view of Empedocles that light is motion
passing from heaven to earth, on
the ground of the immense distance at which we see it. Light,
to Aristotle, is the effect of motion
(see 468 sq. sujjra), but is not jjer
se a motion, but rather a definite
state which is produced in a body
as a whole in consequence of a
qualitative change {aXKoiuais)
such as freezing (De Sensu, c. 6,
It is asserted at
446, b, 27 sqq.)
the same time that vision is the
defined as
irapovffia
irvphs
iu rep 5ia(pave7.
PHYSICS
as
will
it
be
now
519
result of a
ii.
29,
7,
c.
419, a, 9, 13,
12, 435, a, 5
iii.
Be
1,
424, b,
Se7isv, 2,
by
its
and
also c. 6, 445,
b, 20 sqq.,and c. 4, 442, a, 19 sqq.
Cf, Be An. ii. 7 init. ibid. 419, a,
1 sqq.
Meteor, iii. 4, 378, b, 32
sqq., i. 5, 342, b, 4).
The treatise
upon colour starts from somewhat different premisses
vide
Prantl, who treats Aristotle's
doctrine of colour from different
;
Casio,
Smell
ii.
9,
held to
be caused by dry materials which
are dissolved in moisture, i.e. in
291, a, 9 sqq.)
is
water or
air (e7xuAtos
a, 1, b, 4
|7j/j(^t7js,
provisional description of
KttTTi/wSrjs
avaBvixiaaiSy
Be
443,
as
Sensu,
ocr/n^
443, a, 21).
This
become objects
Sensu,
is
how they
to the sense
(Be
442, b, 27-443, b, 16
9, 421, a, 26 sqq., 422, a,
c. 5,
Be An. ii.
6 cf. Baumker, 28 sq.) In the
same way Taste is the effect of
;
ARISTOTLE
520
again
a mixture of
white and black, so all tastes
As
Spi/J-h and
and 6|u) are a
mixture of sweet and bitter if
these elements are mingled in a
(Xiiraphv
and
aKj-ivphv,
avffTTjphu, (TTpucpvhv
10,
Baumk. 32
sq.).
In this
way
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