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State Key Laboratory of Oil and Gas Reservoir Geology and Exploitation, Chengdu University of Technology, Chengdu 610059, China
School of Communication Engineering, Chengdu University of Information Technology, Chengdu 610225, China
School of Geophysics, Chengdu University of Technology, Chengdu 610059, China
d
BGP, CNPC, Zhuozhou, Hebei, China
b
c
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history:
Received 14 August 2015
Received in revised form 24 November 2015
Accepted 19 July 2016
Available online xxxx
Keywords:
Hydrocarbon detection
Highlight volumes
EMD
Mode mixing
EEMD
CEEMD
a b s t r a c t
Empirical mode decomposition (EMD)-based spectral decomposition methods have been successfully used for
hydrocarbon detection. However, mode mixing that occurs during the sifting process of EMD causes the true intrinsic mode function (IMF) to be extracted incorrectly and blurs the physical meaning of the IMF. We address the
issue of how the mode mixing inuences the EMD-based methods for hydrocarbon detection by introducing
mode-mixing elimination methods, specically ensemble EMD (EEMD) and complete ensemble EMD
(CEEMD)-based highlight volumes, as feasible tools that can identify the peak amplitude above average volume
and the peak frequency volume. Three schemes, that is, using all IMFs, selected IMFs or weighted IMFs, are
employed in the EMD-, EEMD- and CEEMD-based highlight volume methods. When these methods were applied
to seismic data from a tight sandstone gas eld in Central Sichuan, China, the results demonstrated that the amplitude anomaly in the peak amplitude above average volume captured by EMD, EEMD and CEEMD combined
with Hilbert transforms, whether using all IMFs, selected IMFs or weighted IMFs, are almost identical to each
other. However, clear distinctions can be found in the peak frequency volume when comparing results generated
using all IMFs, selected IMFs, or weighted IMFs. If all IMFs are used, the inuence of mode mixing on the peak frequency volume is not readily discernable. However, using selected IMFs or a weighted IMFs' scheme affects the
peak frequency in relation to the reservoir thickness in the EMD-based method. Signicant improvement in the
peak frequency volume can be achieved in EEMD-based highlight volumes using selected IMFs. However, if the
weighted IMFs' scheme is adopted (i.e., if the undesired IMFs are included with reduced weights rather than excluded from the analysis entirely), the CEEMD-based peak frequency volume provides a more accurate reservoir
thickness estimate compared with the other two methods. This study demonstrates that any form of EMD can be
benecial if it is appropriately conditioned. Thus, mode mixing issues will not play an important role in hydrocarbon detection. Because every form of EMD carries strengths and weaknesses in its current implementation, the
standardization of such a utility demands further understanding.
2016 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
Spectral decomposition methods are effective tools that use seismic
reection data for seismic interpretation. These methods are widely
used for enhancing resolution, estimating the thickness of thin beds, improving spectral balancing and visualizing stratigraphic features, as well
as for direct hydrocarbon detection and other tasks (Chakraborty and
Okaya, 1995; Partyka et al., 1999; Castagna et al., 2003; Sinha et al.,
Corresponding author at: State Key Laboratory of Oil and Gas Reservoir Geology and
Exploitation, Chengdu University of Technology, Chengdu 610059, China.
E-mail address: xueyj0869@163.com (Y. Xue).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jappgeo.2016.07.017
0926-9851/ 2016 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
194
trend. The frequencies extracted from the data range from the lowest
frequency of 1/T Hz to the highest frequency of 1/(nt) Hz, in which
the total data length is T, the digitizing rate is t, and n represents the
minimum number of t needed to dene the frequency accurately.
The maximum number of the frequency cells of the Hilbert spectrum
is T/(nt) (Huang et al., 1998).
Recently, seismic attributes extracted by EMD-based time-frequency
methods have been studied (e.g., Magrin-Chagnolleau and Baraniuk,
1999; Battista et al., 2007; Bekara and van der Baan, 2009; Zhou et al.,
2010; Han and Van der Baan, 2011) and EMD-based spectral decomposition methods have been successfully applied to hydrocarbon detection
(Han and van der Baan, 2013; Xue et al., 2013a, 2013b, 2014). EMDbased time-frequency methods have been demonstrated to be more
suitable for seismic signals that are nonlinear and non-stationary. Compared with other Fourier-based and wavelet-based time-frequency
methods, EMD-based time-frequency methods, which are adaptive, do
not need an a priori basis and are not limited by time-frequency uncertainty spreading, have higher spatial and temporal resolution and yield
hydrocarbon interpretations with greater statistical signicance. Although EMD-based time-frequency methods offer many promising features for analyzing and processing geophysical data, the EMD algorithm
has some limitations. These limitations include the elimination of end
effects (e.g., Lin et al., 2012; Cotogno et al., 2013), the problem of stopping criterion (e.g., Rilling et al., 2003; Flandrin et al., 2004), the inuence of sampling (e.g., Rilling and Flandrin, 2006), spline problems
and mode mixing (e.g., Huang and Wu, 2008; Mandic et al., 2013),
among others. However, mode-mixing problems in EMD are the focus
of gas-bearing detection.
Mode mixing was rst discovered by Huang et al. (1999) in applying
the EMD method to intermittent signals. These researchers proposed a
method to suppress mode mixing by predetermining the upper limit
between the distances of extrema. Subsequent studies focused on eliminating mode mixing in EMD in a variety of ways (Wu and Huang, 2009;
Torres et al., 2011; Tang et al., 2012; Shen et al., 2014). These studies
showed that mode mixing in EMD is primarily caused by intermittence
and noise.
In recent hydrocarbon detection methods, especially the EMD-based
spectral decomposition method, the IMF section that contains the most
gas information and ne details is generally selected for analysis (Zhou
et al., 2010; Xue et al., 2013a, 2013b, 2014; Chen and Jeng, 2013).
Although many solutions have been provided for eliminating mode
mixing in EMD, there has been little effort to evaluate whether mode
mixing plays an important role in gas-bearing detection and whether
the effectiveness of mode mixing elimination methods in EMD-based
spectrum decomposition methods will improve interpretations for hydrocarbon detection in light of the additional computation time that
they require. This study addresses these outstanding questions. In this
paper, we introduced the mode-mixing elimination methods, specically the ensemble EMD (EEMD) and complete ensemble EMD (CEEMD)based highlight volumes, into hydrocarbon detection and comparatively analyzed the peak amplitude above average volume and the peak frequency volume extracted by the three EMD-, EEMD- and CEEMD-based
highlight volume methods utilizing three schemes: using all IMFs, using
selected IMFs, and using weighted IMFs.
The real data processing results indicate that the EMD/EEMD/
CEEMD approaches exhibit different features in the three schemes.
The CEEMD-based highlight volumes can provide a more reasonable
reservoir thickness indicator and amplitude anomaly indicator than
the other two methods when the weighted IMFs scheme is adopted.
For the selected IMFs scheme, the EEMD can capture the hydrocarbon
information in the reservoir better than the other two methods. However, when all of the IMFs are used, the EMD, EEMD and CEEMDbased highlight volumes exhibit similar effects. Of the EMD, EEMD and
CEEMD-based methods, the computation time of EMD is the shortest,
and the computation time of CEEMD is the longest. This work implies
that any form of EMD can be benecial if it is appropriately conditioned
and that the mode mixing issue will not play an important role in hydrocarbon detection.
2. Principles and methods
2.1. EMD and mode mixing
The purpose of EMD is to obtain IMFs. An IMF has the following
features:
a) Over the entire data set, the number of extrema must either be equal
to or different by at most one from the number of zero crossings;
b) At any point, the mean value of the upper and lower envelopes, as
dened by the local maxima and the local minima, respectively, is
zero.
195
Fig. 2. Sifting process in EMD. The maxima and minima of the low-frequency sinusoidal signal including intermittent events (black) are, respectively shown in pink and blue. The upper
envelope produced by the maxima is plotted in cyan, and the lower envelope produced by the minima is plotted in dark green. (For interpretation of the references to color in this gure
legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
within the signal waveform. Fig. 2 shows the maxima (pink) and minima (blue) of the low-frequency sinusoidal signal, including intermittent
events (black). The upper envelope produced by the maxima is plotted
in cyan, and the lower envelope produced by the minima is plotted in
dark green. As Fig. 2 shows, due to the presence of abnormal events,
the presence and distribution of the extrema in the signal are changed.
Thus, the upper and lower envelopes of the sinusoidal signal change
from straight lines to the shown envelopes, which are far from the
true values. The envelopes also do not resemble the upper bound of
the intermittent oscillations. The mean envelope also deviates far from
Fig. 3. Application of EMD to the signal, including intermittent events. Note that res.
denotes the residual. The IMFs are not extracted correctly due to mode mixing in EMD.
Fig. 4. Application of EEMD to the signal including intermittent events. Red signals in IMF2
and IMF3 are the original high-frequency intermittent signal and the original lowfrequency sinusoidal signal, respectively. One hundred realizations of the EEMD output
are shown with 10% Gaussian white noise added. The mode mixing in EEMD is
signicantly reduced, and the IMFs are extracted more accurately than by EMD. (For
interpretation of the references to color in this gure legend, the reader is referred to
the web version of this article.)
196
Fig. 5. Application of CEEMD to the signal including intermittent events. Red signals in
IMF1 and IMF5 are the original high-frequency intermittent signal and the original lowfrequency sinusoidal signal, respectively. One hundred realizations of the CEEMD output
are shown with 10% Gaussian white noise added. The mode mixing in CEEMD is
completely reduced, and the IMFs are extracted more accurately than by EMD and
EEMD. (For interpretation of the references to color in this gure legend, the reader is
referred to the web version of this article.)
Fig. 7. Application of EMD to the seismic trace intersecting gas well A. Seven IMFs and one
residue are extracted from the seismic trace. Mode mixing can be observed in the IMFs.
the true value. Finally, the rst IMF (IMF1) cannot be correctly extracted
by EMD due to mode mixing (Fig. 3). Once the current mode-mixing decomposition process occurs, the entire subsequent decomposition process will be affected. As Fig. 3 shows, the subsequent IMF2 is also
Fig. 6. The steps of highlight volumes based on EMD, EEMD and CEEMD.
Fig. 8. Application of EEMD to the seismic trace intersecting gas well A. One hundred
realizations of the EEMD output are shown, with 10% Gaussian white noise added. The
output shows reduced effects of mode mixing.
197
Fig. 9. Application of CEEMD to the seismic trace intersecting gas well A. Eighty
realizations of the CEEMD output are shown, with 10% Gaussian white noise added. The
output shows the least evidence of mode mixing.
distorted. Mode mixing causes EMD to become unstable and lack physical uniqueness.
2.2. Mode mixing elimination methods
Not all of the mode mixing elimination methods that may be useful
in practice can be examined in one study. Guided by the available literature, we focus only on the most commonly used mode mixing elimination methods: EEMD and CEEMD.
2.2.1. EEMD
EEMD was proposed by Wu and Huang (2009) and adopts a noiseassisted data analysis approach. The most important feature of the
EEMD method is that the added white noise series cancel each other
out so that the mean IMF stays within the natural dyadic lter windows.
Thus, the obtained IMF can signicantly overcome mode mixing and
preserve the dyadic property in the EMD (Wu and Huang, 2009). The
steps of EEMD are given in Table A2 in Appendix A.
The amplitude of the added noise is the key factor of the EEMD
method. If the amplitude of the added noise is too large, a false IMF
will be introduced in the decomposition process. Conversely, if the amplitude of the added noise is too small, mode-mixing problems will not
be eliminated because of a possible lack of extrema that would change
the local extrema of the original signal. Wu and Huang (2009) suggested the use of small-amplitude values for data dominated by highfrequency signals and vice versa.
The other main factor for the EEMD method is the number of ensemble members. If the number of ensemble members increases, the nal
standard deviation of the error will decrease, whereas the calculation
time will increase.
198
Fig. 5 shows that when CEEMD is applied to the signal in Fig. 1, the
rst IMF (IMF1) represents the three intermittent high-frequency components. The fth IMF (IMF5) represents the low-frequency sinusoidal
signal well.
2.3. Highlight volumes based on EMD, EEMD, and CEEMD
Highlight volume technology was rst introduced by Blumentritt
(2008) as a tool to condense critical information from multiple
monofrequency volumes into only two volumes: the peak frequency
volume and the peak amplitude above average volume. The peak
frequency volume is dened as the frequency volume in which the frequency value is at the maximum amplitude for each time sample in a
spectrum. This attribute is useful for interpreting reservoir features,
such as gas-charged reservoirs, that result in tuning. The peak frequency
is directly correlated to the temporal thickness of the layer of interest,
with low peak frequencies indicating thick beds and high peak frequencies indicating thin beds (Blumentritt, 2008). The peak amplitude above
the average volume is the amplitude volume in which the peak amplitude subtracts the average amplitude of the spectrum for each sample.
This technique highlights the areas in which the amplitudes are truly
anomalous.
Fig. 10. The highlight volumes applied to all IMFs extracted by EMD, EEMD, CEEMD respectively. a: The original seismic trace intersecting gas well A. b: The peak frequency volume. c: The
peak amplitude above average volume. The results of well-logging interpretation suggest that one gas-thin stratum and four poor gas-thin strata exist in the gas-bearing reservoir and ve
water-thin strata exist in the water-bearing reservoir. d: The original seismic trace intersecting gas well A. e: The peak frequency volume. f: The peak amplitude above average volume. g:
The original seismic trace intersecting gas well A. h: The peak frequency volume. i: The peak amplitude above average volume.
199
Fig. 11. The seismic section intersecting gas well A. The black rectangle indicates the study area in the second section of the Xujiahe Formation.
Fig. 12. The seismic section in the study area between the two horizontal lines. The sonic log curves of well A are co-plotted with the abbreviation AC.
200
Fig. 13. Results of well-logging interpretation of well A within the study area. The payzone shows the well logging interpretation results.
Fig. 14. Highlight volumes extracted by EMD combined with the HT using all of the IMFs for each trace. a: The peak frequency volume. The fact that the peak frequencies are smaller (blue to
green colors) in the gas- and water-bearing reservoirs indicates that the reservoirs contain thick-bedded strata. b: The peak amplitude above average volume. A 5 5 Gaussian weighted
lter is applied for display purposes. The sonic log curves are co-plotted with the abbreviation AC in the highlight volumes. Amplitude anomalies are found in the gas- and water-bearing
reservoirs. (For interpretation of the references to color in this gure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
201
Fig. 15. Highlight volumes extracted by EEMD combined with the HT using all IMFs for each trace. a: The peak frequency volume. The smaller peak frequencies in the gas- and water-bearing
reservoirs suggest that the reservoirs contain thick-bedded strata. b: The peak amplitude above average volume. A 5 5 Gaussian weighted lter is applied for display purposes. One hundred
realizations of the EEMD output are shown, with 10% Gaussian white noise added. The sonic log curves are co-plotted with the abbreviation AC in the highlight volumes. Strong amplitude
anomalies are found in the gas- and water-bearing reservoirs. (For interpretation of the references to color in this gure, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
frequency in this spectrum. Repeated the above process sample-bysample and trace-by-trace, the peak amplitude above average volumes and peak frequency volumes for the original seismic volumes
are obtained.
Fig. 16. Highlight volumes extracted by CEEMD combined with the HT using all IMFs for each trace. a: The peak frequency volume. The smaller peak frequencies in the gas- and waterbearing reservoirs suggest the presence of thick-bedded strata in reservoirs. b: The peak amplitude above average volume. A 5 5 Gaussian weighted lter is applied for display purposes.
Eighty realizations of the CEEMD output are shown, with 10% Gaussian white noise added. The sonic log curves are co-plotted with the abbreviation AC in the highlight volumes. Strong
amplitude anomalies are found in the gas- and water-bearing reservoirs. (For interpretation of the references to color in this gure, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
202
3. Materials
A 2D broadband migrated stacked seismic dataset from a gas eld in
Central Sichuan, China was collected for analysis. The gas eld is mainly
composed of tight sandstone reservoirs. The Xujiahe Formation is the
major producing gas reservoir of the gas eld. Here, we mainly study
the second section of the Xujiahe Formation. Reservoir space in the second section of the Xujiahe Formation is mainly formed by ne-grained
and medium-grained feldspar quartz sandstone containing small quantities of dark gray shale.
Fig. 17. Highlight volumes extracted by EMD combined with the HT using the selected IMF1 section. a: The selected IMF1 section. b: The peak frequency volume. The areas showing lowfrequency packets are smaller than those when all IMFs are used (Fig. 14a). This fact suggests that the selected IMFs scheme for the EMD-based method does not provide a true reection of
the reservoir thickness. c: The peak amplitude above average volume. A 5 5 Gaussian weighted lter is applied for display purposes. The sonic log curves are co-plotted with the
abbreviation AC in the highlight volumes.
203
(Fig. 10c) and CEEMD (Fig. 10i). Thus, we consider that the amplitude
anomalies using EEMD (shown in Fig. 10f) are more indicative of a hydrocarbon zone than those produced using EMD and CEEMD (shown
in Fig. 10c and i, respectively). The amplitude anomalies in the waterbearing reservoir area are more distinctive in the peak amplitude
above average volume using EMD and EEMD (Fig. 10c and f) than in
that using CEEMD (Fig. 10i).
Fig. 18. Highlight volumes extracted by EEMD combined with the HT using the selected IMFs. a: The reconstructed seismic section. b: The peak frequency volume. The EEMD-based peak
frequency volume using the selected featured IMFs is more similar to the results using all of the IMFs (Fig. 15a). This fact suggests that the selected IMFs scheme for the EEMD-based
method yields an accurate reection of the reservoir thickness. c: The peak amplitude above average volume. A 5 5 Gaussian weighted lter is applied for display purposes. One
hundred realizations of the EEMD output are shown, with 10% Gaussian white noise added. The sonic log curves are co-plotted with the abbreviation AC in the highlight volumes. The
main amplitude anomalies are identical to the results of well-logging interpretation.
204
peak amplitude above average volumes (Figs. 14b and 15b). There are
several differences in the right part of the peak frequency volumes in
Figs. 14a, 15a and 16a. In most areas, the peak frequencies identied
using the three methods are identical to each other.
The difference between the EMD-, EEMD- and CEEMD-based highlight volumes and those based on other techniques, especially wavelet
transforms, is shown in Appendix B. The results show that the EMD-,
EEMD- and CEEMD-based highlight volumes have better time resolution and can provide better interpretation results.
4.3. Highlight volumes applied to the selected IMFs
In general, for the EMD-based spectrum decomposition methods,
only the IMF section that reects the most gas information and details
is selected; this selection is adequate for highlighting the hydrocarbonprone areas (Zhou et al., 2010; Xue et al., 2013a, 2013b, 2014; Chen
and Jeng, 2013). However, for EMD-based highlight volumes, we can
use all of the IMFs. Can IMF selection improve the hydrocarbon information? Using the whole seismic data or only selecting the main useful
Fig. 19. Highlight volumes extracted by CEEMD combined with the HT using the selected featured IMFs. a: The reconstructed seismic section. b: The peak frequency volume. The areas
showing low-frequency packets are smaller than those when all of the IMFs are used (Fig. 16a). This fact suggests that the selected IMFs scheme for the CEEMD-based method does
not yield an accurate reection of the reservoir thickness. c: The peak amplitude above average volume. A 5 5 Gaussian weighted lter is applied for display purposes. Eighty
realizations of the CEEMD output are shown, with 10% Gaussian white noise added. The sonic log curves are co-plotted with the abbreviation AC in the highlight volumes. The main
amplitude anomalies are identical to the results of well-logging interpretation.
205
Fig. 20. Highlight volumes extracted by EMD combined with the HT using the correlation-weighted IMFs. a: The section reconstructed by correlation-weighted IMFs. b: The peak frequency
volume. These peak frequency volumes are similar to the peak frequency volumes using the selected IMF in Fig. 17b, which suggests that the weighted IMFs scheme for the EMD-based
method does not accurately reect the reservoir thickness. c: The peak amplitude above average volume. A 5 5 Gaussian weighted lter is applied for display purposes. The sonic log
curves are co-plotted with the abbreviation AC in the highlight volumes. Apparent amplitude anomalies are found in the well location; these are identical to the results of welllogging interpretation.
206
Fig. 21. Highlight volumes extracted by EEMD combined with the HT using the correlation-weighted IMFs. a: The reconstructed seismic section by correlation-weighted IMFs. b: The peak
frequency volume. The peak frequency volumes are less accurate than those produced using the selected IMF (Fig. 18b). This fact suggests that the weighted IMFs scheme for the EEMDbased method does not yield an accurate reection of the reservoir thickness. c: The peak amplitude above average volume. A 5 5 Gaussian weighted lter is applied for display purposes.
One hundred realizations of the EEMD output are shown, with 10% Gaussian white noise added. The sonic log curves are co-plotted with the abbreviation AC in the highlight volumes.
Apparent amplitude anomalies are found in the well location; these are identical to the results of well-logging interpretation.
207
Fig. 22. Highlight volumes extracted by CEEMD combined with the HT using the correlation-weighted IMFs. a: The seismic section reconstructed by correlation-weighted IMFs. b: The peak
frequency volume. It is similar to those produced using all of the IMFs (Fig. 16a) and is more accurate than those using the selected IMFs (Fig. 19b). The weighted IMFs scheme for the
CEEMD-based method yields a true reection of the reservoir thickness. c: The peak amplitude above average volume. A 5 5 Gaussian weighted lter is applied for display purposes.
Eighty realizations of the CEEMD output are shown, with 10% Gaussian white noise added. The sonic log curves are co-plotted with the abbreviation AC in the highlight volumes.
Apparent amplitude anomalies are found in the well location; these are identical to the results of well-logging interpretation.
208
A1
i1
5. Conclusions
The question of whether mode mixing matters in EMD-based highlight volume methods for hydrocarbon detection is discussed. We suggest one feasible way of applying EEMD and CEEMD to hydrocarbon
detection while avoiding the super-resolution of EEMD and CEEMD.
We determine that highlight volumes using EMD, EEMD and CEEMD
combined with the HT are effective for hydrocarbon detection. The
peak amplitude above average volumes extracted by EMD, EEMD
and CEEMD combined with the HT are mostly identical to each other
and well-log interpretations. This result shows that the amplitude
anomalies obtained using EMD, EEMD, or CEEMD combined with the
HT can be correctly detected. However, mode mixing and the different
sifting processes of the three methods cause the uid response in the
seismic data to be reected differently in IMFs that have different frequencies. Thus, the peak frequency volumes of the three methods differ little in terms of the peak frequency volume when all IMFs are used
where Ci(t) is the ith IMF (i = 1 n)and Rn(t) is the residual. Ci(t) can
be expressed as.
C i t ai t cosi t ;
A2
209
Table A1
The steps of the EMD method.
(a) Find all the local maxima Mi(i = 1, 2, ) and the local minima mk(k = 1, 2, ) in the original signal x(t); compute the corresponding upper interpolating envelope u(t) and
lower interpolating envelope v(t) of the signal x(t): u(t) : = fM(Mi,t), v(t): = fm(mk, t).
(b) Let m(t) : = (u(t) + v(t))/2. Subtract m(t) from the original signal x(t): Leth1(t) : = X(t) m(t).
(c) Return to step (a). Replace x(t) with h1(t). Repeat the above process until the resultant hk(t) meets the IMF conditions. Then the rst IMF c1(t): c1(t) = hk(t). The residual
part of the signal r1(t): r1(t) = x(t) c1(t).
(d) If there is more than one extremes (neither the constant nor the trend term) in x(t), the remaining part of the signal can be proceeded by EMD until the remaining portion
of the resulting signal is a monotone or a value less than a predetermined given value. Finally, all the IMFs and the margin are:
r2(t) = r1(t) c2(t) , , rn(t) = rn 1(t) cn(t).
Table A2
The steps of the EEMD method.
(a) Generate signals with added white noise: xi(t) = x(t) + wi(t)(i = 1, 2, ,I), where wi(t)(i = 1, 2, , I) are different white noise series. x(t) is the original signal.
(b) Decompose each xi(t)(i = 1, 2, ,I) into IMFs ck(t) by using EMD, where k = 1 ,2 , , K is the number of the modes.
I
(c) Obtain the (ensemble) means of corresponding IMFs ck tof the decompositions as the nal result: ck t 1I i1 cik t.
Table A3
The steps of the CEEMD method.
I
(a) Decompose by EMD I realizations x(t) +0wi(t)(i = 1, 2, , I) to obtain the rst modes and compute: c1 t 1I i1 ci1 t, where wi(t)(i = 1, 2, , I) are different white noise
series. x(t) is the original signal.
(b) At the rst stage (k = 1), calculate the rst residue r1(t): r 1 t xtc1 t.
I
(c) Decompose r1(t) +1E1(wi(t))(i = 1, 2, , I), until their rst EMD mode and dene the second mode: c2 t 1I i1 E1 r 1 t 1 E1 wi t. Ej() denotes producing the j-th
mode obtained by EMD.
(d) For k = 2 , , K, calculate the k-th residue: r k t r k1 tck t.
I
(e) Decompose rk(t) +kEk(wi(t))(i = 1, 2, , I) until their rst EMD mode and dene the (k + 1)-th mode: ck1 t 1I i1 E1 r k t k Ek wi t. Return to step (d) for next k.
ndings are similar to the results in Figs. 14b, 15b and 16b and are
identical to the results of well-logging interpretation. However, the
amplitude anomalies in the gas- and water-bearing reservoirs extracted
by EMD combined with the HT are more obvious than those extracted by
the wavelet transform. Otherwise, the peak amplitude above average
volume extracted by EMD/EEMD/CEEMD combined with the HT shows
a higher time resolution. The distinctions between the gas-bearing
area, the dry layer and the water-bearing area are very clear in
Fig. B1. Highlight volumes using the wavelet transform applied to the seismic section intersecting gas well A. a: The peak frequency volume. b: The peak amplitude above average volume.
A 5 5 Gaussian weighted lter is applied for display purposes.
210
Figs. 14b, 15b and 16b, whereas the distinctions between the gasbearing area, the dry layer and the water-bearing area in Fig. B1b are
less clear.
A comparison of Fig. B1a with Figs. 14a, 15a and 16a shows that the
peak frequencies extracted by the wavelet transform in the gas-bearing
reservoir provide fewer details about the frequency changes than those
extracted by EMD/EEMD/CEEMD combined with the HT. In the waterbearing reservoir, details regarding the frequency changes in the peak
frequency section extracted by the wavelet transform are smaller than
those extracted by EMD/EEMD/CEEMD combined with the Hilbert
transform.
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