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MATTER
"
J. J.
THOMSON,
WITH DIAGRAMS
NEW YORK
CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS
1904
COPYRIGHT, 1904
BY YALE UNIVERSITY
Published, March, 1904
was
was the belief of the testator that any orderly presentation of the facts of nature or history contributed to
the end of this foundation more effectively than any
attempt to emphasize the elements of doctrine or of
creed; and he therefore provided that lectures on dogmatic or polemical theology should be excluded from
the scope of this foundation, and that the subjects should
be selected rather from the domains of natural science
and
prominence to astronomy,
PREFACE
In these Lectures given at Yale University in
May, 1903, I have attempted to discuss the bear-
A characteristic
Matter and
Electricity.
seemed to
ing of recent
me
work on
this relationship
might be
multitudes of questions which would furnish admirable subjects for further investigation by some
of
my
hearers.
THOMSON.
CONTENTS
CHAPTER-
PAGE
CHAPTER
II
CHAPTER
30
III
CHAPTER
68
IV
...
71
CHAPTER V
THK CONSTITUTION OF THE ATOM
CHAPTER
90
VI
140
MY
in as simple
some views
results of recent
investigations.
The
progress of
greatly promoted
of electricity.
by
electrical
science
has been
hardly possible to
overestimate the services rendered by two theories
Indeed,
it
is
theories
known
as
mean the
the one-fluid
theories of electricity.
The
phenomena
there are
two
fluids,
2
tible,
negative
are explained
by
is
and
electrical
phenomena
The
at-
attraction
to
exactly equal
repulsion
charges,
the same
and
of the
same
two
between
sign, placed in
In an-
supposed
is
The
bile
supposed to be exceedingly moand able to pass with great ease through confluids are
ductors.
The
state of electrification of a
body
is
determined by the difference between the quantities of the two electric fluids contained
by it if it
;
contains
more positive
uncharged.
than negative
it
is
positively electrified,
it is
fluid
if it
LINES OF FORCE
and
in
On
sist
of three things
tricity,
body
is
supposed to con-
negative electricity.
The two
latter are
comparatively recent date that Helmholtz introduced the idea of a specific attraction between
ordinary matter and the electric
to explain
i.e.,
what
is
known
fluids.
He did this
as contact electricity,
when two
in contact
copper negatively
electrified.
Helmholtz
sup-
posed that there are forces between ordinary matter and the electric fluids varying for different
kinds of matter, the attraction of zinc for positive
electricity being greater than that of copper, so
4
that
when
zinc
robs
these
of
copper of some
the
its
positive
electricity.
There
is
is
fluids.
that
it
It gives
implies that
if
are
equal quantities of the two
If
we regard
we
regard them
we
its
been detected.
The
Benjamin Franklin
On this view there
positive
is
is
is
taken by ordi-
LINES OF FORCE
do on
on a portion of the
it is
just
the matter.
ter in a
body
fluid is at
The
by
On
is
on
known
once determined.
services
which the
fluid theories
have
ren-
inspired
by the discovery
brought to bear on
long as
we
was
of gravitation could be
electrical
phenomena. As
which only
-{-
and
electricity,
who
maticians
Theories
kind,
"
The
physicists
and mathe-
not until
we
indelicate.
It is
arisen.
mensely greater than that associated with a negaThis difference is what we should
tive one.
expect on Franklin's one-fluid
theory,
if
that
electric fluid
am
We
be struck by the similarity between some of the views which we are led to take
shall, I
by the
sure,
results of the
those enunciated
of the subject.
by Franklin
LINES OF FORCE
its
made
it
acceptable to
many
mathematicians,
is
one which
labor to replacing
it
by some-
thing involving mechanical continuity. Pre-eminent among them is Faraday. Faraday was deeply
influenced
who
away from
their base
and with
would get
and replace
it
into
between
prominence some continuous connection
was
able to
He
forces.
the
the bodies exerting
do
this
by the conception of
lines of force.
As
shall
and
as I believe its
FIG. i.
to
Faraday by the
round a bar
magnet.
surface near a
in Fig. 1
on a smooth
LIXES OF FORCE
is
indicated
by the concen-
the magnet
if
we
extends will be
all
points
filled
with a system of
lines,
giving the space a fibrous structure like that possessed by a stack of hay or straw, the grain of the
structure being along the lines of force.
same considerations
have
;
the
ELECTRICITY
1Q
AND MATTER
phenomena
of the electric
so as to explain the
field.
Thus he
sup-
they
at a distance between
tangible action
two
electri-
The charges
repellent springs.
of electricity to
and an
electric
of fluid confined
charge, instead of being a portion
to the electrified body,
field.
To make our
Let us
first
A B, the
line
lines of force
tension
on
LINES OF FORCE
more pulling at
than on the opposite
are
side,
the pulls on
A toward
way
Let us
that
now
curved lines of
force,
such as
FIG.
PQ\
it is
in a state
2.
how
We
is
it
if
we remember
AB
PQ
PQ
PQ]
side
and the
line
12
two
Let us suppose
in Fig. 3.
electrified;
since the
lines
and
of
elec-
similarly
B are positively
force
from
start
to
join
some
bodies possessing
body or
FIG.
the
3.
now
under
Consider
force attached to
and
B approach each
other
LINES OF FORCE
since these lines repel each other the lines of force
on the side of
opposite side of
now be
nearest
A,
B will be
pulls exerted on
pushed
to the
in the rear
by
thus the
the lines of
We
from B.
will
and
be pulled away
we may
repulsion between
on
tions
and
if
we
B as
and
of the
due to the
attrac-
complementary negative
charges which must exist in
other parts of the
The
sion
of
field.
are clearly
shown
in the case
you
downward
this
is
4.
what we
pressure exerted
ELECTRICITY
J4
lines of force
by the
AND MATTER
above a
by those below
exerted
upward pressure
For a line of force
it.
its
plainly
So
shown
this
bulging
is
We
metrical.
very
in Fig. 4.
method
so
it is,
as
to
been
however,
make
it
if
we
by the tube
at its origin
we may
the tube
is
we draw
the lines of
LINES OF FORCE
15
may be regarded
as the termination of a
Faraday tube.
electricity
We regard
same
is
number
di-
we draw any
sum
is
what Maxwell
What Maxwell
surface.
called
number being
the
is
positively
and the
IQ
of
to
esses going
electric
than that of
electric field
for
displacement, and have
abandoned the
latter
many
years
method.
Maxwell took up the question of the tensions and pressures in the lines of force in
the electric
field,
calculating the
By
field
could
and
that, in
in the
medium
was
through which
pass
the
pressure equal to
tubes
\NR,
i.e.,
drawn
we
If
a hydrostatic
number passing
right
angles to
the
medium
they are
in
the electric
equivalent
to
field,
we
a tension \
see that
NR
along
all
LINES OF FORCE
17
Hitherto
to be at
simple case
plates, A
parallel
positive
two
that of
other with
negative
electricity,
after
EFG.
when
in
a conductor, contract to
neighboring
disappear.
this
tubes
on a tube
plates
PQ
own
will
therefore
was
PQ
between the
F
FIG. 5.
originally in equilibrium
under
its
tension,
EF
that
be pushed towards
tubes will be pushed into
E FG,
and we
shall
ELECTRICITY
jg
AND MATTER
have a movement of the whole set of tubes beG. Thus, while the
EF
What
themselves.
this
movement
physical
of the tubes
by
effect
The
EF G
is
accompanies
result of con-
to produce a cur-
of electricity
EF G
we know, accompanied
is,
charged plate
the plates. This
force
between
a
magnetic
by
this
magnetic force
is
as
47r
the density of
is
kiro-v.
by the production
of magnetic force.
I have followed up the consequences of this supposition and
have shown that, if the connection between the
LINES OF FORCE
19
is
if
this view.
and
Faraday tube,
;
is
the angle
itself
is
length.
AND MATTER
ELECTRICITY
20
We
and
charged sphere.
when
day tubes
will, as
uniformly
distributed
They
the sphere
and
e is the
radial
if
is
at rest,
If
centre, the
its
be
direction.
is
in
is
TTp*'
angle between
the sphere, then,
magnetic force at
will
be
6V
*
,
the direc-
angles
the sphere; the lines of
magnetic force will thus
LINES OF FORCE
21
be
centre of the
electricity
field.
field at
there are
where
units of energy,
O7T
/x
is
is
the
volume
this
PD
at
energy for
we
sphere,
a^v*
i=
is
all
sin
,-
Typr-
amounts to
find that it
is
If
~-
3a
is
where a
the mass of
outside the
-z
od
sphere, which
as
we have
seen
is
energy of the
m
(2u
-\-
the same as
2u, 6
-f-
if
-o-
the
\
~~
i
0*,
or the energy
is
- instead of m.
a
Thus, in consequence of
ELECTRICITY
22
AND MATTKK
is
re-
moving through a
the sphere moves it sets
is
frictionless liquid.
we have
its
it
When
not merely to
we
of the
itself,
ume of
the liquid.
Green in 1833,
is
its
In the case of an
amount by
LINES OF FORCE
is
increased depends
rection in
23
is
upon the
di-
smaller
than
a
direction in which
it is
moving.
Let us, however, return to the moving electrified sphere. We have seen that in consequence of
its
is
charge
its
mass
mentum
-f-
increased
is
by -(*
oa
The
v.
thus,
if it
momentum
velocity v, the
"^
is
additional mo-
in the space
is
mind that
this
It is
momentum
is
important
not in any
way different from ordinary mechanical momentum and can be given up to or taken from the
momentum
of
moving
bodies.
momentum
want
to bring
before you as
it
electric field
ELECTRICITY
24
AND MATTER
to that
entirely analogous
of a mechanical sys-
To
the
equal and opposite, so that
direction of
Now,
any
momentum
in
any
in the case of
many
violations
electrical
systems there
of this principle
are apparant
thus,
take the case of a charged body at rest struck by
an electric pulse, the charged body when exposed
;
it,
its
Thus,
momentum
Law
recognized on
this
restricted
view
The phenomenon
is,
however,
if
we recog-
for,
momentum
in the electric
the charged
in the
in the
in the pulse,
LINES OF FORCE
25
more
in detail.
have in
my
if
is
the
number
of
induction,
volume
the
is
equal to
momentum
netic induction
Many
of
NB
momentum
sin
0,
per unit
the direction of
and
also to
is
parallel to
which energy
is
field.
of
To familiarize
momentum let
detail.
be the point,
B the pole.
ELECTRICITY
26
is
AND MATTER
at right angles to
A P, the
P,
Faraday tubes and also to
induction, we see that the momentum
direction of the
the magnetic
will
if
ABP
we draw
lie
of
as
momentum,
goes,
is
A B.
is
direction
by a top
spin-
Let us now
find
this distribution of
throughout the
It
far as
that possessed
ning around
what
This distribution
field is
momentum
equivalent
to.
momentum
round
B, the direction of rotation being everywhere the same, there will be a finite moment
of momentum round
B. Calculating the value
of this
em
about
momentum
we
given above,
AB
e being the
charge on the point and
the strength of the pole.
By means of this
y
LINES OF FORCE
27
and magnetic
poles.
To
on a moving
pole.
electric
fied point
A to A!
',
the
of
and
must be constant, so
the moment of momen-
field
\
\
\
must be accompanied
field
angles to
8
momentum
is
em
AB
moment
of
momentum
of
A,
2g
8
that
of
and
AB
whose moment
1 must be
a couple whose
equivalent to
angles to
then 8
B,
axis
is
at
right
in
is
of the paper
right angles to the plane
and
emAA'sm<f>
Where
velocity of
the angle
is
</>
A, A A
s*
B A A'.
If
is
the
v 8 1 and we get
T_ e m v sm
f
AB*
This change in the
momentum may be
sup-
g2
rate of increase of the
t
get Jb
momentum,
.
rea
or the point
or
is
-r'
We thus
acted on by a
by the component
of
moving charged
on a
LINES OF FORCE
may be
ev
written as
Hsm <,
where H's
The
on unit charge
chanical force
from an
therefore v
is
may be
body
the
This me-
<f>.
H sin
<f>,
and we may
when
a charged
a magnetic field an electric
This force is the
produced.
by
saying that
in
is
force v
Hsm
is
force acting
force
electric
29
moving
If sin
is
<f>
motion in a magnetic
The
forces
relative
called
field.
into
momentum
if
these are
direction, the
moment
of
The
distribution of
momentum
in the system
some respects to
about
the
line A B.
We
that in a top spinning
can illustrate the forces acting on a moving elecof pole
trified
and point
is
similar in
top.
Thus,
is
spinning with
AB
30
horizontal, then if
against
AB
merely move
in
which
cally
it
as a charged
FIG. 9.
point would do
way, and if
pole at B.
it
Maxwell's
There
is
momentum
Vector Potential
from an
electrified point
and a
LINES OF FORCE
31
we have given for the moment of momentum due to a charged point and a magnetic
pole, we can at once find that due to a charge e of
pression
electricity at
let
a point P, and a
little
magnet
B, and
positive at
pole.
m be
let
is
in the plane
simple calculation
tum
AB
A, the
shows that
moment
of
in this
momen-
P A B at right angles to P O,
A
O being
e.
m.
AB
makes with
O P.
mi where
momentum
e. in.
AB
at right
-Qjk
AB
momentum
at
to that
is
due
P directed
P A B, and
another
A B -m at P
angles to the plane P A B is the vector
direction at O.
called
the angle
and magnitude
momentum
is
This moment of
equivalent in direction
to a
<
The
vector in
to the Magnet.
at
P due
AND MATTER
ELECTRICITY
32
Potential I,
Calling this Vector
we
Tat
the magnet.
We may evidently
equivalent to a
field is
gether with
momenta
at
equal to
e
magnetic
at
in the
to-
(Vector Potential at
If the
from
electric
momentum of
case,
as
When,
due to
field
resultant
momentum, but
particle
is
show
that the
that there
moment
simple
momentum
elec-
calculation
is
of mo-
through the
line passing
vanishes.
entirely
field is
at the electrified
LINES OF FORCE
point
33
due to
the currents.
field is
due to
per-
when an
is
is
If the
magnetic
due to currents
this is a
complete
equivalent to a
field is entirely
momentum
representation of the
Tat
momentum
P where
in the field
if
momenta
at these
momentum
Third
Law
of Motion, the
momentum
of any
self-
Now the
contained system must be constant.
of
the
momentum
in the
consists
momentum
(1)
field
(2) the
momentum
circuits
34
particle, u, v,
axes of
#, y, z
of its velocity, F, G,
U, the com-
ponents parallel to these axes of the Vector Potential at P, then the momentum of the field is
equivalent to
e G, eH at
parallel
and the momentum of the
momenta eF,
to the axes of
a?,
charged point at
y, z
P has for
components
Mu, Mty
F\*
constant, hence if
neous changes in
8w and
F are
simulta-
u and F,
MSu + eF=
0;
<***
-4*
dt
dt
From
-=-,
by an
i.e.,
forces
-j
way we
In a similar
-. -j
x and equal
to
to
y and
z respec-
LINES OF FORCE
principle that action
35
opposite.
will
what he
called the
"
Electrotonic State
"
;
thus he
magnetic
field.
No effects due
tum
existing in the
field.
is
just the
momen-
CHAPTER
IT
WISH
we
showed
in
The
lines
common
the
at a point
momentum
is
at right
and so
right angles to
is at
OP
in
sphere.
ia
If the
number
is
of the centre of
the
medium
ELECTRICAL MASS
of
velocity
TrpNv
momentum
NX
of
motion of
sin 0,
TrpNv
length.
direction
v being
the angle
By
or
sin 0,
sphere and
the
the sphere.
37
^n^N*v
sin 0,
and
is
Now this
would be produced
if
equal to
through
it
to
parallel
their
own
length.
We
it
finite
mass of water.
When
neglected in com-
gg
it
parison with that carried by
mass
no
had
tube
if
the
ways ;
when moving
side-
it
wise motion.
We shall call
the mass
4?r
/i
by the
bound ether.
carried
E in unit volume
energy
is
M the
proportional to
easily
be proved as follows
the
is
medium
but
V* where
~~j^
light travels
thus
by
the
is
==E = 27rJV
inductive
specific
while M =
4?r
N*,
/u,
is
capacity
where
of
the
thus,
veloc-
ity of light.
The mass
2
47r/u,j\^
of the
where
thus, the
N\&
amount
of
bound ether
in unit
volume
is
the
ELECTRICAL MASS
each Farkday tube
is 4?r
pN.
that
we may
momentum
we
mass and
of a
and velocity of the Faraday tubes in its neighborhood. We have many analogies to this in the
case of dynamical systems
number
tum
of
and
strength
locity,
if
placed in a mass of liquid whose venot disturbed by the vortex column, would
40
The
lines of flow in
where
in Fig. 11,
FIG. 11.
is
column
will always
umn and
will imprison a
closed
If
by the
en-
we
ELECTRICAL MASS
by the column
is
proportional to
41
~.
Thus,
if
CL
we
take
field.
Affective of Velocity on
I will
now
tJie
Sound Mass
move
as-
out setting
it
in motion.
parallel
Such a body,
will not, as
if
free to twist in
any
direction,
at first sight,
move
which
it is
moving
as possible.
Many
illustra-
42
familiar one
first,
but
is
flutter
down with
their planes
more or
less horizontal.
If
we
we apply
charged sphere,
to the direction of
this principle
all
equatorial plane,
i.e.,
would
to their lengths.
all
We
Faraday tubes
crowded
They
is
The
a com-
are not
ELECTRICAL MASS
When
it
a Faraday tube
is
43
it
is
tubes,
It
way
V*-v*
to V,
is
where
reduced in the
is
the veloc-
velocity
From
this result
we see
that
body
it is
is
only
when
the
comparable with
the velocity of light that the change in distribution of the Faraday tubes due to the motion of
the body becomes appreciable.
In " Recent Researches on Electricity and Magnetism," p. 21, 1 calculated the momentum I, in the
ELECTRICITY
44
AND MATTKK
cos 20)1
where
as before v
and
and 6
is
given
;..(!)
V are respectively
the ve-
light,
by the equation
sm
The mass
j^.
of the sphere
is
increased in conse-
- and thus
quence of the charge by
,
we
see
from
we must
use exceed-
ELECTRICAL MASS
cles of this
45
by Kaufmann,
the
velocities
where
particle
e is the charge
m the
mass of the
1X
10- 10
10-7
2.83
.62
2.72
.77
2.59
We see
and
.975
2.48
1.17
2.36
1.31
m di-
Kauf mann's
we
46
mass of an
effect of the velocity on the mass, it is easy to deduce the ratio of the part of the mass independent
which
at
any velocity
de-
of v, then
if
M M
v,
vi
1
M the part
"
electrical
mass
"
was
ELECTRICAL MASS
47
the assumption
moving
we make
He was
care-
depends upon
whether
it is
spheri-
and
show
was
which he
electrical,
most probable
result.
gained
by
charged bodies
shot out
round these
particles is
we
on
in equation (1)
its
this supposition
on page 44.
is
the value
have
calcu-
dium
rest,
to the
or
moving
moving
particles
by rawhen at
4g
to th^
These results are given in Table (II), the first column of which contains the values of v, the velocities of
the particles
the second
p,
number
the
of
at rest,
Kaufmann
this quantity
in his experiments.
TABLE
found by
ELECTRICAL MASS
49
which
is,
when
the particle
In
how
mined
5=
subsequent
the values of
;
m=
is
moving slowly,
and
I
e
will
10-
and
1.2
trostatic units.
expression for
explain
on the
-$
lecture
me
is
that
lO'80 in C. G. S. elec-
14
by the Faraday
As
these tubes
mass of the
particle is as
it
as
the fourth
50
by a simple
particle,
nificant fraction of
mass
is
we
most
find
insig-
confined to a distance
from the particle which is very small indeed compared with the dimensions ordinarily ascribed to
atoms.
a view, I
that the
hope
atoms of the various elements are collections of
to discuss in
positive
by
is
of the mass of
and negatively
electrified constituents.
part of the
you
is
that
it is
not merely a
arises
in this
ELECTRICAL MASS
51
is
just
body which
is
carried
is
all
all
momentum, momentum
of
This view,
it
should be
said, requires
number of
mass instead of being, as observation and experiment have shown, constant to a very high degree
of approximation, should vary with changes in
the physical or chemical state of the body.
These objections do
not,
in comparison
various
electrified bodies.
ELECTRICITY
52
When
lines of force
corpuscles
of the
AND MATTER
is
bound ether
bodies, the
and charge.
concentration of the
is
localized
around these
CHAPTER
III
WE
of force
we
when
at rest
which
result
lines
when the
state of
phenomena
motion of the
lines
is
changing.
Let us begin with the case of a moving charged
point, moving so slowly that the lines of force are
it,
must happen
fact
finite velocity
the tube in
stretched string.
Suppose we have
a tightly
54
left,
move
as if nothing
its inertia
Thus,
if
is
continue to
A
it.
Vt from
intervals will
be as shown in Fig.
A
Fio. 12.
its
distance
55
rest,
being T. To
tubes after a time
two
no disturbance can
inner sphere,
since
the time
be the
t
line
final position of
OPQ
(Fig. 13)
the tube hence at
rest,
i.e.,
if
'
is
the position
ELECTRICITY
gg
AND MATTER
two
'.
spheres,
OPP'Q'.
FIG. 13.
radial,
has
now
in the
and gives
rise,
due to the
par-
particle
If
is
was moving
we suppose
steadily.
inside it
may
be regarded as
Faraday tube
straight,
then
if
T is
57
T
Where v
P'R
vt
00' sin
sin
is
was stopped
R = -y
since
The
light,
ev
=
we have, if r = OP,
sin
TTS~-
If equal
to
V T,
P a magnetic
be
at right
of
moving forward
P =Vt
and
magnitude
is
evsinO
--ro^
"
.
it
>
ev
sin
-z
r to
existing in the proportion of
S.
previously
Thus, the
AND MATTER
ELECTRICITY
gg
of the particle is
pulse produced by the stoppage
the seat of intense electric and magnetic forces
my
when
The energy
in the pulse
to be equal to
this
energy
The amount
upon
the
S,
is
of
^V
radiated
'
outward
into
space.
with
abruptness
stopped; if the particle
which
the
i.e.,
upon
particle
is
is
stopped instantaneously
the whole energy in the field will be absorbed in
the pulse and radiated away, if it is stopped gradually only a fraction of the energy will be radiated
into space, the remainder will appear as heat at
is
59
is zero.
case
were
principles,
uniformly
however, will
stoppage of the
distributed; the same
give us the
effect of
stopping a charged particle whenever the distribution of the Faraday tubes in the state of
steady motion has been determined.
particle
light;
shows that
of the tubes,
if
Vt
in that case
have been
in a plane
Draw
Vt and
V (t
and
T),
ELECTRICITY
60
where r
AND MATTER
is
stopping the
and
these tubes
We
two
one
pulses,
plane
pulse
propa-
which the
in
was
particle
ing
before
mov-
was
it
outward
in all
directions.
The
preceding
method can be
PIG. 14.
plied
when
the
stopped, has
if
the
instead
of
way
charged
its
to
particle,
ap-
case
being
;
thus,
51
merely diminished by
is
A v, we
e&v
and the tangential
sin
electric force
~_
T by
A v sin
Now
the velocity 8
TT
''
= F8
Av
1,
hence
sin
T_
VTt~
Av
in
we have
~~
Av
sin
T*
87
~T~
At*
but
g7
is
equal to
._
j sin
/,
we have
T_
^sin
whose motion
is
particle
g2
such a
way
that
its
acceleration
went through
Theory of Light, be
we
tion of the
in the
mo-
way
of
We
we
and
63
The Faraday
as discrete threads
upon
embedded
structure
but
if
on the view
we have
taken of a wave of light the wave itself must have a structure, and the front of the
wave, instead of being, as it were, uniformly illuminated, will be represented by a series of bright
specks on a dark ground, the bright specks corresponding to the places where the Faraday tubes
cut the
wave
front.
light
wave
a structure.
We
phenomenon
to light waves.
in question is this:
The
Rontgen rays
to
pass
64
ionize
it,
splitting
tive
up is, however, an exceedingly small fracless than one-billionth, even for strong rays, of
so split
tion,
the
number
Now, if
the
all
tion of
them
those split
are split
up
are in
up ?
It
some
special condition
amount of
that
kinetic
much exceeding
energy so
but
if this
tion produced
by the Rontgen
rays ought to
in-
15C,
by
raising
to 200
C.,
55
The
rise in
temperature.
removed
if,
Rontgen ray
sists of
to be uniform,
we suppose that it
con-
specks of great
intensity separated by
considerable intervals where the intensity is very
small, for in this case all the molecules in the field,
different
same conditions,
number
of the whole
To
may be
number
of molecules.
particle
whose motion
is
accelerated,
we have
and travel out radially with the veof light, both the radial and magnetic forces
forces start
locity
gg
direction of the
force, the
momentum being
at
momentum
wave.
which
will
Thus,
wave of
light,
it is
if
is
passing, the
be communicated
which
wave
electric or light
will, therefore,
momentum
wave
in the
in the direction
push
it
Thus,
when light
falls
it
sorbing substance,
it
The
pressure experienced
by the absorbing
sub-
weight of the substance is proportional to its volume. Thus, if we halve the linear dimensions we
reduce the weight to one-eighth while we only reduce the pressure of radiation to one-quarter thus,
by sufficiently reducing the size of the absorbing
;
67
On
this principle,
knowing the
intensity of the
shown that
6
opaque sphere of unit density lO" cm. in
diameter the repulsion due to the radiation from
for an
that
in
if
protected from
all
external
the
radiation,
re-
spheres will
traction
so
the
at-
other.
Again,
when
light is refracted
and
reflected
and
therefore
the direction of
momentum
is
have
momentum communicated
to
it.
It is easy
to
of the light
is
oblique the
momentum communicated
to the
ELECTRICITY
gg
substance
is
AND MATTER
surface.
when
light
wave
is
in its course
forces
must
when
These, however,
from a metallic
flected
surface.
The waves
radiate
The
ergy.
rate at
which energy
radiating from
shown to be
V the velocity of
and
is
light.
If
where
its acceleration,
we take into
particle when
ac-
mass
and charge
upon by a constant
e starting
if
from
a particle of
rest is acted
69
e
as it
would
tion ;
cle
that the
-^
very
-y
Thus,
if
by a wave of electric
e*
diated
if
multiple of
77^
The
"
"
thin pulses, the " soft ones to thick ones
so that
"
"
70
"
"
over which they pass than in the case of the soft
rays.
By
1*V
ergy
is
radiating
is
power
is
the energy.
power
of
CHAPTER IV
THE ATOMIC STRUCTURE OF ELECTRICITY
HITHERTO we have been dealing
properties of
sion, the
the
lines of force,
chiefly
with the
electric disturbances
along them
we
in this chapter
We
any
what may be
called an atomic
up
of a
number
of
hydrogen
is
built
up
of a
number
of small par-
ticles called
atoms,
all
each other.
If this
tricity is
elec-
will
laws
of
by the
Faraday
y2
through a
electricity passes
proportional to the
number
Let us
to the electrode.
first
of atoms
coming up
consider monovalent
on
atoms
he showed that
of
these
when
substances
the same
deliver
number
up
of
their
communicated
is
carriers
in-
We
all
divalent
much charge
again, a
tri-
valent ion carries three times the charge of a univalent ion, and so on. Thus, in the case of the electrolysis of
by the
so on.
are always an
drogen atom
of this charge.
by the hy-
fractional parts
as
"
73
lecture, that
we
which behave
like
atoms of
electricity."
When we consider
is
it is
because
tricity
erties of
gaseous conduction.
When
a gas has
we
We find that
can
filter
74
be
filtered
out of
it; again,
field.
the conductivity
is
due
is
arising
electric field.
We
particles in the
electricity carried
by
those particles.
The
lows.
principle of the
particles
first
used
is
as fol-
tively,
e,
method
If at
and
if
the gas.
is
this
can be done
plates,
all
ured by an electrometer.
As
we can
then we can
to
in this
way
easily
determine n
75
e
if
n we
The method by which I
determined n was founded on the discovery by
shall
be able to find
e.
when
Aitken showed,
air,
as
fog
when damp
it is
very
damp
difficult to
get a
air
In dust-free
if
no
there
air,
however,
by a
supersat-
appreciable effect
when no charged
particles are
present.
cloud
first
We
number
number
indirectly as follows
of these particles
suppose
we have
in dust-free air in a
vapor, suppose
now
that
we produce
a sudden
76
the
drops will be deposited round the charged partiNow if we know the amount of expansion
cles.
by
Sir
In consequence of
air.
fall.
if
the radius of a
is
air is
given
by
p.
falls
when g
and
it
the equation
thus
v
hence
if
we
1.21
10 6 a2
can determine v
we
can determine
But v
77
can easily be measured by observing the movement of the top of the cloud. In this way I
by
found that
3.4
its
X 10-
value
10
is
Electrostatic C. G. S. units.
strong argument
of electricity.
know
way:
We
10 10 electrostatic
units,
of
of one atmosphere
c.c.
if
there are
N molecules
number
in a
c.c.
is
2.46
N,
7g
so that
if
is
NE= 3X 10
2.46
or
Now,
e,
E= 1.22 X 10
10
10
,
-f-JV:
is
3.4 X10"
10
,
19
hence
if
^Y=3.6X10
Avogadro's Constant, as it
values obtained
by
this
is
N,
sometimes called
or
the
made
The value
its
near neighbor-
19
hood.
3.6
is
electrolytic ion.
His
does
it
on
positive.
79
Thus, by suitably
we can get the
the supersaturation,
choosing
cloud deposited on the negative ions alone, so
that each drop in the cloud is negatively charged
by observing the
rate at
falls
we
weight of
each drop. Now, suppose we place above the
cloud a positively electrified plate, the plate will
attract the cloud, and we can adjust the charge on
the plate until the electric attraction just balances
the weight of a drop, and the drops, like Mahomet's
coffin,
drop
is
the
in
hang stationary
electric force
air;
if
is
the
Xe, when
e is
e is equal to the
As
is
can be at once
determined.
Townsend showed
gaseous ion
is
that
equal to that
in ordinary electrolysis,
by measuring the
coeffi-
8Q
number
varies as
number
volume
be the coefficient of
if
layer, then
of ions which
number
the
of
the
diffusion
ions,
of this
downward through
unit area
of the layer is
dn
ir*'
so that the average velocity of the particles
ward
down-
is
l)dn
n dx
The
force
which
motion
ions in a unit
per ion
is
volume
-r
ndx
is
is
the
;
if
on the
Now we
is
ion, so that if A. is
the velocity
when
the electric
is
therefore
-==r-,
.A e
81
e,
is
1
n ax
will
therefore be
dp
^L.
n dx Xe'
this velocity
we have
seen, however, to
dn
be equal to
n dx'
hence
we have
dAdn
P ~Tr~
--T)
~7
dx
Xe */ dx
(l\
1/
V
"7
Now
if
pressure p bears
jV is Avogadro's
This ratio
is
the same
constant,
i.e.,
the
number
if
of mol-
pheric pressure
P
p
P~W
PA
Thus, by knowing
of
Ne. In
this
that
Ne was
g2
the same in
air,
mean
10
We
10
.
was
of his values
if
is
1.24
the charge on
NE =
1.22
X 10
show
10
-
that
eE, or that
The
salts.
got ionized and the mixture of air and vapor acquired very considerable conductivity. The current through the vapor increased at
it
first
with the
through the
not go on indefinitely,
gas,
for after the current had reached a certain value
but
no further increase in the electromotive force produced any change in the current. The current, as
in all cases of conduction
maximum
which
33
Wilson
sparks began to pass through the gas.
found that the saturation current through the salt
vapor was just equal to the current which if it
passed through an aqueous solution of the salt
would
same amount
of salt as
It is
which
is
independent of any hypothesis as to the
or
size of molecules, or of the way in which
shape
we have
10 19
seen that e
3.4
l^ 10 so that
,
jV=
3.fc
tricity
tiples,
gen
is
which
charges are integral muljust as the mass of a quantity of hydroan integral multiple of the mass of a
electricity of
all
hydrogen atom.
Mass of the
We must
now
of the systems
Carriers of Electricity
g4
impeded by
collisions
gas.
we have
a particle of
The
particle.
to
angles
force
direction of
paper at right
Since the
is
ing
upon
it
act-
particle will
by
is
the equation
The
mv
moving horizontally
given
,
is
may be
deter-
35
right
acted upon
if
particle will
mechanical force
X,
e v.
be
Now,
we apply
on the moving
particle.
We
can
when
until the
two
forces
adjustment has
been made, since in this case the motion of the
particle under the action of the electric and magnetic forces will be the same as when both these
are equal.
tell
we have
X
Hence
if
e v,
we have methods of
we can measure
of the particle,
circle into
force,
this
which
it is
or
AND MATTER
ELECTRICITY
gg
Values of
in Gases at
The value
of
Low
Pressures
way
which
and
particles emitted
by
metals, (1)
when
when exposed
to
ture of incandescence.
is
171
which the
particle
may be
In
it
may be
sup-
in
moving with
veloci-
ties
considerably less
magnetic units.
As
the value of
37
4
gen ion in the electrolysis of liquids is only 10
and as we have seen the charge on the gaseous
,
equal to that on the hydrogen ion in ordinary electrolysis, we see that the mass of a carrier
of the negative charge must be only about oneion
is
arisen or
electrification
may have
Negative
a gas at a low pressure, has thus a
structure analogous to that of a gas, the corpuscles
electricity, in
"
taking the place of the molecules. The negative
electric fluid," to use the old notation, resembles
molecular structure.
Carriers of Positive Electrification
We
the values of
fication.
positive
fy
the discharge in a
vacuum
tube,
and
have
CQ
oo
measured
off
by a hot
wire.
The
ments form a great contrast to those for the negafor the positive charge,
instead of having, as
it
7
constant high value 10 , is found never to have a
4
value greater than 10 the value it would have if
,
In
many
in-
is
The value of
varies with
it
would
if
the carriers
was produced.
lead us to a view of electrification
positive electrification
These results
of
to
that of
Electricity."
negative.
be positive
The
electricity
we
take
it
to
be
TI1K
The
place to another
is
effected
by the motion of
cor-
of negative.
A positively electrified
body
its corpuscles.
one
is
We
have
we know
air or water.
CHAPTER V
CONSTITUTION OF THE ATOM
WE
corpuscles
by cathode
rays,
we produce
the
by ultra-violet light, or
and
materials,
is less
many
different substances.
That
in fact the
atoms
of these substances
We
atoms of the chemical elements are built up of simpler systems an idea which in various forms has
;
all
atoms of hydrogen
weights of
all
if this
up
of
91
To
Dumas
ancy
what
is
known
is
which
when they are arranged in the order of increasing atomic weights. The simple relaof the elements
tions
which
exist
group in the periodic series, a similarity which recent work on the existence in spectra of series of
lines
definite
ELECTRICITY
g2
AND MATTER
much to emphasize
indeed spectroscopic evidence alone
has led Sir Norman Lockyer for a long time to
numerical relations has done
and establish
carries the
which
argument
The phenomenon
I shall
still
have to speak
of
later,
must
substances.
face the
it
If
this
so then
is
we
we
re-
markable properties shown by radio-active subIt may thus not be superfluous to constances.
sider the bearing of the existence of corpuscles on
the problem of the constitution of the atom and
;
by
these considerations
perfect, it
may perhaps be of
is
we
are
service
by suggesting
us with fur-
atom.
The Nature of
Unit
the
from which
are Built
Starting from the
93
the
Atoms
Up
these
We
systems.
puscle,
whose mass
is
have
so
seen that
the
cor-
the
dial system.
The
and
since
electrical doublet,
we
shall
very
much
The
near the
94
size
practically
is
will
thus the mass of the system will be practically independent of the position
of its positive end, and will be very approximately
close to the corpuscle
if
alone in the
field.
and a
10-
13
its
where
radius
e is
a, as
cm.
Now
them
little
95
however, the individual systems were originally moving with considerable velocities, the relIf,
tems apart
in spite of their
mutual
attraction.
In
would be
had
so
fallen
collision,
relative
into
sufficient to
prevent them
We
body
electrical
is
losing
energy,
since
is
it
changing
generates
come
come
into
collision,
i.e.,
whenever they
it
may be
gg
which aggre-
two
will begin
by the formation
a
larger number of units.
aggregates containing
In considering the question of the further aggregation of these complex groups, we must remember that the possibility of aggregation will
upon the
i.e.,
of the
velocity
from the
centre,
electri-
moving about
The number of corpus-
inside
it.
cles is the
number
of units
which
had gone to make up the aggregate, and the total negative electrification
on the corpuscles
is
Fio. 15
on the sphere.
To
fix
our ideas
electrifica-
let
us take
A, B,
C,
97
First
be in
equilibrium
when they
they will
A simple
calculation
when the
is
electrification of
shows that
this
corpuscles, in-
them
farther
Their centrifugal
centre
and
them
first
atom
when
the
QO
t7O
We
be stable unless
below
its
corpuscular temperature
is
a certain value.
We must be careful
to distinguish
is
the
between
mean
cor-
kinetic
in
very close
of equipartition of energy
among
Let us
A and
now
,
99
are high,
and
though not so high, of course, as to make
unstable when apart, and suppose, in order to give
them the best possible chance of combining, that
and
when
quite
and
unite to form a
would
if
can easily,
do
rily
so.
I think, see
For
as
and
This
in-
ish
and
increase.
and
the corpuscles
if
and
may each lose
energy is considerable
one or more corpuscles. The departure of a coretic
and
positively charged,
puscle will leave
and they will tend to separate under the repulsion
and
by
100
and
and remain-
We
and
temperature of the aggregate formed by
will depend upon the corpuscular temperatures of
and
sioned
by the union of
A and B.
occa-
system
If the corpuscu-
and
before union were
temperatures of
the
corpuscular temperature after union
very high,
lar
would be high
also; if they
were above a
cer-
would be too high for stability, and the aggrewould not be formed. Thus, one congate
AB
complex aggregate's
is
that the corpuscular temperature of their constituents before combination should be sufficiently low.
bination
may be prevented by
velocity of
and
The
spite
point, however,
which
wish to emphasize
temperature,
i.e.,
is,
we
that
cannot
se-
by
JQ1
union will
is
reduced below a
cer-
we
cannot en-
Thus, to take a
this view,
why
ture,
is
too great.
what we
i.e.,
It
no very intimate connection between the corpuscular and mostated before, that there
lecular temperatures,
is
without greatly
results on
102
we
were
of kinetic
As
We
saying that
it
the discussion
by
1Q3
The same
of further aggregations
containing eight units formed before the more persistent of those containing four, three,
two or even
one unit have disappeared. With the further advance of aggregation the number of different sys-
in-
crease.
Thus, if we regard the systems containing different numbers of units as corresponding to the
different chemical elements, then as the universe
The number
by hypothesis built
the
lighter. The whole
by
up
of material furnished
ELECTRICITY
104
AND MATTER
same time.
If,
however, there
is
a continual
fall in
the cor-
On
this view,
is
longer
Tfie
and are no
free.
way
the Corpuscles in
tlie
Kinetic Energy
If the kinetic energy arising
i.e.,
number
it
of corpuscles in the
atom
is
ex-
105
We
therefore,
that
is
it
We
The
The
rate at
which energy
is lost
in this
way by
the corpuscles varies very greatly with the number of the corpuscles and the way in which they
are moving.
Thus, if we have a single corpuscle
describing a circular orbit of radius a with uniform velocity v, the loss of energy due to radiation per second
is
=^-5,
V or
where
e is the charge
on
the same orbit with the same velocity as the sinthe loss of energy per second from the
gle corpuscle,
less
106
number
The
of corpuscles.
increasing the
number
effect
produced by
of corpuscles
shown
is
in
the following table, which gives the rate of radiation for each corpuscle for various numbers of
corpuscles arranged
The
orbit.
table applies to
and
at
is
two
cases
in
is in
The
each case
taken as unity.
Number
of corpuscles.
_F
~~IQ
V
TOO
9.6
x 10~2
9.6
4.6
x l(r3
4.6 x 10-7
1.7x10-^
1.7 x 10- 10
5.6X10-
5.6 x 10~13
1.6 x 10~7
1.6xlO~17
x ID"4
is less
of the radiation
1Q7
hundredth of that of
radiation
is
very much
light,
greater.
is
at
rest, the rate of radiation will be very much inIn the case of an atom containing a large
creased.
number
number
if
we had
a large
other's heels
would be exceedingly small it would vanish altogether if the corpuscles were so close together
;
If the
same number of
particles
though the kinetic energy possessed by the corpuscles in the second case might be no greater
than in the
first,
i.e.,
of cor-
is
not uniform
we
ELECTRICITY
10g
AND MATTER
if
ments.
likely to
atom can
yet
we
very large,
have evidence that some of the elements
we
for
many
thousands,
which
I shall
have to allude
later,
We must
remember,
temperature to
The fact
much upon
to
fall
aggregations of the
the
the
way
different
enter
upon
It
important to realize
is
how
are
large
the
it.
If
we have
an atom containing
and there
is
elec-
arate the
atom
comparable with
work required
to sep-
',
Thus, as the
sphere containing the corpuscles.
the
formed
been
atom has
by
aggregation of these
units
v 16 '
a
will be of the
HO
consideration.
They
have
radi-
ated
amount
if
they have only retained
an exceedingly small fraction of that communi-
cated to them.
*
'-
a
for all the atoms in a
N be the number
N^-
'-
but
if
of the substance
an atom
NM=
1,
thus
and therefore
_
ma'
now when
<L
let
is
atoms. If
gram
e is
measured in
10 17 and
electrostatic units
3.4
1Q-
10
;
and therefore
N&*y=
10.2X10 7 X -.
a
(1)
assumed
in the kinetic
theory
i.e.,
jy (M-=
this
amount
million tons
1.02
10 19 ergs;
would be
of energy
sufficient to lift
through a
We
is
ber of corpuscles, so that the greater the molecuweight of an element, the greater will be the
lar
in the
atoms in each
gram.
We
phenomena
it is
we
discuss
some of
desirable to consider
more
closely the
way
We
are at rest.
The
112
and
pulsions.
corpuscles,
Flo. 16.
their
mutual
B, we can
re-
two
see
at
placed so that
if
A B
sphere.
If there are three corpuscles,
AB
C, they will
an equilateral triand
A B C as
be in equilibrium of
angle with its centre at
OA= OB = OC = (\y,
or .57
equilibrium
if
FIG. 15.
electrification,
H3
is
never
When
persist.
number
the
is
number
of corpuscles
is
of a small
the
and
we go on
as
stages in
increasing the
to turn to experiment
and
see if
we
can
make a
114
work
in the corpuscle.
Such a model
is
afforded
The magnets
and are
floated
by
above or
all
is
(if
the
little
mag-
nets have their positive poles above the water) suspended some distance above the surface of the
water.
the water, and if the negative pole is some distance above the surface the component of the force
to O will be very approximately proportional to
the distance from O.
atom
H5
FIG. 17.
The
configuration taken
up when
the magnets
it
floating
will
is also
due to Mayer.
From
this
five the
magnets
116
number
is
greater than
When
the
arrangement no
magnets do not arrange
five this
Thus, six
longer holds.
themselves at the corners of a hexagon, but divide
into two systems, one magnet being at the centre
and
gon.
five outside it at
groups
groups and so on.
;
lasts until
Arrangement of Magi
f
.
Ug
but reappear
Let us
on.
the floating
of magnets
is
of an element.
Then,
if
asso-
would be possessed by the elements whose combining weight was on this scale three, but would
it
we
number
of magnets
is
increased the
triangular
thirty-five,
shown by the
position of
let
The
HQ
Some
of
infinitely long,
we should not
get nine
dif-
ferent periods.
lines in the
spectrum of the
a,
2
A
FIG. 18.
where the
figures
under the
i.e.,
120
O, and
it
have a great
effect
upon
Now,
corpuscles, instead of
it,
and 35 magnets.
Let us consider
would
3, 10,
how
affect
the
the
The
When
self there
the group of three corpuscles was by itwere several displacements which gave
all
C there
121
would become a
come
18
doublets.
<7,
triplet,
the element which contain this particular grouping of corpuscles as being in the same group in the
classification of elements according to the Periodic
Law, we should get in the spectra of these elements homologous series of lines, the distances between the components of the doublets and triplets
increasing with the atomic weight of the elements.
The investigations of Rydberg, Runge and Pas-
122
Another point of
periments
is
interest given
that there
is
for the
From
in the atom, of
would develop
an amount of kinetic energy which if converted
into heat would greatly transcend the amount of
fraction in that potential energy
An
certain places in it
of magnets
while six
known
thus, five
and so
If
on.
we
we
find there
in proper-
there
is
we have extreme
between
properties
more or
123
fluorine
differences in
and sodium.
Then
we
until
on.
This
effect
seems
So
far
we have supposed
the corpuscles to be
if,
from
corpuscles farther
this
centre of the
we have
will, in
when they
124
There
are,
however,
many
which
cases in
rota-
These,
motion when
in stable steady
to place
themselves at the corners of a regular tetrahedron,
which is the stable arrangement when the cor-
The system
of four corpuscles
unstable unless
a certain
critical
initially the
this value,
value.
velocity of the
corpuscles exceeds
value.
stable,
The arrangement
and there
will
reduced to the
will then
critical
become un-
be a convulsion
in the sys-
125
energy.
Similar considerations will apply to many assemblages of corpuscles. In such cases the configuration
when
great rapidity will (as in the case of the four corpuscles) be essentially different from the configu-
ration of the
rest.
than the
critical
one,
a configuration
is
stable,
below the
and there
is
critical
value, instability
may be
we have taken
show that
126
it
reached a certain stage, produce instabilthe atom, and produce such an in-
ity inside
and
it
We shall
nomenon
see
when we
bodies which
in the
is
a class of
to those
just described.
On
formed
by the
ranged as
it
bundle corresponding to
J27
of
the magnet.
We
built
sess
must now go on
up
any
in the
whether an atom
to see
could pos-
Is
illustrated
by the
classes, electro-positive
Why,
for example,
if this
and
electro-
the con-
is
an atom of sodium or
Again,
in
while in a compound formed by an element
the
molewith
one
in the second,
the first group
ELECTRICITY
12 g
cule of the
atoms of
contains twice as
A as of B, and so on
many
now
Let us
atom.
compound
AND MATTER
We
phenomena
connected
enabling them
of the
owing
to
travel
to
They may
beyond the
attrac-
be detached also by
atom the
it
did the
first.
Now we
can
of,
an
atom may vary very much in the atoms of the different elements.
In some atoms the velocities of
the corpuscles
may be
It
may even
be
129
atom
is
ac-
according as they lost one, two, or three corpusOn the other hand, there may be atoms in
cles.
which the
that few,
may even be
own
able to receive
placed in a region
Atoms
of
this
kind
if
The magnitude
re.
of the
negative charge of one corpuscle were not sufficient to expel a corpuscle while the negative
charge of two corpuscles could do so, the maxi-
mum
unit.
a corpuscle, but three were, the maximum negative charge would be two units, and so on.
Thus,
the atoms of this class tend to get charged with
L30
negative electricity and correspond to the electronegative chemical elements, while the atoms of the
class
we
first
corpuscles, acquire
We
might conceive atoms in which the equilibrium of the corpuscles was so nicely balanced
that though they do not of themselves lose a corpuscle,
repulsion exerted
by a
corpuscle.
atoms are of
than one
the
more
atoms, and
if
two kinds
of atoms present
ly all the
we
number
of the
all
131
A B
formed.
If the
that lost
two
same
corpuscles,
and the
atoms the
two
of the
Thus, to form
atoms must com-
compound
HI would be formed.
Thus, from this point of view a univalent elecatom is one which, under the circum-
tro-positive
ative
atom
is
so on.
The valency
of the
atom
thus depends upon the ease with which corpuscles can escape from or be received by the atom
;
this
be influenced
may
when
existing
it
would be
combination
by
is
the
circumstances
taking place.
Thus,
when once
it
132
if it
On
is
taking place.
uncharged atom
is
it is
it
so stable that
is
unstable
atom
when
it
will not
Such an atom
133
it
was
also the
Helmholtz,
Faraday.
too,
that
the
their origin.
made but
to have
identical
of a bond)
(the
symbol
atom
is
atom
at the
when
the chemical
at the
end of
three,
compound
is
a trivalent
lines,
and so on
and that
represented by a
day tube
the beginning
if
134
atom
tive.
positive, the
is
end
if
the charge
is
nega-
therefore
it
is
in the mole-
There
is,
electrical theory.
deserves a
little
consideration
the other.
is
way
eration.
ral
is
no
differ-
135
pound
For
all
let
But
in addition
atoms, there
is
charge on one carbon atom and a negative charge on the other. Thus, one of the carbon
positive
atoms
still
i.e.,
when
the
compound
is
by two bonds,
as in
136
II
one carbon atom had a charge of four positive units, the other would have a charge of two
Here,
if
positive
We
units.
by these considerations by the inwhich are known as additive propproperties which can be calculated
as are indicated
vestigation of
erties,
when
is
i.e,
known. Thus,
let
if
the value of
is
6'2 ,
then
if
,,
this con-
&
J2y
Cz is
\px-\r\qy-\-\rz.
compounds
in different
to use
different values of
and
power
of different substances
it
neces-
137
due
doubly or
the
same
value
however,
They use,
for the refraction of the carbon atom when
singly
is
singly linked.
pound G HI,
atom at all.
It
it is
may be urged
that although
we
can conceive
when
are in
HI,
the molecules of
point
to
this
state of
by circumstances external to
Thus, for an example, an atom in a gas
influenced
the atom.
when surrounded by
electrified.
On
the
138
For when
liquid.
just
velocity to rely
the atom
left
it
to escape
it.
solid,
crowd round
cle
this
has left
its
we may
effect
liquid
it
to
avoid falling
an instance of this
and gaseous
mercury
way
As
is
One
is
mercury and wander about through the interstices between the atoms.
These charged corpuscles
when
acted upon
by an
electric
and constitute an
force
electric cur-
rent, the
puscles.
conductivity possessed
molecules
when gaseous.
of
139
may
few corpuscles when in the gaseous state. Suppose then that we had a great number of atoms
all
more
ones.
their
likely to
The
lose
faster ones
corpuscles
become
positively
loss of
electrified,
when
in the gase-
ous
and
get positively, others negatively electrified,
those with changes of opposite signs would combine to form a diatomic molecule. This argu-
to
very
electro-positive
we
electrical conductivity.
possess considerable
CHAPTER VI
RADIO-ACTIVITY AND RADIO-ACTIVE SUB-
STANCES
IN 1896 Becquerel discovered that
and
its salts
possess the
power
uranium
electricity.
In 1898
power
This property of uranium led to a careful examination of a large number of minerals containing this substance, and M. and
some of
that
This
in-
or substances
ium
itself,
much more
RADIO-ACTIVE SUBSTANCES
isolate these substances.
141
skill
and perseverance,
new
radio-active substances
ba-
They
and
deter-
mined
225.
first
of these
ined by Demarcay.
been found to be
months
fugitive,
is
contained in the
soil.
142
possessed
make
by
ties of
them a matter
The
of comparative ease.
methods
Thus, changes
few hours.
same
is
it
is
made up
a,
/3,
and
radiations.
much more
all.
radiation
is
Investigations of the
RADIO-ACTIVE SUBSTANCES
magnetic and
effects of
electric
143
forces on these
that the
ft
by
electric
and mag-
in
elec-
The a
the
ft
rays,
He
finds,
The value of
is
m
is
X 10*
shows that
have
!44
10
3
.
for
hydrogen
is
velocity with
which we
One
is
off
rays obtained
The
value of
for
the
suggests the existence of a gas heavier than hydrogen but lighter than helium. The y rays, as
far as
we know,
by mag-
There
is
radio-active substance
gen rays
($
is
known
and y types
to
and as
is
it is
possible
RADIO-ACTIVE SUBSTANCES
that closer investigation
positively electrified
145
particles,
the
may
Rbntgen
such as
we
rays,
body struck by
be a liberation of
energy
case of the
by the
rays.
for
it
ously,
i.e.,
up
in the
atom.
air as if it
were a gas
in
radium
tion."
exists,
Rutherford called
it
146
which platinum
tures at
is
incandescent without
of
thorium.
The
a
radio-active
emanation which
is
much more
by thorium, taking
about four days to sink to half its activity.
There seems every reason for thinking that
those emanations are radio-active matter in the
gaseous form they can be wafted from one place
to another by currents of air like a gas they diffuse through a porous plug at a rate which shows
;
They diffuse
gradually through air and other gases. The coeffiis
very high.
Soddy
and
I have,
RADIO-ACTIVE SUBSTANCES
closely resembles the
147
emanation and
it.
is
quite
seem to
state that
radio-active substances.
by the
employ for
an ex-
it is
electrical
method a quantity of a
to
It is not, I think,
by spectrum analysis.
Each portion of a salt of radium or thorium
is
emanation coming from the interior of a salt, however, does not escape into the air, but gets entangled
in
active salt
is
If
such a radio-
is
at first a
has been
great evolution of the emanation which
ELECTRICITY
148
stored
up
AND MATTER
boiling the
by
by
raising
them
perature.
Induced Radio-Activity
Kutherford discovered that substances exposed
from thorium become radio-active,
to the emanation
from radium.
duced
is
possessed
radio-activity.
the emana-
by
This phenomenon
The amount
is
called in-
of
induced
The induced
radio-activity
is
especially
de-
is
activity can
be detected on negatively
electrified
RADIO-ACTIVE SUBSTANCES
bodies
when
it is
too
electrified surfaces.
^49
is
deposited
in contact.
Further evidence of
it
by an
ex-
which the
in-
this is afforded
duced
it
radio-activity on a
Gates, in
The induced
radio-activity
very different
tion, for
is
is
so transient
that
it
much
less
is
150
for a
due to
it
radio-activity
due to radium.
Separation of the Active Constituent from Thorium
thorium
is
which
is
now
to be found in the
radio-activity of the
thorium
its radio-activ-
T h X.
The
has recovered
its
original activity.
While
it
this has
value
X has
7i
thorium X,
is
RADIO-ACTIVE SUBSTANCES
thorium
X were
itself
so that
if
151
value
when
Tli
radio-activity.
ThX,
This dead
all
it, is
accumulating
but inasmuch as it has
as
lost their
we may
call
we
have only the ordinary methods of chemical analysis to rely upon, and as these are almost infinitely
less delicate
we
active substances,
might take almost geological
of the dead TJiX
epochs to accumulate enough
to make detection possible by chemical analysis.
it
It is remark-
information.
might yield important
able that helium is almost invariably a
constitu-
You
how
closely, as pointed
152
Thus, to
ing place in the radio-active substance.
take the case of thorium, which is the one on
fullest information,we
have
first
and
to another.
The very
while radio-active.
sufficient
by the
large
is strik-
of this
out so
much energy
by the salt
emits
amount of
energy
it
rays
ac-
of the
keep the
permanently above that of
itself is sufficent to
much
as 1.5
C.
in one of
It
appears
RADIO-ACTIVE SUBSTANCES
153
This evolution of
its
is
exhausted
when
unless, indeed,
by the
radium.
We may
make
that a
calories per
gram
100
second
by
radium
salt
by these
particles,
and to get a
mass of radium gets transformed into the a parthe emanaticles (as a matter of fact we know that
15 4
tion
a?
is
be the
life in
Let
particles).
its life is
4.2
X 10
ergs.
J Nmv*, but
hence
ergs,
Nm =
10',
1,
a?
Nm v* = x X 4.2 X 10
of radium
gram
this is
to be equal to
is
X 4.2 X
9
;
but
10*
the
if
hence
is
we have
Jg
V
* 10 =
18
10'
^ g
From
this estimate
we
life
of a piece of
years.
gram
energy
is
RADIO-ACTIVE SUBSTANCES
155
On the view we have taken the difference between the case of radium and that of orreactions.
is
case of ra-
example
gard
it
as built
up
of a
number
of corpuscles.
velocity are
stable
when arranged
in a certain
same type.
position
if
This
is
stable
when
in
a vertical
its
rotation
energy were
the
gradually to decrease, then, when it reached
critical value, the top would become unstable and
exceeds a certain value.
If
this
would
fall
156
when
comes unstable and passes into a different configuration when the kinetic energy sinks below that
value.
amount
corpuscles
critical value.
When it gets
now
emits a
much
loss by radiation.
greater
number
The atom
of rays
and the
kinetic
;
increase
The
in
the
increase in
RADIO-ACTIVE SUBSTANCES
157
is
the process
We
atom
i.e.,
changes in the
it is
desirable
of this energy.
One
radium.
We
might
radio-active.
This radiation
for
radium
158
when surrounded by
thick lead
We are familiar
or when placed in a deep cellar.
with forms of Rontgen rays, and of rays given
out by radium itself, which can produce appreciable effects after passing through several inches of
lead, so that the idea of the existence of
very pene-
seem so improbable as
it
would have done a few years ago. It is interesting to remember that very penetrating radiation
was introduced by Le Sage more than a century
ago to explain gravitation.
Le Sage supposed
He
and
as-
momentum.
mundane
body were
momentum communi-
body
RADIO-ACTIVE SUBSTANCES
bombardment by Le
Sage's corpuscles
main
at rest
B in
the neighborhood of A,
from
direction
if,
some
BA
momentum
would
re-
is
a second body
of
;
field,
ceived enough
it
however, there
in this direction as
alone in the
159
momentum
in equilibrium
it
did
when
hence,
it
it
only
in this direction to
when
is
was
re-
keep
present, the
momentum
upper hand
so that
A B,
i.e.,
will
will
move
be attracted to B.
in the direction,
Maxwell pointed
momentum from Le
tum were
to
keep
was urged
an
argument against Le Sage's
by Maxwell as
It is not necessary, however, to suppose
theory.
that the energy of the corpuscles is transformed
into heat we might imagine it transformed into a
fact that all bodies are not white hot
very penetrating
radiation
1(50
fore replace
trating
give
Le
Rontgen
we might
there-
Sage's corpuscles
rays.
up momentum
waves
momentum
Those,
if
similar
consideration
to
which
those
It
As
in the case of
Le
RADIO-ACTIVE SUBSTANCES
of
momentum by
IQ
ac-
momentum
lost
lost,
Le
tion of energy
rays.
Again, as
from these
rays, if
from radium
energy
is
ternal to
is,
is
in the
it is
atom of radium
itself
and not
ex-
in all cases in
No
local-
substance goes on
be asked
being radio-active for very long. It may
how can this statement be reconciled with the fact
ize
it,
a transient property.
162
up
their activity
it
is
portion loses
its
activity in a
few
ThX,
produces
induced
radio-
ternal radiation.
engaged.
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Democracy in Theory and in Practice.
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