PRISMS

Prisms are three-dimensional closed surfaces.

A prism has two parallel faces, called bases, that are congruent
polygons. The lateral faces are rectangles in a right prism, or
parallelograms in an oblique prism. In a right prism, the joining edges
and faces are perpendicular to the base faces.
Right Triangular Prism

Prisms are also called

polyhedra since their
faces are polygons.
A regular prism is a
cube.
Right Rectangular Prism

Parallelepiped
A prism which has a parallelogram as its base is
called a parallelepiped. It is a polyhedron with 6
faces which are all parallelograms.

Oblique Triangular
Prism

The edges of the prism where the lateral faces

intersect are called its lateral edges. The lateral
edges in a prism are congruent and parallel.

Lateral edges:
There are 5 congruent and parallel
lateral edges in this prism.

The volume of a prism is the product of the base area

times the height of the prism.

V = Bh
(Volume of a prism: B = base area, h = height)

h = height(altitude) between bases

B = area of the base

The surface area of a prism is the sum of the

areas of the bases plus the areas of the lateral faces.
This simply means the sum of the areas of all faces.

The surface area, S, of a right prism can be found

using the formula S = 2B + ph.
B = area of base, p = perimeter of base, h = height.

A net is a two-dimensional figure

that can be cut out and folded up to
make a three-dimensional solid.

Note: A cross section of a geometric solid is the intersection of a plane and the solid.

A prism has the same cross section (parallel to the base)

all along its length !
Shown here are the cross
sections (in the same plane)
of two prisms of equal
height. The cross section
slices are indicated in red and
are parallel to the bases.
If the areas of these two
cross section slices are equal,
the prisms will be equal in
volume.
Seventeenth century mathematician, Bonaventura Cavalieri, generalized this concept
for solids.

Cavalieri's Principle:

If, in two solids of equal height, the cross

sections made by planes parallel to and at the same distance from their
respective bases are always equal, then the volumes of the two solids are
equal.
For Algebra 1 you should know a generalized statement of this principle:

"Two prisms will have equal volumes if their bases have

equal area
and their altitudes (heights) are equal."

Reflective Prisms
In the study of optics, prisms are used to reflect light,
such as occurs in binoculars. Prisms are also used to
disperse light, or break light into its spectral colors of the
rainbow. The most commonly used optic prism is a
triangular prism, which has a triangular base and
rectangular sides.

CONES
Cone

Cones are three-dimensional closed surfaces.

In general use, the term cone refers to a right circular cone
with its end closed to form a circular base surface. The vertex
of the cone (the point) is not in the same plane as the base.

h = height (altitude)
r = radius
s = slant height

Cones are not called polyhedra since their faces are not
polygons. In many ways, however, a cone is similar to a
pyramid. A cone's base is simply a circle rather than a polygon
as seen in the pyramid.

We will be working with right

circular cones unless
otherwise stated.

The volume of a cone can be calculated in the same manner as the volume
of a pyramid: the volume is one-third the product of the base area times the
height of the cone,
Since the base of a cone is a circle, the formula for the area of a circle can be
substituted into the volume formula for B :

(Volume of a cone: r = radius, h = height)

A net is a two-dimensional figure that can

be cut out and folded up to make a threedimensional solid.

The surface area (of a closed cone) is a combination

of the lateral area and the area of the base. When cut along
the slant side and laid flat, the surface of a cone becomes
one circular base and the sector of a circle (lateral surface),
as shown in the net at the left.
Note that the length of the arc in the sector is the same as
the circumference of the small circular base.
By using a proportion, the area of the sector (lateral area)
will be:
(measurements pertain to
the larger net figure, the
circle containing the sector)

Lateral = any face or surface that is not a

base.

In a right circular cone, the slant height, s, can

be found using the Pythagorean Theorem:

Note: The formula for the area of

the sector (lateral area),
, is
equal to one half the product of
the slant height and the

(arc length of the sector

equals the circumference of
the smaller base circle)

(the radius of the smaller

base is r, while the radius of
the larger sector is s)

The lateral area (sector) =

The base area = area of a circle

circumference of the base.

(Total Surface Area of a Closed Cone)

When working with surface areas of cones, read the questions carefully.
Will the surface area
include the base?

Will the surface area

not include the base?

CYLINDER
Cylinder

Cylinders are three-dimensional closed surfaces.

In general use, the term cylinder refers to a right circular
cylinder with its ends closed to form two circular surfaces,
that lie in parallel planes.

h = height (altitude)
r = radius

We will be working with right

circular cylinders unless
otherwise stated.

Cylinders are not called polyhedra since their faces are not
polygons. In many ways, however, a cylinder is similar to
a prism. A cylinder has parallel congruent bases, as does
a prism, but the cylinder's bases are circles rather than
polygons.

The volume of a cylinder can be calculated in the same manner as the

volume of a prism: the volume is the product of the base area times the height
of the cylinder,
V = Bh.
Since the base in a cylinder is a circle, the formula for the area of a circle can be
substituted into the volume formula for B:
(Volume of a cylinder: r = radius of base, h = height)

A net is a two-dimensional
figure that can be cut out and
folded up to make a threedimensional solid.

The surface area (of a closed cylinder) is a

combination of the lateral area and the area of each of the
bases. When disassembled, the surface of a cylinder
becomes two circular bases and a rectangular surface
(lateral surface), as seen in the net at the left.
Note that the length of the rectangular surface is the same
as the circumference of the base. Remember that the area
of a rectangle is length times width.
The lateral area (rectangle) = height circumference of
the base.
The base area = area of a circle (remember there are two
bases)

Lateral = any face or surface that

is not a base.

(Total Surface Area of a Closed Cylinder)

...which can also be factored and written as

When working with surface areas of cylinders, read the questions carefully.

Will the surface area include

both of the bases?

Will the surface area include

only one of the bases?

Will the surface area include

neither of the bases?

The lateral area only.

PYRAMIDS
Pyramid

Pyramids are three-dimensional closed surfaces.

The one base of the pyramid is a polygon and the
lateral faces are always triangles with a common
vertex. The vertex of a pyramid (the point, or
apex) is not in the same plane as the base.
Pyramids are also called polyhedra since their
faces are polygons.

We will be working with regular pyramids

unless otherwise stated.

The most common pyramids are regular

pyramids. A regular pyramid has a regular
polygon for a base and its height meets the base at
its center. The slant height is the height (altitude)
of each lateral face.

In a regular pyramid, the lateral edges are congruent.

Since the base is a regular polygon, whose sides are all congruent,
we know that the lateral faces of a regular pyramid are congruent
isosceles triangles.

Pyramids are named for the shape of their base.

Triangular pyramid

Square pyramid

The volume of a pyramid is one-third the

product of the base area times the height of the
pyramid.

(Volume of a pyramid: B = base area, h = height)

h = height (altitude) from vertex to base

B = area of base

The surface area of a pyramid is the sum of the

area of the base plus the areas of the lateral faces.

This simply means the sum of the areas of all faces.

The surface area, S, of a regular pyramid can be

found using the formula

B = area of base, p = perimeter of base, s = slant height.

A net is a two-dimensional figure

that can be cut out and folded up to
make a three-dimensional solid.

The Great Pyramid of Egypt

The Great Pyramid of Khufu, at Giza, Egypt, is
751 feet long on each side at the base, is 450 feet
high, and is composed of approximately 2
million blocks of stone, each weighing more
than 2 tons. The maximum error between side
lengths is less than 0.1%.
The sloping angle of its sides is 5151'. Each
side is oriented with the compass points of north,
south, east, and west. Each cross section of the
pyramid (parallel to the base) is a square.

Artist's rendering of the pyramids.

Until the 19th century, the Great Pyramid at Giza was the tallest building in the
world. At over 4500 years in age, it is the only one of the famous Seven Wonders of
the Ancient World that remains standing.

According to the Greek historian Herodotus, the Great Pyramid was built as a tomb
for the Pharaoh Khufu.

POLYHEDRA
Singular: polyhedron
`

Plural: polyhedra

A polyhedron is a three-dimensional solid figure in which each side is a

flat surface. These flat surfaces are polygons and are joined at their edges. The word
polyhedron is derived from the Greek poly (meaning many) and the Indo-European
hedron (meaning seat or face).
A polyhedron has no curved surfaces.

The common polyhedron are pyramids and prisms.

pyramid

prism

A polyhedron is called regular if the faces are congruent, regular polygons and the
same number of faces meet at each vertex. There are a total of five such convex
regular polyhedra called the Platonic solids.

tetrahedron

octahedron

icosahedron

hexahedron

dodecahedron

Euler's Polyhedron Theorem:

Euler discovered that the number of faces (flat surfaces) plus the number of vertices
(corner points) of a polyhedron equals the number of edges of the polyhedron plus 2.

F+V=E+2
Non-Polyhedra
The following solids are not polyhedra since a part or all of the figure is curved.

Cylinder

Cone

Sphere

Torus

A torus is a "tube shape". Examples include an inner tube, a doughnut, a tire and a
bagel. Small r is the radius of the tube and capital R is the distance from the centre of
the torus to the center of the tube.

While the torus has a hole in the center,

the Surface Area:

the

Volume:

SPHERE
Sphere

r = radius

Spheres

are

three-dimensional

closed

surfaces.

A sphere is a set of points in three-dimensional space

equidistant from a point called the center. The radius of the
sphere is the distance from the center to the points on the
sphere.
Spheres are not polyhedra.
Of all shapes, a sphere has the smallest surface area for its
volume.

The volume of a sphere is four-thirds times pi times the

radius cubed.

(Volume of a sphere: r = radius)

Note: A cross section of a geometric solid is the intersection of a plane and the solid.

The surface area of a sphere is four times the area of

the largest cross-sectional circle (called the great circle).

A great circle is the largest circle that can be drawn on a sphere.

Such a circle
will be found when the cross-sectional plane passes through the center of the sphere.
The equator is an examples of a great circle. Meridians
(passing through the North and South poles) are also
great circles.
The shortest distance between two points on a sphere is
along the arc of the great circle joining the points.
The shortest distance between points on any surface is
called a geodesic. In a plane, a straight line is a
geodesic. On a sphere, a great circle is a geodesic.

What happens when

planes
intersect with spheres?
1. The intersection of a plane and a sphere
is a circle.

No, not that kind of plane!

2. If two planes are equidistant from the center

of a sphere (and intersecting the sphere),
the intersected circles are congruent.

A hemisphere is the half sphere formed by a plane intersecting the center of a sphere.

Platonic Solids
(Regular Solids, Regular Polyhedra)

Regular solids (regular polyhedra, or Platonic solids which were described by Plato)
are solid geometric figures, with identical regular polygons (such as squares) as their
faces, and with the same number of faces meeting at every corner (vertex). Euclid
proved that there are only five regular convex polyhedra.
The five Platonic Solids were thought to represent the five basic elements of the
world; earth, air, fire, water, and the universe.
The "regular solids" are important in many aspects of chemistry, crystallography, and
mineralogy.

The equilateral triangle is the simplest regular

polygon. Placing three equilateral triangles at a
vertex (total angle 180) will form a
tetrahedron (4 faces, 4 vertices).
It has the smallest volume for its surface.
The tetrahedron represents fire.

Placing four equilateral triangles at each vertex

(total angle 240&def;) will form an
octahedron (8 faces, 6 vertices).
The octahedron rotates freely when held by its
two opposite vertices and represents air.

Placing five equilateral triangles at each vertex

(300) will form an icosahedron (20
faces and 12 vertices).
It has the largest volume for its surface area.
The icosahedron represents water.

The second simplest regular polygon is the

square. Placing three squares at each corner
(270) will form a cube, or hexahedron
(6 faces and 8 vertices).
The hexahedron, standing firmly on its base,
represents the stable earth.

The third simplest regular polygon is the

regular pentagon. Placing three pentagons at
each vertex (324) will form a
dodecahedron (12 faces and 20 vertices).
The dodecahedron represents to the universe
since the twelve zodiac signs correspond to the
twelve faces of the dodecahedron.

A soccer ball is composed of a combination of

pentagon and hexagon faces. This shape is called a
buckyball after Richard Buckminster Fuller, who
invented the geodesic dome. In reality, the soccer ball
is not truly a polyhedron since the faces are not really
flat. The faces tend to bulge slightly due to the amount
of stuffing in the ball and the pliable nature of the
leather.