Positive feedback must occur at a frequency where the voltage gain of the amplifier is

equal to the losses (attenuation) occurring in the feedback path. For example if 1/30th
of the output signal is fed back to be in phase with the input at a particular frequency,
and the gain of the amplifier (without feedback) is 30 times or more, oscillation will take
place.

The oscillations should take place at one particular frequency.

The amplitude of the oscillations should be constant.

There are many different oscillator designs in use, each design achieving the above
criteria in different ways. Some designs are particularly suited to producing certain
wave shapes, or work best within a certain band of frequencies. Whatever design is
used however, the way of achieving a signal of constant frequency and constant
amplitude is by using one or more of three basic methods

Method 1
Make sure that positive feedback occurs only at one frequency, the
required frequency of oscillation. This may be achieved by ensuring that
only signals of the required frequency are fed back, or by ensuring the
feedback signal is in the correct phase at only one frequency.

Method 2
Make sure that sufficient amplification for oscillation can take place only
at the required frequency, by using an amplifier that has an extremely
narrow bandwidth, extending to the frequency of oscillation only.

Method 3
Use amplifiers in "switch mode" to switch the output between two set
voltage levels, together with some form of time delay to control the time
at which the amplifiers switch on or off, thus controlling the periodic time
of the signal produced.

Fig. 1.1.2 The Need For Amplitude Stability

Methods 1 and 2 are used extensively in sine wave oscillators, while
method 3 is useful in square wave generators, sometimes called
aperiodic (untuned) oscillators. Oscillators using method 3 often use
more than one amplifier and timing circuit, and so are called
multivibrators (more than one oscillator).

Positive Feedback Systems

In a positive feedback control system, the set point and output
values are added together by the controller as the feedback is inphase with the input. The effect of positive (or regenerative)
feedback is to increase the systems gain, ie, the overall gain with
positive feedback applied will be greater than the gain without
feedback. For example, if someone praises you or gives you
positive feedback about something, you feel happy about yourself
and are full of energy, you feel more positive.

However, in electronic and control systems to much praise and

positive feedback can increase the systems gain far too much
which would give rise to oscillatory circuit responses as it
increases the magnitude of the effective input signal.
An example of a positive feedback systems could be an electronic
amplifier based on an operational amplifier, or op-amp as shown.

Positive Feedback System

Positive feedback control of the op-amp is achieved by applying a small part of the output voltage signal
at Vout back to the non-inverting ( + ) input terminal via the feedback resistor, R .
F

If the input voltage Vin is positive, the op-amp amplifies this positive signal and the output becomes more positive.
Some of this output voltage is returned back to the input by the feedback network.
Thus the input voltage becomes more positive, causing an even larger output voltage and so on. Eventually the
output becomes saturated at its positive supply rail.
Likewise, if the input voltage Vin is negative, the reverse happens and the op-amp saturates at its negative supply
rail. Then we can see that positive feedback does not allow the circuit to function as an amplifier as the output
voltage quickly saturates to one supply rail or the other, because with positive feedback loops more leads to more
and less leads to less.
Then if the loop gain is positive for any system the transfer function will be: Av = G / (1 GH). Note that
if GH = 1 the system gain Av = infinity and the circuit will start to self-oscillate, after which no input signal is
needed to maintain oscillations, which is useful if you want to make an oscillator.

Although often considered undesirable, this behaviour is used in electronics to obtain a very fast switching response
to a condition or signal. One example of the use of positive feedback is hysteresis in which a logic device or system
maintains a given state until some input crosses a preset threshold. This type of behaviour is called bi-stability
and is often associated with logic gates and digital switching devices such as multivibrators.
We have seen that positive or regenerative feedback increases the gain and the possibility of instability in a system
which may lead to self-oscillation and as such, positive feedback is widely used in oscillatory circuits such
as Oscillators and Timingcircuits.
3.
RC Phase shift oscillator
An oscillator is a circuit that produces an output without an input. More specifically it is a circuit that produces a
signal at a desired frequency with the aid of a dc source.
An oscillator can be classified on the bases of output waveform, circuit elements used, and the range of frequency
that it produces. An oscillator which uses RC network for producing oscillations are called as an RC oscillator. RC
phase shift oscillator is a type of RC oscillator in which RC phase shift networks are employed for producing
successful oscillations.
Circuit diagram:

Working :
The RC phase shift oscillators basically consist of an amplifier and feedback network. The feedback network
consists of resistors and capacitors arranged in cascade to produce oscillations. For a circuit to act as an oscillator
certain criteria's need to be satisfied. This criterion is called Barkhausen Criteria. According to this criteria an
amplifier stage will act as an oscillator if
1) The signal feedback from the output to the input is in same phase with the actual input and
2) The factor AB =1, where A is the amplifier gain and B is the feedback factor
Most commonly used RC oscillator circuit is shown in the figure. The amplifier part is formed by the components
R1, R2, Rc, Re, Q1 and Ce and the phase shift network consist of C and R combination
The components R1, R2, Rc, Re, Q1, and Ce form a common emitter inverting amplifier. In this circuit the BJT is
given a voltage divider bias. The resistors R1 and R2 form the voltage divider network. Rc is used for providing
collector bias and it act as the load the Re resistor provide thermal stabilization. The capacitor Ce is called the
bypass capacitor as it is used to bypass frequency components produced at the emitter terminal to the ground.
This capacitor have a great role in gain stability because if frequency components were allowed to pass through
Re resistor then the drop in Re increases and this could result in negative feed backing and can reduce the gain of

the amplifier.
When the vcc is provided any circuit imbalance could produce small base current and this will be amplified at the
collector terminal with 180 degree phase shift. The collector terminal is connected with 3 phase shift networks
(RC) which produce approximately 60 degree phase shift each and to their combined effect produces another 180
degree phase shift. The last resistor R is connected to the base of the amplifier. This act as the feedback path so
the signal feedback from the phase shift stage is now (360 degree phase different or) in phase with the input
hence the Barkhausen Criterion 1 is satisfied. The phase feedback network is designed to make the product AB=1
and hence both the criteria's were satisfied and the circuit act as an oscillator
From the derivations the frequency of an RC oscillator can be obtained as F=1/(2RC (6+4Rc/R)) and the hFE of
the transistor required is given by hFE >= 23+29(Rc/R)+4(R/Rc) from this equation the minimum hFE required is
29
4.

Colpitts Oscillator tends to be more stable than the Hartley Oscillator. The Colpitts can be crystal controlled, but it is also
possible to use a coil and capacitors for the oscillator to function with. It is easier to tap, for feedback purposes, 2 capacitors in
series, as well as being cheaper to make, than to use a tapped coil.
The Hartley Oscillator uses a tapped coil for the feedback for oscillation, and these tend to be more difficult to make.

Due to it's greater simplicity, and lower cost, most oscillators in use today are derivatives of the Colpitts design. It is also easier
to Frequency Modulate the Colpitts design.
5.

Main advantage of Colpitts oscillator over Hartley oscillator is the improved performance in the high frequency region.
This is because the capacitors provide a low reactance path for the high frequency signals and thus the output signals in
the high frequency domain will be more sinusoidal. Due to the excellent performance in the high frequency region, the
Colpitts oscillator can be even used in microwave applications.
6.
Clap oscillator is just a modification of Colpitts oscillator. The only difference is that there is one additional capacitor
connected in series to the inductor in the tank circuit. The circuit diagram of a typical Clapp oscillator is shown in the
figure below.

he Clapp oscillator is distinguished from the Colpitts oscillator by the addition

of C0 in series with L. This additional capacitor has several effects on the
oscillator circuit. The signal voltage divider formed by C 1 and C2 is unchanged,
and these capacitors are fixed in value. Therefore the amount of energy fed back
to sustain oscillations is the same at any frequency, so the amplitude of the signal
is not affected much by a change in frequency. In addition, stray capacitances in
the transistor have less effect on the operating frequency, which now depends on
the series combination of all three capacitors.
The circuit still oscillates at a frequency of = 2f = 1/ , but
now C0 is part of C in that expression. If C0 is made variable, it
can control the frequency of oscillation without changing the
feedback ratio or the stability of the overall circuit.