Maron Calculus

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MOCKBA)))
I. A.
MARON)
Problems
in Calculus
of One Variable)
(With elementsof theory))
TRANSLATED)
FROM
THE
RUSSIAN
by
LEONIDLEVANT)
MIR
PUBLISHERS
MOSCOW)))
UDC 517=20)
First published 1973

Revised from the 1970Russian edition)
Ha
M)
0223-200
041(0I )-73)
aHcAuuCKOM
Jl3blKe)))
Contents)
the
Frolll
Chapter
I.)
I ntroduct
Au thor
..........
.)
.....
ion to Mathematical
Analysis
Numbers. The Absolute Value of a Real Number
Function. Domain of Definition
Investigation of Functions
Inverse Functions
of Functions
Graphical Representation
Number Sequences.
Limit of a Sequence
Evaluation of Limits of Sequences
Testing Sequencesfor Convergence
.
The Limit of a Function
Calculation of Limits of Functions.
Functions. Their DefiniInfinitesimal
and Infinite
.
tion and Comparison
Infinitesimals. Application
to Finding
Equivalent
Lim i ts
.. ..
1.1.
Real
...
..
. ..
.....
.
...
.. .........
.
1.11.
.........
1.12.
.................
....
....
1.13.
One-SidedLimits . . . . . . . . .
1.14.
Continuity of a Function. Points of Discontinuity
and Their Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.15.
Arithmetical Operations on Continuous Functions.
Continuity of a Composite Function . . . . . . . . . .
1.16.
The Properties of a Function Continuous on a Closed Interval. Continuity of an Inverse Function .
..
1.17.Additional Problems. . . .
I.
ion of Punct ions . . . . . . .
.
2.1.
of the Derivative .
2.2.
of Explicit Functions .
\037
\037
\037
\037
\037
\037
\037
\037
\037
\037
1.2.
1.3.
1.4.
1.5.
1.6.
1.7.
1.8.
1.9.
1.10.
.)
....
..........
.)
11
11
15
22
28
30
41
48
50
.. ....
\037
\037
\037
55
60)
68)
71
75)
\037
77)
\037
84)
\037
.)
\037
Cha pter)
Different
\037
\037
\037
iat
Definition
Differentiation
98
98
.............
2.3.SuccessiveDifferentiation
Lei b n i z For m u 1a
87
91
.)
of
Explicit
100)
Functions.
107)))
6)
Contents)
2.4.
....
of Inverse, Implicit
Differentiation
and Parametri9
.
cally Represented Functions
9 2.5.Applications of the Derivative.
of a Function. Application to AppThe Differential
\037
. . . . . . . . . . . . . III
. . . . . . . . . 115)
2.6.
roximate Computations
2.7.Additional Problems
\037
Chapter
III.Application
of
Calculus
Differential
122
126)
.)
to
of
...
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Investigation
Functions
....
.)
3.1.BasicTheorems on
Functions. .
Differentiable
'.
3.2.Evaluation of Indeterminate Forms. L'Hospital'sRule

3.3.Taylor'sFormula. Application to Approximate Calcu at ions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4.Application of Taylor's Formula to Evaluation of
\037
13]
131
138)
\037
..................
a Function for Monotonicity . . . . . . .
ma of a Function . . . . . . . .
Maxima and
9 3.6.
3.7.Finding the Greatest and the Least Values of a
ct on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9 3.8.
Geometry and Physics . . . .
Solving Problems
3.9.Convexity and Concavity of a Curve. Points of
In
ion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9 3.10.
Asymptotes
3.11.
General Plan for Investigating Functions and Sket.
ch ng Gra p hs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.12.
Solution of Algebraic and Transcen.
Approximate
....
dental Equations
3.13.Additional Problems.. . . . . . . . . . . .
ite ntegrals. Basic Methods of ntegrat ion . .
Cha p ter IV.
4.1.Direct Integration and the Method of Expansion
4.2.Integration
Substitution
.....
4.3. Integration
Parts .
.....
4.4. Reduction Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . .
Functions)
...
Chapter V. Basic Classesof Integrable
5.1.Integration of Rational Functions.
143)
\037
Li m its
\037
3.5.Testing
Mini
\037
Fun
&
flect
.....
\037
\037
\037
by
\037
by
\037
\037
\037
\037
\037
\037
5.2.Integration of Certain
5.3.Euler's Substitutions
Irrational
Expressions
5.4.Other Methods of Integrating Irrational Expressions

5.5.Integration of a Binomial Differential . . . .
5.6.Integration of Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions
5.7.Integration
162)
166
170)
174)
183
190)
190
195
199
202
211)
214)
214
2]9
222
224
228
..
of Certain Irrational Function\037 with the

AJd of TrigonornetfJc or Hyperbolic
SubstitutIons.
\037
159
..........
..
.)
\037
152)
..
..
.)
\037
\037
148
...........
in
I ndefin
147
230
237)))
Contents)
.
....
tegra Is) . . . . . . .
VI. The
....
Integral .
6.1.Statement of the Problem. The Lower and Upper
.......
Integral Sums .
\037
\037
Chapter
7)
5.8.Integration
5.9.Methods
Definite
\037
of Other Transcendental Functions

of Integration (List of Basic Forms of In-
..
.....
.............
6.2.Evaluating
niz Formula
6.3.Estimating
\037
240)
Definite
Integrals
by
242
247)
247)
Newton-Leib-
the
256)
an Integral. The Definite Integral as a
Function of Its Litnits
262
6.4.Changing the Variable in a Definite Integral
275)
Simplification of Integrals Based on the Properties
of Sym met ry of In tegrands
.
288
Formulas
294
Integration
by Parts. Reduction
301
Definite
Integrals
Approximating
Additional Problems
307
\037
\037
\037
\037
\037
\037
Chapter VI
6.5.
\037
of the
Definite
310)
Integrals.............
......
...
7.1.Computing
finite
\037
..
6.6.
6.7.
6.8.
I. Applications
\037
.................
...
...... ........
....
...
..
............
Integral . . . . . . .
the Limits of Sums with
7.2.Finding Average
7.3.Computing Areas
Values of
in
the Aid of
De-
Rectangular
310
312
Function
Coordinates
317)
7.4.Computing Areas with Parametrically Represented

. . .
Bounda ries .
The Area of a Curvilinear Sectorin Polar Coordinates
.
Computing the Volume of a Solid
The Arc Length of a Plane Curve in Rectangular
................ . .
. ......
Coord tes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.8.The Arc Length of a Curve Represented Parametrica
......
....... .........
7.9.The Arc Length of a Curve Polar Coordinates
7.10.Area of Surface of Revolution . . . . . . . . .
\037
\037
\037
\037
7.5.
7.6.
7.7.
ina
327
331
336)
345)
\037
11 y
in
\037
\037
\037
7.11.
Geometrical
7.12.
Computing
Applications
cf
Pressure, Work
the Definite
Integral
and Other Physical
360)
..........
Inertia.
.
7.14.
Problems.. . . . . .
Chapter VIII.Improper Integrals.. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.1.Improper Integrals
Limits . . . . . .
8.2.Improper Integrals of Unbounded Functions .
Geometric and Physical Applications
of
9 8.3.
........
. . . . .Improper
....
Integrals
8.4. Additional Problems .
..
...
.
Answers and Hints . . . . . . . . . . .
\037
Quantities
by the Definite
Integrals
Computing Static Moments and Moments of
Determining Coordinates of the Centre of Gravity
Additional
\037
7.13.
.)
\037
\037
\037
\037
with
Infinite
..
.)
348
351
354
.)
367)
372
383
387
387
397)
409
415
418)))
In fond
memory
at my parents)
Fromthe Author)
This textbook on mathematical analysis is based on many years'
of lecturing at a higher technicalcollege.Its aim is to
experience
train the students in active approach to mathematical exercises,
as is done at a seminar.
1\\\\uch attention is given to problems improving the theoretical
are supplebackground.Therefore standard computational exercises
mented by examples
and problems explainingthe theory, promoits deeper underst\037nding and stimulating precisemathemating
tical thinking. Some counter-examples
explainingthe need for certain conditions in the formulation of basic theorems are also in-
cluded.
The book is designed along the following lines. Each section
opens with a concisetheoreticalintroduction containing the principal definitions, theorems and formulas. Then follows a detailed
solution of one or more typical problems.
Finally, problems without solution are given, which are similar to those solved but
Someof them are provided with hints.
contain certain peculiarities.
Each chapter (except Chap. IV and V) closeswith a separate
\037ection
of supplementaryproblemsand questions aimed at reviewing
and extendingthe material of the chapter.These sectionsshould
prove of interest to the inquiring student, and possibly also to
lecturers in selectingmaterial for classwork or seminars.
The full solutions developed in the text pursue two aims:(1)
to provide lecturerswith a time-saver, since they can refer the
students to the textbook for most of the standard exercisesof a
computational character and concentratemainly on the solution
of more sophisticatedproblems, thus gaining time for more rewar-)))
10)
From the
Author)
ding work; and (2) to meet the needs of those who are working
on their own or following correspondence
courses,providing a substitute for the oral explanationsgiven to full-time students.
The student will find the book most useful if he uses it actively, that is to say, if he studies the relevant theoreticalmaterial
carefully before going on to the worked-out solutions, and finally
reinforces the newly-acquiredknowledgeby solving the problems
given for independent work. The best results will be obtained
the student, having mastered the theoreticalpart, immedia..
\\vhen
tely attacks the unsolved problemswithout

solutionsunless in difficulty.)
referring to the text
Isaac Maron)))
Chapter
1)
INTRODUCTION
TO MATHEMATICAL
\037
ANAL YSIS)
1.1.Real Numbers.
The Absolute Value of a Real Number
Any
decimal fraction, terminating or nonterminating,
real number.
Periodicdecimal fractions
is ca1Ieel
are called rational numbers. Every

rational number may be written in the form of a ratio,P- , of two
q
integers p and q, and vice versa.
Nonperiodicdecimal fractions are calledirrational numbers.
If
X is a certain set of real numbers, then the notation x E )(
means that the number x belongs to X, and the notation x
means that the number x does not belong to X.
A set of real numbers x satisfying the inequalit ies a < x < b,
where a and b are fixed numbers, is calledan open interval (a, b).
A set of real numbers x satisfying the inequalitiesa
x b is
calleda closedinterval [a, b].A set of real numbers x, satisfying
the inequalities a x < b or a < x b, is calleda half-open interval [a, b) or (a, b]. Open, closed,and half-open intervals are
covered by a single term interval.
Any real number may be depicted as a certain point on the
coordinate axiswhich is calleda proper point. We may also introduce two more, so-called
improper points, +00 and
infinitely
removed from the origin of coordinatesin the positive and negative dirtctions,respectively. By definition, the inequalities
<
< x < + 00 hold true for any real number x.
The interval
a + 8) is calledthe 8-neighbourhoodof the
\037:\\(
\037
\037
\037
\037
\037
-00
-00
number
a.
(a-e,
>
<
The set of real numbers x M is calledthe M-neighbourhood

of the improper point
The set of
numbers x M is calledthe M -neighbourhood
of t
improper point
The absolute value of a number x (denoted x D is a nurnber
+ 00.
.e
that
r\037al
-00.
satisfies the conditions

I
-x
x ==
x ==x
I
if
if
< 0;
\037
O.)))
Ch.
12)
i. introduction
to Mathematical
The properties of absolute values are:

(1) the inequality x a means that
(2) the inequality x a means that x
x l-t- y I;
(3) x + y
\\
(4)
\037
\037
\037
Analysis)
-a
\037
\037
or x
\037
a;
\037
-a;
'x+ yl\037llxl-lyl/;
(5) Ixyl=lxlly/;
(6) 1= \\:: (y 0).
I
=1=
1.1.1.
Prove that
the number
... \037
.. ...
O.1010010001
1000.a I
n)
is i rra t ional.
Solution. To prove this, it is necessary to ascertain that the

given decimal fraction is not a periodic one. Indeed,there are n
zeros between the nth and (n + 1)th unities, which cannot occur
in a periodic
fraction.
t.t .2. Prove that any number, with zeros standing in all deciplacesnumbered Ion and only in these places,is irrational.
t.t .3. Prove that the sum of, or the difference between, a ra-
mal
tional number
number.
and an irrational number
irrational
is an
\037
= V is a
Suppose a
a rational number, since
it is the difference between two rational numbers, which contradicts the condition.Hence,the supposition is wrong and the number
is irrational.
ex
Solution. Consider the sum of a and
rational number, then = v-a is also
\037.
\037
\037
\037
.4.
t
and the quotient a/f) of a
Prove that the product
is an irrational
rational number a 0 and an irrational number
t,
a\037
=1==
\037
number.
I
.t .5.(a) Fin d
all rat iona 1 val u es 0f x at
number.
Solution. (a) Suppose x and
\\v hi
ch
is a rational
bers.Then the difference y-x

us now expressx through q
+ +
y
V'
\037
V- x
==
+x +3
-=
x
q,
3 == q + x,
x2 + x+ 3 == q2 -r--2qx -1-
x2
q\"!._\037
\037
+ x +3
V x2 -t- x 3 are rational llum== q is also a rat ional number. Let

y
x == V x2
X ==
By a direct
2q
x\037,
check it is easy to ascertain that
q =1=
1/2
,)))
\037
if
/.1.Real
Numbers.
The
Absolute Value
01 Real
Number
13)
+x+3
Prove the reverse, namely, y==Vx2

is a rational number
=
x
where q is any rational number not equal to 1/2,
'
i\0372:
Indeed,
/(q2-3)2
+ q2-3
(1-2q)2
1-2q+3
q4-2q:1+7q\037-6q+9
= -./
= -./(q2-q+3)2
=q2-q +3
V
V
(I 2q)2
(l 2q)2
== V x2-t-x+3==
\037
===
II
2q
(q
=1=
J..
2
)
to
equal 1/2,
\302\267
The latter expressionis rational at any rational q not

(b) Prove that V2 is an irrational number.
Prove that the sum V 3 + V2 is an irrational number.
Solution. Assume the contrary, Le. that the number V 3 +V 2
is rational. Then the nunlber
1.1.6.
V3
-V2 = Y3
\037
is
V2
also rational, since it is the quotient of two rational
Whence the number
V2 =
\037
num1jcrs.
[(V3+V2 )-(V3 -V2\])
contradicts the irrational nature of the number

Problem
Hence,the supposition is wrong, and the
(see
1.1.5).
is rational, which
V2\"
number
V3 +
11'\"
2 is irrational.
.1.7.
t
Prove that for every positive rational number r satisfying
the condition r 2 < 2 one can always find a larger rational number
r + h (h > 0) for which (r + h)2 < 2.
Solution. We may assume h < Then h 2 < hand (r + h)2 <
< r 2 + 2rh -t- h. That is why it is sufficient to put r 2 + 2rh + h = 2,
1.
i.e.h==(2-r2)j(2r+l).
1.1.8.
Prove that for every
positive rational number s satisfying

the condition S2 > 2 one can always find a smaller rational number
2.
(k > 0) for which (S-k)2>
t.t Solve the follo\\ving inequalities:
3
s-k
.9.
(a)12x-1<1;
(b)
(X-2)2;?4;
8
2
2x
(c) x +
2
\037
0;
-7x-i-121>
x2-7x+12.
Solution. (a) The inequality 12x-31
<1
inequalities)
-1< 2x 3 < 1,
(d) x
I
whence)
2 < 2x < 4 and 1 < x
<
2.)))
IS
eqivalent to the
I. Introduction
Ch.
14)
to Mathematical
Analysis)
(d) The given inequality is valid for those values of x at
x2-7x+12< 0, whence 3 < x < 4.
1.1.10.
Find
solut ions:
(a)
\",'hich
whether the following equations have any
out
Ixl==x+5;(b) Ixl==x-5?
Solution. (a) At x 0 we have x ==x + 5. Hence,there are no

X + 5, whence x = -5/2.
solutions. At x < 0 we have -x.=::
This
value satisfies the initial equation.
Hence,there are no solutions.
(b) At x\037O we have
\037
At
<0
we have
-x==x=x-5.
x-5,whence x
=-=
5/2, which contradicts
our supposition (x < 0). Thus, the equation has no solution.

Determinethe values of x satisfying the following equa-
1.1.11.
:
lit i es
x-
x+
(b) x2
I
= xx+ ;
5x + 6 ==
(a)
1.1.12.
:
--+
5x 6).
val ues of x satisfying the
(x
Determinethe
following equa lit i es
2
2
(a) (x + 4x+9) + (2x-3)== x + 4x+91+ 2x 3 /;
2
4
4
x 2 + 21.
(x + 2) 1== x
(b) (x
Solution. (a) The equality a + b == a + b is valid if and
only if both summands have the same sign. Since
x 2 + 4x+9 == (x+2)2+5
>0
-4)-
-41-1
I
at any values of x, the equality is satisfied at those values of x

at which
0, at x 3/2.
holds true if and only if a
The
equality
(b)
b I.
and b have the same sign and a
In our case the equality will hold true for the val ues of x at
2x-3
\037
i.e.
la-bl==lal-lbl
\037
which)
x4
Whence)
\037
\037
x2 + 2.)
'
x2-2\0371;
Ixl\037V3.
Solve the inequalities:

1.1.13.
13x-51-12x-t-31>0;
(b) x 2 5x > x2 l-j5xI.
Find the roots of the following equations.
1.1.14.
(a) jsinxl-==sinx+l;
(b) x2-2Ixl-3==0.
(a)
Solution. (a) This equation \\vill hold true
of x at which
sin x < 0, that is
\\vhy
\\ve
only for
those values
may re\\vrite
it
in
the)))
1.2.Function.
\037
following
Domain of Definition)
15)
way:)
1,or sinx=_1/2;)
-sinx==sinx+
...).
n /6 (k=O, + + 2,
whence
(b) This equation can be solved in a regularway by considering
the cases x\037O and x\037O. We may also solve this equation reit in the form)
writing
== O.
x2 2
1,
x=nk-(-I)k
I
- xl-3
1
Substituting y for I x \\, we obtain

whence
not
fit
Y1
==
3, =
Y2
in. Hence)
Le.X1==
y2-2y-3= 0,
-1.Since
y == I x
-3,
X 2 ===
= x
I
\037
0, the
val ue
Y2
-1does
== 3,)
3.)
* 1.2.Function.Domainof Definition
The independentvariable x is defined by a set X of its values.
If to each val ue of the independent variable x E X there corresponds one definite value of another variable y, then lJ is called
the function of x with a domain of definition (or domain) X or,
in functional notation, y ==Y (x), or Y ==f (x), or y == (x), and so
forth. The set of values of the function y (x) is calledthe range
of the given function.
In particular,the functions defined by the set of natural numbers 2,3,
are callednumerical sequences.They are written
in the following way: Xl' X2 ,
Xn
or {xn }.
t
Given the function f (x)= (x+ 1
Find 1(2x),21(x),
2
2
f (x ), [f (x)]
Solution.)
cp
1,
\"',
.2.1.
.
f
\"', .
(2x)= ;;\037 :; 2f (x)= 2 ;+: ;
f (x ) =
2
1.2.2.
(a) Given the
;: :
\037
; [f (x)J2 =
Xl'
;+:r
\302\267
function
f (x)== log
Show that at
...
)/(x-I).
x2 E
I-x
I
+x
\302\267
(-1,1) the following identity holds true:
f(x1)+f(x2)=f( t+\037:;2 )')))
Ch.
16)
Solution.At
J. Introduction
I-Xl+
I+XI
1-+I +X
2
+X1X2
(I
== log
XIX2
I
XIX 2
I +XIX 2
2
2)
l+x2
== log
+X2
++
Xl
l-x == og (I- l)(l-X) '

og
Analysis)
and
xE(-I, 1) we have (l-x)j(l+x\302\273O
f( Xl ) + f( x2) = og
On the other hand,)
Xl
to Mathefnatical
(l+Xl)(l+X
-Xl
hence
(1)
X2
+XI +X2
-_
XIX 2)
(I-Xl)(l-x2)
og (J+Xt)(l+x2)
'
coincideswith the right-hand member of expression(1).

(b) Given the function f (x)==(aX + a-X )j2 (a > 0). Show that
f (x + y) + f
y) == 2t (x)t (y).
which
Given
1.2.3.
(x-
f (a + 1); f (a) + 1.
t
-1).
the function t (x)==(x+l)j(x:1
.2.4.Given the
function t (x)= x 3
(a)
t
(bt\037\037
Given the
1.2.5.
(b
3-x 1,
(-I),
II
a\037
-1
x
x
\037
(xj2),
xj(x2
tan
f (x)==
\302\260
-2),
\037
< 0,
< n,
n\037x\0376.
(-1)
The points
Hence
x ==n/2,
x ==2nj3
(-1);
).
Find f
f (nj2), f (2nj3), f (4), f (6).
lies within the interval
Solution.The point x ==
Hence
==3 - (-]) 1 == 2.
t
-1
Find
a) and t (
function
- 1.
Find
belong to the interval
[-1,0).
[0, J1).
(nj3)-=::V3.
The points X == 4, x == 6 belong to the interval [n, 6]. Hence
t
(nj2)==tan (nj4) =
1;
f (2Jtj3) ==tan
6
3
2
4
f (4) = 16_ 2 == ; f (6) == 36 2 == 17
The function t (x) is defined over the \\\\Thole number
1.2.6.
by the following
law:
(x) --
2x-5,
2x3+1.
1j(x
2),
if
if
if
x\0372,
2 x
x
j.)))
< :s;3,
>
scale
\037
1.2.Function.
17)
Find: f (Jlr2),t (V8),f (Vlog2 1024).
1.2.7.
In the square ABCD with side AB== 2 a straight line

MN is drawn perpendicularly to AC. Denoting the distance from
the vertex A to the line MN as x, expressthrough x the area S
of the triangle AMN cut off from the square by the straight
line MN. Find this area at x == V 2
and at x ==2 (Fig.
Solution. Note that AC ==2 V2\";
If x\037
hence O\037x\037 2V'
2j
1).
2.
B)
V-2,
then)
S (x)==S6AMN
==x2
> V2, then

S(x) ==4-(2V2-X)2 == x2 +
+4x V2
If
- -
4.)
n)
Thus,)
Fig.
S(X)= {
1)
0\037x\037J/r2,
X2,
2
-x +4xV2-4, V2< x\0372J/2.
== (V2/2)2==1/
Since V2j2<V2,S(V2j2)
2, Since 2>V\"2,
S (2)= 4 + 8 V-2 4 == 8 (V-2 I).)
1.2.8.
Bring
the number an, which is equal to the nth decimal

the
expansionof V2 into a decimal fraction, into corplace
respondencewith each natural number n. This gives us a certain
function an===cp(n). Calculatecp(I), cp(2),cp(3),cp(4).
Solution. Extracting a square root, we find V2== 1.4142
Hence)
==4
(P ( 1)
(2)-== 1; (3)==4; (4) ==2.
in
..
. .
\037
cp
cp
cp
1.2.9.
Calculate f (x) ==49/x +
2
x2
at the
points for which 7jx+ x==3.
2
but 7jx+x==3,hence
Solution.t(x)==49jx
+x2 ==(7/x+x)2-14,
f (x)
-==
9-14 -5.
==
Find
1.2.10.
known
+bx+c,if
2
a function of the form t(x)==ax
==
that f (0) ==5; t
t (I)
Solution.)
(-I)
===
10;
6.
. + b.0 + c,
f (0) ==5 ==a 02
10=-=a-b+c,
1(-1)==
f(I)==6==a+b+c.)))
it
is
i. introduction
Ch.
18)
to Mathematical
Analysis)
Determinethe coefficientsa, b, c from the above system. We have:
a=3;b=-2;c=5;hencef(x)=3x2 -2x+5.
1.2.11.
Find a function of the form
(c > 0),
+ bcx
f (0) == 15;f (2) ==30;f (4) == 90.
f (x) ==a
if
1.2.12.
Find cp['i'(x)]and
'i'[cp(x)]if
2
(x) == x and 'i'(x) =='2
cP
Solut ion.)
.)
(X)]2 == (2 )2 = 2
['i'(x)]==
['i'
'i'[cp (x)]== ==2x2.
X
q;
2\037
1.2.13.
Given the
2X
(X}
function
f (x) ==
5x2
+ .
1
2-x)
Find f (3x); f (x3); 3f (x); [f (x)]3.
1.2.14.
Let)
at
at
at
3X
f (x) ==
-l<x<O,
{ 3x-l
\037
\037
x < 1,
x
3.
\037
Find f (2), f (0), f (0.5),f (-0.5),

f (3).
1.2.15.
Prove
that if for an exponentialfunction y ==aX (a > 0;

1) the val ues of the argument x ==X n (n == 1,2, .. .) form an
arithmeticprogression,then the correspondingvalues of the function Yn ==aXn (n == 1,2,.. .) form a geometric
progression.
=1=
1.2.16.
f (x) ==x2 + 6,
Find f (x)
1.2.17.
cp
if
(x) ==5x.Solve the
cp
(x)
I.
f(x+ 1)=x2-3x+2.
1.2.18.
Evaluate the
functions
+ 1/x2 and
2
f (x) ==x
for the
equation f (x) ==
cp
(x) == x
points at which l/x+ x ==5.
1.2.
19.f (x) ==x+ 1;
+ 1/x4
x-
2; solve the equation

(x) ==
==
f (x)
f (x)
(x)
(x)
A rectangle with
altitude x is inscribed in a triangle
ABC \\vith the base band al t itude h. Expressthe perimeter P and
area S of the rectangleas functions of
I
1.2.20.
cp
cp
+
x.)))
cp
\302\267
1.2.Function.
1.2.21.
Find the domains o
definition of the following functions:
x-I+ V6-x;
(b)f(x)=Vx-x-2+V3 + 2x
(a) f (x) == V
1/' xx
(c) f (x) =
x2
(d) f (x) ==
(e) f (x) ==
sin
\037
x2
19)
1;
log
5x-x\037
(f) f (x) == logx 5;
x2-5x+6;
(g)f(x)==logx 2 _1_4X+6
(h) t (x) == arc
(i) f (x) =
CD
log
x-3
sin2
(:_ x) + V x + 2 ;
f (x) == log cosx;
(k) f (x) == arc cos4 +

1
(1) y==
JI
log (4-x);
3
2'
sIn x
Ixl-x
Solution. (a) The domain
of definition of the given function
consists of those values of x at which both items take on real

values. To en.sure this the following two conditions must be satisfied:)
x-I\037O,
{ 6-x
\037
O.
I;
6.
x
I-Ience,
By solving the inequalities we obtain x
the domain of definition of the function will be the segment
(e) The funct ion is defined for t he val ues of x for which
5x xJ
log 4
\037
\037
\037
[1,6].
0.
This inequality will be satisfied if

5x
x\037
\037
1, or
x2
5x + 4
< O.
Solving the latter inequality, we find 1 x 4. Thus, the segis the domain of definition of the function.
ment
The
is defined for all positive x different from unity\037
function
(f)
which means that the domain of definition of the function consists
of the intervals (0, 1) and
00).)))
\037
[1,4]
(1, +
\037
i. introduction
Ch.
20)
to
\0371athematical
is defined for the values of x for which
(k) The function
-1\037
sin
4+2'
Since 4+2sin x > 0
at
the inequality)
x)
\0371.
x, the problem is reduced to
any
sin
4+2'
Whence)
Analysis)
x)
\037
solving
1.
Le.sinx\037-1/2'
3\0374+2sinx,
By solving the latter inequality we obtain

n
7n
-6+2kjt\037x
\0376+2kjt(k==O,+ 1,+ 2, .).
\"
(I) The function
is defined for the values of x for which

x O.
r
1-
x x > 0, whence x > x. This inequality is satisfied at

Hence,the function is defined in the interval (-00,0).
I
1.2.22.
Find the
(a)
(b)
<
domains of definition of the following functions:
f (x) == Varcsin (log2x) ;

f (x) == log2 log3 log4 x;
(c) f (x) =
\037
+ 2arc
sin
(d) f (x) = log 14
\037;
+ Yx-2
x2 ;
\\
(e) f (x) = V cos(sin x) + arc sin
tt
Find the ranges of the following functions:
--
(g) y
(f )
2 cos3x
x
'.
I-r-x2
Solution.(a) For the function f (x) to be defined the
inequality must be satisfied
arc sin (lOg2x) 0,
folIo\\ving
\037
whence 0 log2 x\037 1 and 1 x\037 2.

(b) The funct ion log2 log3 log4 X is defined for log3 Iog4 x > 0,
whence log4 x > 1 and x > 4. Hence,the domain of definition is
\037
\037
the interval 4 < x<+ 00.

(c) The given function is defined
satisfied simul taneously:

x
but the
is
why
*0; -1
-1
\037
\037
if
the following inequalities are
1 and
x> 2,
that
x\037 1 and x > 2 are incompatible,
inequalities
the function is not defined for any value of
\037
x.)))
\037
1.2.Function.
be satisfied simultaneously:
(e) The following inequalitiesmust
cas(sin x)
\037
21)
and
!xX
\037
1.
The first inequality is satisfied for all values of x, the second,

for x 1== Hence,the domain of definition of the given function
consists onl y of two points x ==
1.
+ 1.
cos3x ::=.:2y-l .
(f) We have)
y)
Since)
-1
\037
cos3x
\037
1,)
-1 2y-1
have
\\ve
\037
\037
y)
whence, taking into account that
> 0, we obtain
(g)
Solving
-y\0372y-l\037yor 3\037Y\037
with respect to x, w e obtain
X
= :!:V2y
I
The range of the function
1-
4y2
1.
be determined from the relation
y will
4y 2
1,
\037
0.)
Whence)
-2\037y\0372'
1.2.23.
Solve the equation
arc tan
Solution.Let
tion on the left
Vx (x + 1)-t- arc sin V x2 + x + 1 -= nj2.
us investigate the domain of definition of the funcside of the equation.This function will be defined
for)
x2
+ x 0, 0 x2 + x + 1
\037
\037
\037
\037)
whence + x ==O.
Thus, the left member of the equation attains real values 0111y
at X 1 = 0 and X2 ==
By a direct checkwe ascertain that they
are the roots of the given equation.
This problem shows that a study of donlains of definition of a
function facilitates the solution of equations, inequalities,etc.
t .2.24.
Find the domains of definition of the fol1o\\ving functions:
x2
- 1.
2x-3 ;
V X2+'2x +3
(a)
(b)
2
y==log sin(x-3)+V16-x
;)))
Ch.
22)
(c)
i. introduction
to Matlwmatiral
Analy\037is)
x-2
y= V 3-x+arccos\037;)
(d) Y= log(l+x)'
x
.2.25.
I].
t
The function f (x) is defined on the interval [0, What
are the domains of definition of the following functions:
(a) f (3x2); (b) f
(c) f (tan x)?
Solution.The given functions are functions of functions, or sue. composite functions.
perpositionsof functions,
an intermediate argument tl ==3x2 Then the
a) Let us introduce
funct ion f (3x2) ==f (u) is defined if
u
e. 0 3x2 1,
whence
3 \037x\037I/V
whence
(c) Similarly:O\037 tanx\037
(x-5);
i.
\302\260
3.
1,
-1/V
\037
\037
1, i.
\037
...).
kn\037x\037n/4+kn (k==O,+ 1,+ 2,

The function f (x) is defined on the interval
1.2.26.
are the domains of definition of the functions
(a) f(sinx); (b) f(2x+3)?)
\037
\037
[0,1].What
1.3.Investigation
of Functions
A function f (x) defined on the set X is said to be non-decreasing

on this set (respectively, increasing,non-increasing,
decreasing),if
for any numbers Xl' x2 EX, X I <X2 the inequality f(XI)\037f(X2)
'
<
>
f (Xl)
f (x2), f (Xl)
f (x2), f (Xl)
f (x2 is satisfied.
The function f (x) is said to be monotonic on the set X if it possessesone of the four indicated properties.The function f (x) is
said to be bounded above (or below) on the set X if there existsa
number M (or ffl) such that f (x) M for all X E X (or m f (x)
for all X E X). The function f (x) is said to be bounded on the set X
(respecti vel y,
\037
\037
\302\273)
\037
is bounded above and below.

funct ion f (x) is called periodic if there exists a number
T :> such that f (x + T) -= f (x) for all x belonging to the domain
if
it
The
\302\260
of definition of the function (togetherwith any point x the point

x -t- T must belong to the domain of definition). The least number T
possessing this property (if such a number exists) is calledthe
period of the function f (x). The function f (x) takes on the maximum value at the point Xo E X if f (xo) f (x) for all x EX, and
the minimum value if f (xo) t (x) for all X EX. A function t (x)
defined on a set X which is symmetric with respectto the origin
of coordinatesis calledeven if f
x)
x) = t (x), and odd if t
\037
\037
==-f(x).
In
analysing the behaviour of a function
termine the
(-
(-
following:)))
it
is
===
advisable to de-
1.3.Investigation
\037
1.The domain of
23)
of Functions)
definition of the function.
2. Is the function even, odd, periodic?

3. The zeros of the funct ion.
4. The sign of the function in the intervals between the zeros.

function bounded and what are its minimum and ma-
5. Is the
values?
The above items do not exhaust the analysis of a function, and
later on their scopewill be increased.
Find the intervals of increaseand decreaseof the funcand maximum values.
tion t (x) ax2 + bx + c, and its minimum
Solution. Isolating a perfect square from the square trinomial,
ximum
1.3.1.
===
we have)
f (x) = a
b
4ac b
x
+
+
4a
2a
)
(
2
a > 0, then the function f (x) will increaseat those values of x

-b/(2a),and
satisfying the inequality x+ b/(2a) > 0, e. at
when x+ b/(2a) < 0, e. at x < -b/(2a).
decrease
Thus, if a > 0,
in the interval
and incthe function f (x) decreases
)
reases in the interval
b/(2a), + 00). Obviously, at x
b/(2a)
value)
the function f (x) assumes the minimum
If
i.
i.
- -
(-00, ;a
(-
===
fmin==f
>0
x>
2a)
= 4ac-b2
4a
\302\267
the function has no maximum value.

Similarly, at a < 0 the function f (x) will increasein the interval
;a) and decreasein the interval (-b/(2a),00); at
function f (x) takes on the maximum value
the
b/(2a)
At
x=-(-00,
f max ==f
whereas
it
2a)
= 4ac-b2
4a '
has no minimum vaJue.

the minimum value of the function
1.3.2.
(a) Find
==3x2
+ 5x
-.
1
(b) Find the rectanglewith the maximum area from among all
rectanglesof a given perimeter.
a = 3 > 0, b == 5,
Solution.(a) Apply the results of Problem 1.3.1:
c=
-1. -
The minimum
point x ==
value is attained
5/6)
Ymill
(b) We
2
= 4ac-b
=
4a
by
the function at the
37
0
12
\302\267
denote by 2p the length of the perimeter of the required

by x the length of one of its si des; then the area
rectangle,and
S)))
Ch.
24)
I. Introductiun
to Mathematical
Analysis)
as
rectanglewill be expressed
of the
2.
S==x(p-x)or S==px-x
Thus, the problem is reduced to the determinationof the ITlaximum

value of the function S (x) == x2 + px. Apply the results of Proba == 1 < 0, b ==p, c ==0. The maximum value is attailem t
ned by the function at the point x == b/(2a)= p/2. Hence,one
of the sides of the desired rectangle is p/2, the other side being
==p/2, e. the required rectangleis a square.
equal to p
.3.t:
-x
i.
.3.3.Show that
3
(a) the function f (x) -== x + 3x + 5 increa'Sesin the entire domain
of its definition;
in the interval (1,+ 00).
(b) the function g (x) = x/(I+x2) decreases
Solution. The function is defined for all points of the number
scale.Let us take arbitrary points Xl and x2 Xl < x2 on the number
scaleand write the following difference:
'
)-f (Xl) = + 3x2 + 5) + 3xI + 5) ==

= 2 -XI) + I 2 + xi + 3) ==
2
= (x2 Xl)
+
+ 3] .
2 +
+
)
l(
Since x2
> 0 and the expressionin the brackets is positive
and x2' then f (x2) f (Xl) > 0, i.e. f (x2) > f (Xl), which
at all
f (x2
(x\037
(x\037
(X
X X
(x\037
Xl
Xl
Xl
X\037
\037
means that the function f (x) increasesfor all values of x.

for the folloFind the intervals of increaseand decrease
t .3.4.
functions:
wing
(a) f (x) -== sin x+cosx;
(b) tan (x+ n/3).
Solution.(a) Using the familiar trigonometricformulas, we find
f (x) = V2 cos
(x-n/4).
It
is
known
cosX decreasesin
tha t the function

2nJt
\037
and increasesin the intervals

Jt
x\037 2nn
(2n-I)
\037
\037
the intervals
(2n + 1)Jt
(n==
0, + 1, + 2, .).
\"
Hence,the intervals of decreaseof the function f (x) are:

(n==O, + 1,
n/4+2nn\037x\037n/4+(2n+I)n
and the intervals of increaseof the same function are:
(n=O, + 1,
n/4+(2n-l)Jt\037x\037n/4+2nn
Find the
1.3.5.
...),
...).
and maxilllum val ues of the function

a coSx -t- b sin x (u i + b2 >
minimum
t (x)
==-
0).)))
1.3.Investigation
\037
Solution.The given
f
25)
of Functions)
on can be represented as:
functi
(x-a),
2
(x) ==V a'l. -t- b cas
where casa ==al

+ , sin a ==bl Va + b'l.Since
the maximum value of f (x) equals + Va2 -t- (at
the minimum
value of f (x) being equal to
\037/
b2
a2
0\"\"
-1).
cos(x-a)==
1.3.6.
Find
cas(x-a) I,
cos(x-a) 1),
\037
-==
V a2
+ b2
(at
value of the function

f (x) == 3(X -2)3+8.
the minimum
Solution.We denote by
cp
i. e.
(x) the exponent,

2
2)3
(x) (x
cp
\037
+ 8.
The function f (x) =- (x) takes on the minimum

same point as the function (x).
Hence)
value at the
3<1>
cp
-6x -t-12x==x ((x -3)2+3].

2
Whence it is clearthat the function

value (equal to zero) at x ==O. That is
the function f (x) is equal to 30 ==
why
cp
(x) ==x
1.
1.3.7.
Test
x+ cot x, where
decrease.
(x) == tan
increase and
1.3.8.
Given: n numbers
of x at which the function

f (x) ==
takes on the
attains the minImum

the minimum value of
the function
f
for
(x)
cp
< x < '!t/2,
...,
aI' a 2,
an' Determine the value
(x-a1)2 + (x-a)2 + ... + (x-a )2

2
minimum
Solution.Rewrite
value.
the function f (x)
the following way:

2 (at + a 2 +
f (x)
+ an) x+ (af + -t- +
wherefrom it is clearthat f (x) is a quadratic trinomial ax2 + bx + c,
where a ==n > O. Using the results of Problem t t, V.le find that
the function assumes the minimum value at x ==-b/(2a), e. at
x == (a}+ a 2 +
+ a,Jln.
Thus. the sum of the squares of deviations of the value of x
from n given numbers attains the minimum
value when x is the
mean ari thmetic value for these numbers.
==nx 2
...
in
a\037
...
.3.
...
1.3.9.
Which
which
of
thenl
is
of the given functions is (are) even,

(are) nei ther even, nor odd?)))
a\037),
i.
odd; and
Ch.
26)
/. Introduction
to Mathematical
Analysis)
(a) f (x) -== log (x + VI + x2);
I-x
(b) f (x) == log I +x ;

3
(c) f (x) == 2x
(d) f (x)
-x+1;
= X aX _+
aX
Solution. (a)
f ( -f- x)
I
\302\267
It can
be seen that
f(+x)+f(-x)=-=O. Indeed,
+ t (--x) == log (x + VI + x ) + log (-x+ VI + x2) ==

== log (1+ X2 _X 2) 0,
2
hence,f (x) ==
(b) t
- (-I+x=
===
x) for all
(-x)==log I-x
(- (-1,1).Hence,
x,which meansthat
l -X -1
the function is odd.

I=-log x.
log ( I+x)
f (x) for all
I+x
Thus, f
x) ==
1.3.
-J/l+ + - - +
+ '.
from
the domain of definition
the function is odd.

to. Which of the following funct ions is (are) even and which
is (are) odd?
2
(a) f (x) ==4 2x4 + sin x;
(b) t (x) == kx x x
a
I
(c) f (x) ==
kx
==
sin
cnsx;
x
(d) f (x)
(e) f (x) ==const.
I-a
J;r 1
x 2;
1.3.11.
Prove that if f (x) is a periodicfunction with period T,

then the function f (ax + b), where a > 0, is periodicwith period T
la.
Solution.Firstly,
f
=f(ax+b),
(a(x+Tla)+b]==f [(ax+b)+T]
since T
is the period of the function t (x). Secondly, let T 1 be a

positive number such that
f [a (x+T1) + b] ==f (ax + b).
Let us take an arbitrary point x from the domain of definition
x' == (x b)la. Then

+ ) = f (x) = f [a (x'+ T 1)+ b] =
== t (ax'+ b + aT t ) == f (x+ aT l).
of the function f (x) and

x b
b
f (ax' b) = f a a
put
l' i.
e. Tt Tla and
Whence it follows that the period T aT
T la is the period of the function f (ax + b).
Note. The periodicfunction t (x) == A sin (wx+cp), where A, (0, q>
are constants,is calleda harmonic with amplitude I A I, frequency
\037
\037
w)))
\037
and initial
function A
phase
sin (U)X
.8.Investigation
of Functions)
27)
Since the function sin x has
cpo
+ cp)
Indicatethe
1.3.12.
has a period T == 2n/ffi.
period 2n, the
amplitude I A I, frequency ffi, initial phase

T
the
of
following harmonics:
period
==
(a) f (x) 5 sin 4x;
(b) f (x) ==4 sin (3x + n/4);
(c) f (x) == 3 sin (xj2)+ 4 cos(x/2).
t
Find the period for each of the following functions:
(a) f (x) ==tan 2x;
(b) f (x) ==cot (x/2);
(c) f (x) == sin 2Jtx.
Solution.(a) Sincethe function tan x has a period n, the function
tan 2x has a period nj2.
cp
and
.3.13.
.3.14.
Find the
x+ cos4 x;
f (x) == I cosx I.
(a) f (x)
(b)
period for each of the following functions:
==sin4
Solution.(a)
sin4x+cos4x=(sin2x+cos2x)2-2sin2xcos2
= l-\037
sin2 2x ==
2
I-cos
1-..!..
4x) == 4
4(
whence T ==2n/ffi == 2n/4 == n/2

(b) f (x) ==
cos2x has a
cosx
2X
==V cos
V(I
==
period T n; hence,the
\037
+\037
4
sin
( 4x+ 2 ) '
\037
\302\267
+ cos2x)j2; but
\037=
period.
the funct ion

given function has the same
Prove that
.3.15.
the function f (x) ==cosx2 is not a periodic

one.
the function has a
contrary. Suppose
period T; then the identity cas(x + T)2== cosx2 is val ide
By the conditions of equality of cosinesfor a certain integer k
t
Solution.IJet
us prove the
we have)
x2 + 2Tx+T2 + x2 == 2Jtk.
But this identity is impossible,since k may attain only integral

values, and the left member containsa linear or quadratic function
of the continuous argument x.
1.3.16.
Find the
greatestvalue
f (x)=
1.3.17.
Which
odd:
of the
(a) f (x) == V (1
X)2
of the function
2
V2x 2
follo\\ving
+ V'(1+
-4x+3'
functions are even, and which are

X)2;)))
Ch.
28)
I. Introduction
to Mathematical
Analysis)
-Ixl;
x-
(b) f(x)=x2
(c) f (x) ==x sin2 x3;
X
(d) f(x)==(1+2
)2j2X ?
1.3.18.
Find the period for each of the following functions:
(a) f (x) == arc tan (tan x);
X-j'[
(b) f(x)==2cos3
t 9. Prove
1.3.
f (x) ==
\302\267
that the functions

(b) f (x) == cosV x
x+ sin x;
(a)
are non-periodic.)
\037
1.4.InverseFunctions
Let the function y == f (x) be defined on the set X and have a

range Y. If for each y E Y there existsa singlevalue of x such that
defines a certainfunction x g (y)
f (x) = y, then this correspondence
calledinverse with respect to the given function y ==f (x). The suf\037
of an inverse function is a strict

ficient conditionfor the existence
monotony of the original function y ==f (x). If the function increa,cs
(de\037reases), then the inverse function also increases(decreases).
The graph of the inverse function x ==g (y) coincideswith that of
the funct ion y == f (x) if the independentvariable is markedoff along
the y-axis. If the independent variable is laid off along the x-axis,
e. if the inverse function is written in the form y ==g (x), then
the graph of the inverse function will be symmetric to that of the
function y ==f (x) with respect to the bisectorof the first and third
i.
quadrants.
t .4.1.
Find the inverse to the funct ion y == 3x+ 5.
Solution.The funet ion y ==3x+ 5 is defined and increasesthrough-
scale. Hence,an inverse function existsand increases.Solving the equation y ==3x+5 with respect to x we obtain
x ==(y-5)/3.
out the number
.4.2.Show that
the function
== kjx (k
0) is inverse to itself.
Solution.The function is defined and monotonic throughout the

entire number scaleexceptx == O. Hence,an inverse function exists.
The range of the function is the entire number scale,excepty ==O.
Solving the equation y ==kjx with respect to x, we get x ==kjy.
1.4.3.
Find the inverse of t he fu nction
2
+ I), (a>O, a I).
=10ga(x+Vx
Solution. The function y == loga (x+ Vx 2 + 1) is defined for all x,
sinceVx2 + 1 > x 1, and is odd [seeProblem t .3.9
(a)J.It increases)))
=1=
\037
.4.Inverse
Functions
29)
x, hence,it increaseseverywhere
for positive values of
and has an
inverse function. Solving the equation

y== loga
respect to x, we
with
(x+V x2 + 1)
find
a-Y == x+ V + 1,)
aY ==x + V x2 + 1;
whence)
x=
(aY
\037
.4.4.Show that
-a- ) = sinh
Y
X2
(y In
a).
the funct ions
-x+l,x\037I/2 and cp(x)=1/2+Vx-3j4

inverse, and solve the equation
x -x+1 1/2+ x-3/4.
2
f(x)===x
are mutually
==
V\"
increases
Solution.The function y=x -x+I-==(x-I/2)2+3/4
the interval 1/2 x < 00,and with x varying in the indicated
2
in
\037
we have 3/4 y < 00. Hence,defined

x ==g (y), x
y < 00 is the inverse function
from the equation
interval
3/4
\037
found
\037
x2
the interval
1/2,which
respect to x, we obtain
x==g (y) = 1/2+ Vy
3/4 =
cp
(y).)
solve the equation
now
x2
-x+1
==
1/2+Vx-3j4.
Sincethe graphs of
the original and inverse functions can

2
only on the straight line y ==x, solving the equation x
we find
t
is
-x+(l-y)= O.
Solving the equation with

Let us
in
\037
x == 1.
.4.5.Find the
intersect
-x+1
==x
inverse of y = sin x.
Solution.The domain of definition of the function y ==sin x is

the entire number scale,the range of the function is the interval
[-1,1].
But the
not fulfilled.
condition of existence
of an inverse function is
Divide the x-axisinto intervals /1n n/2 x nn + nj2.If n is

even, then the function increases on the intervals nn nj2 x
nn + n/2; if n is odd, the function decreases
on the intervals
n/2 x nn + n/2. Hence,on each of the indicated intervals
there existsan inverse function defined on the interval
1, 1
nn-
\037
\037
\037
\037
\037
\037
\037
[-
J.)))
Ch.
30)
/. / ntroduction
to Mathematical
Analysis)
In particular,for an interyal
n/2 x n/2 there existsan Inverse function x == arc sin y.
The inverse of the function y==sinx on the interval nJt-n/2\037
x nn + n/2 is expressed
through ate sin y in the follo\\ving \\vay:
x == l)n arc sin y + nJt (n ==0, + + 2,
\037
\037
(-
1.4.6.
Find the
\037
\037
1,
...).
inverse of the given functions:

(a) y == sin
1) at (n/6+ 1/3) x (n/6+ 1/3);
x\037 3;
(b) y ==arc sin (x/3)
(c) y ==51og x;
(3x- at-3
\037
\037
\037
(d) y==2X (X-l>.
1.4.7.
Prove
that
the function
itself.)
\037
y==(l-x)/(l+x)is
inverse to
1.5.GraphicalRepresentation
of Functions
1.5.1.
Sketchthe
(a)
(b)
graph of each of the following functions:
-2x + 3;
2
4
f (x) ==x
2x
f (x) == I x2 ;
(c) f(x)==sin2 x-2sinx;

(d) f (x) = arccos(cosx);
(e) f (x) = V sin x;
1
(f) f (x) == x /l og x.
Solution. (a) The domain of definition of the function f (x) is the

entire number scale.
The function f (x) is even, hence its graph is
symmetrical about the ordinate axisand
!I
it
is
sufficient to investigate the function at x O.

Let us single out a
square f (x) ==
= (x2 1)2+ 2. Since perfect
the first summand
2
0, the minimum value of the func(x
tion, equal to 2, is attained at the points
-1)2
\037
\037
-2 -1
.r
x ==
:f::1 (see Fig.2).
The function f (x) decreases

from 3 to 2 on
the closedin terval
x 1 and increases
unboundedlyon the open interval 1 < x < 00.
(b) The domain of definition of the funcFig. 2
tion f (x) is the entire number scale.The function f (x) is odd, therefore its graph is symmetrical about the origin
of coordinates and it is sufficient to investigate the function at
\302\260
\037
0.
Sincef (0) ==0, the graph passes through
that
\037
\037
the origin. It is obvious

there are no other points of intersection with the coordinate)))
\037
axes.Note
that
whence)
31)
1.5.
Graphical Representation of Functions)
1+x2\0372Ix!,
It(x)l\037 1.Indeed,(1-lxD2\03700r
+ x2 ::= f (x)I.
f(I)==I,in the
2\\x\\
\037
Sincef(x)\037Oat
x\037O and
value of the function f (x) equals
maximum
being zero (see Fig. 3).)
interval
the
[0,00)
value
1,the minimum
g)
x)
-)-----------------Fig.
\037
3)
Let us prove that the function increases

on the
Then)
Let 0 x] < x2
x\037
1.
\037
\037
f{x2)-f (Xl) =
1.
2x 2 + 2X2Xl2
2x 1
I
1\037:\037)
closedinterval
- 2Xl
\037
:!
2XtX2
(l+x\037)(l+xi)
+x;)
= 2 (x2-xd(l-Xt 2) > 0
X
and f (x2)
(]
> f (Xl)'
Similarly, we can show
decreases.
Finally,
on the interval
that
(x) ==2xj(1
+x
\037)
(I -t- xi))
(1,00) the
function
+ X2) < 2xjx2 == 2/x,
whence it is clear that f (x) tends to zero with an increase in x.

(c) The domain of definition of the function f (x) is the entire
number scale.The function has a period 2Jt, that is why it is quite
sufficient to investigate it on the interval [0,2Jt], where it becomes zero at the points x ==0; x = Jt; X == 21t.
Writing the given function in the form
f
(x) ==
(I-sinx)2-1,
that it increaseswith a decrease

in the function sin x and
on
decreasesas sin x increases.Hence,the function f (x) decreases
we note
[Jt/2,
-(Fig.
[0,Jt/2] and [3Jt/2, 2Jt], and increaseson the interval

3Jtj2].Sincef (Jt/2) == 1,and f (31t/2)==3, the range of the
the intervals
function is
\037
f (x)
\037
4).)))
Ch.
32)
I. Introduction
to Mathematical
Analysis)
(d) The domain of definition of the function is the entire number
scale. Indeed, cosx
1 at any x, hence, arc cos (casx) has a

meaning.The function f (x) is a periodic one with the period 2Jt,
hence, it is sufficient to sketch its graph on the interval [0,2n].
I
\037
on this interval the following

equality is true:
But
!J
f (x)=
Z)
x,
\037
\037
:11,
2Jt-x, Jt\037x\0372Jt.
\037
\\
first assertion follows

the definition of the function
arc cosx, whi Ie the secondone can be
proved in the following way. Let us
Indeed, the
1)
from
-x,
x' = 2Jt
n
x 2n; then
x' nand
= arc c()s(casx') = x' = 2n-x.
f (x)= arc cos[cos(2n-x')]
we draw the graph (seeFig.5).
Taking all this into consideration,
=
The
function
sin
x
is
a
}I.'
(e)
y
periodicone with period 2Jt;
put
Fig. 4
that is
why
\037
\037
\037
\037
we may confine ourselves to the interval
-21t
[0,2n].But)
x)
-'It)
o)
1C)
Fig.
21C)
5)
the whole interval [0,2n],it is

the interval (Jt, 2Jt) the
radicand is negative.The graph is symmetrical about the straight
the function is not defined

defined only in the interval
in
[0,n], as in
y
1)
-21C)
-TC)
1(;
-2)
x)
1C)
Fig. 6)
line x:=n/2, as well as the graph y = sin x (see Fig. 6). Herewe
have an exampleof a periodicfunction which does not exist in
the infinite set of intervals.
(f) The domain of definition of the function is
o < x < 1 and 1 < x <
00.)))
\037
1.5.
Graphical
Reduce the formula to the
33)
of Functions)
Representation
form
0
I
x
f (x)= X IIog = Xl og:J: = 10.
1
graph of the given function is the half-line y = 10

in the right-hand halfplane with the point x = 1 removed (seeFig.7).
t
Sketch the graphs of funG-tions defi!I)
ned by different formulas in different intervals (and in those reducibleto them):
10)
Jt
X
sin x at
0,
I
I
x
2
at
(a) y=
Hence,the
.5.2.
-<
\037
\302\260
{ I/(x-l) at
(b) y=
-2 at x>O,
=
1/2 at x
x3 at x
Vx2;
\037
\037
1,
1<x\0374;
I
I)
0,
o)
:c)
1)
< 0;
Fig.
(c)y=x +
(d) y=2/(x+Vx2).
Solution. (a) The domain

n, 4].The gra ph
interva
of the
[-
7)
of definition of the function is the

of the function consists of a portion
sinusoid y=sinxon the interval -Jt\037x\037O,straight
line)
If)
!f)
1/2I
o1
=- :c)
-1
x)
-'It)
-2)
Fig.
Fig.
8)
9)
= 2 on the interval (0, I] and a part of the branch of the hyperon the interval (1,4](see Fig.8).
bola y=
(b) The graph of the function consists of a portion of a cubic
parabola.an isolated point and a half-line (see Fig.9).
(c) The function may be given by two formulas:
1/(x-l)
2x,
if
y= { 0, if
x
x
\037
<
0,
o.)))
Ch.
34)
i. introduction
to Mathematical
Analysis)
Thus, the graph of our function is a polygonal line (seeFig. 10).

(d) From (c) it follows that the function is defined only in the
interval (0, + 00), y being equal to l/x (x 0). Thus, the graph
of our function is the right-hand part of an equilateral hyperbola
>
(see Fig. 11).)
9)
2
1)
1)
!f=0)
x)
o
Fig.
1.5.3.
Sketchthe
(a)
1)
10)
Fig.
11)
graphs of the following functions:
y=cosx+lcosx/;
=x 2
(b) y
:c)
1)
+ Ix.
2 cosx at
cosx 0,
\037
Solution.(a) cosx + cosx 1=

0 at cosx < O.
{
the
of the graph for the funcordinates
non-negative
Doubling
tion y = cosx (the broken line in Fig.12) and assuming y == 0 at)
I
_ 31r
/2
',-Tr
----\",
!\037
2
Fig.
12)
the points where cosx < 0, we can sketch the desired graph (the
solid line in the same figure).
(b) The function Ix+2lxmay be given by two formulas:
(x+2)xat x\037-2,
y= { -(x+2)xat x\037-2.
Plotting separately both parabolas:y=(x+2)x=(x+l)2-1,
y=-[(x+
- 1],
retain only the parts correspondingto

and
1)2
the above indicated intervals. Drawn in a solid line in Fig.13is
the graph of the given function, the broken line showing the deleted parts of the constructed parabolas.)))
\037
1.5.
Graphical
Sketch the
1.5.4.
35)
of Functions)
Represpntation
graph of the function
y=2Ix-2\\-1x+ II+x.
Solution.At
At
2
Y= 2
\037
2x-5.
-1< = - (x-2)-(x+1)+x== x \0372

-.;;;:::
-.;;;:::)
(x-2)-(x+I) + x
2x+3.
!J)
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
x)
:c)
-1 0
-1)
Fig.
Fig.
13)
14)
Finally, at x \037-l
Y
Hence,the
Y=
-2(x-2) + (x+I) + x =5.)
given function can be rewritten
x\037-I,
5,
in
the following way:
-2x+3, -I \037x\0372,
{ 2x-5, x 2.
\037
Therefore the graph is a polygonal line
(see Fig. 14).

Sketchthe graph
1.5.5.
Y
=;:=
2x
of the function
-2- .
:c)
-1)
Solution. Draw graphs for the functions

= 2X and Y2 = 2-X (broken lines in
Fig. 15), and add graphically their ordinaFig.
tes. In doing so bear in mind that Y2 < Y <
that Y2 tends to zero with an increasein x, whereas YJ
< Yt, and
tends to zero with a d\037crease in x (the solid line in Fig.15).
Yl
15)))
.5.6.Sketchthe
graph of the function

y = x sin x.)
Ch.
36)
/. Introduction
Solution. Being the product

=
sin x, the function

analyse it for x 0.
We draw graphs for
Y2
to Mathematical
\037
of two
is an even
Analysis)
odd functions
one, that
is
Yl
why
=x
and
we shall
= sin x (the broken lines in

the points where Y2 = sin x = 0, Y = Yl Y2 = 0, and at the
At
1,Y = :f:Yl = :f:x. The latter equality)
points where Y2 = sin x =:f::
Fig. 16).
Yl
==x
and
Y2
\302\267
3:)
,)
Fig.
16)
indicatesthe expedience
of graphing the auxiliary function Ya = x.
Marking the indicated points and joiningthem into a smooth
--1.
curve, we obtain the required graph (the solid line in Fig. 16).
Sketch the graph of the function Y = x (x 2 1) by multithe
ordinatesof the graphs YI = x and Y2 = x 2
plying
Graph the following functions:
(a) y=x/(x2
(b) Y= l/arccosx.
Solution. (a) Since the function is odd, it is sufficient to investigate it for x O.
Let us considerit as the quotient of the two functions:
YI=X and Y2=x2
Since at x = 2 the denominator Y2 = 0, the function is not defined at the point 2. In the interval [0,2) the function Yt increases
2 decreases
from
to 2, the function Y2 is negative and Y21 =
==:.
from 4 to 0; hence, the quotient f (x) Yl/Y2 is negative and increasesin absolute value, Le. f (x) decreasesin the interval [0,2)
from
to
In the interval (2, 00) both functions arepositive and increasing.
Their quotient decreases
since from 2 Xl x 2 it follows that
1.5.7.
1.5.8.
-4),
\037
-4.
\302\260
\302\260
4-x
-00.
- x:-4- -
Y2-Yl _
Xl
x\037-4
\037
<
_ 1-X2)(X 1 2+4) <0

(X
(x\037-4)
(xr-4)
\302\267)))
1.5.Graphical
\037
Representation
of Functions)
37)
The indicatedquotient tends to zero asx-+ 00, sincey

The general outline of the graph is presented in
solid I in es) .
(b) Denote Yl
tion
\037
I.
At
== arc cosx.
x == 1 we
If)
I)
=
-+ O.
Fig. 17 (three
1
The domain of definition of this funchave Yl:=0, hence, Y == l/Yl ---)-00 at
\"
/)
,
I,
:
'\\
I \\
x)
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
y
1r
'
I
I
I
\"
\\
,)
-1)
Fig.
\037\037\037xa
Fig.
-+ 1, i. e. x == 1 is
,I,:
1
17)
I
I
I
:0)
18)
a vertical asymptote. The function Yl decreases

of definition
1), henceY == I/Yl incre==
at x
Accorn
attained
is
ases. The maximum value Yl
The
solid
line
is
function
of
the
value
minimum
the
l/n.
dingly,
in Fig. 18represents the generaloutline of the graph.)
on the
[-1,
entire interval
\037
- 1.
Simple Transformations of Graphs

I. The graph of the function Y:=f (x+ a) is obtained from the
graph of the function Y ==t (x) by translating the latter graph along
the x-axisby a scaleunits in the directionoppositeto the sign
I
of a
(see Fig. 19).
II. The
function
graph
y:=t(x)+bis
Y ==f (x) by
scale units
b
Fig. 20).
by
obtained from the graph of the

latter graph along the y-axis
the
translating
to the sign of b (see
in the directionopposite
>
I.
II The graph of the funet ion y ==t (kx) (k

0) is obtained from
the graph of the function y:= t (x) by \"compressing\"the latter graph
1 and
against the y-axis in the horizontal directionk times at k
>
by \"stretching\"
times at k
it
in
the horizontal directionfrom the y-axis I/k
< 1 (see Fig.21).)))
Ch.
38)
I. Introduction
to Mathematical
Analysis)
>
IV. The graph of the function y = kf (x)(k 0) is obtained from

the graph of function y = f (x) by \"stretching\" it in the horizontal
directionk times at k I and \"compressing\" it against the x-axis
(i. e. vertically) Ilk times at k 
!I)
!I:sf(x)+b)b >0
I/=f(x+a)
!/>O)
!I=f(x)
\037o
\037\"
y=f(x)+o)b<O)
,,
:c)
o)
:c)
Xo
U=f(3J))
Fig.
19)
Fig.
20)
V. The graph of the function y =

f (x) is symmetrical to that
of the function y = f (x) about the x-axis,while the graph of the
function y f (---x) is symmetrical to that of the function y = f (x)
about the y-axis.)
If)
!I)
y=fflxlJ)
II
I
II
:c
!f=f(x)
Fig.
:'
x)
0)
Fig.
21)
22)
graph of the function y = f ( x I) is obtained from the

of
the
function y = f (x) in the following way: for x 0 the
graph
graph of the function y = f (x) is retained,then this retained part
of the graph is reflected symmetrically about the y-axis, thus determining the graph of the function for x 0 (see Fig. 22).
The graph of the function y = f (x) is constructed from
the graph y = f (x) in the following way: the portion of the graph)))
VI. The
\037
VII.
\037
\037
1.5.
Graphical
Representation
39)
of Functions)
of the function y ==f (x) lying above the x-axisremains unchanged,

its other portion located below the x-axisbeing transformed sym-
metrically about the x-axis(see Fig. 23).

VIII.The graphs of the more complicatedfunctions
y
===
(kx+a)+ b
'At
are drawn from the graph of y ==f (x) applying consecutivelytransformations I to V.
1.5.9.
Graph
t he
function
y ==3J/. 2 (x
+ 2.5)-0.8
transforming the graph y == Vx.

z)
of the function
o)
I
==
I
is
the
of
the
x
branch
V
y
(which
upper
I
parabola y2 ==x) (Fig.24, a), and transform
=ftx)
(cJi'
fI
it in the following sequence.
Sketchthe graph of the function y==3V'2x
Fig. 23)
by enlarging 3 V2' times the ordinates of
the points on the graph of the function y = V x and leaving their
abscissasunchanged (see Fig. 24, b).
Then sketch the graph of the function y = 3V 2x which will
be the mirror image of the precedinggraph about the y-axis (see
by
Solution.Sketchthe graph
'
Fig. 24, c).)
!J)
!f)
+y
y=3 V- 2{x+2.5)-0.8)
3)
2.2)
o)
-1/2 0
\037)
0)
(c))
\302\253(1,))
Fig.
By shifting the obtained graph
downwar d draw the
0.8 u nit
-3 -2.5 _ 0
0.0
\037
\302\267)
(d)
24)
2.5scaleunits
leftward and then
desired graph of the function

(see Fig. 24, d).
-2(x+2.5)-0.8
y==3V
1.5.10.
Graph the function

the cosinecurve.)))
3 sinx by
y=3cosx-V
transforming
Ch.
40)
I. Introduction
to Mathematical
Analysis)
Solution.Transform the given function

3
Y=3cosx-VV: cosx-\037sinx)=
Sinx=2V\0373(
= 2 V3cos x +
(
\037
Thus, we have to sketch the graph of the function

y=2
V3cos(x + 'It/6),
which is the graph of the function y = 2 3 casx translated by 'It/6

leftward. The function has a period of 2n, hence it is sufficient to
'It \037x
'It
draw its graph for
(see Fig. 25).)
V\037
\037
:c)
:x)
-I)
-2VJ)
F j g. 25)
Fig. 26)
The graph of any function of the form y = a cosx + b sin x, where

and b are constants, is sketched in a similar way.
Graph the following functions:
1.5.11.
= x+3
x+ ;
(b) y = x2 9;
(a)
1,
y=
{ (x-l)j(x+1),
(c)
X2+X+
sin2 x,
(d)y=x+l/x;
(e) y=X 2 _X 3;
(f) y=x+sinx;
x;
(g) y =
3
in
s
(2x
(h) y
(i)
if
-1
\037x
< 0,
if
O\037X\037'It,
if
'It
<
l/cos
--4);
=
y=2V-3(x+1.5)-1.2;)))
\037
5;
\037
(j)
1.6.Number
Limit
Sequences.
of
41
Sequence
r)
y=lx2 -2x-ll;
(k) y = II X
1-
1 I;
(1) y = cos(sinx);
on
y=lsinxl+sinx
(m)
the interval
[O,3n];
> 0,
0 at x= 0,
I at x
(n) y
===
x 2 signx, where
signx ==
1 at x
< O.
t 2. The function y = f (x) is given graphically (Fig. 26).

t .5.
Sketch the graphs of the following functions:
f (x 1);
y
(b) y = f (x12);
(c) y=== If (x) I;
(d) y == (I f (x) I f
(e) y=== f (x) Ilf (x).)
(a)
===
(x\302\273/2;
Limit of a Sequence
g 1.6.NumberSequences.
..>
\"',
The number a is called the limit of a sequencex\" X2,

Xn ,
as n -+00,a = lim Xn if for any 8 > 0 there existsa number
n-+
\037
Ixn-a1<
8 holds true for all

N (e) 0 such that the inequality
N (e).
n
A sequencewhich has a finite limit is said to be convergent.
A sequence{xn} is calledinfinitely small if lim X n ==
and infi.
X
if
lim
nitely large
n
Given the generalterm of the sequence{xn
>
===
0,
00.
1.6.1.
}:
x=
n
Write
the
first
five
sin (nn/2)
n)
terms of this
Solution.Putting consecutivelyn
term
xn ,
we obtain)
Xl
X
sequence.
==
1,2, 3, 4, 5
= sin t/2) = 1;
2-
sin (231:/2)
--,.
O
= sin (331:/2)
= \"31 ;
3
sin
= 0;
X4 =
sin (531:/2) =
Xi =
5.)))
5
xa
(\037:rt/2)
In
the general
Ch.
42)
1.Introduction
to Mathematical
Analysis)
1.6.2.
Knowing the first several terms of the sequence,write one
for the generalterm:
possibleexpressions
2 5 10 17 26
(a)
'8' 13'18' 23;
of the
3\"
3'
5'
I
3, 4\"' 4,
(b) I, \"2' 2,
Note. A knowledgeof the first several terms of a sequenceis not
That is why this problem should
sufficient to define this sequence.
be understood as one of finding a certain simpleinductive regula1
rity
the given
with
compatible
terms.
Solution.(a) Note that the numerator of each of the given terms

of the sequenceequals the square of the number of this term plus
2
unity, Le. n + 1,while the denominatorsform the arithmetic progression3, 8, 13,18, with the first term a ==3 and the com-
mon difference
an
...
d ==5. Hence,
=a1+d(n-I)== 3+5 (n-l)==5n-2,
thus we have)
Xn
n2
=5n-2')
(b) Herethe general term of the seq.uencecan be written with

the aid of two formulas: one for the terms standing in odd places,
the other for those in even places:
Xn
==
{ I/(k+I)
atn==2k-l,
at n = 2k.
is also possibleto expressthe generalterm by one formula,

for instance,
which will be more complicated,
It
Xn
= nt 1 [l-(-l)n]
+
n\0372
Find the
1.6.3.
[1+ (-l)n].
first several terms of the sequence

is given by one of the following formulas:
(a) X n = sinn(nn/3);
(b) X n = 2- casnn;
term
if
the general
(c) Xn =(1+ I/n)n.
1.6.4.
Using the
(a) lim x n = 1
if
definition of the limit of a sequence,prove that
xn =(2n-l)/(2n+
1),
+ I)/(5n2-1).
Beginningwith which
< 0.01fulfilled?
xn-3/51
Solution.(a) For any 8 > a let us try to find a natural number
N (8) such that for any natural number n > N (8) the inequality
(b) lim Xn == 3/5 if

n is the inequality
xn-II< E
is
Xn
fulfilled.)))
== (3n2
1.6.Number
\037
For this purpose let us
of
absolute value of the difference
2n+-1
the
find
-1/<
1
43)
Sequence)
- - 2n+1
-2 _
-2n+I'
2n
1
Limit
Sequences.
<
1/8-
8 is satisfied if 2n 1 8, whence
1
n > I/E-l/2'Hencethe integral part of the number
/2 may
be taken as N (E), Le. N = E (l/E_1/2),
So, for each 8 > 0 we can find a nUITIber N such that from the
< 8, which means that
inequality n > N it will follow that
Thus, the inequality
Xn
\037
xn-11
.11m 2n. = 1.
n-+oo 2 +
n)
(b) Let us
the absolute value of the difference
find
3n2
5n 2
Let 8
8
+ 3
-1
5' =5(5n-1)'
2
8
5 (5n2
is fulfilled.
Solving this inequality, we
so that the inequality
-1)< 8.)
fin
1.
8
> 258
+ '
\"5
> 2-,/8+58
e
5 V
\302\267)
Putting)
N=E (
we
concludethat
at n
-3/5I:
> 0 be given. Choosen
n2
I Xn
\037
>N
).
8\0375g
Ixn -3/51< 8,
the
which completes
If E =
then
proof.
0.01,
N
=E (
) =E( Y 805) =5,

the sequence,beginning with the 6th, are contai\037
8\03758
\037
and all terms of

ned in the interval
Given a sequencewith
(3/5-0.01;
3/5+0.01).
1.6.5.
known
that
lim
n-+oo
Xn
the generalterm xn =
1/3.Find the number of points Xn
side the open interval

L=
. It
is
\037\037+\037
-}l
o\037o
;
\037
\037oo
).)))
lying
out-
Ch.
44)
/. Introduction
Solution. The distance

equal to
X ll
I
to Mathematical
Analysis)
from the point
--}1=1---
Xu
to the point 1/3 IS
1=3 (9:/+4) '
3 (9\0379+4)
Outside the interval L there will appear those terms of the seLe.
quence for which this distance exceeds0.001,
19
3 (9n 4)
+ >
I
I
000
')
whence)
1
\037
== 703 7
< 18988
27
27
\"',
Hence,703 points (xl' X 2,

L.
X 703)
val
\302\267
are found outside the inter-
- -
Prove
1.6.6.
that the number l ==0 is not the limit of a sequen2

Xn == (n 2
2)/(2n 9).
Solution. Estimate from below the absolute value of the diffe-
ce with
the generalterm
rence)
n2-2
2n 2
-9
n2-2\\ '
= 2n2
9
I
3 the absolute value of the difference remains

At n
than the constant number 1/2; hence,there existssuch E
E == 1/
2, that the inequality
\037
greater
> 0, say,
-0 > +
2:22-=-\037
holds true for any n 3.

The obtained inequality proves that l = 0 is not the
ven
gi
sequence.
\037
.6.7.Prove
that the
I
sequence
2
the generalterm
xn == I/n,
has no
of the
2' 3'3'5' 4' 7' 5' ...)
1,
with
limit
{ nl(n + 2),)
limit.
= 2k
- 1,
if
if
n ==2k,)
Solution.I t is easy to show that the points x/l with odd numbers concentrateabout the point 0, and the points Xll with even
numbers,about the point 1.Hence,any neighbourhoodof the point 0,
as \\vell as any neighbourhoodof the point 1, contains an infinite
set of points Xn' Let a be an arbitrary real number. We can ahvays
choosesuch a small > 0 that the e-neighbourhoodof the point a \\vi
\302\243
11)))
1.6.
Sequences.Limit
/\\'ullzber
.\037
of
45)
Sequenf.-'I!)
not contain at least a certain neighbourhood of either point 0 or

Then an infinite set of nUlnbers Xn will be found outside
point
this neighbourhood,and that is why one cannot assert that all the
numbers Xn , beginning with a certain one, will enter the e-neighbourhood of the number a. This means, by definit ion, that the
number a is not the limit of the given sequence.
But a is an arbitrary number, hence no number is the limit of this sequence.)
1.
1.6.8.
Prove that Urn
1.6.9.Prove that lim
== 1
Xn
if X n
+ 1)/3n .
X n == (2n + 3)/(n + I).
== (3n
Find the
inequality
0.001,is fulfilled.
== 2 if
beginning with
< B, where E ==
I (2n + 3)j(n+
Prove that the sequence
the
of
number
1.6.10.
Xn
term
1)-2/
the
which
0.1;0.01;
2'2' 4'4' 8' 8\"'\

]
with
the general term

(
Xn
== {
2(n + 1 )/2
n IS
if
n IS even,
2n / 2
I
\\
odd,
if
has no limit.)
1.6.11.
Prove
xn ==an In!
Solution.Let
=
\037\037
\302\267
\037
\302\267
\302\267
that
=
\037
\302\267
\037
\302\267
\302\267
\302\267
\037
n- k
if
> 2a.Then
)(
\302\267
k\037
< (+ ) = (2a)k (
ak
a>O limxn=O
arbitrarily large
a natural number k
\302\267
\037
at any
k\0372
n
\037
at
\302\267
n
\302\267
\037
>k
)<
Sincelim (1/2)n==0 (prove it!),then at a sufficiently large

n
have:
< \037
and, hence, anInI
. < E, which means
2
)
(
(2a)k
lim (an In!)==O.
Test the following sequencesfor limits:
1.6.12.
(a) xn == 1/(2Jt);
1
(b ) x n
---{ Iin
I
for an even n,
for an odd n;
nn
-(-I)ll]
(c) Xli ==n COS
\"\"2
(d) xII ==n [ 1
.)))
we
that
Ch.
46)
Prove
1.6.13.
/. / ntroduction
to M athemalical
Analysis)
that the
sequencewith the general term

x n = l/nk (k>0)
is an infinitely
small sequence.
Solution.To prove that the sequencexn is infinitely small is to
pro\"
lim
that
n
\037
Xn
= O.
(S)
Take an arbitrary e > O. Since x n

inequal ity)
I
lInk
>. V lIe. HenceN may

V l/e,1.e. N = E (Vl/e).
whence n
of
= link,
we have to solve the
< B,
as
expressed
be
1.6.14.
Prove that the sequenceswith
=
, (b)
(a) x = 1-<;I)n
Xn
the integral part
the general terms
sin
\037
\037
--.
00.
are infinitely small as n
the sequence
Show that
1.6.15.
[(2n-l)]
the
with
general term
Find a numis infinitely small as n--.oo.

xn=(-1)n2/(5Vn+l)
ber N beginningwith which the points X n belong to the interval
(-1/10,
Ilia).
Solution.Take an
Ixnl=5
That is
why
1 Xn
I\"
take now
<5
-t- 1
V-n
<2
estimate X n I:
I
-'
V-n V n
1<e a; soon as n > 1/B3.HenceHm
Xn
= O. i.e.
fl\037oo
small.
the sequenceis infinitely

We
221
arbitrary e > a and
e= 1/10.Since Xn 1<I/Vn , Xn will necessarily

1/10if I/Vn < 1/10or n > 1 000.HenceN may
I
be smallerthan
be taken equal to I 000.But we can obtain a more accurateresult
by solving the inequality
I Xn I
V-n+
< 10
I
\302\267
3 = 54.872.
= 3.8
Hence N may be
holds true at n > (19/5)3
taken equal to 54 \037 I 000.
t 6. It is known that if X n = a + an) where an is an infinite1.6.
simal as n \037 00, then Iim X n = a. Taking advantage of this rule,
It
find
the
-+
00)
limits:
3n + 1+ sin
(a) xn =
3n
(nnj4)
')
b)
Xn
= 2n+(-l)n
2n
\302\267)))
1.6.Number
\037
. (a)
Solutton.
an
infin
Xn
Limit
Sequences.
= 3n +1+3sinn
-+
-+
47)
Sequence)
where an
= sin
= 3.
Xn
(nnj4) IS
n
(S))
V n = 1.)
Hm
n
= 3 + an,
(nnj4)
itesimal as n ---+00,hence Iim
1.6.17.
Prove that
of
00)
Solution.Let us prove that the variable V n can be represented

as the sum 1 + an, where an is an infinitesimal as n ---+00.
Let us put iY n = 1 +an . Raising to the nth power we obtain
n _ (1
+ an)n _ 1 + nan + n (n2'
1) 2
an
wherefrom we arrive at the conclusionthat

lowing inequality holds true:
n
+ ... + an,n
for any
n> 1 the
fol-
2
> l + n(n-l)
2r
an)
(since all the terms on the right are non-negative).Transposingthe

1 we obtain
to the left and reducing the inequality by
n-
unity
> \"2 a'H

2/n >
2
or
whence it follows that
==
lirn
also
lirn
V 2/n 0,
equals zero,
an
n-+oo
n-+(S)
that)
Henceit follows
a\037
Ii In
f1
Prove that
1.6.18.
-+
the sequencewith
large as
infinitely
us
the inequality)
Since
infinitesimal.
n = 1.)
iY
== 3 V
-.00.
Xn)
Solution.Let
> an > O.
00)
is
V 2/n
i. e.an is an
,.-
the general term
take an arbitrary positive nurnber

3V
M and solve
;;>M.
Taking the logarithm, we obtain
Vn>log.1
1\\;1,
If
we
now
lity 1 Xn
infinitel y
I
>M
take
will
large.
> (logaM)3.
== E (log3M)3, then for all n > N the inequabe fulfilled, which means that the sequenceis
LV
1.6.19.
Prove that)
liI]]
n-+oo)))
va
(Q
> 0).
Ch.
48)
\037
i. introduction
to Mathematical
Analysis)
1.7.Evaluation of Limitsof Sequences

If the
sequences{xn} and
(1) Hm (xn + Yn) = litll
Xn
are convergent,
{Yn}
:f:lim
(2) Iim (xnYn) == Iim Xn lim Yn;

lim Xn
Xn
(3) I 1m Yn = r1m Yn (I1m Yn =1= 0)
If X n
Iim Yn'
Yn then Iim X n
e
then
Yn;
'
\302\267
\037
\037
.7.1.Find
Iim
n-+oo)
X n if
+5n+4; (b) Xn ==5n 3+2n 2-3n+7 ;

II
4n3-2n+
4n 2 -4n+3
(c) xn ==2n 3 +3n+4; (d) xn =12+22+...+n2.
5n3+n+
(a)
(e)
Xn
Xn
== 3n
== 1
2+n2
+ 2+ ..+n .
n
')
\037
Solution.(a) xn ==
3+\037+\037
n
n2
+
lim
n
xn =
n2
Ii m
n -+ 00
00.
(d) Recall that
+4jn 2)
== 3.
2
)
_+
)
(n
(3-1-5/n
-+
hm
-+
00
2)
+ 22 + 32 + ... + n 2 = n (n+
12
I)
1\037(2n+
Hence)
Xn ==
(n+ 1)(2n+ 1)
6(5n3 +n+l)
Hm
1.7.2.
Find
(a)
!imXn ,
+n
xn = 1/15.)
30_L\037
I
n2
\037'
/1,3
if)
+n-2 3.'
( 4n2+2n+7)
(c) Xn == iY 5n;
(e) Xn == V n 5;
S'
+n+fi2
+n+I)- +
2n 3 +3n2
6(5n3
n-+oo)
3n 2
Xll\037
n-+oo)
.)
n/-
olutton. (a)
2n3+2n2+1 4 ;
(b) Xn == ( 4n 3 +7n2+3n+4
)
(d) Xn == iY
Xn
== vn/
n\037;
6n+3.
(f)
3
. 3n2+n-2
==
4n2+2n+7
)
(
' 3n2+n-2 3n2+n-2 3n2+n-2
=
}\037\037
-= .
nl\037\037
( 4n2+2n+7) ( 4n2+2n+7) ( 4n\037+2n+7 )
=
(}\037n:.
\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037:
r=( r=
\037
\302\267)))
\037:
J .7. Evaluation
\037
49)
of Limits of Sequences)
(c) In solving this example,and also the rest of the examples

take advantage of the following equalities(see
of Problem
and t
Problems
1.7.2,
1.6.17 .6.19):
liln
n -+
1 and
iY n
iY a
lim
n
00)
-+
I.)
(1))
00)
We have)
but
follows
from (1) it
== 1 1 ==
. I.
1.7.3.
Find)
Iim
Iim iY n,
V'5n-+oo)
iY 5n == Iim
lirn Xn == Iinl
n-oo
n-+oo
n-+oo
lim iY 5
that
I and lim
V\" n
I; hence
Xn
. (2n3 + -5n2
2n2+3 5n+ )
1
Solution.Summing
fractions, we obtain
the
2n 3
xn == lOn 3
Whence)
Xn
Note. If we
==
put)
2n 3
3
== 2n
2
Yn
2 +3
-13n
+2n2 + 15n+3')
lOn 3
nl:\037
}\037\037
\302\267
\\
}\037\037
2n
2 +3
-13n
==
+2n2+ 15n+3
51
2
1-5n
zn==5n+I')
Jim (Yn + zn) == 1/5, though
3
;)
each of the
large quantity. Thus, from the convergenceof a sum of sequencesit does not, generally speaking,follow
that the summands converge too.
then
the limit of their
summands is an
surn
infinitely
1.7.4.Find nIim
-
Xn
if)
00)
2n+3-Vn-l;
(a) xn ==V
I- -n+1;
(b) Xn = Vn2+n+
Vn
(c) xn==n 2 (,.n-Vn 2 +1);
(d) xn=V n2-n3+n;

Vn2+ 1+Vn ;
X ==
3
(e)
..r-
V n 3+n- r
I-2+3-4+5-6+...-2n
.'
1
(h)
V(n+ 1)2-V(n-l)2;
Y4n2-1
Vn2+1+
xn ==D + 2.3 -t3.4 + . + n (n + I)
(f) Xll ==
(g) xn ==
\302\267
\302\267
\302\267)))
1.Introduction
Ch.
50)
to Mathematical
Analysis)
Solution. (a) xn =Vn(V2+3/n-Vl-l/n)---.

+00as fl---+00,
since the second m ultip lier has a positive limit.
- (n-y
n-
(c)
n2
n2
--n+-n +1
+1)
n2
(n2_ n 3)2/3_n
-+
I
\302\267
(d) Xn =
Y n2
+V
V n 2-n3 +n
00 as
-+00.
\0372)
2)
--I) -( --I)
(
1
2/3
It
means, x n ---.1/3.
(e) Factoringout the terms
of the
- n( V/
Vii
iIn 3+n-V
n 3/ 4
n)
( V I+\037- V
)
\"/l+\037+\"/\037
V
V
the numera-
\037
-++
V
n\037
\037
Find
1.7.5.
in
\302\267
+1
I+\037+ V\037)
= n 1/4
Iim
1/3
n)
highest power
tor an d denominator, we have:
Vn2+1+
xn-
fl
I+\037n2
00 as n --+ 00.)
n)
X n if
n\037oo)
vn
V n+l+vn
(a) X n =
(c) xn
(b)
Xn
=:.;)V, n
(d) X n =
2n
n
n2
+4n
n3
=Vl-n +n;)
-3n2 ;
cosn 3
n
+
(e) xn= 2n2_l coS2n_I I_2n (-I)n
+1 ;
1+ + +\",+ 2n
= 2 4
2n
(f)
Xu
-+
3n
6n
\302\267
1+3+9+\"'+
3
n)
\037
1.8.TestingSequences
for Convergence
Bolzano-Weierstrass' theorem.A monotonic boundedsequencehas
limit.
HIn Xn = Iim
a finite
Theorem on passing to the limit
and
fl
--+
oc)
+ 00 or
00
\037
Zn
==c, then
n\037oo)
00)
but
in
lim
not
00).)))
inequalities.If
Yn
=c
Xn
\037
Yn
\037
zn
too (c is a number,)
\037
= (2n
prove
that)
1.8.
t. Prove
1)/(3n
1.8.Testing
Sequences tor Convergence)
the sequencewith
that
+ 1) is an increasingone.
Solution.We have to prove
that
X n +t
+ 2n
+4 > 3n +
2n
3n
51)
the general term
>
Xn
Xn
==
n, Le. to
for any
I
\302\267
The latter inequality is equivalent to the obvious inequality

6n2 +5n+ 1 > 6n2 + 5n-4.)
Hence,Xn+l
t
> Xn'
.8.2.Given a sequencewith
the general term

Ion
Xn
==!if
at n
sequencedecreases
Prove that this

Solution.)
X n+l
Since
n\037
<I
==
at n
IOn
\302\267
10.
liOn
0
10
=-e-==X
I
(n+l)f
n+1
nJ
10, then
\037
\037
xn+l
<x
n+l'
beginning
with
at n
number, which means that the sequencedecreases
Test the following sequencesfor boundedness:
\037
1.8.3.
(a)
Xn
this
10.
5n 2
= n;a+3
;
2n
(b) Yn=(-l)n
n+1sinn;
(c) zn = n casnn.
Solution.
(a) The sequence{xn} is bounded, sinceit is obvious that
5n 2
0< n 2+;j<5 for all n.
(b) The sequence{Yn} is bounded:
IYnl=I(-I)nl' lsinnl< n\037l <2.

n\037l
(c) The sequence{zn} is not bounded, since
1.8.4.
Prove
Xt
(a >
-+
x0
\302\267
')
Xo
that the
x2 ==a
Xl
Zn
== Incusnn ==n.
+Xl
')
1, > 0) converges.
Xo
Solution.Let
sequence)
X3
us prove that
x n l as
bounded. Firstly, x n
< -
X\"
a + X2
this
Xn-l
xn = a +
Xn-l)))
. ... .
')
,)
Xn
== Xn-l
Xn
'
\302\267
-1)
sequence is monotonic and
< Xn-l'
CIl.
52)
I. Introduction
to Mathematical
Analysis)
Hence,the given sequenceis a decreasingone.Secondly, all its

terms are positive (by condition a > 0 and Xo > 0), \\vhich means
that the sequenceis bounded below. Thus, the given sequenceIS
monotonic and bounded, hence it has a linlit.
Prove that the sequencewith the general term
1.8.5.
Xn
(i.e.Xl=
5\0371
+..+
+ + + + 53+
; X3=
+
X2=
==
5\037
52\0371
5\0371
\302\267
5n -1-1
+5Tn+
5\0371
53\037.I
...)
converges.
sincexn+l ==Xn + 1/(5n 1 -:-1)
Solution.The sequence{xn } increases,
it
isbounded
and, hence,xn+l > Xn' Besides,
above, since1/(5n + 1)<
< 1/5 at any nand
4-
fl
xn = 5
]
+ +
+ 53+ + + 5n + <
1/5 /5n +
=
+
+\"'+
2
n
3
5
<S+ 5 5
1-1/5 =\"4(
+I
5\037
\302\267
\302\267
\302\267
1- )
1
5n
<\"\"4'
the sequenceconverges.
of a
Taking advantage of the theorem on the existence
the following
limit of a monotonic bounded sequence,prove that
sequencesare convergent:
Hence\037
1.8.6.
-1
(a)
Xn
= n 2n 2
(b)
Xn
== 2
+ 21 + 3f +
Prove
1.8.7.
that
limits:
\302\267
\302\267
\302\267
+ n!
\302\267)
the following sequencesconverge and
(a) x 1= V2; x2 ==V2
find
+V2;
X3
-(2 + V 2 + V2;
Xn
(C)
xn=E(n y ) ;
2;
+ V2 + v + V-)
\302\267
\302\267
\302\267
n radicals)
...;
n)
...
< ...,
(d) the
sequenceof successivedecimal approximations 1; 1.4;
1.414;
1.41;
==
Il + 1
that
it
r-2;
of the irrational number J;
(e) X n n!jnn.
Solution. (a)
prove
Xn
= (n +2n2)1 ;
(b)
<X
...; 12'-)
their
It is obvious that Xl < x2 < xa <... < x n <

Le. the sequence is increasing.It now remains to
is
bounded.)))
\037
...
1.8.Tesfin[!, Sequences
53)
for Convergence)
...
=V2<2
.
have xn ==J 2 -txn -1, n== 2, 3,

Since x1
x
< V2-r-2==2,Xa== V2 + 2 < V' 2+2===2, Let it
be proved that Xll -1 < 2. Then xn==V2+Xn_l< V2+2==2.
Thus,
with the aid of mathematical induction we have proved that xn < 2,
Le. the sequenceis bounded. Hence,it has a finite limit. Let us
it. Denote)
find
We
X 2 == \037/-2-t-Xl
Iim X n ==y.
12-00)
Then, x n = V2-j-x
n _ 1; raising to the second power, we obtain
x\037==2+Xn_l'
Passing to the limit, we can rewrite this equality as follows
(2+xn _ 1),
y2=2+y.
or
lim
12-00)
Iimx\037=
n-CYJ
The roots of the obtained quadratic equation

Yl
= 2;
Y2
-1.
are:
The negative root doesnot suit here,sincexn>O.Hence,HIn Xn =Y1=2.

'l-oo)
E (ny)
E (ny) ny or y-\037
(c) We have
y. But the
n
n
ny-l <
and
{y}
x ==y.
sequences
why
Hrn
{y}
\037
<
\037
converge,their
\037
limit
being y, that is
n-oo n
(d) This sequenceis non-dec-reasing,since each following term
is obtained from the precedingone X n by adding one more
xn+l
significant digit to the decimal fraction. The sequenceis bounded
above, say, by the number
Hence,the sequenceconverges,its
limi t being V2.
(e) The sequencedecreases
monotonically. Indeed,)
1.5.
xn+l
(n
+ I)! ==
(n+ l)n+l
n!
(n+ I)n
= nnn!
nn
\302\267
(n+ l)n
= (n+nn l)n
Xn')
nn
Since(n+
< 1, xn+l < Xn'
l)n
Then, sinceXn > 0, the sequenceis bounded below, hence Iim
exists.Let
show
that
us
l=
1.Obviously, l =
denote it
0. Indeed,
(n+l)n =
nn
n+1 n =
n
lim
n-+oo)
Xn
\037
0.
_
Now let
1+nJ..=2.
n:;::;-
( l+\037)
n\037
n)))
Xn
00)
us)
I. Introduction
Ch,
54)
nn
to Mathf'matical
<
Hence,(n+ l)n <\"2and
xn+l
I
\"2
Analysis)
Passing over to the limit.
xn'
we obtain)
which, together
with
0, brings us
\037
1.8.8.
2'l,
\037
to the conclusion:
O.
===
limits of the sequenceswith the following gene-
Find the
ral terms:)
x==
n
+n '
z===
n
\302\267
V n2
V n2 +
Yn
===
Solution.Let
Ixn
Jl n 2
+1 + V n2+2 +
us prove that
-1/=
_
We can prove
n2
Iim
n-+(S))
Xn
+ ..r
, n 2+n
1
\302\267
\302\267
\302\267
\302\267
1.Indeed,)
===
= n-1
+n
Vn 2
+.'l _
y n2+n
<\037.
2n
JI n.2+n (n+ JI n2+n)
similarly that
Iim
Zn
1.
===
n-+OI)
Then,)
Yn<
Jln2 +1 + Vn2+1
1
+...+ +1
-'\"
Vn 2
\037
n\037
===
Z n)
n)
On the other hand,
> V n2+n + y n2+n +

1
Un
l.
'-)
\302\267
..
\302\245
Thus,)
Xn
< Yn < Zn'
n2+n
.b.--
\037
n)
lirn X n
n-+oo
==
Iim
V n2+n
Zn
n-.oo)
.8.9.Using the
-+
Yn==
Iim
n-+fJ'))))
in
inequalities
1.)
f7i)
theorem on passing to the limit
prove)
n)
== 1
and accordingto the theorem on passing to the limit

lim
==x..
\037)
,-
n
if a
===
(a > 0).
In
inequali ties
\037
1.9.The Limit
1.8.10.
Prove
(a> I)
and
the existence
of
calculateit.
of
55)
Function)
the limit of the sequenceYn ==a 1/ 2n
1.8.11.
Taking advantage of the theorem on the limit of a

monotonic sequence,prove the existenceof a finite limit of the
sequence)
Xn
== 1
+ 22+ 32+
\302\267
\302\267
\302\267
+ n2
\302\267
1.8.12.
Taking
advantage of the theorem on passing to the limit

inequal i ties, prove that
in
+I-n}.
2
xn==1 if xn==2n(Vn
lim
n
00)
.8.13.
Prove that
sequence
the
=: a + V a;
Xl = Va; xa
v\"
xa
-(a +
Jir a
+ Va;
...,
xn =
+ ... + V
-(
'-)a + Va-.-\
a)
n radi
(a > 0)
has the
lirnit
that the
Xn
fini
te limi
t.
==
sequencewith the generalterm

I
3+1
\037t-
32
+...+ +n
+2
1.8.15.
3n
Prove that a sequenceof lengths of

2n -gon\" inscribed in a circletends to a limit
circumference).)
\037
Is)
b==(V4a+I+I)!2.
1.8.14.
Prove
has a
ca
perimetersof regular
(calledthe length of
1.9.The Limit of a Function
point a on the real axis is calledthe limit point of a set X

any neighbourhood of the point a contains points belongingto X
which are different from a (a may be either a proper or an improA
if
per point).
Let the point a be the limit point of the domain of definition
X of the function f (x). The number A is calledthe limit of the
function f (x) as x \037 a, A == Iirn f (x), if for any neighbourhood V
x-a
of the number A there existsa neighbourhood u of the number a
such that for all x E X lying in u, f (x) E V (the definition of the
limit of a function after Cauchy). The number A may be either
finite or infinite. In particular, if the numbers A and a are finite
we obtain the following definition.)))
Ch.
56)
A number
A == lim f
I. Introduction
to Mathematical
is called the
Analysis)
of a function f (x) as x \037
limit
a,
> 0 there existsa number l) (8) > 0 such

x-+a (x),
that for all x satisfying the inequality 0 < x-a < I) and belonging to the domain of definition of the function f (x) the inequality
defini tion\.
f (x) A < 8 holds true (the
=
A is
A
if
for any
- + 00,
i
\"E-I)
the definition is as follows.
If
called
number
the limit of a function f (x) as x -++ 00,A = litn f (x), if for any
x -+ +
0 such that for all x satisfying
E > 0 there existsa number M (8)
the inequality x > M (E) and belongingto the domain of defini tion
of the function f (x) the inequality f (x) A < E holds true (the
00
>
definition\.
\"E-M
The notation Iim f (x)= 00 means that Hm f (x)1=+ 00. The

x-+a
x-+a
rest of the casesare consideredsimilarly.
The definition of the limit of a function after Heine.The notation lim f (x)= A means that for any sequenceof values of x conI
x-+a
verging to the number
...,...)
...; ...
a)
Xl' x 2,
Xn ,
(belongingto the domain of definition of the function and

sequenceof values of Y
a) the corresponding
= f (X n ),
= f (Xl); Y2 = f (X2);
Yn
Yl
from
has a
t
limit, which is
.9.t.
differing
the number A.
Taking advantage of the definition of the limi t after

of the theoremson the limits
Heine (i.e.in terms of sequences)and

of sequences,prove that)
. 3x I
hm
x-+25
X)
+ =
+4
2'
1
'
......
Solution. Let us consider any sequenceXl' x2

satisfying
the following two conditions:(1) the numbers Xl' X2,
belong
to the domain of definition of the function f (x) = (3x 1)/(5x 4)
(Le. Xn =1=-4/5);(2) the sequence{xn} convergesto the number
Le.
IiIn X n ==
n-+oo
2.
2,
To the sequence{xn } there corresponds the sequenceof values

of the function)
+ .' 3x2 + .'

+ 5x2 +4
3x} 1
5xI 4
.
...,)
1.7),
1
3xn+ == (3xn + 1)= 6+
1m (5X +4)
5Xn +4 1'
=
210+4
proceedingfrom the theorem on the limits (9
.
hm
-+
00
f(xn )== nIUTI

-+
00
lim
n)))
\037
1.9.The
Limit
of
Function)
57)
Thus, independently of the choice of a sequence{xn } which

the correspondingsequences
converges to the number 2 (xn=l=-4/5),
of values of the function f (xn ) converge to the number 1/2,which,
according to the definition of the limit of a function, means that
I
3x
x:n;5x+4=2\"
\302\267
Note. The definition of the limit after Heine is conveniently

applied when we have to prove that a function f (x) has no limit.
is sufficient to show that there exist t\\\\'0 sequences

== Iim
= a, but the corresponding
such that litn
n_oo
n-oo
and {f
do not have identical limits.
sequences{f
Prove that the following limits do not exist:
For this
and
it
{x\037}
x\037
{x\037}
(x\037)}
x\037
(x\037)}
1.9.2.
Hm 21/%; (c) Hm sinx.
(a) Hm sin \037;
.-:-1 x- (b) .(-0
.(-00
Solution.(a) Choosetwo sequences
xn = 1
for
and
n\037
x\037=
which)
Hm X n
n-oo
(n= 1,2,
(4n\037 1)1&
Iim
x\037
...),
= 1.
n-oo)
The correspondingsequencesof values of the function
f (xn ) = sin 1
and
'
'
f (X n ) == SIn
I/(\037Jt)
+ 2/[(4n+1)n]-I
Hence,)
lim f (Xn ) == 0
XII
follows that
and Iim f
X'n)
Le. the sequences{f (xn )}

it
_I = sin n3t = 0
. 4n + n = SIn. 2nn +
= SIn
and {f
(x\037)}
.....1
(x\037)
...),
Hm
n_oo
Xn
Urn
rl
.....
Hm sin
n-oo
... sin x
lirn
(X.)))
Iim
sin xn =
x\037
does not exist.)
x\037
n-oo)
00
and)
=1
\302\267
= 1,
have different limits, whence
x-I x-
for which
11
-\037;f
sin \037
] does not exist.
Iim
(c) Choose two sequences,Xn = nn and
2,
are:
lim
n-+CIJ)
= 00.Since)
Jim
n
sin nn
x\037
==2nn
== 0,
(S))
sin (2nn + n/2)=
1,
+ n/2
(n ==
1,
i. introduction
Ch.
58)
to Mathematical
Analysis)
Note. The above examples

show that one cannot draw the con-
clusionabout the existenceof the limit of a function proceeding

from the sequenceof values of x of a particular form (for example,
proceedingfrom X n == 1 + 2/((4n + 1)n) in the item (a) of this problem), but it is necessary to consider an arbitrary sequenceXl'
...
...,
.9.3.
xn ,
x\037!'
having a given limit.)
Proceedingfrom the definition
after Cauchy
(Le. in
the
-5;
. 5x+ 5
(b) x-+oo3-L9=3;
.
(a) Iim
x
\037
of the limit
\"E-M\" ,
\"E-6\";
of a function
that
etc.),prove
(3x-8)
===
hm
(c) x
terms of
(l-x)2= + 00;
1
l\037\\
(d) Iirn logax == 00 (a

x_
(e) Hrn arc tan x n/2;)
> I);)
00)
===
X -+
(f)
ex>)
Hrn
x 3t/6)
sin x =
1/2.
Solution.(a) According to the
\"E-6\"
definition we are to prove
there exists6 > 0 such that from the inequality
it follows that If(x)-(-5)/==lf(x)+5/<E.
In other words, it is necessary to solve the inequality
3x 8 + 51==31
< E.
that for any
Ix-I/<6
>0
x-II
The latter inequality showsthat the required inequality If (x)+51<E
is fulfilled as soon as
== -5.
Hm (3x-8)
x-II< E/3 ==6. Hence,x-I
(b) According to the \"E-M\" definition of the limit one has to

show that for any 8 > 0 it is possibleto find a number M > 0
such that for all x > M the inequality)
5X
1
+_ <
+ 3
1
3x 9
8)
be fulfilled.
Transforming this inequality, we obtain
5X + 1
5 =
14
will
3x+9-3
I
/3x+9/< 8.
Sincex > 0, it remains to solve the

14
3x+9\"
8,)))
inequality)
(*))
J.9.The Limit
\037
whence)
hence M =
X>
of
Function)
14-98
38)
14 98
\302\267
3E
59)
14 98
Thus, for E > 0 we have found M = 38 such that for all

values of x > M the inequali ty (*) is fulfilled, and this means that
\037 00
+ =5
+ \"3
5x I
3x 9
then M=
Let, for example,8=0.01;
\302\267
-0.09
14
32
0.03 =463 ,
(c) We have to prove that for any K > 0 there exists8 > 0
such that from the inequality
Ix-II<8
there always follows the inequali ty
I
(l\037x)2
= (I
> K.
\037X)2
Let us choosean arbitrary number K > 0 and solve the inequality
/'
- ':.
I
(I
X)2
**
( )
,)
whence)
II-xl<YK
I
Thus,
soon as
if
we
put
l) =
\037K
' then
x-II< l), which means
(K>O).
the inequality (**) holds true as
that
!i\037nl
(I \037X)2
= + 00.
(d) We have to prove that for any K > 0 there existsM > 0
such that from the inequality x > M there always follows the inequality logax > K. Let us choosean arbitrary number K > 0 and
consider the inequality logax > K. If we put aK = M, then at
x > M the inequality loga x > K holds true. Hence,
Hm
X-++OO)
logax== + 00.
1.9.4.
Prove that Hm cosx does not exist.)
1.9.5.
of the roots of the equations sin (l/x)=1
Using the sequences
==
and sin
limit
(I/x)==
as x\037
O.)))
-I,
X-+oo
show
that
the function f (x) sin (l/x) has no
Ch.
60)
Introduction
,__
1.9.6.Proceedingfrom
ion prove
funct
(a)
that:
(b)
- =3;
>
+
--.
t-lirn+
aX
00)
sin x
(g ) I 1m
x _
x)
00
\037
00 (a
-==
x-I
(d) lim
X-.O)
I
(e) t:\03700
3x+2
(f)
of a
- y_x- = 2;
lim
x
limit
cosx = I;
(c) tIim
- 0 sinx=O;
2x
Analysis)
Cauchy's definition of the
==
Iirn
x-I)(3x-2) 1;
to Mathematical
1);)
1.10.Calculation
of Limits of Functions
I. If
the limits
lirn u
x-a
(x) and
theorems hold true:

( 1)
Ii rn
x-a[u (x)
liIn v (x) exist, then

t-a
the following
Ii m u (x) + Ii nl v (x);
+ v (x)}= x-a
x-a
= Hm u .limv
(2) lim
x-a[u (x).v(x)] t-O (x) t-a) (x);
(3)
I 1m
x_aV
' v (x)
-au (x) (I1m
= r1m
x
()
()
x_a
x-a)
(x)
X
Urn
x
=1=
0)
I.
I For all ma in elementary functions at any point of their domain of definition the equality Iim f (x) = f (lim x) ==f (a) holds true.
x-.a
x-a
I I If for all val ues of x in a certain neighbourhood of a point a
(exceptfor, perhaps, x = a) the functions f (x) and (x) are equal
and one of them has a limit as x approachesa, then the other one
I.
cp
has the same limit.

IV. The following limits are frequently used:
= 1;
1m
(1) x0 x
.
Iirn (1+ l/x)X == lirn (1+ a)I/'X = e = 2.71828.
(2) x-oo
a-O)
toga (l +x)=
Iirn
logae (a > 0; a =F 1);
1
(3)
sin x
t-
In
(4) lim
X-.O
.;
(I
+x) = 1;
aX-l =lna
(5) lim
x-.O
x)))
(a>O).
\037
t.to.t. Find
(a)
(c)
\037\037
+ 9x+7
+x3 + ;
x+
'
V + 3 + 3x
.t
2X
x-I
- _X+
+
3 _X2
X3 3
_2
-_x3-x-6
I
. .
( J) I 1m
x-
(p an d q
integers);
x- ;
10-;-2
.t-3[toga
61)
+3x2 -9x-2.'
(h) lim
2 ;
X)
xP
xq
(f) Hrn
-3 ;
r
x+6-2V3x-S
v\037-3
xl\037
!irn
x-+ 2
6x\037
V9+Sx+4x2_3
;
.t-O
. .
(d )
\302\267
x3
lirn
(b) x-)
2
--
(1) hm
limits:
the
3X6
(e) I 1m
(g)
Limits of Functions)
of
4XD
Ii nl
x
.10.Calculation
x-3
..r'
V x
+6-3 J ;
x+8-Y8x+
S-x-r 7x-3)
Solution.(a) Sincethere exist I imits of the numerator and denominator and the limit of the denominator is different from zero,
we can use the theorem on the limit of a quotient:)
+9x+7) 4+9+7
=
=
=4.
3x6 + x 3 +
lirn (3x6 + x 3 + 1) 3 + +
x...
Iim 4x6 +9x+7

x -+ 1
(4xD
Urn
x-+
1)
(b) The above theorem cannot be directly used here, since the
of the denominator equals zero as x-+2. Herethe limit of
the numerator also equals zero as x -+ 2. Hence,we have the
limit
indeterminate form
\037
. For x
=1=
2 we have)
-9x-2
(x +5x+1) _ x +Sx+1
-x-6 _ (x-2)
(x-2)(x +2x+3) x2+2x+3')
x3 +3x2
x3
Thus,
in
unct ions)
2
2
does not contain the point x = 2 the
any domain which
f( X ) =
x3 +3x2
x3
-9X-2and
-x-6
cP
(x)
are equal; helice, their limits are also

function (x) is found directly:)
2 +Sx+1
= xx2+2x+3)
equal. The
cp
+ +
x2 5x
15
cp(x)=-hm
x-+2x2+2+3=11;
x-+2
hm
X)
hence,)
. x3+3x2_9x-215
f (x==lm
) I
x-+2
x-+2
I 1m
3--6 =0.
X)))
limit
of the
62
J. Introduction
Ch,
to Mathematical
Analysis)
(c) Just as 10 (b), we remove the indeterminate
form
\037
transforming
\302\245
-.
-+
6x\037
.==
x -+
1.10.2.
Find the
(a)
2
x+1 = lim (x+I)(V6x
+3-3x)
2
3
3x
+3 +3x x _ t
2
Hm Y6x +3-3x_ 1
-1 3 (1-x)
Hm
x -+
by
limits:
CX:\0374-3X\037\037
2
Hm
!\037\037
);
(b) .t-++oo) (V9x + 1-3x);
(c)
I 1m
x-++oo
Hm (V2x2
(d)x-+-oo
-3-5x);
1-
x(Vx 2 +
(e) lim
x-++oo)
(f)
3/'
yx+3V-;-+5V-;.
Y 3x-2
+ V 2x-3
x);)
+ 3 and r
4x+2
+
4x+2 ;
Y2x2
\302\2452x
x2\037CX)
x\037\037<X>
2x
(g) Hm 5 /(x+ 3).
x-+oo)
Solution.(a)
3X2\037
!\037\037
x
3X
2)
\302\267
Herewe have the indeterminate form 00

fractions
I 1m
X-+oo
- -3x+ ) = .
X3
( 3x2
11m
X-+oo
9x3
00; let us subtract the
2X3+4x2
=
+6x2-12x-8
2+4/x
= Hm 9+6/x=
12/x2 -8/x3
x-+
00
9'
\037
N ate. We see that in such examples

the limit is equal to the
ratio of the coefficients at the superior power of x (provided the
polynomials are of the same degree).
(b )
I 1m
A
-+
00
( Y9x2
+
I
- _- .
3x)
In hand ling such
1m
1
-+
00
V 9x2
+ +3x
I
-.
0
in mind that the function

a
(x), where Pn (x) is polynomial of degree 11, tending
to infinity in the same way as the function V x n This allows us
to singleout the superior power of x and divide both the numerator and denominator by this power of x. In the given example)))
(c)
f (x) == V Pn
examplesbear
1.10.
Calculation
\037
63)
of Limits of Functions)
Vx; then we obtain:

.
Vx+3VX+5 Vx = hm
3 2x-3
3x-2
x-++
+
V
V
V
the divisor is
hm
x + 00
3-2/x+V 4/x-12/x+9/x
2
-Y3IS
00
\037
2 +3/V-X-+5/\\yx 3
2
f)
3)
\302\267
(d) Sincethe sum of two positive infinitely large quantities

also an infinit ely large quantity, then
!irn
x-+-oo)
we have
I lIn
V x2 (2
x
x\037+oo
x< 0
At
2
Y x
t-+-oo
:==
VX2
x, therefore
x Y-2 3/x2
x-++oo x (4+2/x)
I
(4+2/x)
= Y2
4 .
-x and, hence,
(2+3/x2) =
(4+2/x)
Note. From this
+ 00.)
-3+{-5x)J==-
.
= 1m
3/x2)
VX2 ==
we ha ve
]1m
not
2
(J 2x
X\037-oo)
>0
(f) At x
(V2x2 --3-5x)==IiIn
. -xY2+3/x2 = Y2
I 1m
x-+-oo x(4+2/x)
x-+oo
exist.)
2x/(x+ 3)
lirn
52x/(x+ 3) == 5x
(g) Iim
-+
x
\037
=:52 ==25.
00
00)
1.t 0.3.Find the limits:

. 2x-2
(a) hm .
1
x\037
(b)
V 26+x-3
. + Vx ;
hm
tim V
(d) x-+O
V-
(g)
I 1m
X-+
()
f
x)
r
X!.\0372
si x
. x-+3'
sIn +
2 sin 2 x
2 sIn 2
1(/6
I 1m
-l
teger);
..r3-2cosx)
x-+1T/6 J'
x)
(x-n/6) .,
sin
x+
;
x+
V 17-2
Hm 4
x\037-l
k/ I +x
(c) x-+-ll+
(e)
\302\267
+ 3 does
!im Y-2x
4x+2)
follows, incidentally, that
it
(k
positive In-
cosx
V (1-sin X)2
;)
\302\267
Solution (method of substitution).(a) Let us put 26+x==Z3.

x==-z3-26and z\0373 as x\037 1; hence
Then
I 1m
x\037l
2x-2
== I 1m
. 2 (z-3)(z2+3z+9) =
2Z3-54 = I 1m
V26+x-3 z-+3 z-3
z-+3
z-3
= lim 2 (Z2 + 3z + 9) 54.

==-
z-+3)))
I. Introduction
Ch.
64)
(d) Let us
Hence,
to Mathematical
l+x=zk; then x==zk-l and z-+1as x\037O.
put
- (see
{/I+x-l= Hm z-I
=
k -1 k
X
I
lim
2-+1Z
X-+O
(e) Let
obtain
.
z
(x-n/6) _ 1m
..r..r3-2cosx2-+0\"
3-2cos(z+nj6)
sin
I 1m
x-+JTj6\"
. _ _sinz
= 1m
3- 3 cosz
z 0
I
t.l0.1(d)).
Problem
x-nj6==z;then x=z+n/6 and z-+O as
us put
x--+nj6.On substituting we
-+
Analysis)
+ sin z
sin
.
= 1m
2sin (z/2)cos(z/2)
V 3 sin 2 (z/2) -t-2 sin (zj2) cos(z/2)
2 -+ 0 2
= Hm _ cos(zj2)
1.
z 0 V 3 sin (zj2) + cos(z/2))
==
Find
1.10.4.
the
1-
(a) lim
X\037os
X-+O
-+
limits:
lim
(b) x-+O
tan
;
x-;sinx
X
cos(nx/2)
(c) 1 1m
X-+ I
-x
\302\267
1-
= Iim 2 sin 22(x/2) = 2 Iim sin

(
. sinx(J-cosx)
.1m tanx-sinx= 1m
x.x =
x3
Solution.(a) Iim
X-+O
I
(b) x-+
X\037os
I
x-+
X-+O
3)
COS
sin
l-x=z.Then
put
.::= .
cosx)
x -+ 0
.-.
X
x-+O
= Iim
(c) Let us
Hence,)
x= l-z and
x)
cos 2 x
-x
Find the
1.10.5.
limits:
(a) lim (1+ Ijx)7 ;
(c)
.
1m
:\037m(J)
r
+ .
\037x
In(a+x)-lna
;
(h) Iim
x)
' . x-I
( ) 1m
In
x -+
(1+ kjx)mx;)
(d) XHm
-+
'
In
x-+o
lim (] + X)I /(3x);

(b) x-o)
.
(f) hm
(l
(e) I
x-+o 3x_
(g) Iim
\037
x-e)
CX))
e4X
x_ 0
X -+
t an x
eX
-:-e-X ;
SIn
x)))
z--+O as x--+1.
Z)
t-+CX>
\037
I 1m
2 ;
1-cas -2')
I.
cos 2 2 z
sin z
2 =n
)- = I UTI
(
Z
2-+0
1-+0
x-+I 1
Note.For a simpler method of solving similar problemssee
I 1m
x2
x)
..::
\037\037/2)
2'
\037
1.12.
l.ln.Calrulation
\037
Solution.(a)
x\037o
(i) Put
\\ve
tuting
- - x-
(1+x)_
3x 1
In
(e) Ii rn
In
x-
X-.f
Find)
1.10.6.
-. (
x-+I
(b )
'::J:i
-f--
(I -
+X
x:!)
7
;)
e. On substi-
-.
1
e)
\037
== I i m
x
1 )/
(x
1 -t-
l(
00)
x2
l/x
X2
eO
==
1.
limits:
the
\037/\037)/(
( 2+x)
-]
x\"'-x- )
( 2')
+ 2x
X2
1 1 nl
t\037
00
1.10.7.
Find
Soluti 0/1. Ii 111
rr
=e
.
(1 +z) ==
In
X-+OO
HIll
In3
\037
x
.
+
)
(
1 i nl
(a)
-.
(x/e)
In
\037
(1+
e (z + 1); z \037 0 as x \037
x=-==
U\037\037
==
un
un
x-e == x-+ee(x/e-I)
e z-+o
1m
\037
- _-
.3 x
\037
then
obtain
\037n\037
(1+x)
In
=
} [( + + rJ
=
1
)7X
\037
Ii lll
xje-1 = z;
65)
of Functions)
7
( +
1
}\037\037
of Limits
-X);
(2x +
-)
1
'2
\302\267
Solution.(a) Denote:
+ x)/(2+ x);
f (x) ==(1
cp
Ii fn
x-+
(x)=
I-\302\245x
I-x
f (x)
x-I
) == I 1m
Imcp(x
]
x-+
I
x-+
limits
But at finite
1)
Hm f (x)== A
relation holds true:
x-a)
lim
Iinl [f (X)] (x) ==eX a

x-+a)
<:p
Hence,)
1
}\037\037
Note.
out
that
If
in
liln
48)))
+ = ;
3
<:p
> 0, Jim
x-a)
cp
(x) III f (x)
x-+a)
cp
==eBIn
1
\037
(x)== B the
(3)
/2
\037
===
fol1o\\ving)
AB
/ 3.)
2
the form lim [f (x)]CP(x) it turns

x-a
(x)= 00, then the following)
examplesof
linl
\302\245x
+x (I - llx)..'(1-x) =
f (x)== 1 and
\037
-I-x =\"2'
( 2+x)
handling
x-+a)
3_3 1
x
== Iinl
2+-x
I
/. Introduction
Ch.
66)
to Mathematical
transforrnation may be recommended:
(x)] (x)
Ii 01 [t
(I'
x-a
== Ii n]
X-Q)
{[1
+ (t (x)
t.t 0.8.Find the

.
-!-3
(a)
+3
(, 2x2+5 )
!\037n;,
Ii!n ) + [t (x)
(x)- )}
(x) {
a)
\302\267
\037
1) ] 1 /
<f
limits:
8X2
2x\037
==
I lIn
]+
t 0
__\037
(A)
(J,
lim (1+ sin Jtx)cot ;rx;

(c) x-+
I
t an x
sin
--:-l/(X-a) (a=l==kJt, .
SinX
\037
(d) BIn
x-+a ( sIn )
(x)= 2X2 +
+ 5;
2X2
lien
<p
cp
Use the formula (*):

+3
hOl 2X2 +
( +
2X2
f (x)
lim
1J
==eX a
\037In
cp
(X)
U (x)
-+
-]
1
integer).
(x) 8x2 -1-3;

\037
1 ==
2X2
3
5
-f--
-1 _e
cp
==
2X2
I 1m
(x) U (x)
-1-3
2
2x'\037+
5;
2 (8x2 + 3)
X-oo
2X2
+3
_--e_
8X2
-I].
,
==
-1] -lull.
2x\037+
cp
+5 = 8.
\037
( 2X2-+- 5 )
f (x) is g i ven wit h the aid 0f
.
I
.
t (x)== lUll
+I
n-+oc
x--oo
.to.9. The fun ct ion
2X2
xl\037noo
\037,8X2
h
OJ)
lun
r-oo (x)[f (x)
Therefore)
\037=
!\037.n;,
x-+oo
X-+OO
(x)
(f
]}
+ =
(x) =
2xLt 5 1;
2
lieT] (8x + 3) == 00.)
(x)== x_oo)
f
!\037\037
denote:
us
x)
k an
wIth
a)
Solution.(a) Let
Lf
l'
(b)
Analysis)
x\"!.ll
the
itn i t
X-!.1l
Investigate this function and graph it.

Solution. Consider three cases:
(1) x > 1.Since in this caselirn X21l :=:00,then)
I
n-+oo)
(2) I x
< 1.In
(x)
. ] _ ]Ix = 1.
lun
] -t- ]/
2n
-==
n-+
this case liln

f/. -+
X
00)))
x\037n
if:
211
==
-1.
0; thprefore f (x)==
( )
\037
J .JO.Calculation
67)
of Limits of Functions)
1.
In this caseX211 == 1 at any n, and therefore f (x)==O.

(3) X -== +
the
function
under consideration can be written in the
Thus,
following way:)
-1a
I
f{x)=
or, briefly,
f (x) ==sign (\\ x
Ixl>1
if
Ixl<l
if
x==+ 1
{
t 1 (n)).
1) (see Problem 1.5.
1-
if
Fig. 27.
The graph of this function is shown in

The population of a couincreases by
ntry
per year.
)1
1.10.10.
ty
-1
2\037)/o
ho\\v
By
times does it increase
many
a century?
Solution.If we denote the initial number of inhabitants of a
given country as A, then after a
year the total population will amoun t to
in
A+
l\0370
\037o
100years
it
wi
11
[(I +
:
i
:
I
I
-1
s\037
amount to
times.
-1
--\037x
Fig.
will
T1
reach the total of
r'f
= e, we can
have increased
)A.
years the population
two
After
.2=(I+
, (:
Taking
I)
27)
+ 50) . After
1
+ Sloroo,i.e. it
into
will
account that
:::::;
e.
approximatelyconsiderthat (I +
Hence,after lOa years the population of the country will have
increasede'!. 7.39times.
Of course,this estimation is very approximate,
but it gives an
idea as to the order of the increase in the population;
(the quan( 1 I 1 = 7.245to within three dl'cimal
+ 50)
tity
places) .
,
( +*
I
\037i\037\037
\037
ijO
\\
\\
1.10.11.
Find the limits:
.
cosx +4 tan x .
(a ) 1m 2 -x-2x4 ,
. + Sx 7
(b)
3x\037-x-2
.
YS-x-2;
(c)
I
x\037O
2X2
x\037\037\\
I UTI
x-I
(d)
3*)))
-.m
11
00)
2-x-1
V-
2x'!.-Sx-\037-4
Sx2 2x 3
SIO
Ch.
68)
/. Int roduction
to Mathematical
Analysis)
(e) xlin1(Vxt+l-\037/x\037-1);)
(f)
00)
--\037
It 01
f- ( V
oc
+ 8x) 3
.to.12. Fin d
(a)
(C)
lun
x-a
+ 2-x,
2x
the Iin1
-2;
Yx-t-4
.
Sin
It In
a\"\"
x)
.),\037
I
(e) x-+Jt/3
6
cos(x +'It/))
1.10.13.
Find
( a)
a2X
11m
(c) x-a
x)
I 1m
X-+ I
(d )
,., x
I)
tan 2x tan (J(/4
Ii m
X-JI/4
the limits:)
. e-
11m
(b) X-+
0
(d)
;
2
(I-x);
..r-
sin
x);
\302\267
(1+ 4/x)X + 3;)

x_oo)
Ii rn
(b)
Sill
\302\267
its:
.
- aJ[
. tan3x-3tanx
1m
(X-Jt
(e)
(sin 2x)tan 2x;
Ihn (tan x)tan 2x;
(g) x-n/2
(f)
lim
x-+O)
l\037\037
X\037\037\0374
(h)
X)
(1+ 3 tan 2 x)cot

( 2x
\\
\\ x
2x+I )
(sin x)tall
Iin1
x-1t/2
x;
;
x;
. 3X2+2X+ (6X+ 1)/(3x+2).

' 1m
'
x- ( 2+ +2 )
. 1+3X (1-VX)/(l-X).
'
'
(J )
( 2+3x)
. .- .
(k )
.
(t )
00
x\037n;
It rn
f
e7.X
..0
e\037x
X)
Find
1.10.14.
(a) lim
the
limits:
-x) ;
arc
X
cV\037
.t-+O
(b)
I 1m
X-;T./4
In tan x
1
cot ;
x)
(c) li1n\037 In (1+asinx).

x-+O
SlI1X)
and InfiniteFunctions.
* 1.11.
lnf-initesimal
Their Definitionand Comparison
The function ex (x) is called infinitesimal as x --+- a or as x --+ 00
Ii n1 ex (x)== 0 or lirn ex (x)== O.
x-+
The function f (x) is called infinite as x -?-a or as x --,.00 If
HIll f (x):=:00 or Jini f (x)== 00.
if
00
x-\037a
x-a
x-
00)))
\037
1.
1.1
inverse to an
quantity
simal.
and Infinite
Infinitesinzal
quantity is
infinite
69)
Functions)
calledan
infinite-
Infinitesimal functions possess the following properties:

sum and the product of any definite number of infinitesimal functions as x -+ a are also inftnitesimals as x
(2) The product of an infinitesimal function by a boundedfunction
is an infinitesimal.
Comparisonof Infinitesimals.Let the functions a (x) and (x) be
If)
infini tesimal as x -+
(1) The
\037
a.
a.
\037
\0371\037
ex
\037
(x)
(x)
= c,
where c is a certain finite number different from zero, then the

functions a (x) and (x) are calledinfinitesilnals of the same order.
If c ==
then the functions a (x) and (x) are called equl'valent;
1,
\037
notation:a (x)
\037
\037
(x).
of a
0, then the function a (x) is calledan infinitesimal
==
a
0
is
thus:
written
to
which
order
relative
(x),
(x)
higher
(x),
and (x) is called an infinitesimal of a lower order with respect
If c ==
\037
(\037
\037
\037
to
a (x).
= C, where
If
:\037n;
<
< + 00,
then
the function
ex
(x)
r;(\037\037n
is calledan infinitesimal of the nth order as compared \\vith the

function (x). The concept of infinite functions of various orders
is introduced similarly.
t
Prove that the functions
\037
1.1.1.
2x-4
(a) f (x)= x 2 +5 as x
2,
\037
I
(b) f (x)= (x-l)2sin3 x I as x -*1 are infinitesimals.
Solution.(a) It is sufficient to find the limit
lim f
t 2
= O.
(x)= xlim2
2\037\037:
X\"'-r)
-)-
\037
(b) Firstly, the function cp(x)==(x-I)2is infinitesimal as

indeed, Iim (x-I)2==O. Secondly, the function
x-?1;
x\037l
'\"
\037 ;
(x)==sin3 x-)
I
is bounded:)
1
,,':1x-1 I
sin
\037
x =I=-
1,
'1
\302\267)
Hence,the given function f (x) represents the product of the

bounded function\",(x) by the infinitesimal fP (x), which means that
f (x) is an infinitesimal function as x
\037
1.)))
Ch.
70)
1.t 1.2.Prove
(a)
f (x) =
(b) f(x)=
are
-+
1.Introduction
to Mathematical
Analysis)
that the funct ions

12
--+
3x
2X2
sin x
x
as x
4;
as X--+OO
infinite\037jmal.)
I.t t .3.Find)
lim x
x-+o)
sin ( 1/x).
Solution.Since x is an infinitesimal as x --+0 and the function

sin (1Ix) is bounded, the product x sin (1Ix) is an infinitesimal, which
means t hat Ii n1 x sin (1Ix) = O.
x-+o)
t
with
.11.4.
Compare the
(a)
the infinitesimal
f1
(x)= ta n x 3;
following infinitesimal functions (as x ---+0)
(x) = x:
(b) f 2 (x) =
cp
V sin2 x ;
(c) t\037(x)=V9+x-3.
Solution.(a) We have
' 2-O.
tanx3
-tanx3 2 = I
x
an x3 11 lnx
X3
[
x-o
x-+o
x-o
x-o
Hence,tan x3 is an infinitesimal of a higher order relative to
(b) We have
tanx3
I In1
2
V sin x
x
0
Hence)V sin2x
wit h
I 1m
3'-
1lln
x
\037
I 1m
X -+
-3=
Y9+x
I Irn
x.
sin2 x
x2
I 1111
X -+
= 00.
VX ]
lower orderas compared
I
--
is an infinitesimal of a
x.
(c) We have
Y9+x+3
\302\267
V9+x-3
and x are of the same order.

infinitesimals
Determinethe order of smallness of the quantity
tt
with
to the infinitesimal (x.
respect==
(a) B cas(X cos2(X; (b) = tan (X sin (x.
2ex.= 2 sin ex sin
Solution.(a) = cos
Hence,the
1. .5.
ex.
\037
-cos
_ 1. 2
L
(X-+oa (X-O
Whence)
\"
I 1111
Hence, is
\037
an
\037
infin
I ill
sin
\037
(3aj2)sin (aj2)_
a) 'l
\037
\037
\302\267
itesima] of the saIne order as
secondone with respectto
a.)))
(X2,
i.e.of the
\037
1.11.6.
Assuming
1.12.
Equivalent
00,compare the
x \037
quant ities:
2
+2x+5 and
(a) f(x)==3x
2
==
2X
and
+ 3x
f
(b) (x)
f(x)==V/x+a
(c)
71)
Infinilesimals)
following
infinitely
large
+2x-l;
3
(p(x)==2x
cp
(x) == (x
+ 2)2;
cp(x)==Vx .
and
is of a lower order
Solution.(a) The infinite function 3X2+2x+5
as compared with the infinite function 2x3 +
1, since
2 +5/x3
3x2 +2x+5
3/x+2/x
rIn1
r1m
0
X-oo 2x 3 -t- 2x-1 x-oo) 2.+ 2/ X2_I/X3
2x-
-.
1.11.7.
Prove that
the infinitesimalsa==xand \037==xcos(ljx)(asx-\037O)
their ratio has no limit.

i.e.x cos
comparable,
(l/x) == lin1 cos
Solution.Indeed,lirn
(ljx) does not exist(prove
x-)oo
x-.o
are not
it!),
means that these infinitesimal functions are not con1-
which
parable.
1.11.8.
If x -+ 0, then
which of the following infinitesimals is

of a lower orderthan x; of the
(are) of a higher order than x;

same order as x?
(a) IOOx; (b) x 2; (c) 6 sin x;
1.11.9.
Let x
\037
sin3 x; (e) V tan 3 x.

O. Determine the orders of the following infini-
Vl+x3-1;
tesimal functions
(a)
2 si n 4 x
(c)
1x
x-
(g)
respectto x:
xC>;
2 cos
(e)
with
(d)
x+ ) ;
\037
(b) V sin2x+ x4;

(d) sin2x-2sinx;
(f) 2 V sin x ;
(h) tan x
+ x2;
cosx-Vcosx; (j) eX-cosx.

t.lt.to. Assuming the side of a cube to be an
(i)
infinitesimal, deof
termine the order of smallness of the diagonal of the cube
the area of its surface (S); of its volume (V).)
(d)\037
Equivalent Infinitesimals.
* 1.12.
Applicationto FindingLimits
If
the functions
a (x)
and
(x) are infinitesimal as x
-+ a
and
if
l'(x), (x) 6 (x), then

(x = !irn
x-a tj (replacingan infinitesimal by an equivalent one).
x-)oa p (
a (x)
tIn1
\"'\"
\"'\"
\037
\037
\037
\302\273
X)))
\037
Ch.
72)
I. Introduction
to Matlzcfnatical
Analysl\037)
If)
limf(x)=k, O<lk/<oo,
x....
a)
then)
f (x) a (x)--- ka (x).)

If)
a (x)--- V (x),
p (x)--- V (x),)
then)
a (x)--- (x).
\037
For two infinitesimal function) to be equivalent it is l1e\037essary

and sufficient that their difference be an infinitesimal of a higher
order as compared with each of the two.
Listed below are infinitesimal functions:
(a(x) is an infinitesimal as x -+0)
(I) sin a (x)--- a (x); (2) tan a (x) --- a (x);
1- a
cos (x)
(3)
\037
[a (x)]2/2;
(4) arc sin a (x)--- a (x); (5) arc tan a (x)--- a (x);
(6) In [I (x)]--- a (x); (7) a(.t(X)_1--- a (x)lna
(a > 0), in particular,el) (x) 1 --- a (x);
+a
(8)
[1+ a (x)]p
ii 1 + a (x)_ 1
1 --- Pa (x), in par tic u I a r,

Prove that as x\037o
1.12.1.
(a)
1-Vl+x
I
--- _1 x;
2
(b)
1-1+
1
___
a (x}
n
--- x;
(c) sin V' x Vx --- x2 + V x 3 .

Solution.(a) By formula (8) at P == 1/2 we have
--- 1. x.
\037= \037 (J/I+
2
1
VI
+x
VI
x-I)
+x
\037
(c) By formula (I) we have
sin1/xVx ---IxVx=
X 3/ 4,
V x2 + J/,-X3 =x 3/ 4 Vl + ,....3/ 4 ,
whencesin -V x x --- 11x2 +JIx 3
1.12.2.
Replaceeach of the following infinitesimals with
Xl/\037
\302\267
\037/
one:
+ 5a4 -t 6a5
(a) 3 sin a 5a3; (b) (1 cosa)2 + 16a:{
valent
.)))
an
equi-
J.J2. Equivalent
\037
Solution. (a)
73)
the sum of two infinitesimals
that
l'\\ote
I nfinile\037'itnals)
and
\037
orders is equivalent to the summand of the lower order,

since the replacement of an infinitesimal \\vith one equivalent to it
of different
is tantamount to the rejection

of an infinitesimal of a higher order.
In our example
the quantity 3 sin has the order of smallness
:1) the order of sma IIness
(-5a
(b)
3 sin a +
\037
\"'-/
the aid of the principle of substitution of equivathe limits:)

cos
I
sin 5x
(b) xliin) 0
In (I + 4x)
I
cos x2
- .'
- -
find
x)
;)
\037
\037\037
.
cosx
VI
; (d) Jim
2
0
+x
.1m sinV 2x+
arc sin 2 x-arc tan 2 x
;
3x
. 3 si x x22+x3 4 ;
- +
x+
+x2
In
(c) xI lITI 0
I
(e) x\037o
\037
+\037
sin 4x)
\037
-1
(f)
tan
I 1 ill
\037
' .n
()
I 11
\037
sin
5x
(1-
+ cas 2X)4 + Xo
x+sin6 x+2sin5 x
3/V x In (I +3x)
.,
--
7tan
x\037TIo
tan X)2
(g)
2 sin
(sin x-
!l\037\037
3a.
3 sin a \"'-/
\"'-/
quantities
(h)
16a3 is of the lower order,therefore

(1 casa)2 + 16a3 + 5a4 + 6a5 16a3.
1.12.3.
With
(a)
(-5a)
l\037ence
16a3 +5a4 +6af>==4sin4 + 16a3 +5a4 +6a5.

(1-cosa)2+
The summand
lent
1,
('/..
3,
..
3.
II - )
- - x-'.)
5
r-( arc tan r x ). ( e .

1
SIn 3
cosx+2 sIn
t an 3 x 6 sin - x +
2
.'
x-x2 +3x4
x-x')
5
'J
\302\267
have sin 5x \"'-/5x; In (.1+ 4x) \"'-/ 4x (see the list

of equivalent infinitesimals on page 72). Therefore
Solution. (a)
We
(c) xJim0
--+
l\037r\037
V + 1n
1
cosx
x\037
sin
In
Jim
x
5x
( 1 -t- 4x)
In
= 45
\302\267
x-I)]=
II +
x
(\037\037:
==4 lim
x-o
5x
4x
l-?'\037
cas
x\037-I
= _ 4 lim
x2\0372
t\037O
(d) From the list of equivalent infinitesimals we find:

2
sin 4x 4x.)))
II 1 x x 2 1 (x -r- x )/2
+ +
\037
\037
x;2,
\037
X)
-2.
/. 1nt roduction
CIl.
7\037)
to Mathematical
Therefore)
}if 1
Ii m
x
+ +x2
sIn
\037
sin 2x + arc sin2

Hence,)
.
sin 2x -f-
x-a
(h)
==
x-arc tan
arc sin 2 x
3x
2x
arc tan
\037
sin
-1
\"\"
(arc t an
Find the
/\037\037
1.12.4
.
x-o3
X)
2 5
'1r-::
r x ) ( e V-;- )
\037J\037
2x.-.,.,
2x.)
2
== 1 un 2x ==
Vx Vx; e5 V-;
V x In (1+ 3x) == l'
arc tan
I'
sin
\037
sin V-X.-.,.,Vx; In (1+ 3x) \"\" 3x;
x/2
==\037
8)
0 4x
Ii m
x
of equivalent infinitesimal functions given on
(e) Using the list

page 72 \\ve obtain
I un
4x
\037
AnaltlSis)
V x;
-x.3x
\"\"
x.5V\037
\302\267
-_
\037
approximate values of the roots

the
absolute error.
E
stimate
VO.994.
Solution.Use the approximat e formula
close
/1+ 0.02
\"\"
\"\"
estimatethe
1-
O.\0372
O.\03706
( *)
1.01;
= 0.997.
error we note that
; -(VI +x-l)= (x-2V I +x+ 2)=
= J..
2 (X + 1
1.02and
V1-0.006
To
V 1 x .-.,.,1 x/2
to zero). In our case
.(for x sufficiently
\302\267
\037
2 V x + 1+
1)==\0372 ( V x
Hence,the absolute error

2
of
8.
+1
1) 2 .-.,.,2
\037
\037
!=
x2
( 2) 8
the approximate formula (*) is esti\302\267
mated by the quantity

Using this estimate\\ve find that the absolute error of the root
02)2
and the absolute error of
Vl.02 1.01is (0'8
=0.00005,
\037
\037
;-
.J;
0.994 0.997amounts
\037
1.12.5.
Prove
(a)
J /
V
to
\037
(O.006r\037
that, as x.---?0,
I
1+x--l\0373x;)))
\037
0.000005.
1.13.
One-Sided
Limits)
\037
(b) arc tan
mx
(c)
-...-mx;
1-cos x\", ;
1.12.6.
For
sin2 x.
x---+-O determine the order of smallness,relative

(x) ==x, of t he following infinitesimals:
to the infinitesimal
\037
(a) V-sin 2 x+ x 4; (b)
1.12.7.
For
the infinitesimal
2
3(x-2)2+2(x
-4);
(b)
In
sin
\037
In
(g)
xt\037o
\037
In
(l-x+
Find
1.12.9.
\037
\037
(1+sin4x).
. 5
'
In
esm
x_I
-7x:)
J
\037rc
+ 3x-1
YI, sin
(f) Iim In (l + t an 2x) ,
x_ 0
(.
2x\037
I tIn
\037
+ I)
2 +4x3)
n (1+2x-3x
.
In
Vsinnx.
'.
(d) xIiln 0 arct\037n3x
Sill 2x
\302\267
In
(b)
of the method of
. sin 3x ;
(I +5x)
. e 3x _
(c) lun
(I-t-tan 2x)'
0
.
(2-cos2x)
;
(e) lun
sin 3x
x\037
x)
replacingan infinitesimal
one, find the following limits:)
an equivalent
!\037I\037
1+(lV\037
x-
\037
1.12.8.
Making llse
(a)
x2
x\0372 deterrnine the order of smallness,

relative to
2, of the following infini tesimals:
(x) -==
(a)
with
75)
\302\267
(h )
,)
I III]
x
0
\037
V 1 -j-x 2
I
--coS .
I
x)
approximate value of the root V 1042.)
an
1.13.One-Sided
Limits
A
number
as x ---+- XO
is
(A ==
calledthe
lin1
f
x Xo + 0
(x)
\037
() (e)
> 0 such that
for all
===
Ii/nit
f (xo
to the right of the function f (x)

if for any
0 there exists
+ 0))
x sat isfying
the inequal i ty
\302\243
>
0 < x-X < () (c)
Q
belongingto the domain of definition of the function f (x) the

inequali ty 1 f (x) A < e holds true. The I imit to the left of the
as x \037 xo
is defined in a similar way. If Xu ==0,
function f (xo-O)
then we write simply x-++O or x\037-Oand, respectively, f(+O)
and
and f
-0
(-0).
Find
1.13.1.
the one-sidedlimits of the functions:

+ 3 if x 1,
-2x
ifx>l asx-d;
(a)f(x)=\\3x_5
2
J
-1
\037
x
(b) f(x)== lx-II as x-rl;)))
Ch.
76)
(c) f (x) ==
/. Introduction
1-cos2x
x
(d) f (x)= 3 +
to Mathematical
Analyslc,)
as x --i- 0;
as x ---+1;
1+7 /(1-x)
1
(e) f (x) ==cos(n/x) as x \037 0;

(f) f (x) 5/(x 2)3 as x --i- 2.
Solution. (a) Letx\037l.Thent(x)==-2x+3.
Hence,f(I-0)=
-==
t (x) 1 is the]imit to the left.

1-0
If x > I, then f (x) 3x-5; hence
f (1+ 0) == li
t (x)== 2 is the Ii i t
liill
x\037
==
111
x\0371+0
to the
0'
ITl
(see Fig. 28).
right
-V
x--
(C) f ( )
- -_
cos2x
sin\037
_ Y2,si
11 X
x)
x)
but
\\
sin x 1=
{)
Fig.
sin x,)
if
-SInx,)
if
0 <:x
<:IT/2,
-JI/2<: <:o.)
x
Hence,)
28)
lim
(--0)= lirn-0t (x)==K-+-O
)
( V-2
x
==
f (+0) lirn f (x) == IiIn ( V 2
) V2.
X-++O
x-++O
(d) The expressionI/(l-x) tends to + 00, when x tends to I,
remainingless than I, therefore
= 0 1-0
IinJ 7 /(1-X)== + 00, liIn
) 3.
1+71/(1-X)'f (
Further, as x \037 I -1-0 we have 1/(I-x)\037-00. Therefore
lim 7 1/(I-X)== 0,
x\037
===
Si\037
\037/2,
-==
Si\037
=--=
x\037l-O
X\0371-0
\037-+I+O)
f(I+0)=x-+l+0(3+1+7)
Jil-n
(e) Let
us
terms)
y.)))
=3+1=4.
choosetwo sequences,{xn } and
{x\037},
2
and x ==2n
1,2,
xn ==
i vel
respect
1\037(I_x)
2n
\037
(n ==
with
\302\267
\302\267
.))
the general
.9
Then lilTl
1.14.
Continuity
==
Xn
lirn
of
Points of Discontinuity
Function.
77)
== 0 and)
x.\037
n\037oo)
n\037\037
liIn
f (xn ) == lien
lim f
cos2:n:n == 1;)
fl\037;$))
n\037;$)
== lirn
(x\037)
11-'\037
I1\037OO
cas(2n + 1) = O.
\037
function f (x) has no 1 imit to the right at the point 0;

that f (x) is an even function, we conclude that
into
account
taking
it has no 1 imit to the left either (see Fig. 29).
Hence,the
!f)
1)
;c)
-1
Fig.
Prove that,
1.13.2.
as
f (x )
29)
x-+l,the
I
'\\
+1
3x + 2
function
at 0
at 1
< x < 1,
<x <3
5.
has a limit to the left equal to 2 and a limit to the right equal to
Find the one-sided limits of the following functions as
x
1.13.3.
-+0:
(a) f (x)== 2_21 / X ;
(b) f (x)==ellx;
(c) f (x) ==
sin x
x)
1.14.Continuity of a Function.
and Their Classification
Pointsof Discontinuity
\037
Let the function y ==f (x) be defined on the set X and let the
point of this set.The function f (x) is said
Xo E)( be the limit
to be continuous at the point Xo if lim f (x)= f (xo)' The latter conXo
dition i.s equivalent to the condition lim
(xo) == Hm [f (xo +
point
)\302\243
\037
-.0
\037y
-f(xo)] =0.)))
l!1x
fix
-.0
\037x)
Ch.
78)
/. Introduction
to Mathematical
Analysis)
The function f (x) is cont inuous at the point Xo if and onl y if

f (xo 0) == f (xu + 0) ==f (xo)'
The function t (x) is continuous on the set X if it is continuous
at every point of this set.
Points of Discontinuityof the First Kind. Let the point Xo be the
limit point of the domain of definition X of the function t (x).
The point Xli is calleda discontinuity of the lirst kind of the fun1 imits
to the right and to the left and
ction t (x) if there exist
== t (x o -1-0) =1= f (xo)' then XII is called
they are finite. If t (x,,-O)
a remova\037le discontin uit y. Further, if t (xo 0)=1= t (xo+ 0), then Xu
is a non-removable discontinuity of the first kind, and the d.if1erence
is calleda jump discontinuity of the function
f(xo+O)-t(x'I--O)
f (x) at the point XII'
Points of Discontinuity of the SecondKind. If at least 011(-' of
the limits of t(xo-O)and f(xo+O) is non-existent and infinite,
then point Xo is calleda discontinuity at the second kind of the funth\037
--
ction f (x).
1.14.1.
Using only 1 the definition prove discontinuity of the function t (x) 3x4 + 5x:
+ 2X2 + 3x + 4 at any x.
Solution.Let Xo Be an arbitrary point on the number scale.Fir\037t
\037-=
Iim t (x):)
find
x
lirn
1C
.......
X0
.......
Xo)
f (x) == I.iln
-+
X0)
(3x4 + 5x;}-1-2X2 + 3x + 4) ==
3x\037
+ 5xo+
2x\037
+ 3xo-1-4.
Then compute the value of the function at the point xo:

+ -1-3x0 + 4.
f (xo) 3-\\ +
\037
2x\037
5x\037
\037
Comparing the results thus obtained,we see that

Ii
x
.......
11
t (xI))
--==
t (XI)')
xo)
Hence,the
function f (x) is cont inuous at the point Xu by definition.

is an arbitrary point on the number scale,\\\\'e have proved
continuity of the function for all values of x.
SinceXo
. .2.G
1 14
i v en
the
f un
ct j OilS:)
+ (2x + 3)
2
(a) f(x) ==<)

\037
6-5x
x-3
-2.\\2
(b) f (x) = J 3x
\\
(c) f (x)=
I
.)
\037;=\037
for
for
for
for
for
-oo<x\037lt
< x < 3,
3 x < 00;
x\0373,
x>
1
\037
3;)))
\037
1.14.
Continuity
of
Points
Function.
79)
of Discontinuity
Find the points of discontinuity (if any). Determine the Jump

discontinuitiesof the functions at the points of discontinuity of the
fi
rs t kin d
Solution.(a) The domain of definition of the function is the entire

number scale (-00,00). In the open intervals (-00,I), (I, 3),
(3, 00) the function is continuous.Therefore discontinuitiesare pos-
1, 3,
x == at which analytic representation of the function is changed.

Let us find the one-sided I im its of the f unct ion at the point x
sible only at the points x
===
-=\037
0) =
1:
+ (2X2 + 3) 1;
f(I+O)== lim (6-5x)==I.
f (1
Ii m
x\037l-O
\037
X'-+l+O)
The value of the function at the point x == 1 is determinedby the

e. t ( 1)==(2 + 3)/5== Since
anal yt ic representa t ion,
f
0) t (I + 0) ==f (1),
the function is continuous at the point x ==
first
(1-
i.
1.
===
1.
Considerthe point x = 3:
f
(3-0)==x-3-0(6-5x)== -9;
li\037
f (3
Ii
+ 0) ==x-+3+0)
(
111
3) = O.
We see that the right-hand and the left-hand limits,though finite,

are not equal to each other, therefore the function has a discontinuity
of the
first
at the point x ==
kind
3.
The lump of the function at the point of discontinuity is

==
9.
f
f (3 +
(c) The function is defined and continuous throughout the entire
number scale;exceptat the point x== 3/2. Since 2x 3 > 0 for
0)- (3-0) 0-(-9):=

x>3/2and 2x-3<0for x<3/2,
> 3/2,
x<3/2.)
==
f (3/2+ 0) == 1,f (3/2-0)
f
Hence,)
(x) ==
I at x
at
{ -1
-1.
Therefore, at the point x ==3/2 the function has a finite disconof the first kind. The jump of the function at this point
tinuity
is equal to 1-(-1)==2.
f(3/2+0)-f(3/2-0)
t.14.3.
Test the follo\\ving functions for continuity:
'
\"
(a)
(x) =
(
<
--
sin x
for
x =1=
..\\
fur
0,
==0;)))
Ch.
80)
/. Introduction
to Mathematical
Analysis)
(b) f (x)=sin(ljx);
XSin (ljX) for X=F O,
o
for x == 0;
x
for x
3
0,
f
(d) f (x) = 2a x
for
0;
(e) f (x) == arc tan (ljx); (f) f (x) ==(x a
1).
Solution.(a) The tunction is continuous at all points x
the point x -== 0 we have)
'
- sin x
sin x
I IIIl
1
f (0)== 1;) 11 ln
x
(c) f(X)=={
4.
<
x;;;::
\\
x--o
Hence,at this
means that
is
it
+ l)j(x+
-= -= .
x-+o
-=I=-
O.
At
x)
point the function is continuous
continuous for all val ues of
as
\\\\'hich
\\\\'ell,
x.)
!I
1
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
37r
-n:21
1-1
-3n2
I
I
2
1[,
2\0371
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
-1
Fig. 30)
(b) The function is defined and continuous for all x =F O. There

qre no one-sided limits at the point x = (cf. Problem I.t 3.t
(e)). Therefore, at the point x ==0 the function suffers a discontiof the second kind (spe Fig. 30).
nuity
==f (+0)==f (0)
== 4, and f (+0)== 2a;the equality f
(d) f
e. the function f (x) will be continuous at the
will be fulfilled,
poj n t x == 0 if we put 2a 4, a ==2. 2
+ 0) == lirn (x x + 1)==3, e. both one0) == f
(f) f
\302\260
(-0) i.
(-1-
(-1
sided limits are finite
===
a.nd
x--1
coincide.But
(-0)
i.
at the point
-1
x:=
the)))
1.14.
Continuity
.\037
at
Points
Function.
of DlSf.-Ontinuity
oJ)
is not continuous.The graph

-x
the point M (-1,3)
+1
=- then
function
function is not defined and, therefore,

of the function is the parabolay ==x 2
with
(-1)
we redefine the
it
3,
putting f
the function has a 1'<:1110\\\\'ill become continuous.Thus, 3t x ==
vable discontin u i ty.
removed.
If
-1
Test
1.14.4.
the following functions for continuity:

==
E
f
(x)
(x). It should be borne in mind that the function
(a)
E (x) is defined as the maximum integer n contained in the numas a number satisfying the inequality n x.
ber x,
i.e.
\037
(b))
A
(x) =
J
'\\
if
if
x is rational,
x is irrational.)
(x)is calledthe Dirichletfunction. For instance, (0) 1;'A( -1/2)== 1;

(V-2)==0;'A(n)==O, etc.
Solution.(a) The function E (x) is defined throughout the entire
number scaleand takes on only integral val ues. This function is
'A
'A
===
- 31).-
discontinuous at every integral val ue

riable, since E (n 0) ==n 1;
E (n
of the
+ 0) ==n (see Fig.
!I
(b) Let us choosean arbitrary
on the x-axis;two cases

are possible:( 1) the number Xo
is rational; (2) the number Xo is
point
Xo
irrationaL
1.
there are irrational points, where

(x) ==O. Hence,in any vicinity
of Xo there are points x for which
==
-------\037
:
In
In the first case'A(xo)==
a
of
rational
point
any vicinity
'A
independent va-
1
-1
\037-2
I
I
J
I
I)
x)
\037
-3)
'A (xo)-'A(x)
1==1.
Fig. 31)
the second case 'A (xo) ==O.
In any vicinity of an irrational point there are rational points
at which 'A (x)== Hence,it is possible to find the val ues of x for
I
\037y
In
1.
which)
= 1.
l\037yl=I'A(xo)-'A(x)1
Thus, in both casesthe di fference l1y does not tend to zero as
I1x\037 O. Therefore, Xo is a discontinuity. SinceXo is an arbitrary
point, the Dirichlet function 'A (x) is discontinuous at each point.
The graph of this func\"tion consists of a set of points with irra t ional abscissas on the x-axis and of a set of points with rational
abscissas on the straight line y == 1, that is why it is impossible to sketch
it.)))
of
/. Introduction
Ch.
82)
to Mathematical
Anal.usis)
1.14.5.
Using the
definition of continuity of a function In terms

test the following functions for continuity:
(x) = ax + b (a #:0);
\"\302\243-6\",
(a)
x2
x is rational,
if x is irrational.
Solution.(a) Choosean arbitrary point Xo. According to the
<lefini tion it is necessary to show that for any preassigned,arbitra0 it is possible to find a number 8 0 such
rily small number
8 the inequality t (x) f (xo)
c holds true.
that at X-Xo
Consider the absolute value of the difference
(b) f (x)=
if
-x2
\\
\"\302\243--8\"
\302\243
.1
<
(x)-t o)
>
>
<
o -i-b)
(ax+b)-(ax
ax+b-axo-bla
require that If (x)-f(X o) 1< This requirement
all x
(X
==
==
===
Let us
fulfilled for
\302\243.
II
X-Xo I.
will
be
satisfying the inequality
or Ix-xol<\302\243/lal (a=#=O).
o
}allx-x
a I, then at X-Xo 1<8 the inequality
Hence, we take 8
f (x)-f (xo) 1< is fulfilled. Continuity is thus proved for any
x ==
/<\302\243
if
\037
\302\243/1
\302\243
point
Xo.
of rational
(b) Choosean arbitrary point Xo. If {xn } is a sequence
If
is a sequence
numbers tending to xo, then lim f (xn ) ==
X'I-+ Xo
== -x\037. At Xo =F 0)
of irrational numbers tending to x o, then Iill1 f
,
x\037.
{x\037}
(x\037)
X.'1-+ Xo
the indicated limits are different and hence the function is discontinuous at all points x =1= O.
On the other hand, let now x ==O. Find the absolute value of
the difference If{x)-f{O)[:
{x)-f(0) == + x2 -O
is obvious that x2 < at x < VB.
If
1==-
x2
If
> 0 is given, then,
we
obtain
putting 8\037J/E and Ix-O/==Ixi<8,
l\037f(O)I==X2<\302\243.
lienee,9t the point x ==0 the function is continuous.And so,the
point x ==0 is the only point at which the function is continuous.Note
the
that the function under considerationcan be expressedthrough
It
\302\243
\302\243
Dirichlet function (see Problem 1.14.4

(b)):f(x)==x2 [2A(x)-1].
1.14.6.
Determine which kind of discontinuity the following
functions have at the point x ==Xo:

x+ 2 for x < 2,
(a) f (x)= J 2
1 for x
x
2; Xo == 2;
\\
\037
(b)
x-s xo==5; (c) f(x)==1+21 /x ; xQ==O;
==
tan
x; Xo == JIj2;)))
(d) f (x)
t (x)==arctan
\037
1.14.
Continuity
of
Points
Function.
83)
of Discontinuity
n 2 , where n is a natural number.

(e) t (x) == Vx-E(V-X); xo:::::
Solution.(a) Find the one-sidedlimits at the point Xo == 2;
lim (x + 2) ==4;
(2-0)==X-+2-()
t (2 -l-0) == !in]
x-\037
Herethe limits to the right

coincide,therefore the
do not
2+
(x2
0)
-1) 3.
==
and to the left exist, are finite but

function has a discontinuity of the
at the point Xo ==2.

The
function E (J,/-x)has discontinuitiesof the first kind at
(e)
every point x == n 2, where n is a natural number (see Problem
1.14.4(a)), whereas the function V-X is continuou\037 at all x O.
E (V x ) has discontinuitiesof
Therefore the function f (x) ==V
the first kind at the points
n 2,
4, 9,
first
kind
1,
1.14.7.
Test the
x-
...
\"',
\037
following functions for continuity
= eX-I
-X-;
for x 0,
(
(b) f (x)= { -X
==
(a) f (x)
eX
=1\"=
3 for x 0;
l /X for x
e
0,
(c) f (x)= f
-==
0;
t 0 for x
(
=1\"=
(d) f (x)=
(sIn X F \"; (e) f (x)=

(f) t (x)==E (x) +-E ( x).
I i III
n\037
(\302\243)
1.14.8.
'::
I
\037
\037
For each of the following functions find the points of

discontinuity and determine the jumps of the function at these
points:
4
t (x) = x:J. _ 2x + I ;
(a)
x+-2 ;
(b) t (x)==x+ X-1-21
x-] .
2 -x3 '
I
(c)
(d)
(
t (x) == <
(x)
\037-=
x
2
x-
for
for
1.14.9.
Redefine the
to make them
(a) f (x)=
\037
> 1.
following functions at the point
continuous:
x
11:
;)))
1,
x=O so as
Ch.
84)
(b) f (x)=
(c) f (x)=
(d) f (x)=
\037
I. Introduction
to Mathematical
Analysis)
5X2
;-3x ;
x
;
V\037-I
. .)
)
S10-X
cos
x)
/.15.Arithmetical Operationson Continuous
Functions.
Function
Continuity of a Composite
the functions f (x) and g (x) are continuous at the point x ==xo,
If
then the functions
(l) f (x)+ g (x); (2) f (x).g (x); (3)

(g (xo) 0)
are also continuous at this point.
the point x ==Xo and
If the function u == (x) is continuous at
the function y = f (u) is continuous at the point U o == (xo), then
the composite
function y == f [cp (x)] is continuous at the point x ==xu'
\037
\037
\037\037)
cp
cp
1.15.1.
Test
the following functions for continuity:

2x 8x2 II
f(x)=x4 +4x3 +8x2++8X+4 ;
3 sin 3 x+ cos2 x+ .
'
( b ) f (x) =
4 cosx 2
3
x cosx + si0 x
.
(c) f (x)=D
(a)
cos (IjSln
\0372
x))
Solution.(a) A function representinga ratio of two continuous

functions (polynomials in this case) is discontinuousonly at points
for which the denominator becomeszero.But in our case
+ 4x3 + 8x2 + 8x + 4 ==(x2 + 2x + 2)2,

since x2 + 2x + 2 ==
1)2+ 1 > at any x, the
x,l
and
denominator
C\037+
never becomeszero.Hence,the function f (x) is continuous throughout the entire number scale.
(b) The function f (x) suffers discontinuities only at points for
at points which are the
the denominator equals zero,
\\vhich
roots of the equation
== or cosx = 1/2,)
4 cos
whence)
x = X n == + n/3 + 2nn (n == 0, +
+ 2,
\302\260
i.e.
x-2
\302\260
1,
...).
Thus, the function f (x) is continuous everywhere, e:xceptat tRe

point
Xn')))
\037
1.15.
Operations
on Continuous
Functions)
85)
the preceding example,the numerator is continuthe entire number scale.As far as the denominator
is concerned,accordingto the theorem on continuity of a composite
function, it is continuous at points where the function u == I/stn x
is cont inuous, since the function cas u is continuous everywhere.
Hence, the denominator is continuous everywhere, exceptat the
we must excludethe points
points x ==kn (k an integer). Besides,
at \\vhich
cos(l/sinx)==0,
the points at which l/sinx ==
== (2p+ 1)n/2 (p an integer), or sin x == 2/[(2p + 1)
Thus, the
function f (x) is continuous every\\\\t'here
exceptat the points x ==k'JI
and x =
1)'1arc sin
+nn (k, p, n =0, 1,+ 2,
11:
(c) Just as
in
ous throughout
i.e.
(-
n].
...).
:f:
(2P;I)
Test the
.15.2.
(a)
== cosxn,
cos log x;
r
2
y ==V 1/2 cos x.
(b) y
(c)
functions for continuity:

following composite
where n is a natural number;
==-
Solution. (a) We have a composite function y ==casu, where

1l ==x . The function y ==cosu is continuous at any point u, and
the function u ==Xll is continuous at any value of x. Therefore, the
function y ==cosxn is continuous throughout the entirenumb er scale.
2 where u==cosx.
2
The function
,
(c) Here Y==1
is defined and continuous on the interval
V
V2/2L the
Junction u ==cosx is continuou s througho ut the entire number scale.
2 x is continuous at all
values
Therefore, the function y == VI/2
{)f x for which
12
/ 1/2-u
(-
2/2,
Vl/2-u
-cos
cosx
r
\037
.15.3.For
_.
n/4 + 2nn
5n/4 + 2J1n
2/2, i.e.t
JI
\037
\037
\037
\037
each of the following functions
discontinuity and determine their character:

==
2 ' \\\\'here
U'l.+ll1
(a)
(b)
y=u 2,
(c)
==
where
1J.. ,
u2
\\\\'
u ==
forx\037O,
fx-l
x+ 1 for x < 0;
here
u == tan
u\037
I)
SoluiiO/l.(a) The
x-I;
function)
u ==<p
x.
(x) ==x-I)))
3rr/4 + 2nn,
7n/4 + 2nn.
find
the points of
Ch.
86)
/. Introduction
to Mathematical
Analysis)
1.The function
suffers a discontinuity at the point x==

]
y==f{u)=u 2+ u-)2
u2
find
suffers a discontinuity at points \\vhere

and U 2
Using these values of ll,
of x by solving the equations:)
===
1.
+u-2===0,i.e.u t ===-2
the correspondingvalues
-x-I')
-2=x-I' 1--'
I
whence x == 1/2 and x == 2.

Hence,the composite function is discontinuous at three points:
1/2,x2 == 1, x3 ==2. Let us find out the characterof discontiXl
nuities at these points.)
\037
hm
lim
===
x\0371
therefore
X2 ===
==
0,
\302\2431-00)
1 is a removable discontinuity.)
lim y==
x-l/2
hence,the points XI
kind.
Given
1.15.4.
lim
u-\037-2)
===
the
!im y
y===oo;
1/2,
Xa
===
===
lim
-. y
== 00;
1)
2 are discontinuities of the second
ion f (x)
funct
\037
===
1-x).
1/(
discontinuity of the composite function
FiJr1d
the
points of
y==f{I[I(x)]}.)
Solution.The
po-int
x =-= 1 is a
discontinuity of the function

1
v\037t(x)===-.
I-x)
x =I=-
If
1, then)
Hence,the
1 [I(x) J.
x-
u==f[f (X) ] = I-I/(I-x)=\037'

point x ==
\302\260
is a
discontinuity of the
functi-on
\037
If
x =I=-
0, x *-1, then
[I(x)]}= I-(x-l)jx==x
I
===
f {f
is continuous everywhere.
Thus, the points of discontinuity of this compositefunction are
x ==0, x == 1,both of them being removable.)))
1.16.
Funct.
\037
Cont. on ClosedInterval:
87)
Properties)
1.16.The Properties
of a Function Continuouson a
ClosedInterval.Continuity of an InverseFunction
I.
function f (x), continuous on the int0rval [a, b], possess-
\037
l\037he
es the
fol1o\\\\'ing
properties:
(x) is bounded on [a, b];

f
(2) (x) has the minimum and maximum values on [a, b];
(3) If In == min f (x), M == max f (x), then for any A sat isfy-
(1) f
a<x<b
a<.x<.b
A
M there existsa point Xo E [a, b] for
ing the inequalities m
which f (XI)) = A.
then we can find a point
In particular, if f (a).f (b)
c (a c b) such that f (c)==O.
I Continuity of an Inverse Function.If the function y ==f (x) is
defined, continuous and strictly monotonic on the interval X, then
there existsa single-valued inverse function x == (y) defined, continuous and also strictly monotonic in the range of the function
y -= f (x).
1 ==0 have a root?
Does the equation
\037
\037
< 0,
< <
I.
cp
1.16.1.
Solution.The function
sinx-x+
f (x)== sin
x-x+1
;s continuous over the entire number scale.Besides,this function

changessign, since f (0)== 1,and f (3Jtj2) == 3nj2.Hence,by prothe interval [0, 3nj2] there is at least one root
perty (3) within
of the given equation.
Has the equation -18x
1.16.2.
+ 2 ==0
interval
[-1, I]?
xC>
roots belonging to the
1.16.3.
Prove that any algebraicequation of an odd po\\ver

real coefficients)
a oX 2n + I + a I X 2n +
+ a2n x -t- a 2n 1 ==0
has a t least one reaI root.
Solution.Considerthe function
211
2n
f (x)==Q X +-1 + a 1 x +
-t-a 2n x-tQ2n+l'
\302\267
..
is continuous throughout
Let, for
determinacy
f
the number
sake,ao > O. Then
== -1-00,
x-+oo (x)
Ii rn
ith
(*))
...
\\\\hich
-t
\\\\
and
Ii In
X\037-oo)
scale.
f (x) ==
- 00.
find numbers a, b, a O. By
Ch. /.
88)
1.16.4.
Let
the
val
the function
equation f (x) ==
[a, b]. Arrange
Prove that
in
10 Malhematiral
Introduction
f
have a
\302\260
them
(x) be continuous on [a, bJ and let

number of roots on the interfinite
order:
the ascending
in
Analysis)
... < < b.
a < Xl < X2 < X:} <

each of the intervals
...
X'l
, (X1l' b)
(a, Xl)' (Xl' x2), (X 2, Xa ),
the function f (x) retains the same sign.
Solution.If the function changed its sign on a certain interval,
then \\ve could find one more root of the function, \\vhich contradicts
the condition.To determine the sign of the function on any of the
indicated intervals it is sufficient to compute the value of the function at an arbitrary point of the appropriate interval.
Given a function on the interval
2, + 2]:
2 2
x
x
if
<
0,
+
f
f (x)= _(x2 + 2) if
0 x 2.
Is there a point OB this closedinterval at which f (x)= o?
Solution.At the end-points of the interval
2, +2]the given
function has different signs:
1.16.5.
[-
-2
\037
\037
\037
[-
(-2)== +6; f (+2)==-6.

zero at any point
But it is easy to noticethat it does not become
of the interval [-2, +2].Indeed, x2 +2 > and -(x2 +2) ;:0
has a
at
this is due to the fact that
at
f
\302\260
any x;
the point
x == O.
Does the
1.16.6.
function
-sin
(x)
discontinuity
3
3
1tX
f (x)==x /4
within
the interval
take on the value 2

\037
[-2,2)?
-sin + 3 is
JtX
x
continuous
funct ion f (x)
the interval
Furthermore,at the end-pointsof this
interval it attains the values)
Solution. The
== 3/4
[-2,2].
within
f(
< 2+ < 5,
2) == 1.; f (2) ==
5.
property (3), withi.n the interval

x such that t (x)= 2+
2) there existsat least one
Since
[-2,
then,
by
\302\267
p\037)int
1.16.7.
Show that
the function
2X
t (x)=
2x
{2
for
for
-= 0, < 0,
1
\037
1 f()r 0
<X
\037
1,)))
\037
Funrt.
1.16.
Cont. on ClosedInterval: Properties)
[-1,1],has neither
defined and bounded on the interval
values.
nor minimum
89)
[-1,
maximum)
Solution.In the interval

0) the function increasesfrom 3/2
it increrlsesfrom 0 to
to 2 and in (0,
it doesnot attain either
the va lue 2 or O. Therefore the function is boundedbut never reaches
its upper and lo\\ver bounds. This is because there is a discontinuity
at the point x ==o.)
1]
.16.8.Show
1,
that on any interval [a, b] of length greater than

E (x) attains its minimum value but
the function f (x) ==
never reachesits maXilTIUm.
Solution. In any interval In, 11 1), \\vhere n is an integer,the
never attaining the maxigiven function f (x) increasesfrom 0 to
1
for
mum. lienee,0
f (x)
any
x. Sinceon the interval la, b] we
can find at least one internal integral point n, then f (n) == and
but
lim f (x) -=
f (x)=I=I for any
t
x-
unity
<
\037
\302\260
1,
X-+/l-Q
1,
x)
the function reaches -2 -1 a)

2) 3)
never
value but
its lllinimum
Fig. 32)
reaches its maximum. This is because there is a discontinuity at the point x ==11 (seeFig. 32),
x. It
means
that
1)
Prove that the function y == 2n+ V-X (n a naturai number)

1.16.9.
the number scale,consirleringit as a function
is continuous throughout
1.
inverse to =
X21l+
Solution.The .function y ==X 2ll + is continuous and increasesfrom

00 to 00 over the entire number scale.Hence,the inverse function
x + t/y is defined for all y, continuous and increasing.Denoting
J
21/
===
the independent variable again as
'
2n+l/v x possessesth e requIred
===
1.16.10.
Prove
y
that
= aox
2n+l
scale.
Solution.As
we find
propert lese
that
for any function of the

a l x2n-l a 2x2n-3
...,
...,
.
\\\\:here all' a p a 2,
an inverse function
ber
x,
the function
form)
+ . . +allx + an +1')
(*))
\302\267
all' a n + 1 are positive numbers, there
increasingand continuous throughout the
is known, the functions
x, x3, x5,
.. .,
X211+1
exists
nurn-
incrfase
entire number scale. Then, since the coefficients

throughout
n + 1) are positive, the function f (x)==aox + +
a i (i == 0, 1,
.
. .
.2IzI
-L
F ur th ermore,I t IS con+ a1x +
aI/x + a ll + a I so Increases.
tinuous. Therefore, for a function of the form (*) there exists an
inverse function increasing and continuous over the entire number
the
\"
sca
Ie.)))
211
Ch.
90)
/. Introduction
to Mathematical
Analysis)
of an inverse
Note. This exampleestablishesonly the existence
function x ==g (y), but gives no analytic expressionfor it. It is not
always possible to expressit in radicals.The problemsof the existence of an inverse function and of expressingit analytically should
be confused.
not
Prove
1.16.11.
x==x(y)
(-00 <
existsonly
there
that
< 00) which
one continuous function
satisfies the Kepler equation:
x-8sinx==y(0<8<1).
Solution.Let us show that
Xl < X2
y
(x2)
y (x) is an increasingfunction. Let

be arbitrary points on the number scale.Then
==(X2 8 sill x 2) (XI
e sin Xl) ==
Y (Xl)
- -- -
--
== (x2
X I)
--8 (s
in
Estimate the absolute val ue of the difference I SIn

I
SIrl
x2
-sin
XII
= sin
21
.
SIn
Since Y (x)
IS
-;
Coc
/2tXI
II
I
X2
\037
-- 8
(X2
XI
1,
whence)
---2
Xl
2
21
Since0 < e <
\037
XI)
Xl
sin Xl).
sin xII:
\037
X2
-X
sin xII< (x2
sin x2
xx2
== (X 2
-X ).
L
Xl)')
Y (XL) > O.
the interval (--00,00),the
inverse function x is a single-valuedand
continuous function of y.
8 (sin x2
sin Xl)
continuous function
==Y (.'<2)
in
-+
1.16.12.
Show that
the equation
X3
3x 1 ==0
has one root on the interval
2].Calculate this root approximatelyto within
two
[1,
decimal places.
1.16.13.
at
\\vhich
The function f(x) is defined

on the interval [a, b] and has values of
the same sign on its end-points.Can one
Fig. 33
assert that there is no point on [a, b 1
the function becomes zero?
Prove that the function
1.16.14.
f (x) ==
\\
x+ 1 at -l\037x\037O,
X
at
0 <x
\037
is discontinuousat the point x ==0 and still has the maximum

1] (see Fig. 33)
the m in i m urn val ue on
[-1,
\302\267)))
and
Additional
1.17.
\037
\037
Additional Problems)
1.17.
Prove the
1.17.1.
(a) n!< ( nt r for a natural
2n
3 5
Problems)
91)
inequaliti<.\037s:
(b) _
2
_ _ ...- 1;
'
V 2n i- I
1.17.2.
Prove the inequalities:

202
(a) 202303 > 303 ;
(b)
200.
200!< 100
1.17.3.
Solve the
(a)
(b)
inequalit ies:
I;
Ilxl-21\037
> 2;
-11
112-3xl
2
(c) (x-2)V- x + 1 > -1-2.

Can a sum, difference, product or quotient of irrational
numbers be a rational number?
x\037
1.17.4.
Do the
1.17.5.
equations
(b) Itanxl-=tanx+3
(a) Isinxl==sinx+3,
have any roots?
Prove the identity X+JXI
x-JX!
1.17.6.
Prove the
1.17.7.
r =x .
r +(
Bernoulli inequality
1 +X1 +X 2
+xn ,
(1+xt )(] +x2
(I+xn)\037
X n are numbers of I ike sign, and 1 + Xi
where Xl' X 2'
)...
...,
+...
...,
1,2, n).
Find the domains of definit
1.17.8.
(i ==
ion of the following
(a) f (x) ==VX 3_X ;

2
\"
(b) f (x) = -.Isin V-X
(c) f (x)
==-
(d) f (x) =
--
sin2
Jtx;
Y Ix\\-x
and g (x) =
1-3);
(e) f (X) ==arc sjn (I x

(f) f (x) ==arc cassIn x
Y x-Ix\\
-J- .
Are
1.17.9.
(a) f (x) =
\037b)
\037
the
follo\\\\ling
and
(x) = log
x2
cp
(x)
and
cp
functions identical?
:=];
(x) ==2 log
x;)))
>0
functions:
Ch.
92)
I. Introduction
to Mathematical
(c) f (x) =x and (x) = (V x

2
2
x;
x+cos
(d) f(x) == I and cp(x)==sin
(e) f (x) == log (x-1)+ log (x-2) and
cp
)\037;
(x)==log (x
- (x-
1)
2).
interval are the following functions identical?
1.17.10.
In what
(a) f (x) ==x and
Analysis)
cp
(x)
cp
1Olog x;
===
(b) f(x)=Vx J/x-1 and fp(x)==Vx(x-I).

1.17.11.
An isosceles
triangleof a given perimeter2p 12revolves about its base.Write the function V (x), where V is the volume
-==
solid of revolution thus obtained and x is the length of the

lateral side of the triangle.
of the
1.17.12.
Inves.tigating
(a) solve the inequa lity
the domain of definition of functions)
J/x-t2 + Vx-5
\037
prove that the inequality
(b)
V5-x;
(x-3)\037-5)
log2_x
has no solu t ions.
1.17.13.
The function y==signx was defined in Problem

Show that
1.5.11
(n).
(a) x ==x signx;

I
(b) x == x sign x;
(c) sign(signx) ==signx.
I
1.17.14.
Prove that
for a linear function
if
f (x) \037ax+b
1, . . .)
= f (x,J (n == 1,2, ...)
the values of the argument x Xn (n = 2,

form an arithmet ic
progression,then the correspondingvalues of the function
\037
Y 1l
also
form an
arithmeticprogression.
1.17.15.
Prove that the product of two even or t\\\\'O odd funct ions
is an even function, whereas the product of an even and an odd
function is an odd function.
1.17.16.Prove that
if
the domain of definit ion of the f unct ion
f (x) is symmetrical with respect to x ==0, then f (x) + f

even function and f (x)-f x) is an odd one.
(-
(-x) is an
t.17.17.Prove that any function f (x) defined in a symmetrical

(-i,I) can be presented as a sum of an even and an
interval
odd)))
\037
Additional
1.17.
Problerns)
function. Rewrite the following functions

an even and an odd function:
x -r- 2
(a) f (x) =: I TX'\".) ;
I
(b) y
=.=:
ax
in
93)
the form of a sum of
\302\267
1.17.18.
Extend the function t (x) ==X2+X defined on the intero
[0,3]nto the interval [-3,3]in an even and an odd way.
1.17.
19.The function {x}==x-E (x) is a fractional part of a
number x. Prove that it is a periodicfunction
period 1.
1.17.20.
Sketch the graph of a periodicfunction with period
T 1 defined on the half-open interval (0, 1]by the formula y.== x2.
Let us have two periodic
1.17.21.
functions t (x) and (x) defined
val
\\\\'ith
===
set.Prove
cp
that if the periods of these functions are

functions.
commensurate,then their sum and product are also periodic
on a common
1.17.22.Prove that the Dirichlet function

1.I 4.4(b)) is a periodic one but has no period. (x)
1.17.23.
the function
Prove that
A
(see Problem
if
sin x + cosax
is periodic, then a is a rational number.
t (x)
Test
1.17.24.
=-==
the following
(b) t (x) == x
funct
1-
ions for monotony:
x.
(a) t (x) == x I;
Prove that the sum of t\\\\'o functions increasingon a
certain open interval is a function monotonically increasingon this
interval. Will the difference of increasing functions be a monotonic
function?
I
1.17.25.
t.17.26.Give an exampleof a
1.17.27.
Determine the inverse
an inverse.)
if
finition
(a)
-- tan h
x;
(b)
1.17.28.
Show that
rea]
roots.
1.17.29.
Construct
if
x2
if
{ 2x
if
\037
non-monotonic function that has

function and its domain of de-
-oo<x<l,
1 x
\037
\037
4,
4<x<oo.
the equat ion x2 -t- 2x + 1 ==

the graph of the function
y
-==
(x-I)+ f (x +
I),)))
--1 + V x has no
Ch.
94)
/. Introduction
where)
f (x) =
k(l-Ixl/l)at
\\
1.17.30.
Knowing
Y
==f2
(x);
at
Analysis)
Ixl\037l
x
t.
I
>
the graph of the function Y==f(x), sketch the
graphs of the following

(a )
to Mathematical
(b)
== V
ions:
funct
r
f
(x) ;
(c)
==f
[f (x)]
t.t 7 .31.Prove that the graphs of the functions ==loga x and

x can be derived from each other by changing all ordinates
in the ratio I:l/n.
Prove that
the graph of the function y=f(x), defined
1.17.32.
== logan
if
throughout
axesx ==a
the number scale, is symmetrical about two vertical

and x ==b (a < b), then this function is a periodic one.
Let the sequencexn converge and the sequenceYn diverge.
be said about convergence of the sequences
t.t 7 .33.
can
What
(a)
+ Yn;
Xn
t.
(b) xnYn?
Xn and Yn diverge.Can one assert that

t 7 .34.Let the sequences
the sequencesXn + Y'l' XnYn diverge too?
t7
Let an be an interior angle of a regular n-gon (n ==3,
Write the first several terms of the sequenceall' Prove
4,
t. .35.
...). n.
tha t Iim an ==
.36.Prove
1.17
that from
Is the converse true?
Hln X n ==a it
n-oo
I.17.37.If a sequencehas an
sequenceis unbounded?And if
mean that
it
has an
unbounded but not an
t. .38.
t7
Prove
of an arbitrarily
that
infinite
infinite
follows tha t lim
Xn ,
n\037oo
-==
,a I.
infinite limit,does it mean that this

a sequenceis unbounded, does it
limit? Prove that Xn ==n(-l)1t is an
function.
the sequence{an},where an is the
nth
digit
chosen irrational number, cannot be monotonic.

t .t 7.39.Prove that if the sequence{an/bn } (bn > 0) is monotonic,
then the sequence)
will
\302\267
\302\267
also be monotonic.
I.t 7 .40.Prove
and
+ + ..+an
+ .. +bn }
{
a2
at
b i + b2
the
-
(a)
\037I
existenceof
them.)
find
2-, V 2
\037/
T,
limits of the following
2 V 2 J/ 2
...
;)))
sequences
AddU ional
1.17.
\037
(b) xn
(c)
Xll
95)
(c > 0, k > 0);

where
digit of the number n.
alJ is the nth
a,)n,
Prove that at an arbitrarily chosen x the sequence
ell /
===
==
P roblflns)
V n!
1.17.41.
\037nx)
} is bounded.
Prove that
1.17.42.
the sequence
J E (x) -i-E (2x )
.
\037-
n l)
\\
..
+ E (n x)
has the limit xj2.

Prove that)
1.17.43.
lirn
h
\037
Given
1.17.44.
the
===
{
\037
\037
Let)
1.17.45.
a oxn
buxlll
0,
I -1-x for x
o for x ==O.)
that)
P (X ) ==
> 0).
=-;1=
-==
f (x) ==
Ii in
Prove
1 (a
0)
unct ion
f (x)
Prove
ah
a 1xll
b
-t- 1Xlll
-+
1.
0)
- -t-t- .. .. .. -t- ball

1
-4
(au
=1==
X-+
1.17.46.
Find
(a)
P (x) =
the
00
=1=
0).)
(X), if n
Q(Jbo, if n
> In,
m,
. n<nl.)
0
,t
{
===
constants a and b
21 ax::1
-x -ax-b)
b
(
(J;'x2
}\0371\037
\037
from
-\037
00)
1
1
Il -+
XU
the condition:)
0;
==O.)
+1
Sketch t he gra phs of the follo\\vin2
1.17.47.
0);
(a) f (x) == Iim / 1 + (x
lilJ1
0; bo
/IJ
that)
linl
(b)
functions:
\037
00
(b) f (x) = !im

Il _
sin211 x.)
Prove
1.17.48.
that
00)
n-oo[(1+ x) (1+
lim
..
+x4) . (1 -i-x 2\]") =
x2) (1
\037
x)))
(I
x!< 1).
Ciz.
96)
Can
1.17.49.
I. Introduction
one
to Mathenlatical
replaceinfinitesimal
Analysis)
summands
by
equivalent
inHnitesimalsin computing a limit?

1.17.50.
Determine the order of smallness of the chord of an
small
circulararc relative to the sagitta of the same arc.
infinitely
1.17.51.
Determine the order of smallnessof the difference of the
regular n-gons relaperimeters of an inscribed and circumscribed
tive to an infinitely small side of the inscribed n-gon.
The volumetric expansion coefficient of a body is con1.17.52.
sidered to be approximately equal to the triple coefficient of linear
expansion.On equivalence of what infinitesimals is it based?
Does the relation log (1+x)\"'\" x hold true as x\037O?
1.17.;)3.
1.17.54.
Wi 11 the sum of t\\\\,O functions t (x) + g (x) be necpssari
ly
discontinuousat a given point Xo if:
(a) the function f (x) is continuous and the function g (x) is discontinuous at x==x
o,
(b) both functions are discontinuousat
x= xo? Give someexamples.
Is the product of t\\\\,O functions f(x)g(x) necessarily

1.17.55.
discontinuous at a given point Xo if:
(a) the function f (x) is continuous and the function g (x) is discontinuous at this point;
(b) both functions f (x) and g (x) are discontinuous at x = xc?
Give some examples.
Can one assert that the square of a discontinuous f unc1.17.56.
of a function is also a discontinuousfunction? Give an example
tion discontinuouseverywhere whose square is a continuous function.
t.17.57.Determine the points of discontinuity of the following
functions and investigate the characterof these points if:
I
(a) f (x) == 1 _ e x/( 1- x) ;
(b) t (x) ==- 2

(c)
- 2 1/( -X);
1
where A (x)
cp(x)=x[I-2A(x)],
1.14.4
Problem
1.17.58.
is the
Test the following unctions

their graphs:
E (x);
(a) y ==
f
x-
(b)
y=x 2 +E(x2);
2
(c) y==(_I)E(x);
(d) y=
tim
fl
-+
00
Dirichlet function (see
(b)).
1+(2n
81
x)))
)2n
'
for
continuity and sketch
1.17.
Additional
\037
1.17.59.
Investigate the
if
nuity
Problems)
97)
functions f [g(x)] and g [f (x)J for conti2
f (x) = signx and g (x) = X

Prove that the function
1.17.60.
2x
f(x)={ X+l/2
(l-x).
at
-1 x
\037
\037
0,
O<x\037l
at
is discontinuousat the point x = 0 and nonethelesshas both maxivalues on
mum and minimum
1.17.61.
Given the
[-I,1].
function
-_ { (x+1)2-(1/1
x 1+ l/X) if X
f (x)
1f
[-2,
*-0,.
0
Ascertain that on the interval

2] the function takes on
all intermediate values from f
to f (2) although it is discontinuous (at what point?).
Prove that if the function f(x): (1) is defined and monotonic on the interval [a, b];(2) traverses all intermediate values
between f (a) and f (b), then it is continuous on the interval [a, b].
Let the function y = f (x) be continuous on the interval
its
range
being the same interval a\037y\037b. Prove that on
[a, b],
this closed interval there exists at least one point x such that
(-2)
1.17.62.
1.17.63.
f (x) ==X.
Explain this geometrically.
1.17.64.
Prove
that if the function f (x) is continuous on the

X n are any values from this open
(a, b) and Xl' X2,
interval, then we can find among them a number S such that
\"',
interval
f (s)== n) [f (Xl)
+ f (x2) +
\302\267
\302\267
\302\267
+ f (Xn )].
1.17.65.
Prove that the equation x 2x = 1 has at least one positive root which is less than unity.
1.17.66.
Prove that if a polynomial of an even degreeattains at

least one value the sign of which is opposite to that of the coefficient at the superior power of x of the polynomial,then the latter
has at least two real roots.
1.17.67.
Prove
2
y ==(I
4--3 ,
-1
8)))
+x )
that
the inverse of the discontinuous function
sign x is a continuous function.)
Chapter2)
DIFFERENTIATION
FUNCTIONS)
OF
\037
2.1.Definitionof the Derivative

The derivative
f' (x) of
the function y ==f (x) at a given point x
is defined by the equality
'
f (X) =
I 1111
\037x
\037
11 y
== I lrn
0 I1x
\037x
\037
(x
+ I1x)
t (x)
I1x
If this limit is finite, then the function f (x) is calleddifferentiable at the point x; and it is infallibly continuous at this point.
Geometrically, the value of the derivative f' (x) represents the
slope of the line tangent to the graph of the function y ==f (x) at
the point x.
The number)
'
f + (x) =
Iim
\037x...
+0
(x+I1x)
I1x
(x)
is calledthe right-side derivative at the point x

The number)
f'- (x ) = r n:0
\037x
(x
+I1x)
I1x
(x)
is calledthe left-side derivative at the point x.

of the
The necessary and sufficient condition for the existence
derivative f' (x) is the existenceof the finite right- and left-side
deriva tives, and also of the equality (x) f (x).
If f' (x) 00, the function f (x) is said to have an infinite derivative at the point x. In this casethe line tangent to the graph
of the function y ==f (x) at the point x is perpendicularto the
x-aXIS.
2.1.1.Find the increment l1y and the ratio for the following
functions:
===
f\037
\037
===
\037\037
(a) y
===
I1x==0.000
1;
x= 1 and I1x==O.2.
V.x at x ==a
1
(b) y== x 2+ x-)))6 at
and
2.1.Definition
\037
Solution.(a)
==
\037y
\037I
of the Derivative)
99)
= 0.01;
x-t- \037x- VX- V0.0001
0.01
l1y =
= 100.
0.0001
\037
L\\x
2.t .2.Using the
definition of the derivative,
the derivatives
find
functions:
=
cos
ax; (b) y ==5x2
(a) y
Solution.(a) = cosa (x+\037x)-cos
ax=
= 2 sin ax+
of the following
-2x.
\037y
i i
-2sin ( ax+
!1y
sin
!1x
)
L\\x
. .
,
== 2 1 un sin ax a
r1m
Y = 1 1m
.1x 0
.1x 0 X
( +\"( ) -+ 0
In particular, if a-==l, then
and
\037
.3.
sin
\037
x;
.
')
.
sin
\037x
\037
-+
!1x
Llx)
- 2.1x
y=cosx y'==-sinx.
L\\x
.!J.q-
a
2
LlX
I1x
-=
a sin
ax.
2.t Show that the following functions have no finite derivatives at the i n diea t ed poin t s
the point x =0;

(b) y
V 1 at the point x == 1;
==
(c) y 3/ x 1+1 at the point x == O.
(a)
== V Xi at
!f)
x-
===
t.S:.
5/-
== V5/ (x + \037X)3_ V x3.

Solution. (a)
At x = 0 we have Lly=
V Llx3 !1y= VLW\" =
\037y
'l1x
L\\x
tion\037y
\037x
hence,)
\037
\037)
00,
-1 0
.
Fig. 34
is no finite derivative.
\037x
>0
atx==O
the increment of the funcwill
<0
+0
the increment of the function

3 (0 +
+ 1=
Lly =
\037x)
\037
1-
Lly
be
3Llx,)
L\\y
L\\x)
Sincethe one-sidedlimits are different, there

(see Fig. 34).)
4*)))
will
- :=_3.
Hm
.1x
the point x ==0
x')
1)
be: \037y==3 (0+\037x)+1-1=3Llx.

Therefore)
.I Iln l1y = 3.
I1x)
.1x_
At
\037
\037
i.e.there
(c) At
\\
(j.:)
L\\x)
= !im
=
= /\037
2 ; hence,y' (0) .1x
I1x2
0 V\037
v
1.
\\\\
IS no derivative at
Ch,
100)
II. Difjerentiation
2.1.4.Investigate the
1.
the point x ==
function y == Iln x for differentiability at

I
Solution.At x == 1
== Iln(1+
\037y
1.e.)
\037
y == Iln
(1+
In
(I
at
{ -In(I+\037x)
L\\x)
at
I1x
A
uX
{_ In(\037:I1X)
at
Iim
_+
\037y
LlX
= + 1 and
Jim
.1x_
\037
0,
\037x<O.
> 0,
,1x<O,)
whence)
I1x
I,)
\037x)
\037x
\037x)
1==
\037x)
In
=
I1x
11= Iln( 1 +
at
In (1+
I-I
\037x)
Therefore)
Ay
of Functions)
\037y
LlX
= 1.
Since the one-sidedlimits are different, there is no derivative.
Hence,the
function y == , In
x is not differentiable
x == 1 (see Fig. 35).
I
at the point
2.1.5.
Find the average velocity of

motion specified by the formula
s == (t 2
+ 2) m
from t 1 == 5 sec to t 2 == 15sec.
the definition of the
x derivative,Using
find the derivatives of
o 1
the following functions:
3
2
Fig. 35
(a) y ==x; (b) y l/x
Investigate the function y==lcosxlfor differentiability at
the points x == n/2 + nn (n an integer).)
-5t
2.1.6.
\037
2.1.7.
\037
2.2.Differentiation
of ExplicitFunctions
I. BasicRules of Differentiation
( 1) c' 0;
(2) (u + v)' =u' + v';
(3) (cu)'==cu';
(4) (uv)' '==u'u + uv', the product rule;
u
u'v-uv'
(5) ( v ) = v2 (v 0), the quotient rule.
-==
=#=
Herec==const, and u and v are functions of x which have derivatives at a correspondingpoint.

(6) If the function u == (x) is differentiable at the point xo, and
the function y = f (u) is differentiable at the point U o ==cP (xo), then)))
cp
\037
2.2.Differentiation
Functions)
of Explicit
101)
the compositefunction y ==f (cp (x)) is differentiable at the point Xo

(xo) == (u o) (xo), the function of a function, or chain, rule.
I I. Differentiation of Basic Elementary Functions
and
y\037
(I)
(3)
u\037
y\037
(un)' ==nun-tu'; (2)
(sin u)' ==cosu.u';
(cosu)'=-sinu.u';
u'
(4) (tan u)' ==COS 2 U ; (5) (cot u)' ==
u'
.
SIn2 u
u'
(6) (In u)' \037u;

(7)
8) (eT1)'=eUu';
(aU)'==aulna.u';
u.u';
(9) (sinh u)'==cosh
1+ =
(10) (coshu)' ==sinh u.u';

u'
(11) (arc sin u)' = y l-u.2 =
(12) (arc tan u)' ==
u'
(a) y ==5X 2/ 3
(b) y =
-3x/
x2
v-:-
(arccotu)'.
u2
2.2.1.
Find y', if:
5 2
(a rc casu)';
+ 2x-3;
s).
v- (a, b canstan
-1
t
Solution. (a) y' = 5.
-I; - .
X 2/ 3
_ 3.
Xb / 2
-I
\037
-2.3x-3-1=
\037.\037-
x Vx
:4
Find y', if:
2.2.2.
n x + casx
(a) y ==3 cosx+ 2 sin x; (b) y == sIn
cosx ;
3 arcsinx.
2
(d) y==x
(c) y==(x +I)arctanx;
==
3
Solution.(a) y'
(cosx)'+ 2 (sinx)'== 3 sin x+ 2 cosx;
cos
cosx) (sin
cosx)'(sin x+cosx) =
, (sin x+ x)'(sin
(b) Y ==
(sin x-casX)2
s\037
x-
x-
x-
x+sin x) (sin x+cosx) _

_ (casx-sin x) (sin x-cosx)-(cos
-)
(sinx-cosx)2
(sin
(d) y' = (x3)' arc sin x+ (arcsin x)'x 3 = 3x2 arc sin x+ y
2.2.3.
Find the
2
x-cos .
I\037
x)\037
x2
derivative of the given function and then comthe

particular value of the derivative at the indicated value
pute
of the argument:
2
at x==-8;)))
(a)
v x
f(x)==I-3/-+16/x
Ch.
102)
II. DiUerentiat
ion of Functions)
x )2/x at x==O.OI;
(b) f(x)==(1-V
-==
1
sin t) at t =:n /6.
c
( ) f (t) (cost) /(
Putting x ==
'
(c) f (t )
_
f'(x)==-32 x-t/3-I6x-2==32/_ x .
3V x
-8,
Solution.(a)
1\037
we obtain
r-
2
f'(-8)==-3 3V-8
-sint (i-sint)+cos2 t =
(1==
sin t)2
-12;
f' (n/6) 2.
Whence
16
(-8)2
sin t
2.2.4.Taking advantage of the differentiation formulas,

dprivatives of the following functions:
(a) y=2x3 +3x-5;
(c)
-_ -+ + .'
2X2
(b) y=V:X+
(e) y==
x2
1
x
x -t- I
cos<p+ s-in
I
cos
(d) y=
x+ sin x);)
(h)
=-=
;x +O.lx ;
1o
x+Yx
<p
(g) y ==eX (cas
the
x-2V-x ;
x
(f) y ==2e
<p
find
eX
n x;)
+ sin
xe)
'
2.2.5.Taking advantage of the rule for differentiation of a composite function find the derivatives of the following functions:
(c) y==5cosx;
(b) y==lntanx;
(a) y==sin:Jx ;
2
3
(d) y == Insin (x + 1); (e) y ==arc sin V 1 x ;
2
(f) y == In& (tan 3x);
(g) y -= sin 1 1/(I-x).
Solution.(a) Herethe roleof the external function is played by
the power function: sin x is raised to the third power. Differentiating
this power function with respectto the interrnediate argument
(sinx), we
obtain)
3
(SIll X ) sin
2 .
x ==3 SIn x,)
intermediate argument sin x is a function of an independent

variable x; therefore we have to multiply the obtained result by
the derivative of sin x with respect to the independent variable x.
Thus, we obtain)
.3 / . ' .2
,
.
Yx == (SIn x)sin x (SIn x)x == 3 sin xcosx,)
but the
=. -
2
,
' I 1
(b) yx ==(1n t an x )tan x (t an x )x == tan x coS2 X sin 2x .'
== 5cosx In 5
sin x)= 5C05x sin x In
x (cos
(c) == (5
COS
y\037
x)\037os
x)\037
(-
5;)))
2.2.Di{lerentiation
\037
(d)
(e)
10
Functions)
of Explicit
3)
[Insin(x3 + l)]'sin I +1)[sin(x3 + 1)]\0373+1 [x3 + 1];=

= sin. (x3 + I) cos(x3 + 1).3x2
-= 3x2 cot (x3 +
== (arc s-1n V 1 x2 ) _ x2 (V I
x2) _ x2 ( 1 x2); =
1
(X
y\037==
y\037
IV
I-(I-x) .2 Jf
1
Jf
2.2.6.
Find
\302\267
<
(-2x)==_ Ixl x 1-x2
I
l-x\037
,
1)'
(x =#: 0)
\302\267
\302\245
the derivatives of the following functions:
(b) y=(3-sinx)3;
2
s
+ 1/co x;
(a) y==(1+3x+
5x\037)4;
(c) Y == V sin2 x
== V2ex
(d) y
(e)
+ 2x + 1-t-Inx;
D
-+
x;
y=sln3x+cos(x/5)+tanV
2
(f) y
-==
sin (x
5x I) + tan (a/x);
(g) y ==arc cosVx;

In (arc tan
(h) y ==arc tan (In x)
2 arc tan
==
In
(i) y
(x/3);
(j)
x);
V x + -Vx + V x.
2
2
Solution.(a) y'==4(1+3x+5x
)3(1+3x+5x
)'=
==4(1+3x+5x2)3(3+lOx);
I
I
'
_=
;
(Vx ) ' ==
(g) Y ==
,1
VI-(Jfxr\037
(j)y'==
2 -V x + V x + Vi l
2.2.7.Find the
We
Y
1.e.)
2
2(1+x
)-4x:!
=
-./-I _
V
2x
\037
-1-x
\037
(l+X2)2
)
, ==
==
I
1 the derivative
2.2.8.
Find
(a)
-+
{
I
\302\245
y ==sinh
( 1+2 \037-x )] .
2x
y==arcsln 1 + x2
At
l+2 VI+
- Jfx(l-x)
1
2 Yx
derivative of the function
have
, ==
-Yl-x
_
2(I-x2)
x2
at
2
(l-x
)
2
2
=ll-x1(1-.-t-x)
Jf{l_X2)2(l+X2)
at
x2
2
\037
')
x I < 1,
x
> 1.
is non-existent.
the derivatives of the following functions:

5x cosh(xj3);)))
Ch.
104)
(b) y ==coth (tan x)
II. DiUerentiat
-+
+
esinh ax
bx-cosh bx
(sin6x);
\302\267
Solution.
(a) y' = (sinh5x)'cosh
(c) y' =
;+ = 5x( ;)'=
sinh
cosh
5 cosh5xcosh
\037
2.2.9.Find the
y=
(C)
==
+ -}sinh 5xsinh
x)'
cosh(sin 6x) (sin6x)'=
.)tanhtanh 2 x +
__
V (cosh2
x-sinh 2 x) /cosht x +
cosh
+ 6 cos6x cosh(sin 6x).
derivatives of the following functions:
i/-Vs=x
I-x .
x3 (X2 + I )
Vx
Ijcosh2 x
+ 6 cos6xcosh(sin 6x) =
(a)
ions)
tanh (cot x);
(c) y ==arc cos(tanh x) sinh

(d) y ==sinh 2 x3 cosh\037J x2;
(e) y ==sinh
ion of Funci
(u(x)>0);
(b) y=[u(x)]V\\XJ
SIn3 xcos2 x;
+ x2
(d) y=(\037/tanx)X+l.
Solution. (a)
the method of logarithmicdifferentiation.
Apply
Consider, instead of y, the fu nction

x 3 (x2 + I)
z=lnly)=InV V 15-xl=lnlxl+31n(x2+1)-T51nI5-xl.
I
\\
Taking into account that (In

zI
But
uJ
)' == u'ju, we have
-24x3 + 125x2 -14x+75

= x+ 3 (x2x
+
2
15
+ I) (5-x)
15x(x2 + I) (5-x)
1
z' ==(In
y r )' ==y'/y, whence
+1).
V
y '==y zl==
3 (X 2
V5
-24x3+125x'\037-14x+75
15x(x2
+ )(5-x)
\302\267
(b) Suppose the functions u (x) and v(x) have derivatives

given domain of definiti.on. Then the function
z == In y ==v In
also has a derivative
in
this domain, and
-.
z' = (v In u)' ==v' In u + v u'

u)))
In
the
2.2.DiUerentiation
,\037
Hence,the
of Explicit
105)
Functions)
function)
ln y
== eZ)
y ==e
also has a derivative
the indicated domain, and
in
y' ==eZz' == y z'
.)
Thus,)
V
y' = U (v' In u+ v ) =VUV-1u'+uv In u.v'.)
\037'
Show that
2.2.10.
the function y == xe-x2j2 satisfies the equation
(I-x)
xy' =
Solution.)
y.)
(1-x);
y' ==e-x2j2 _x2e-X2j2==e-x2j2

x2).)
xy' ==xe-x2j2
(1-
Hence,)
xy' ==y
2.2.11.
Show that the
xy' (I-x)y.
2.2.12.
Investigate the
(1-x).)
2
function y ==xe-X satisfies the equation
==.:
(a)
2.
(b) y=yl-Vl-x
y=arcsin(cosx);
sin x < O.
(k
f
(cosx)'
1cos
x
y
V
-1at where sin x > 0;
Sa1Ulan.
t. (a )
Hence,y' ==
-==
following functions for differentiability:
' ==
==
2X
points
points where sin x

+ 2,
the function,
At
...)
0, + 1,
===
sin
y'
0, i.e. at
though
sin
==
sin2
x
sin x
\302\267
== 1 at
points where
the points
continuous,is
x ==kn
not dif-
erent i ab 1e.
(b) The domain of definition of this function is the interval
-l\037x\037l.
-I-- (-2x)atx+Oandx+:i:1.
V_
1-0 x---+-l+0
y'\037+oo.
x 0, i.e.
e exists
- - . s.
-y'-2V
\302\267
VI
-'x\037
As X---+
or
out whether the derivativ
.
L\\x t
JI I VI
t her I 1m
L\\x
.1 0
,
1 \"'-/
SinceJI 1
X'
- -
-\037
. V
,1m
\037x
\037
i\\x
L\\x 2
we have
at the point
y'
whe-
then)
\037X2,
' r/
1m
1
==
Let us find
==
eXlS t
-\"2
\037X2
- -
x2
\037x'-+
r\"2
i\\x
i\\x 2
- -h
{
as
1
V2
\037x
as
\037
\037x
+ 0,
---+-0.)))
II. DiOerentiation
Ch.
106)
of Functions)
Thus, y'- (0) =1= (0), which means that the function under consideration has no derivative at the point x ==0, though it is cont inuous at this point.
of f' (x) and even of
Note. There are casesof failure of existence
i.
e.
when
the
at
a
and
graph of the funcgiven point,
(x)
(x)
tion has neither a right-, nor a left-side tangent at the given point.
y\037
f:\"\"
f\037
For instance,the function
at
f(x)= 0xsin(l/x) at
f
\\
is continuous at the point x ==

(x) = sin I
derlva t Ives, sInce\037
L\\x
. .
2.2.13.
Find the
(a)
\037f
0, but
x=;bO,
x ==0
does not have even one-sided
.)
derivatives of the
f (x)= sinh (x/2)+ cosh(xj2);
follo\\ving
functions:
(c) f(x)==2Vcoshx-l;
(b) f(x)=ln[coshx];
=
arc
sin
(d) f (x)
[tanh x ];
2
4x;
(e) f(x)=Vl+sinh
ax
=
sinh bx).
bx
e
+
(cosh
(f) f (x)
2.2.14.
Applying logarithmic differentiation

of the following f unct ions:
sin 3x
;
(a) y= (cosx)slnx; (b) y=.
find
the derivatives
V l-sin3x
(c)
Vx=I
'
Y=V (X+2)2Y(X+3)3
2.2.15.)
cos2 X
f (x ) = I +.sin 2 x
show
-3f'
that)
2.2.t 6. Show that
.
')
3.
(Jtj4) ::=
f (n/4)
the f unct ion)
y
= x-e-X\037
2x2
satisfies the differential equation

2
xy' + 2y = e-X .
Find t he derivativ es of the following functions:
2.2.17.
=
In
cosVarcsin 3- (x > 0);
(a) y
2\037
(b) y= Varc tan V
co\037
In 3
x.)))
\037
\037
2.3.SuccessiveDifferentiation.
Leibniz Formula)
107)
2.3.Successive
Differentiation
of ExplicitFunctions.
l.leibnizFormula
1)th order of a function y = f (x) is

If the derivative of the (n
already found, then the derivative of the nth order is determined
the equality
by
(x)= [y<n-l) (x)]'.

particular, y\" (x)== [y' (x)]',y'\" (x)== [y\" (x)]',and so on.
y(n)
In
If
u and v are functions differentiable n times,then for their

linear combination c1u+ c2v (c1, c2 constants) we have the following
formula:)
(c1U
and for their product

(uv)\\n
= u\\tl)v+nuu,-uv'
uv
+ C2V)
<n)
C1u(n,
+ C2')
V(n)
the Leibniz formula (or rule)
+n
I) u\\n-2}v\"
+)
(\037.-;
+ ... + uv(n) == k=O

I) ...(n k + I) _
h
were
u (0)
_-u, v (0)-van
_
d
( 1) (x )
==m (m
== aX Inn
n (n
-1).>..0).- +
binomial coefficients.
m (n)
_
n-
Ck
C\037u(n-
k)V(k),
- -kJ(n-k)!
-}.2.3...k
\037
n!
are
Hereare the basic formulas:

n 1)xm Il .
(m
a (a
In particular, (eX)(n) = eX.
(2) (aX)(lZ)
l)
==
(3) (In x)(n)
)'Z-l(n-n
x
==
sin
(4) (sin x)(n)
(x+n'Jtj2).
(5) (casx)ln) ==cos(x + nnj2).
!.
(-1
2.3.t.
funet
(a)
(e)
Find the derivatives of the
order of the following
nth
ions:
y
y
x; (b) y ==ekx ; (c) y ==sin x;

2
== sin x casx; (f) y == sin 3xcos
x;
==
(d) y == sin 5x cas2x;
In
(g) Y ==In
(x
+ x-2).
Solution.
I
;
; y\"'==1.2xy'=X-=x-; y\"=={-1)x4
1.2.3x.
;
(n-l)!x-\"=(-I)Il-:,,(n-I)!
y(n) =(_I)n-l
y(4) '-cosin (x+nj2);
(c) y' ==cosx==
==cos(x+ nj2)==sin (x+ 2'Jtj2).
(a)
...;
y\"
In
general,if we assume that

y{k)
for a given
= sin x+ k
\037
n ==k
.)))
Ch.
108)
then
it
will
II. DiUerent iat ion
of Functions)
out that
turn
y(k+O=COS
(x+k ) =sin[(k+1)
\037
\037
+x] .
Whence, by virtue of mathematical induction we concludethat for

any nat ural
n)
).
y(n)=Sin(x+n
(d) y = sin 5xcos2x=+ [sin 7x+ sin 3X] .
\037
Therefare
= + 7n sin 7x + n + 3\" sin 3x+ n

)
[
(
(
)] .
2x+
,
Y = x2
+x-2'
yln)
\037
\037
(g)
To simplify the computations let us transform the obtained

function:
Y
(x+2)+(X-l) + \037=(x_I ) -1+ (x + 2) -1

'= 2x+1
x-I x+2
+x-2= (x-I)(x+2) =\037
_
x2
\302\267
Whence)
y\"
(x-1)-+ (x+ 2)
==
y(n)== (-I)n-l(n-I)!
[(x-I)-n+(x+2)-n]
y'\"
..
232
\302\267
=-1
(X+2)-2;
(x-l)-2-I
= 1 .2
1.2 3
-_ _
(
ax+b'.
= ex
+d
fi
3;)
n.
_ 1) ' [(x _
1)n 1 (
nd
T (x + 2)1l
]
_L
1)1l
Y (lZ).
eel)
Solution.Transform the given expressionin the following \\vay:

ax b
= cx+
= e + ebe(ex +add) =!!.+ be
d
-\037
Whence)
y' == (
\037
-1)be-ad
-'ce (cx+ d) -
ad
(ex _L d )
-1.
,
2,
..............
-
y\"
y'\"
y(n)
= (-1)(
2
2) bc-;ade (ex+-d)-3,
= (-1)(-2)(-3)bc-;ade3 (ex+ d)-4,)
ad
- (ll + 1) ==
= (-I)nn!bee en (ex + d)
= (-I)'l
n' en
(ex +d)n+1
(be
ad).)))
.)
\037
2.3.Successive DifJerentiation.
2.3.3.
y==x/(x2 -1);find
109)
Leibniz Formula)
y<n).
Solution.Transform the given expression)

Y
- =2 [x+ + x- ]
= x 2x
(n)
')
2.3.2):
therefore (see Problem

Y
n!
= (-I)n
2
[(x+l)n+ll-(x_l)n+l')
]
I
\037
2.3.4.Using the Leibniz formula, find the derivatives of the

indicatedorders for the following functions:
2
(a) y ==x sin x; find y(25);
(b) y = eX (x2 1); find y(24);
find y<n).)
(c) y = e sin
CXX
\037x;
Solution.(a) y(25) ==(sin X'X 2)<25)= (sinX)<26)x2 + 25 (sinx)<24) (x2)' +

+ 25;2\\sin X)(23) (x2)\", since the subsequent summands equal zero.
Therefore
y(25)
= x2 sin x + 25 + 50xsin x + 24 + 600sin x+ 23 =

)
(
)
(
(
)
== (x2 -600)cosx+ 50xsin x.
\037
\037
2.3.5.
Compute the value of the
.
at the pOInt x==O.
Y=
\037
derivative of the function
nth
3x-\0372
x\037-2x+5
Let
Solution.By hypothesis we have y(x)(x2 -2x+5)=3x+2.
us differentiate this identity

then (for n
2) we obtain
times using the Leibniz formula;
\037
yn
(x)(x2 -2x+5) + ny(n-lJ (x) (2x-2)+
Putting
x==O,we have
5y<n)
(0)
2ny<n-u
(0).+n
Whence)
yen,
(0) =
\037
ny(n-lJ
(n
(0)
n (n
2 = O.)
(\037-I)y(n-2) (x).
1)y<n-21 (0) = O.)
-1)y(n-2) (0).
We have obtained a recurrencerelation for determiningthe n th

derivative at the point x ==0 (n 2). The values y (0) and y'(O)
are found immediately: y (0)==2/5;)))
\037
II. D'OerenttQ110n
Ch.
110)
Y (X)
- -2x+5)l
-
. .
(0) =
\037
;)
===
\037
FlInftt{)n.\037)
4x + I 9
\037X2
(x2
Then, successively putting n

the derivatives of higher orders
reIa t ion.
For example,)
= 2
y\" (0)
y\"l
oj
2, 3, 4,
152\037
...,
.)
25
find the values of

the aid of the recurrence
with
.3. \037;
' (0) == 19
2\037
3\0372
. = .
. =
.
\037
\037\037
1\03765
\037;:
2.3.6.
Find the derivatives of the 'secondorder of the
functions:
(a)
y=xVl+x2;
2.3.7.
Given the
1- ;
;esinx
(b) y=
(c) y=e-x
follo\\ving
\".
x\037
function)
y ==cJ e
2X
+ c2xe +
2X
eX.)
this function satisfies the equation

y\"
4y' + 4y ==eX.
2.3.8.Using the Leibniz formula give the derivatives of the Indicated orders for the following functions:)
a
find y(20);
(a) y= x sin x;
x sin
find y''';
x;
(b) y=efi nd y(nj;
(c) y ==eX (3x2 4);
2 cos
find y(2n).)
x;)
(d) y ==
)
Show
that
(1-x
2.3.9.Using the
functions
(a)
expansion into a linear combination of simpJer

the derivatives of the IOOth order of the functions:)
find
= x2
3x 2
(b) y= 1\037
Yl-x)
;)
2.3.10.
Show that
the function
[cI cos(In x) +c2 sin (1n x)]

constants) satisfies the equation
y:== x
(c1, C2,
x2y\"
2.3.11.
Prove
that
+ (I-2fl)xy' + (1+ n2) y ==O.

if
f (x) has a derivative of the
[f (ax+ b)J
(fll
\037
allf<n)
(ax+
b).)))
nth
order,then
\037
2.4. Inverse,
and Parametrically
Implicit
Represented
Functions
III)
2.4.Differentiation
of Inverse,Implicitand Parametri-
Functions
cally Represented
\037.
t. The
function
function
Derivative of an Inverse Function. If a differentiable

Y ==f (x), a < x < b has a single-valuedcontinuous inverse
x ==g (y) and =1= 0 then there existsalso
Y\037
x!J
-,
I
\302\267
Yx
For the derivative of the secondorder we have)

\"
Xyy
==
.
----,-Yxx
(Yx)3
2. The Derivative of an ImplicitFunction. If a differentiable

function y == y (x) sat isfies the equation F (x, y) ==0, then we have
to differentiate it with respectto x, consideringy as a function
F (x, y) = 0 with respect
of x, and solve the obtained equation
the equation should be twice differentiated with
to
To find
respect to x, and so on.
If
The Derivative of a Function Represented Parametrically.
the system of equations
d\037
y\037t
y\037.
3.
x==cp(t),Y=='I'(t),(X<t<\037,
where (t) and 'I'(t) are differentiable functions and cp'(t) =1= 0,
defines Y as a single-valued continuous function of x, then there
existsa derivative and
cp
-,--= -,.
Y\037
Yx='Pi
CPt
(t)
(t)
yt
Xt
The derivatives of higher orders are computedsuccessively:

\"
y xx
In
'\"
(Y\037)t
yxxx
\"
Xt
\"
an d
so on .
Xt)
particular, for the second derivative the following formula IS
,,,- \",)
true:)
= Xt ytt
\"
Yxx
\302\267
the function
==2x :J
(b) Y ==
(c) y == x
y
xu Yt
(Xt)3
2.4.t. For
(a)
= (Y:x)i
+ 3x5 + x;
3x-(cosx)/2;
+ ex;
Solution.(a)
We
find
find
find
have
,
Y\037
x\037;
X\037y;
X;y.
+ 15x4 + 1,hence,
]
=6x2 +15x4 +1')))
==6x2
1
XY=
Y\037
Ch.
112)
(c) y\037=
+ex ,
II. Di{Jerentiation
hence,
Y\037x=ex,
xY=]+ex ' x
1
eX
II
YY
2.4.2.Using
y\037
Yx
(c) At
x\037
=-(I+e)3'
the rule for differentiation of an inverse function,

the derivative
for the following functions:
2
(a) y=f/ x; (b) y=arcsinvrx; (c) y-==lnVI+x
Solution. (a) The inverse function x ==y3 has the derivative
== 3y 2. Hence,)
find
x\037
of Functions)
= 3y2] =
I
x\037
-1.
>0
== e2y IVe2y
the inverse function
V x2
x == Ve
3
\302\267
2Y
Hence,
yx
= V\037Y=l
= xYX2
2+
e2y
x\037
1 has the derivative
== 2 x
x
\302\267
2.4.3.For each of
rically
(a)
find
the following functions representedparametthe derivative of the first order of y with respect to x:
x==a(t-sint), y==a(l-cost);
(b) x=ksint--sinkt,y==kcost+coskt;
(c) x = 2ctIn cot t,
== tan t
y==e-ct .
(d) x==e ,
+ cot t;
Solution.(a) Find the derivatives

parameter
of
x and
with
respectto the
t:)
x;= a (I-cost);
y; ==a sin t.)
Whence)
a sin t
= a (1= t
cost) cot '2(t
2t
dx _ -2cosec
=_ 4 '
dy
dx
(c)
dt
=1=
2k'Jt).
cot t
sin 2t
4.cos2t .
2 t ==
= sec t -cosec
sin 2 2t '
4
si
cos
dy =
= cot 2t t
.
4 SIn 2 2t
dx
)
(
dy
\037
dt
k:rt
\037\037
=1=
\037t
2.4.4.The functions
(a)
(c)
are defined parametrically:
3
x==acos
t,
3
{ y ==b sin t;
==
X
a (cost
{y= a (sin
2)
(b)
+ t sin t),
t-t cost);
(d)
x==t3 +3t+I,
{y == t t3-3t-t- 1;
t,
X
e
t sin t.
e
y=
{
=-=
Find for tbem the second derivative of y
c\037\037
with
respect to
x.)))
\037
2.4. Inverse,
Implicit and Parametrically
Solution.(a) First
Yt
,
Yx
find
cost;
==3b sin2 t
= _ 3b3acos2tt sIn
c\037s
sin\037
Then we shall
find
y\037x
Represented
= _.!!...-
Functions
113)
Y\037.
3a cos2 t sin t;
t
a tan t ( t =1= (2k + 1) 2 )
t
using the formula
xi ==
.::.
--,
= (y;); ,
II
Yxx
Xt)
where)
' '=
(Yx )t
Whence)
\037
Yxx
- cos
2t
t-e
a cos2 t.)
= 3a2 cosb4 t sin t'
(-3a
cos2 t
sin t)
t-sin
t sin t ==et
(d) xi ==ett cas
(cos
t);
t
t
Y; ==e sin t +e cost ==e (cost + sin t);
, cos t + sin t
YX=cos/-sin/; '
t + sin I
cos
sin t ) t
(
= == et (cos1I-sint)
COS
\"
(y\037);
Yxx
2.4.5.
Find
(a) x
===e-t
y\037\037x:
find
xt=-e-;
y;=3t2
Then
find
\"
(Y\037)t
Xt)
find
finally,
y\037;x
- -_ - -e-+ =
y: = 3t 2/e-t =
the second derivative
_
yxxAnd
(y:\037);
2.4.6.Find the
(3et t 2 6tet )
t
-e-
derivative
===0;
X3-1-x2y+y2
(b)
y\037
,)
3et t 2
the third derivative

= 3e2t [2 (/2+2/) + 21+ 2J
Xt
(a)
y= tan t.
= t 3; (b) x ===sect;
Solution.(a) First
whence)
et (cos I-sint)3)
\037
3te2t (t
+ 2) .
= _ 6e3t (t 2 + 3t + 1).
of the following
lnx+e-/x ==c;
implicit functions:
(c) x22/,+y2-4x-IOy+4==0;
/s
(d) x
+ y2/3 ==a .
2
Solution.(a) Differentiate
a function of
x; we get:
with
respectto x, consideringY as
3x2 + 2xy + x2y' + 2yy' ==
O.)))
Ch.
114)
II. Differentiation
of Functions)
Solving this equation with respect to y'

Y
2.4.7.Fin d
if
y\037x
3x2
x2
+2xy
+2y
find
\302\267)
(b) eX-eY==y-x;
(a) arctan y-y+x==O;
(c) x + y ==eX Y
Solution.(a) Differentiate with respect to x, consideringy as a
f unet ion of x and determine y':
y'
+ y2
0
+ 1 ==,
Differentiate once again
wh
ence y ' == I +y2y2 ==Y - 2 +
respectto
with
==
y\"
\"
2.4.8.Find the
x3
value of
==
_ 2y-3y'.
2 (1
get
finally
y2)
\302\267
yo
at the point
y\"
x:)
Substituting the value of y' thus found, we

Yxx
x == I
if
-2xy2+5x+y-5==0and yIX=l== I.
2
Solution.Differentiating
respect to x, we find that

3x2 xy 2_4x2yy' + 5 + y' ==O.
Putting x == 1 and y == 1,obtain the value of y' at x == 1:
4-4y'+ 5 + y' ==0; y' ==4/3.
Differentiate once again with respect to x:
-4
with
3-
Pu t ting
-8xyy'-4x2y'2_4x2yy\" + y\" ==O.

6x-4y2-8xyy'
x == 1;y == 1 and y' ==4/3, find the val ue y\" a t x 1:
6
2.4.9.Find
y\037
(a) x + Vxy +
-- _
4
::--.:-.
_3
64 64
3
\"
== 0
'
\"
==
_ 8 2722
\302\267
for the following implicit fu nctions

2
y2;
y ==a; (b) arc tan (y/x) == In Vx
(c) eX sin y-e- cosx ==0;
(d) eY
+ xy ==e;
fi
nd y at
2.4.to. Find y;x ot

(a)
\037
t he
poi n t (0, 1)
the following implicit functions:
y==x+arctany;
find
(b) x 2 +5xy+y2_2x+y-6==0;
y\"
at the point (1,1).)))
2.5.Applications
\037
For each of
2.4.11.
trically
find
the
a si'n t
the following functions represented parame-
indicatedderivatives:
x=-I+bcost '
(b) x == In (I + t 2),
2
(c) x t +2 2,
(a)
115)
of the Derivative)
Y==
\037
e-
t
,
(d) x ==
==
(e) x 4 tan 2 (t/2),
2
(f) x==arcsin(t
(g) x ==arc sin t,
t-arctan t;
== t 3/3
==-
t;
find
y\037;
find
Y\037;
fi
n d y;x;
arc tan (2t + 1); find
+ b cost;
t;
y==arccos2
-1),
Show that
2.4.12.
===
c cos t
I+bcost;
==a sin t
==
1-
t2
V\037
the function
==f
Y\037;
find
y\037;
find
y\037;
find
Y;x'
(x), defined by the parametric
equations x ==et sin t, Y ==et cost, satisfies the relation

== 2 (xy'-y).)
y\"
(x
+ y)2 ==
* 2.5.Applications
of the Derivative
The equation of a line tangent to the curve of a differentiable
function y ==y (x) at a point M (xo Yo)' where Yo Y (xo)' has the
'
form
y-
Yo
= y' (xo) (x-xo)'
A straight line passing through

the point of contact perpendicularly to the tangent line is called the normal to the curve. The
equation of the normal at the
II
point M will be
y-Yo==
-'
\"ii
(x-xo)'
(xo)
y' (xo) =I=- O.)

The segments AT, AN are
called the subtangent and the
subnormal, respectively; and the 0 T
lengths MT and MN are the
so-calledsegment of the tangent
x)
A)
N)
Fig. 36)
and the segment of the normal,
respectively(see Fig.36).The lengthsof the four indicated segments)
are expressedby the
AT=I
2.5.I. Write
follo\\ving
formulas:)
:,/; AN=lyy'l; MT=I:,IVl+(y')2;

MN=ly/Vl+(y')2.
the
-+
equations of
3
(a) to the curve y ==x
3x
thp tangent line and the normal:

2 at the point. (2,
4);)))
Ck.
116)
II. DitJerentiation
2
(b) to the parabola y==2x
4
-x+5
-16atat x==-O.5;
the
of intersection
(c) to the curve y ==x2 + 3x2

with the parabola y == 3x .
Solution.(a) Find the derivative
y' ==3x2
of Functions)
-3,
points
at the point x ==
2:
y' (2):== 9.
The equation of the tangent line has the following form:

y-4-=9(x-2) or
9x-y-14=O.
The equation of the normal is of the form:

1
or x+9y-38==O.)
y-4==-g(x-2)
(c) Solving the system of equations

Y
{Y
we shall
find
Now we
==x4
:==
+ 3x2 16,
3x2,
the points of intersection of the curves
x1==-2,x2 ==2, Yt==Y2==12.

2
find the derivatives at the points x =
y' == 4x3 + 6x, y' (-2)== 44, y' (2)==44.
and x ==2:
Therefore, the equations of the tangent lines have the form

44 (x+2),
44
y-12=-
(x-2).
y-12
--\037
The equations of the normals have the form
- (x-2).)
-+
--
y-12==44 (x+2), y-12==

1
Find the
2.5.2.
line:
points on the curve
===
44
x3
3x
5 at which the
tangent
(a) is parallel to the straight line y == 2x;
(b) is perpendicular to the straight line y == x/9;
with the positive directionof the x-axis.
(c) forms an angleof
Solution.To find the required points \\ve take into consideration
that at the point of tangency the slope of the tangent is equa I to
the derivative y' -= 3x2
computed at this point.
(a) By the conditionof parallelism
45\302\260
-3
3X2-3:== 2,
3 , x 2 == 1/V3.The required points are:
whence x 1 ==-1/V
3f9).)))
3 , 5+8V3/9),M 2 (1/V3,
Mt
(-1/V
5-8V
\037
(b) By the
2.5.Applications
of the Derivative)
117)
condition of perpendicularity
3x2
-3
==
9,
(-
2, 3), M 2 (2,7).
2, x2 == 2. The required points:M 1
Find the angles at which the following lines intersect:
2
and the parabola y ==4
/2;
(a) the straight line y ==
==
==
cosx.
cosine
curve
and
the
sin
x
sinusoid
the
y
y
(b)
Solution.(a) Recallthat the angle betweentwo curves at the point
of their intersectionis defined as the angle formed by the lines tangent to these curves and drawn at this point. Find the points of
intersectionof the curves by solving the system of equat ions
whence Xl ==
2.5.3.
-x
4-x
Y=4-X
{ y = 4-X:/2.)
Whence)
MI (0, 4); M 2 (2, 2).

Determine then the slopes of the lines tangent to the parabola at
the points M 1 and M 2:
y' (0)==0, y' (2) == 2.)
The slope of a straight line is constant for all its points;) in our)
caseit equals
Finally, determine
-1.
the angle between the two straight

1
ines:
tan
tan
CPI
==
1;
CPI
==
!J)
J{)
45\302\260;
= -1+2
+2 = 3;
I
CP2
CV2
= arc tan
2.5.4.Prove
x)
18.5\302\260.)
\037;:;::::
o)
Xo
T)
the segment of
Fig. 37)
==
the tangent to the hyperbola y c/x
which is contained between the coordinate axesis bisected at the
point of tangency.
Solution.We have y' == c/x2; hence,the value of the subtangent
for the tangent at the point M (xo Yo) wi 11 be)
that
i.e.
:'
I
'
= x0 I,
I
OX o ==xoT (Fig. 37), which completesthe proof.

Whence follows a simple method of constructinga tangent to the
hyperbola y ==c/x: layoff the x-interceptOT ==2xo' Then MT will
be the desired tangent.)))
Ch.
118)
II. Differentiation
of Funct
ions)
2.5.5.
Prove that the ordinate of the catenary y ==a cosh (x/a) is

the geometricmean of the length of the normal and the quantity
Solution.Compute the length of the normal. Since
a.
y' ==sinh (x/a),

the length of th e norm al will be
MN == y VI + (y')2 Y V 1 + sinh2 (x/a)==y cosh(x/a)==y2/ a ,
===
whence
y2
a.MN, and y ==V a.MN, which
==
2.5.6.Find
completes the proof.
the slope of the tangent to the curve
x==t2
\\
2
y ==2t
-1).
at the point M
--
+3t-8,
2t
(2,
Solution.First determine the value
ven values of x and

two equations)
of t correspondingto the giThis

must
value
y.
simultaneouslysatisfy the
I
\\
- - - 1.
1.
2.
t2
2t 2
+ 3t
2t
8 ==2
5 ==
The roots of the first equation are t 1== 2; t 2 == 5, the roots of the
second equation i 1 ==2; t 2 ==
Hence,to the given point there
correspondsthe value t == Now determine the value of the derivative at the point M:
y
And
so,the
to 6/7.
' x =2 ==
1
Yt
xi
t =2
4t-2 = 6
= 2'
( +3 ) t = 2 7
\302\267)
slope of the tangent at the point M (2,
2.5.7.
-1)is equa)
Prove that the tangent to the lemniscatep ==a Vcos28at

the point correspondingto the value 80 == n/6 is parallel to the x-axis.
Solution.Write in the parametric form the equation of the lemniscate:)
x ==p cos8 ==a V cos28 eos0,
y ==p sin 8 ==a Vcos28 sin 8.)
\\\\'hence)
,
Xo
,
yo
x\037
-aVcos20
cos28
y-\037
a cos8 sin 28
.
sIn
a sin 8 sin 28
a cos20
y cos28 + V
(n/6)==
a V 2,
y\037
co\037
(:rtJ6) -:.=
O.)))
n,
0,
2.5.Applications
\037
Thus, the slope k:=:: ,

y\037
of the Derivative)
119)
(1[/6)
= O. Consequently,
. the
xe (31:/6)
the
lemniscate at the point
== a/V\"
2\"
80 == n/6 and
with
is para 11 eI to t he x-axis.
2.5.8.
Find
line tangent to
Po == aJir
cos280
===
equations of the tangent and the normal to the
the
following curves:
3
2
(a) 4x -3xy2+6x
-5xy-82+9x+14==0at the point (-2,3);

y
(b) X5 +y5_2xy==0at the point
(1,1).
Solution.(a) Differentiate the implicit function:
I2x2 -3y2-6xyy'+ 12x-5y-5xy'

-I6yy'+ 9 ==O.
(-2,
Substitute the coordinatesof the point M

3):
48-27+ 36y'
+ 109'
-48y'+ 9 ==0;)
-24-15
\\vhence)
y' ==
-9/2.
Thus the equation of the tangent line is
y-3==-29 (x+2)
and the equation of the normal)
lj-3
-==
2.5.9.
Through
== 4
\"9
(x
+ 2).
the point (2, 0), which does not belong to the

draw tangents to the la tter.
be the point of tangency; then the equation
Solution.Let (xo
of the tangent will be of the form:
curve
x,
'
x\037)
y-xg==y' (xo) (x-xo

))
y-x\037 == 4xg
(x-xo)'
desired tangent line passes through the point

of this point satisfy the equation of
the
coordinates
hence,
(2, 0),
By hypothesis the
the tangent
line:
-x\037==4x\037(2-xo);3xg-8x\037==0,
whence Xo ==0; Xo ==8/3.Thus, there are two points of tangency:
M 1(0, 0), M 2 (8/3,
4096/81).
Accordingly, the equations of the tangent lines will be

4096 2048
8
y===O,
y-81=2]
)
( x-a')))
II. Differentiation of Functions)

3
2.5.10.
+ 5x-7.Find out at which
f (x)==3xo-15x
Ch.
120)
of the pointsx
the rate of changeoJ the function is minimal.
Solution.The rate of change of a function at a certain point is
equal to the derivative of the function at this point
2
+5==15(x2 -1/2)2+
f'(x)==15x4 -45x
1/12].
The minilllum value of f' (x) is attained at x == + I/V2.Hencethe
rate of change of the function f (x) is at the point
minimum
r
x == I/V 2 and equals 5/4.
3.
A point is in motion along a cubic parabola 12y==x
2.5.11.
Which of its coordinateschanges faster?
Solution.Differentiating both membersof the given equation with
respectto t we get the relation between the rates of change of the
:i:
coordinates:)
12yi==3x
or)
xi)
--;--4'
X2
yt
Xt)
Hence,
-2
< x < 2 the ratio y;:x; is less than unity, i.e.the rate
(I) at
changeof the ordinate is less than that of the abscissa;
(2) at x==+ 2 the ratio y;:x; is equal to unity, i.e.at these
points the rates of changeof the coordinatesare equal;
(3) at x <\0372 or x > 2 the ratio y;:x; is greaterthan unity, i.e.
the rate of changeof the ordinate exceedsthat of the abscissa.
of
A body of
2.5.12.
-I+
seconds).Find the
the law 8
after
it
===
mass 6g is
In (t
in
rectilinearmotion accordingto
+ 1)+ (t + 1)3 (82 is
kin\037tic
begins to move.
Solution.The velocity
of the distance:)
v (t)
in
centimetresand
t,
in
energy (mv /2) of the body one second
of motion
= s; = t
\037
is equal to the time derivative
+ 3 (t + 1)2.)
Therefore
mv 2
2 and 2==2 ( 122 )
v(I)==12
(erg).
==468\"4
The velocity of rectilinearmotion of a body is proporti2.5.13.
onal to the square root of the distance covered (s), (as, for example,
in free fall of a body). Prove that the body moves under the action
of a constant force.
Solution.By hypothesis we have
v ==s; ==ex
Vs (ex ==const);)))
.\037
2.5.Applications
\",
whence)
121)
,
')
r- St == /2.
Sit ==Vt ==ex.
But
of the Derivative)
ex....
2 J' s
\"1
according to Newton's law the force
F ==kStt
Hence,)
F ==
kex.
(k ==const).)
/2 ==const.
2.5.14.
A raft
is pulled to the bank by means of a rope \\vh ich

on a drum, at a rate of 3 m/min. Determine the speed
of the raft at the moment when it is 25 m distant from the bank
if the drum is situated on the bank 4 m above water level.
Solution.Let S denote the length of the rope between the drum
and the raft and x the distance from the raft to the bank. By
hypothesis)
S2 =x 2 + 42
is
\\vound
Differentiating this relation with respectto

ship between their speeds:)
t, find
the relation-
2S8;==2xx;,)
whence)
, ==
Xi
-s,
x)
St.
Taking into considerationthat

we obtain)
s;==3;x==25;s==V252+42\03725.3,)
, == Y252
Xi
+ 42
25
\302\267
\037
.
3.03(m/mln).
2.5.15.
(a) Find
the slope of the tangent to the cubic parabola

the point X ==V3/3.
+X2)
(b) Write the equations of the tangents to the curve y== 1/(1
at the points of its intersection with the hyperbola y == 1/(x+1).
(c) Write the equation of the normal to the parabola y ==x2+4x+1
perpendicularto the line joining the origin of coordinateswith the
vertex of the parabola.
(d) At what angle does the curve y ==eX intersect the y-axis?
The velocity of a body in rectilinearmotion is determined by the formula v ==3t + t 2 What acceleration
will the body
have 4 secondsafter the start?
y
-==
x: at
3
2.5.16.
2.5.t 7. The law

of
2
100kg
is 8 ==2t
rectilinearmotion
of a body
with
+ 3t + 1. Determine the kinetic energy
the body 5 secondsafter the
start.)))
mass of
(mv
/2) of
II. DifJerentiat
Ch.
]22)
ion of Funct ions)
2.5.18.
Show that
if the law of motion of a body is s ==aet + be-t,

its acceleration
is numerically equal to the distance covered.
A body is thrown
2.5.19.
vertically with an initial velocity of
a m/sec.What altitude will it reach in t seconds?Find the velocity
of the body. In how many secondsand at what distance from the
ground will the body reach the highest point?
then
2.5.20.Artificial satellitesmove round the Earth in elliptical

orbits.The distance r of a satellitefrom the centreof the Earth
as a function of time t can be approximately expressed
by the follo\\ving
equation:
=a
where M =
?;(t
t == tirrle
[1
- HOSM
e; (cas2M I)J
in)
parameter
a ==semi-majoraxisof the orbit

c ==eccentricity of the orbit
P ==periodof orbiting
1
= time of passing the perigee
ty the satelli tee
Herea, P and t n are constants.
from the satellite
to the
Find the rate of change in the distance,
centre of the Earth (i.e.find the so-calledradial velocity of the
tn
\302\243,
satellite).)
* 2.6.The Differential
of a Function.
to ApproximateComputations
..4.pplication
If the increment
\037y
==f
of the function y ==f (x) can be
\037y
(x+
\037x)
-f (x)
== A (x) \037x
+ a (x,
\037x)
expressedas:
\037x,)
where)
!in1a (x,
.1x
\037
\037x)
0,
==
0)
is calledditJerentiable at the point x. The

of
this increment A (x)
linear
is calledthe ditJepart
principal
rential and is denoted df (x) or dYe By defini tion, dx ==
For the differential of the function y ==f (x) to exist it is necessary and sufficient that there exist a finite derivative y' == A (x).
The differential of a function can be written in the following way:
then such a function
\037x
\037x.
dy ==y' dx ==
1
IIi
te
The perigee of
centre of
to the
the
the
satellite orbit is
Earth.)))
f' (x) dx.)

the shortest
distance
from the
sate-
2.6.DitJerential
\037
of
u == cp
For a composite function y ==f (u),

retained in the form)
123)
Function)
(x) the differential
is
f'
dy == (u) du
(the invariance of the form of the differential).

With an accuracy up to infinitesimals of a higher order than
the approximate formula
dy takes place.Only for a linear
function y==ax+bdo we have \037y==dy.
DifferentiaIs of higher orders of the function y ==f (x) are successively determined in the following way:
\037x
\037y
d2y
If
==f (x)
d2y
But
==d (dy);
d3y
..
\"
ll
dny ==d (d
-ly).
\"',
2.6.t. Find
d2y ==f\" (u)du2 +f' (u)d2u, and
u=<p(x),then
y--:=f(u),
so 0n.)
d (d2y),
==-
and x is an independent variable, then

==y\" (dX)2; d3y ==y'\" (dx)3,
dny ==y(ll) (dx)n.
\\\\'r:ere
if
\037
the differential of the function

-== In
(1+ e10X ) + arc tan e5X
y
Calculate dy at x = 0; dx ==0.2.
Solution.
dy
(I + e10X )'
e10X
(e6x)' dx _ 5e (2e - I) dx.

_ l-f..
+e
]
6X
elOX
5X
10X
Substituting x ==0 and dx ==0.2,we get

dy Ix=o;
2.6.2.
Find
dx=O.2=
5
0 .2
2.
==
0.5.
the increment and the differential of the function

3 x
I
y == 3x
0.1.
==
at the point x == 1 at
Find the absolute and relative errors allo\\\\Ted when replacing the
increment of the function with its differential.
\037x
Solution.
i1y == [3 (x+
\037X)3
+ (x+
-1]-(3x+9xx-I)+ 9x
3
\037x)
==
2 \037x
==
Whence)
\037y
At
x== 1 and
+ 1)
-dy= 9x +
2
dy ==(9x
\037x==O.1
\037X2
we get
\037X2
\037x.)
3\037X3.
== 0.093,
0.09+ 0.003
==
1.093.)))
1;
\037y-dy ==
dy ==
\037y
3\037X3
\037x,
II. DifJerentiation
Ch.
124)
The absoluteerror /).y-dy= 0.093,

the relative
o .093
01
0 085 8 5 /0.
093\037.
I
===
of Functions)
or.
1.
2.6.3.
Calculateapproximately the
error i'J.Y--;,/Y 1=
I
increment of the function
y==x -7x+8
3
as x changesfrom 5 to 5.01.
2.6.4.Using the conceptof the differential)
value of the
funct
ion
f;
y==
Solution.Notice that
the approximate
r2-x at x=0.15.
2+x
we get
\037y==y(x+\037x)-y(x)
from
y (x
or, putting
find
\037x)
==y (x)
\037y,)
\037y\037dy,)
y(x+\037x)\037y(x)+dy.
In our
== 0.15.
Then
problem let us put x ==0 an d
4
1
,
2+X
(-4)
Y ==\"5
2 x ) (2 + X)2 ;
\037x
V( -
\302\267
y'(O)=- , dy=- .0.15=-0.03.)

\037
Hence,)
\037
(0.15) y (0)+ dy == 1-0.030.97.

==
(accurateto 10-4).
y (0.15)0.9702
y
The true value of
--==
\037
2.6.5.Find the
value of:
approximate
(b) log 10.21;(c) V 33; (d) cot
(a)
Solution.(a) In solving this problemwe shall use the formula (*)
of the precedingproblem.Putting x ==nj6, == n/180,
we compute:
V3
y (x)==cos
45\302\26010'.
cos31\302\260;
\037x
j'[
'
y (x) ==
cos31=cos( +
6=\037;
. n
SIn ==
;
-6-
\037
- -
(c) Put x = 32;
\037x
I\037O
\037
\0373
2\"
-+
l\037o
=0.851.
=::1.By formula (*) we get
'
1 =2-t u
xx=32.
)
V 33\037 V 32+( Jt5/-5
V324)))
=2+ 80=2.0125.
1
\037
2.6.Differential
of
125)
Function)
2.6.6.
All
faces of a coppercube with 5-cm sides were uniformly

As a result the weight of the cube was reduced by
down.
ground
0.96g. Knowing the specificweight of copper (8) find the reduction
the amount by which its side was reduced.
in the cube size,
Solution.The volume of the cube v ==x3, where x is the length
of the side.The volume is equal to the \\veight divided by the den3
== 0.96/8
== 0.12
(cm ).
sity: v ==p/d; the change in cube'svolume
that
Since approximatelyequals dv and taking into consideration
== 3 x 52 X \037x, whence
dv = 3x2 dx we shall have 0.12
i.e.
\037v
\037v
,1x=
\037..1225
= 0.0016
em.
cm.
Thus, the side of the cube was reducedby 0.0016
2.6.7.Find the expressionsfor determiningthe absoluteerrors in
the following functions through the absolute errors in their argumen
ts:
(a) y==
x;
In
(c) y==sinx
(b) y == log x;
(d) y == tan x (0 < x
(0<x<n/2);
< nj2);)
log (sin x) (0 < x < jt/2);

==
log (tan x) (0 < x < jt/2).
(f) y
Solution.If the function f (x) is differentiable at a point x and
is sufficiently small,then
the absolute error of the argument
the absolute error in the function y can be expressed
by the number
(e)
=7:
\037x
\037y
= y;
I
\037x'
i.e.
= (In x)' Ix ,1x= ,

the absolute error of a natural
(a)
logarithm is equal to the relative error in its argument.
M
where M == log e ==0.43429;
(b) == (logx)' == X
(e) == [log (sin x)]' ==M cot x
,1,
\037xx
\037x,
\037x
\037y
\037y
\037x
(f) ,1,= [log(tan x))' ,1x=

I
s\037\037x
\037x;
,1x.
From (e) and (f) it follows that the absolute error in log tan
is always more than that in log sin x (for the same x and \037x).
Find the differentials dy and d2y of the function
5
7x2 3,)
y == 4x
2.6.8.
assuming that:
(1) x is an independent variable;
(2) x is a function of another independent variable.
Solution.By virtue of the invariance of its form the differential
of the
first
order dy is written identically in both cases:

4
dx.)))
dy ==y' dx ==(20x-14x)
Ch.
126)
II. Dit7erentiation
of Functions)
the first casedx is understoodas the increment of the

independent variable dx (dx == \037x), and in the second,as the diffefl'ntial of x as of a function (dx may not be equal to \037x).
Since differentials of higher orders do not possessthe property
of invariance, to find d2y we have to consider the following two
But
in
cases.
be an independent variable; then

d2y ==y\" dx2 == (80x3
dx2.
(2) Let x be a function of some other variable. In this case
d2y == (80x3
d2x.
dx2 + (20x4 -14x)
2.6.9.Find differentials of higher orders (x an independent va-
(1) Let
-14)
-14)
riable):
(a)
(b)
(c) y
2
== 4 x ;
== Vln2
== sin2 x;
fi
nd
d2y;
x-4;d
find
3
find
2.6.10.
y=ln II\037::;
d2y;
y.
d2y if: (a) x is an independentvariable,

(b) x is a function of another variable. Consider the particular
casewhen x == tan
2.6.t t.
find
t.
The volume
of a
sphere of radius
nr3. Find the increment and differential

explain their geometrical
meaning.
is equal to
of the volume and
2.6.t 2. The law of the free fa 11 of a material point is s ==gt 2j2.

Find the increment and differential of the distance at a moment t
and
elucidatetheir mechanicalmeaning.)
* 2.7.AdditionalProblems
2.7.t. Given the functions: (a) f (x)=
x and (b) (x) == x3 [.

Do derivatives of these functions exist at the point x ==O?
2.7.2.Show that the curve y==e1x cannot have a tangent line
at the point x ==O. What is the angle between the one-sidedtangents to this curve at the indicated point?
Show that the function
2.7.3.
I
cp
f (x)==
x-a
cp
(x),
where (x) is a continuous function and (a)=1= 0, has no derivative at the point x == Find the one-sided derivatives
(a) and
<p
t:
(a).)))
a.
<p
f\037
\037
2.7.4.Given the
2.7.Additional
Problems
127)
function
'
f (x)==
X2
0,
Si 11 ( 1/ x) a t x =1=
at x==O.
Use this exampleto show that the derivative of a continuous

function is not always a continuous function.
2.7.5.Let)
f(x)= f
\\
x2,
if
x\037xo,
ax+b, if x>xo'
is continuous
Find the coefficients a and b at which the function

and has a derivative at the point XO'
3
By differentiating the formula cos3x ==cos
2
3
deduce the formula sin 3x==3 cos x sin
sin x.
2.7.6.
2.7.7.From
x-3 casxsin x
x-
the formula for the sum of the

1
+ x + x2 + ... -1-xn ==
-_
1
xn + 1
x
geometric
progression
(x
=1=
1)
deduce the formulas for the following sums:
... + nx - 1; ... + n 2x 1.
(a) 1 + 2x+3x2 -t(b) 12+ 22X + 32x2 +
2.7.8.Prove
the identity
2' ,x
cosx+ cos3x+ ... + cos(2n 1)x == sinsIn2nxx

and
=t=
kn
deduce from it the formula for the sum

sin x+ 3 sin 3x+... + (2n-l)sin (2n-l)x.
2.7.9.Find
(a)
(c) y
----..:
y' if:
2
f (si n x)
+ f (c0S2 x);
== log\037 (x) '\" (x)
2.7.10.
( 0;
y
'\"
=:-:f (eX) eJ (X) ;
(x)> 0).
Is it reasonableto assert that the product F (x):=-:;f(x)g(x)

has no derivative at the point x ==Xo if:
(a) the function f (x) has a derivative at the point xo, and the
function
(x) has no derivative at this point?
(b) neither function has a derivative at the point xo?
Considerthe examples:
(1) f(x)==x,g(x)==lxl;
<p
Is it
(2) f(x)==lxl,g(x)==Ixl.
reasonable to assert that the sum F (x)==f (x)+ g (x) has no
derivative at the point x ==X o
if:)))
II. Di(Jerentiation
Ch.
128)
of Functions)
(c) the function f (x) has a derivative at the point xo, and
ion g (x) has no derivative at this point?
the
funct
(d) nei ther function has a derivative at the point xo?
2.7.11.
Prove that
the derivative of a differentiable even function
is an odd function, and the derivative of an odd function is an

even function. Give a geometric
explanationto these facts.
2.7.12.
Prove that the derivative of a periodicfunction
T is a periodicfunction with period T.
2.7.13.
Find F'(x)
2
with
Veriod
if)
x
1 2x 3x2
o 2 6x
x
(x)==
3)
Find
2.7.14.
the derivative of the function y==xlxt.Sketchthe

the
of
given function and its derivative.
graphs
function y==f(u), where
Suppose we have a composite
look
we
for points at which
what
should
u
Among
points
(x).
function may have no derivative?
the composite
2.7.15.
\037
<p
function always have no derivative at these

Does the composite
the
function
Consider
y==u2, u==(xl.
points?
Find
2.7.16.
(a)
==
Is there
x3
y\"
y\"
for the following functions:
(b )
==
(O)?
X2
{o
sin ( 1/x), x =F 0,
x=O.
at
2.7.17.
(a) f (x) =x ; show that
n
+ f' +
\037
(b) f (x) =
I)
f(2
f ( 1)
II)
X
1/
xn-1e ; show that
\037
\037
+ ... +
[f (x))In) = (-I)n
y==x2e-x1a ; show that
fx\037\037
(n =
l) = 2n
fIn
\037
1,2,
2.7.18.
fin)
(0)= (_I)n;\037\037_I)
Show that
2.7.19.
2
==
(n
\037
\037
...).
2).
the function y==arcsinxsatisfies the relation

Find
2) by applying the Leibniz fory<n) (0) (n
) y\" xy'.
mu 1a to both members of this identi ty.
(l-x
Prove
2.7.20.
\037
that the Chebyshev
polynomials
(n= 1,2,...))))
Tn(x)==2n_1Cos(narccosx)
I
2.7.Additional
\037
satisfy the equation
(1_x2)
-xT;z(x) + n 2T
(x)
The derivative of the
T\037
2.7.21.
the
form)
(e-x
C)
\")
II
(x) = O.
order of the function
nth
(1l) ==
12:))
Problenls)
e-x2 has
e- 2Hn (x),
X
where Hn (x) is a polynomial of degree n

Hernzite polynomial.
Prove that the recurrencerelation
called the
(n=-=l,2,
Hn+l(X)-2xHn(x)-t-2nHll-1(x)==O
Chebyshev..
...))
IS valid.)
2.7.22.Sho\\v that there existsa single-valuedfunction y ==y (x)

defined by the equation + 3y ==x, and find its derivative
2.7.23.
Single out the single-valuedcontinuous branches of the
4
inverse function x ==x (y) and find their derivatives if y ==2x2
y\037
U ==
2.7.24.
2\"
In
. du dv == 1.
+ v ; check the relatIon
dv du
1 -v
Y\037.
-X .
2.7.25.Inverse trigonometricfunctions are continuous at all

points of the domain of definition. Do they have a finite derivative at all points of the domain? Indicatethe points at which the
following functions have no finite derivative:
. I
x+ I
(a) y==arccos\037;(b) y==arcslnx '
the function y ==y (x), defined parametrically:
2.7.26.Sho\\v that
2
y=t +tltl, is differentiable at t==O but its derivax==2t-ltl,
the usual formula.
tive cannot be found
by
the parameters a, b, c in the equation of the

2.7.27.Determine
2
parabola y ==ax + bx + c so that it becomestangent to the straight
==
(-1,
the point x = 1 and passes through the point

0).
2.7.28.Prove that the curves Yt ==f (x) (f (x) > 0) and Y2 ==
== f (x) sin ax, where f (x) is a differentiable function, are tangent to each other at the common points.
line
x at
for any point M (xo, Yo) of the equilateral

that
2.7.29.Show
2
2
hyperbola x _y2==a the segment of the normal from the point
M to the point of intersectionwith the abscissais equal to the
radius vector of the point M.
2.7.30.
Show
that for any position of the generatingcirclethe

line and the normal to the cycloid x==a
t),
pass through the highest (at, 2a) and the lowest
(at, 0) points of the circle,respectively.)
tangent
y=a(l-cost)
-3
I 48)))
(t-sin
Ch.
130)
2.7.31.Show
== a
cc;uality
d3y
==f
ion of Functions)
cardioids p ==a (1+ cascp) and p =
two
(1-coscp) intersect at
2.7.32.
Let
<p
that
II. Differentiat
angles.
(x). Prove
right
(u), where
==f'\" (u) du 3
u ==(()
the validity of the
+ 3f\" (u) du d2u + f' (u) d:iu .
2.7.33.
Let y==f{x},where x==cp(i); the functions f(x)
(i) are twice differentiable and dx O. Prove that
and
=1=
\"
Yxx
2
2
== d ydx-3dyd x
dx
,)
where the differentials forming the right member of the relation

are differentials with respect to the variable t.
2.7.34.How will
the expression
(1
dy
x2) dx 2 _ xdx)
-t-Y
d2\037
be transformed (where y is a twice differentiabIe function of x) if

\\ve introduce a new independentvariable i, putting x ==casi?
In determining an electriccurrent by means of a tangent
2.7.35.
ga1 vanometer use is made of the formula
I ==k tan
\\vhere
cp,)
J ==current
k ==factor of proportionality (depending on the instrument)
==angle of pointer deftection.
cp
Determine the relative error of the result \\vhich depends on the

inaccuracy in reading the angle ((). At what position of the pointer
can one obtain the most reliableresults?)))
Chapter
3)
APPLICATION
OF
DIFFERENTIAL
CALCULUS TO INVESTIGATION
OF
\037
FUNCTIONS)
3.1.BasicTh.eoremson Differentiable
Functions
Fermat'sTheorem.Let a function y == f (x) be defined on a certain interval and have a maximum or a minimum value at an interior point Xo of the interval.
If there existsa derivative f' (xo) at the point xo, then f' (xo) ==O.
Rolle'sTheorem.If a function f (x) is continuous in the interval
a finite derivative at all interior points of this interval,
[a, b], has
and f (a) == f (b), then inside [a, b] there exists a point s E (a, b)
such that f' (s)==O.
Lagrange'sTheorem.If a function f (x) is continuous in the interval [a, b] and has a finite derivative at all interior points of
the interval, then there existsa point s E (a, b) such that
f (b) f (a) == (b
f'
Test for the Constancy of a Function. If at all points of a certain interval f' (x) ==0, then the function f (x) preserves a constant
value \\vithin this interval.
Cauchy'sTheorem.Let (x) and '\" (x) be two functions continuous in the interval [a, b] and have finite derivatives at all interior points of the interval. If these derivatives do not vanish simultaneously and (a) =1= (b), then there existss E (a, b) such that
-a)
(\037).
cp
cp
cp
--
'I'(b) 'I'(a) =
<p
(b)'
<p
3.1.1.
Does the
(a)
'1\"
(\037)
\302\267
-1
[1,
<p'
(\037)
function f (x) ==3x2

satisfy the condition of
in the interval
2]?
Solution.The given function does not satisfy the condition of the
Fermat theorem, since it increasesmonotonically on the interval
2],and, consequently,takes on the minirrlum value at x== 1 and
the maximum one at x == 2, e. not at interior points of the interval. Therefore, the Fermat theorem is not applicable;in other
words, we cannot assert that f' (1)== f' (2) == O. Indeed, f' (1)==6,
f' (2) == 12.)
the Fermat theorem
[1,
5*)))
i.
Ch.
)\037j2
3. .2.
III.DifJerenttal
CalcuLus: Investigation
of Funct's)
t
Do the following functions satisfy the conditions of the
Rolle theorem?
(a) f (x) ==
V X2 in
1-
[-1,1];
(c) t(x)==l-ixi [-1,
1].
do not, explain
(b) t (x)== In sin x in [n/6, 5n/6];

in
If they
why.
[-1,
Solution.(a) The function is continuous in the interval

1];
==t (1)== O. Thus, two conditions of the Rolle
furthermore, t
(-1)
theorem are satisfied. The derivative f' (x) == -2/(3Vx) exists at

all points exceptx == O. Since this point is an interior one,the third
conditionof the theorem is not satisfied. Therefore, the Rolle theorem is not applicable to the given function. Indeed, (x) =1= 0 in
I'
[-1,1].
3.1.3.Prove
that the
equation
3x&
has only one real
+ 15x-8==0)
root.
Solution.The existenceof at least one real root follows from the

15x-8is of an odd power.
fact that the polynomial f(x)==3x&+
Let us prove the uniquenessof such a root by reductio ad absurdum. Suppose there exist two roots Xl < x2. Then in the interval
5
[Xl' x2] the function f (x) ==3x + 15x-8satisfies all conditions of
the Rolle theorem:it is continuous, vanishes at the end-pointsand
has a derivative ,at all points.Consequently,at somepoint Xl < < x2,
f' ==O. But f' (x) 15(x4 -j- 1)> O. This contradictionproves that
the equation in question has only one real root.
3.t .4.Does the function f (x) == 3x2 5 satisfy the conditions of
the Lagrange theorem in the interval
OJ? If it does, then
which figures in the Lagrangeformula f (b) f (a) ==
find the point
\302\243,
\037
==
f'
\302\243
-[-2,
(\037)
-a).
\302\243
(\302\243)
(b
Sulution. The function satisfies the conditions of the Lagrange

theorem,since it is continuous in the interval
0] and has a
[-2,
finite derivative at all interior points of the interval. The point

is found from the Lagrange formula:
f'
\\vhence
==
\302\243
-1.
(\302\243)
==
6\037
== f
\302\243
(0)- (-2)= -5-7==-6'

f
0-(-2)
3.1.5.Apply the Lagrange formula to the function t (x) == In x in

[1,e] and find the correspondingvalue of
2
3.1.6.
Ascertain that the functions f{x)==x
-2x+3and g(x) ==
3
==x -7x2+ 20x-5satisfy the conditions of the Cauchy theorem
in the interval [1,4] and find the correspondingvalue of
the interval
\302\243.
\302\243.)))
\037
3.1.BasicTheorems
on Di(Jerentiable
133)
Functions)
Solution.The given functions f (x) and g (x) are continuous everywhere, and hence,in the interval
[1,4] as well; their derivatives
2
-14x+20are finite everywhere; in
f'(x)==2x-2and g'(x)===3x
addition, g'(x) does not vanish at any real value of x.
Consequently, the Cauchy formula is applicable to the given
f unct
ions:)
1.e.)
- - I'
- (1<s<4).
f (4)- t (I) _
g (4) g ( 1) g'
(\037)
,)
(\037)
2
11 2
27-9= 3\0372-14\037+20
2\037
Solving the latter equation,we
==
\0372
4.
Of these two values only
\037l
two values of
find
== 2 is an
functions f (x) = eX and g (x)=

ditions of the Cauchy theorem in the interval
.8.
3.t On the curve y

line is parallel to the chord
B (2, 8).
the point at
the
through
\0371
== 2
and
interior point of the interval.
3.t.7. Do the
==xa find
\037:
.)
I
sat isfy the con-
[-3,3]?
;\"x\037
\\vhich
points
the
1)and
(-1,-tangent
[-1,
2],whose end-points are the absand B, the function y ==x3 is continuousand

has a finite derivative; thprefore the Lagrangetheorem is applicable.
According to this theoren1 there \\vill be, on the arc AB, at least
one point M, at which the tangent is parallel to the chord
Let us write the Lagrange formula for the given function:
Solution.In the interval
cissas of the points
AB\037
f
or)
(2)-f(-1)==f' [2-(-1)],)
8 -1-1 == .3;)
(\037)
3\302\2432
whence)
Sl ==
-1,
==
\0372
1.
The obtained values of are the abscissas of the desired points

in
(as we see,there exist two such points). Substituting and
the equation of the curve, we find the correspondingordinates:
\037
Y1
- - . - -_ .
1:3
\0371
Y2
1:3
\0372
\0371
--
\0372
Thus, the requi red poi n ts are: M 1 ( 1, 1) and M 2 ( 1, 1), 0 f w hi ch

only the former is an interior point on the arc AB.
Note. This problemcan be solved without using the Lagrangetheorem; write the equation of the chord as a straight line passing
t\\\\,O
given points, and then find the point on the curve at
through
the tangent is parallel to the chord.)))
\\vhich
134
Ch.
III.Differential
3.t .9.Taking
tion, deduce the
Calculus: Investigation
of Funci's)
advantage of the test for the constancy of a funcformulas known from elementary mathfollo\\\\'ing
emat ics:
(a) arc sin x+ arc casx == n/2;
1-
(b) sin 2 x==: ( 1 cas2x)/2;

2
x
(c) arccosI+x\037 ==2arctanxat O\037x<oo;
(d) arcsin
l-j\037xX2
Solution.(a) Let
J1-2arc tan x at
2 arc tanx
at
at
1,
-l<x<l,
\037
{ -n-2arctanx x\037-l.
us
considerthe function
f (x) == arc sin x
-1,1].
+ arc casx,
The derivative of the indicated

defined in the interval f
function inside this interval equals zero:
f' (x)= V/_X2 V/_X2= 0
(-1< x< 1).
to the test for the constancy of a funct ion t (x) ==const,

e. arc sin x+ arc casx ==C 1 < x < 1).
To determinethe constant C let us put, for instance, x== 0; then
we have n/2 == C) whence
(-
!\037ccording
i.
The
arcsinx+arccosx==n/2
(-1<x< 1).
validity of this equality at the points x == + 1
directly.
(b) Let us take the function
t (x)= sin2 x+
IS
verified
i-cos2x
-00< x < 00.The derivative

zero:
x-sin2x == O.
defined throughout the number scale:

of this function is everywhere equal to
f' (x) == 2 sin x cos
According to the test for the constancy of a function

.
sin2 x +
2cas2x ==C
1
.)
To determine C put, for instance, x== 0; then we get 1/2==C.

Wherefrom)
'2x+ \"2C'.os2x-_J2')))
SIn
\037
3.1.BasicTheorems
on Differentiable
135)
Functions)
or)
. 2x== 1 cas 2x
sIn
2
(c) Let
\302\267
introduce the function
us
(x)
1-
arc cosI
===
x2
+ x2
2 arc tan x,
::;;:> 0:1.
=
l+x2-2x(l+x2) -
determined along the entire number scale,since
The derivative of the function f (x) is zero for all x
I'(x) =
-4x
/1_(
JI
-'
I-X2 2(1+X\037):a
I
I\037
4x
+ )
x2
+x2
\302\267
According to the test for the constancy of a function

I -x
arccosl_t-x2
-2arctanx===Cat
x>O.
1,
0-
To determineC let us put, say, x

which gives C arc cos
2 arc tan 1 O.
The validity of the proved formula at x 0 is verified directly.
Note. At x = 0 the function arc cos
no derivative. At
=;=;: has
x < 0 its derjvative is
===
===
arc cosI
(
which
===
===
-+ ) = - +
X
x2
x2
enables us to deri ve the forrnula

2
arccos1 +X2 :=: 2 arc tan x (x < 0).
l-x
The latter formula can be obtained on the strength of the fact

is an even function, and 2 arc tan x is an odd one.
that arc cos
:;;:
3.1.
to. As is known, (eX)'= ex for all x. Are there any more

functions that coincidewith their derivatives everywhere?
Solution.Let the function f (x) be such that f' (x) f (x) every\037
where.
Let us introduce the

qJ
runct
(x)=
ion
f
e\037)
= f (x)e-x.
The derivative of this function equals zero everywhere:

X
(()' (x) ==f' (x) e-X-e- f (x) == O.
By the test for the constancy of a function f
f (x) ==CeX
.)))
(x)/ex = C, whence
136
f'
Ch.
III.Di(Jerential
so,we have
And
(x) ==f
the group of functions for which
proved that
X2
> Xl'
the inequality
arc tanx2
-arctan < -XI
Solution.To the function

apply the Lagrange formula:)
X2
Xl
(X 2
=-=-
Xl
Since)
,)
(x) ==arc tan x on the interval [Xl' x 2]
arctanx2 -arctanxl
\\vhere
of Funcl's)
(x) is covered by the formula f (x) -= Cex .
3.1.t 1.Prove
where
l-I-\0372
< < x 2.
-XI),
\302\243
< 1+;2< 1 and X2-XI > 0,)

arc tan X2 arc tan Xl < X 2 Xl'
1
\302\260
then)
In
particular, putting
Xl
\302\260
arc tan
3.1.12.
Show
and
Xl
x<x
==X,
(X
we get
> 0).
the square roots of two successive natural
that
numbers greater than
N2
differ
f
Solution.To the function
apply the Lagrange formula:
less than Ij(2N).
by
(x)==Vx
on the interval [n,
n =
f(n+l)-t(n)=J/n+l-V\"
2
where n < < n + 1.
+ 1]
,
\037--
\037
\037
If
> N2,
then
\302\243
> N2,
V-n
3.1.13.
Using the
of the
hence
1/(2V1)< Ij(2N), whence
n < Ij(2N).
+ 1-1/\"
Rolle theorem prove that the derivative
ff
(x)
function)
f
(x ) -==
(xsin x
{a
<
\037
at
> 0,
at x ==
\302\260
vanishes on an infinite set of points of the interval

1).
Solution.The function f (x) vanishes at points where
\037O,
sin (nix)==0, nix ==kn,

k
x == Ijk,
= 1, 2, 3, ...)
Since the function f (x) has a derivative at any interior point

the Rolle theorem is applicable to anyone)))
of the interval [0,
1],
\037
3.J. BasicTheorems
of the intervals
...,[1/(k+l), ...o..
on Diflerentiable
Functions)
137)
[1/2,1],[1/3,1/2],
l/k],
Consequently,inside each of the intervals of the sequence,there is

a poi n t
And
so
\037
-i- 1)< k < 1,/k , at w hi ch the der i vat i ve

k) ==
have shown that the derivative vanishes on an infinite
k' 1/ (k
\\\\\"e
{'
(\302\243
set of points (see Fig.38).

3.1.14.
The Legendrepolynomial is
a polynomial defined by the following

formula (Rodrigues'formula):
Pn (x) = 2
llfn.
I
\302\267
dn
d x)II
(x2 -1)n(n == 0,
1,2,
...).
Using the Rolle theorem, prove

that the Legendre polynomial Pn (x)
has n different real roots,all of them
:c)
0
found between 1 and +
Solution. Consider the function
2
f (x) ==(x
1)'1==(x 1)n (x -1-1)'1.
This function and its n 1 successi.
ve derivatives vanish at the points
Fig. 38
x ==+ 1 (use the Leibniz formula for
higher derivatives of the product of two functions).
I t follows from f (1)==f ( 1)== that inside the interval
1]
= 0,
a point
can be found at which f'
x == will be the
root of the first derivative. Now apply the Rolle theorem onceagain
to the function f'(x) on the intervals
We find
1 the function f\" (x) has two more roots
that besides -t- 1 and
on the interval
1, Reasoning as before, we will show that,
fhe (n-I)th derivativ.e has
more
apart from + 1 and
roots on the interval
the function {tn-I)(X) has all in
al1 n -t-- 1 roots on the interval
1, which divide this interval
into n parts. Applying the Rolle theorem once again, we ascertain
that the function fen) (x), and hence,the function P\" (x)= n fir/) (x),
2 'n!
has n different roots on the interval
\302\2431
1.
- -[- 1].
(\302\2431)
[-1,
\037I]'
-1,
i.e.
[-1,1],[1],
[-1,1].
3.1.15.
Check whether
[.-],
i.e.
\302\260
\037I
[\302\2431'
1].
(n-l)
the Lagrange formula is applicable

to the
functions:
following
2
(a) f (x) ==x on [3,4];
(b) f(x):=-:lnxon
2
on [0,
-i(c) f(x)=-= 4xa
4
==
x
on
(d) f (x) V
1/2,1/2].
1)
If it is, find the values of
appearing In this formula.
_
-5x [1,3];
x-2
1];
(x- [\302\243
3.1.16.
Using the
Lagrange theorenl
estimatethe
value
In(l-re
))))
Ch. III.Di(1ere.ntial Calculus: Investigation
i38
3.1.17.
Using the
1
of Funct's)
Lagrange formula prove the inequality
\037
< In ( 1 + x) < x
at x
> 0,)
':
Forms.
* 3.2.Evaluation of Indeterminate
Rule
L'Hospital's
I. Indeterminateforms of
the type
If the functions r (x)

and g (x) are differentiable in a certainnpighbourhood of the point a,
except,may be, at the point a itself, and (x)=1= and if
lim f (x)== lim g (x)=lirn f (x) == lim g (x)== 0 or
\037
g'
x-a
x-a
then)
I 1m
x-a
00,
x-a)
f', (x)
(x) == I 1m
_ a g (x)
0,
_a
(x))
lim t:
exists( L'Hospital'srule).The point a
provided the limit x...ag
X
QU.
may be either finite or improper + 00 or
I I. Indeterminateforms of the type O.00 or 00 00 are reduced
- -
\037x))
to forms of the type
I.
II
Indeterminate
to forms of the type
mation [f (x)]qJ(X)
===
or
by algebraictransformations.
or
are reduced
forms of the type 17J ,
O. 00 by taking logarithms or by the transfor\037
eqJ(x) In
00\302\260
0\302\260
(x).
3.2.t. Applying the L'Hospitalrule, find the lirnits of the

. eax_e- ,.
1m VTT2X+ ;
(a) xItm
(b) I'
(J + x)
0
-I r 2+x+x
.
e-x ---2x
.
In(l+x2) '.
(C)
(d) x - 0 cos3x-ex-sIn. x ;
0
si 3x2
I'
. e /x _ 2
.
(e) x1111
2 x)
(f) hm0 cos(2x
x ... 2 arc tan x
wing functions:
,r--
2aX
\037
1 IIn
In
1 1rn
In
-I-
,)
1t
00
\302\267)
both functions f (x) eax _e-2ax and g(x)==

are infinitesimals in the neighbourhood of zero,since
Ii rn f (x)== 1
Iim g (x) == 1n 1 O.
1 == 0;
(a) Here
:::Solution.
(1 x)
In
eX
-+
-+
follo-
-\037
\037
===
-\037
0)
g'
1,
> - 1).
Furthermore f' (x) and

of the
(x) exist in any neighbourhood
-x
does
not
contain
the
that
x-::=:O
and
point
point
g'(x) =--\037
l+x)))
=1=
(x
3.2.Evaluation
\037
of Indeterminate
139)
Forms)
Finally, there existsa limit of the ratio of the derivatives:)

. (x) = . aeax +2ae-2ax = 3a.
!' !t!?o
L'Hospital
. -- = .
(I+x)
g'(x)
:\037\037no
Therefore the
rule is applicable:)
e 2ax
aeax+2ae-2ax-=3a.)
eax
!l/.l1
o
1/(1 +x)
111
(*))
I/(I+x)
!t\037no
of the ratio is computed according to the

result is usually written directly as shown in (*).
Whether the desired derivatives and limits exist is ascertainedin
In casethe ratio of the derivatives
the courseof calculation.
again represents an indeterminate form, the L 'Hospitalrule should
be applied for a second time, and so on until the indeterminacy is
removed or until it becomesclearthat the required limits do not
exist.Therefore, henceforward we write only the necessary transformations, leaving to the reader the task of checkingwhether the
conditions of their applicability are fu lfilled.
Note. When the
limit
L'Hospitalrule the
\037:
(b )
x--+-l)
(e)
.t
--+
0)
In
3x
sin
tim
V + 2x + =
y'2+x+x
2
Ii In
cos(2x2
2/(3 V(1+2xr\037)
1/(2V2+\"X)+1=9;
-6x
_
-x)- rl!?o
xl\037\0371
cos3x2 CQS (2x2 -x)_
-x)
-x) r
1)sin (2x2
cos3x2 cas (2x2
6r
4x I
t l!?o
i;\037
(4x\037
2
x l\037o sin (2x
-x)
\302\267)
factor is computed directly, the limit of the

second one, which representsan indeterminateform of the type
IS
found with the aid of the L 'Hospitalrule:)
The limit of the
first
\037
x
cos3x2 cos (2X2_X\037 - I
1m
2
I
4x
si
n
(2x
_
0
x 0
6 I 1m
--+
-6. -]
\037
that,
x)
(4x-l)cos(2x2 -x) = 6.--I. =-6

as x + 00, the functions Xk (k > 0);
--+
lim
3.2.2.It is known
--
\302\267
\037
(a > 1) are infinitely
large quaFltities. Applying the L'Hoslogax;

pital rule, compare these quantities.
1
loga e
1oga x
x
SaIu t ton. 1 I un xk = I 1m kxk -1 == I ogae ]1m 1 = 0;
kxk
X
t
+
x
aX
--+
--+
xa
Xffl
00
==
00
I 1 IT)
--+
+ (fJ
-=
--+
mxTll
ax
111
+ 00
\302\267
\302\267
\302\267
\302\267
I 1 rn
\302\267
.
.
--+
I 1m
--+
00
aX
(1n
!
a)m)))
-.
+
00
140
III.DiOerential
Ch.
of Funct's)
power function Xk (k > 0) increasesrnore rapidly than

the logarithmic function logax (a > 1), and the exponentialfunction
the base exceeding
increasesmore rapidly than the
aX with
unity
ln
power function x
Hence,the
.)
Find the limits:

3.2.3.
-\037 .
li01 \037
(a) x-I
( x x- ) '
\037. .
(c) - ( \037)
0 x
In
cot x-\037 ;
(b) xIim
)
_0(
Iiln
eX
x)
have an indeterminate form of the type 00 00.

to an indeterminate form of the type . and then
Solution.(a)
We
---
Let us reduce it
apply the L 'Hospitalrule:)
I Itn
,,-+ I
\037
. x-I -In.x== 11m

. I-I/x
x
x-I x+ l/x ==
.
x- == .
== 1m
1m
x- ) == x-I
(x-I)
( In x
In
In
--.
In1
x-+lxlnx+x-l x-.11nx+2
I
2)
3.2.4.Find the
(a)
{b)
-m
x n In
Iim
x
x (n
fl n
(1+ sin2 x) cot
0)
11m xn
:X-O
(1+ x) ] .
-==.
We
In x
-.0[In(1+
lim
==
'
sin2
ljx
nx- n - 1
1m
x-1m0 x-n x-O
(b) We have an
.x
n2
:
- 1
have an indeterminate form of the type 0'00.

and then apply the L 'Hospitalrule:
Let us transform it to
Solution.(a)
> 0);
0)
Ii
limits:
--- .
I
I 1m X'Z==
x-O)
. n >O.
' since
indeterminate form of the type O. 00:
x) cot
In 2
(l + x)]=
I
.
=hm
lim
x _ 0 an n ;;\037x
\037n
'.)
sln\037
(\037\037
x\037
SIn 2x
x- 0 2 {I+tan2 [ln 2 (l +x)]}In (I +X)' I

l +x
== I Iln
x\037
3.2.5.Find the
sin x
In
(I -1-x )
===
Hm.its:
(ljx)sin x;
(a)x lim
-+0)
(b)x Ii-.In
-t
Xl
0)))
- .
/ 1 n (e1: 1)
.01
1I
K
0)
COS
l+x)
\037
1.)
3.2.E\"oaluation
\037
Forms
of Indeterminate
141)
Solution. (a) We have an indeterminate form of the type

Let y\037(l/x)sinx; then
In y ==sin x In
1 i IT1
-\037
-1
ny
==
X
\037
(l/x),
sin x 111 ( 1/x) (i n deter m in ate for m 0f the
1 i In
+ 0)
Let us transform
to
it
00
00
x
00\302\260.
and apply the
ty
eO.00).
L'Hospitalrule:
.m n = . -In. == .m -l/x. 2 == .m sin2 x == 0.

x x_OXCOSX
x-o-o -(cOSX)/Sln
.t-o-+O
Hence,xlim
- ==e == 1.
3.2.6.
Find the limits:
I1
I I n1
I1
I1
l/SII1X
x\037+O
-10)
(a)
(sinx)tanx;
IiIn
x
3.2.7.
Compute)
:rj
Solution.Let
(b )
2)
- !im+
Jtj
Ii m XX.
x-O)
(tan x) cot x.
0)
take advantage of the
us
(tan x)
cot x
identity)
x
In
tan
==ecot
x,)
but)
x
cot X In
\\im
+ Jtj 2 0
tan
-0-
x=
\\im
tan
x _ + Jtj 2 0
Whence)
tim
x-+Jtj2 - (tan x)
the existence
of
I\037
an
x)
x_
--===.
0
y=tanx-+oo
I 1m
Iny
y)
cot x ==eO ==
1.
0)
Ascertain
3.2.8.
.
si (1/x) .
.
,
(a ) 1m
I
x_ 0
the following
limits:
X2
-.
SIn
2+2x--j-sin\037x ;
(b) xlim
_ (2x+sin 2x) esm x
00
(C)
.
1m
-0-
rfj2
tan
secx
L'Hospitalrule be applied in computing them?

\037pplication lead to the C0rrect answer?
Solution.(a) The limit existsand equals zero.Indeed,
. si.n (1;x) == I 1m
. .x I ImXStn-==.
. .
1 0 = 0.
I 1m
SIn x
SIn x
Can the
Does its formal
X2
-0-
x_0
x)
- -
But the limit of the ratio of the derivatives does not

1
2xsi11 (1/x) cos(]/x)
0 I 1m cas ,
I In1
cos
x
_
x
0
x 0
x)))
\037
exist.Indeed,
142
Ch.
III.Differential
cos(l/x) does
applicablehere.
but
lirn
not
-+
Calculus: Investigati0n
exist, hence
the
Funct's)
of
L'Hospitalrule
the ratio of the funct ions does not exist:

2
2 + 2x-I-sin 2x _
. x
I 1m
I UTI
1 --L
.
e- x
2
Sill
2x
-1e
(
x x
x
(2x+ sin 2x)
e-sin x does not exist,since the function e- x traverses
(b) The
limi t of
- . 'x
\\
S1I1
\037
but
IS not
oc
-;in
/)
\037
\037ill
li\037n
X -+
the)
oc
values from lie to e infinitely

many times.
Now we will show that the limit of the ratio of derivatives exists:)
I un
\037
\037
2-t-2 cos 2x
cas
2
2x+ (2x-1-sin 2x) cas xl e
[2+
-.
I 1m
\037
S11l
4 COs\"2
.
)
4 COs:'
x+-(2x+sin
=-=
cosx
2x)
I i 111
x -+ X)
e-_ \"in
4 coS x
e
2x+4cosx-+-sin2x
-; i
--,
0
cos
--+ O.
.
stocethe function r'inx IS bounded, and ')....x+ 4 4cos
SIn 2x x
Herecosx,which vanishes for an infinite set of values of x, has
been cancelled
out. It is the presenceof this multiplier that makes
the L'Hospitalrule inapplicable in this case,sinc2 it simultaneously
nullifies the derivatives of the functions being compared.
. tan x . sec2 x
. seex . t n x
(C) I 1m secx = I 1m seex tan x == I 1m tCln x = I un see = ...
X
x_
JTj2
\037
I
-\037
00
- Cl
x-n/2
x-JTj2
t-JT/2
x)
Hereapplication of the L'Hospitalrule gives no usefuJ result,though

there existsa limit:
. sinxcosx== I Inl. Slnx==
. tan x I 1m
. 1.
I 1m
x-JTj2
-=
seex
x-JTj2
eosx
:r./2)
\037
3.2.9.Using the L'Hospitalrule find the limits of the follo\\ving

. (x2-3)
a x -x
Iim
(b)
(a) It m 2 + 3 __ 10;
t_2
.
] 4 sin 2 (nx/6) .
x-x
,
(c) 1m x SI. ;
(d ) Iim
x:!
x_ 0
.
x-acot (x-a); (f) lim (Jt-2arc tan x) In x;
1m arc sin
(e)x-a
a
xtJnx
.
;
(h)
(a Ijx 1)x (a > 0);)
(g) 1m
functions:)
ln
In
X
X\037+O
( )
l
tan
x)
I)
+\037)
lilll
-\"_00)
(j)
lin1
x\037
x)
x\037l)
x)
(i) lim (cosmx)f1/x;

X-O)
-In
a(
_..:.
)
tan (Jtxj(
a)))
2a\302\273;
.\037
(k)
lirn
x
_+
\037-\037;
)
( x
tin
\037
(x
I\037
(1)
In
lirn
(m)
3.3.Taylor's Formula:
-cot2
);
(n)
lirn xl/In
->-
0)
(e''V-1);
x2 In
}n:, [x
\037
x)
_-
\037
(q) xlim
..10)(lncotx)tanx;
\037
+ )] ;
\037
/
.
5
(p) t11m
-..0 ( 2+ V 9 -t- x )
. e /x
.
(r ) ltm 2 arc tan x 2
(0) lim x2 -cosh\037--l ;

J
x-+XJ
[
143)
Calculation\037)
.4pproxinzate
t sin x
00)
j'[
3.3.Taylor'sFormula.Application
to Approximate
Calculations)
continuous and has continuous derivatives

order
on the interval [a, b],and has a finite derivative
of the nth order at every interior point of the interval then at
xE [a, b] the following formula holds true:
If
the function f (x) is
through
n-l
{(x) = {(a) + f' (a) (x
a)2
a) + f\" (a)
(x\037-!
+ f'''(a)(x -;-! + ... + (In-I)(a)
a)\037
(x(\037
where)
and
\037==a+8(x-a)
It
If
\037\037)\037
(s)! --;:Ia)n
X
f<n)
.)
0<8<1.)
is cal1edTaylor's formula of the function f (x).

this formula we put a = 0, we obtain Maclaurin'sforn-lula:
in
{(x) = {(0) +f' (0)x +
f\"
(0)
+ + {(n-l)(0)(n
xn
+
\" where
\302\267
\037;
\302\267
\302\267
\037\037;
f(n>
The last term
in
(\037)
n.)
the Taylor formula
Lagrange'sform and is denoted Rn (x):

R n (X ) = f<m
accordingly,the remainder
in
==8x, 0
< 8 < 1.
is calledthe remainder in
[a+8 (x-a)](x_ a )n.,

n.),
the Maclaurin formula has the form
n
R n (X ) = f<n> n.)(8x)
, x
3.3.1.Expand the
\037
-2x
-x +2x-1
4
+x:J 2
polynomial P(x)==x
in powers of the binomial
using the Taylor formula.
Solution.To solve the problem it is necessary to find the value
The)))
of the polynomial and its derivatives at the point x =
x-I
1.
144
Ch.
III.Difierent
ial Calculus: I nvestigaiion
relevant calculationsare given
of Funct's)
belo\\v.)
P(I):----O, P'(I)===O,
(1)= 18,
P (1)== 120,
0,
(1)
P\"
=-=-
P'\"
P(4) (1) 72,

p<ll) (x) ==0 (n
u\302\273
=--=
at any
x.
6))
\037
Substituting the values thus found into the Taylor formula, we get
3.3.2.
x-
x-
x-
18
72
120
[).
P (x) _ 3!
1)3
(
+4f( 1)4 +51( ),
P (x) ==3(x-l)3+ 3 (x-l)4+ (x-l)5.
Applying the Maclaurin formula,

9
(up to x , inclusive) the function
expand
f(x)==ln(l+x),
[0, 1].Estimate the
defined on the interval

the remainder.
Solution.)
f (0)
===
In
===
in
po\\vers
O.
\037
_I )n-l (n-l)!
,
( + x)n
===
error due to deleting
The derivatives of any order of the given function (see

f (ll) (x )
of
2.3):
...).
(n=l,2,3,
f(ll)(O)===(-l)n-l(n-l)!
Substituting the derivatives into the Maclaurin formula, we get

In
x-2+ x3-
(1+ x) ==
x\037
\302\267
where the remainder R]o(x)

as follows:
R 10 (x) ==1(10)
10==
- 10!
+x
\302\267
\"9
-t- RIo (x),
the Lagrange form
9!
\\vill
be
\\\\Titten
x lO
(0 < < x).

10(1-1(I-ILet us estimatet.he absolute value of the remainder RIo (x);kepping
x 1 and > 0, we have
mind that 0
10!x
(\037)
in
in
\302\267
\037
\037
RIo (x )
xlO :==
\037)lO
\037
\302\243)lu
\302\243
<
10
10
1
How many terms in the Maclaurin formula should be taken
for the function f (x)==eX so as to get a polynomial representing
this function on the interval
accurateto three decimal
place-?
Solution. The function f (x) ==eX has a derivative of any order
I
(\037\037\037)
3.3.3.
[-1,1],
(n)
(x) =
eX.)))
\302\267
\037
3.3.Taylor's Formula:
.\037
145)
Calculations
Approximate
to this function. Let

Therefore, the Maclaurin formula is applicable
derivaus compute the values of the function eX and its first
tives at the point x ==0, and the value of the nth deri vat ive at the
Ox (0 < 8 < 1).We will have
point
- (0) =-= 1;
==- lll lJ
f
f (0)-:=:f' (0) ==f\" (0)==
e;=-= e8x
f(ll>
n-l
===
\037
...
===
.)
(\302\243)
Whence)
f (x) == 1
x
+ 2!-r .
+ 11
x ll
\302\267
-J-(n _ 1 )!+ R n (x),)
x\037
\302\267
where)
==,e .
XU
(x)
Rll
Since,by hypothesis,
I
Hence,if
1 and 0
\037
Ix III Bx
(x) == n., e
Rn
< 8 < 1,then

< n. < n.3
,e -,
I
\302\267
the inequality)
8x
n.)
3
fiI 0.001
(*))
\037
is
ful
filled, then the inequali ty
0.001
(x)
7
will
be fulfilled apriori.To this end it is sufficient to take n
(7!== 5040). Hence,7 terms in the Maclaurin formula wi 11 suffice.
I
Rn
\037
\037
At
3.3.4.
what
values of
x will
cosx
the approximate formula)

x2
\037
x4
1-2!+4T
have an error less than .O.00005?

Solution.The right member of the approximate equation represents the first six terms in the Maclaurin formula for the function
cosx (the second,fourth and sixth terms are equal to zero; checkit i).
Let us estimateR6 (x). Since(COSX)(6)= cosx, then
cos-ex 6 .--- x 6
R 6 (X ) ==
6!
6! x
c'hoosethe values of x that
For the error to be less than 0.00005,
the
inequality)
satisfy
6
< 0.00005.
inequality, we get x < 0.575.
I
61
Solving this
\037
3.3.5.
Compute the
approximate va lues of:

(b) sin
(a)
cos5\302\260;
20\302\260,)))
146
Ch.
accurateto
III.Differential
decimal places.
five
-2!+ 4f-... +
Solution.(a) Into the Maclaurin
cosx== 1
x2
ot
Funct'\037)
formula
x2n
x4
(-I)1Z(2n)!
-t- R 2n +
2)
substitute x == Jtj36; since
2T= 2.362 = 0.003808,)4! = 6 (\\ )

Jt2
x\037
x\037
\037
\037
== 2
\037
we confine ourselves to the following
cosx
.4 . 10 -6,
terms:
l-xJ2,
2
\037
the error being estimated at

IR 4 (x)I=1
co:!ex
x41\037
And
E'O,
6.
<2.5.10-
I\037r
the required accuracy
within
J1
cos5\302\260==cos
36
==
==0.99619.
1-0.00381
3.3.6.
Compute the approximate value of V 83 accurateto six
decimal places.
3.3.7.Prove the
(a) x-xj2 <

2
(b)
tan
In
inequalities:
(1+x)< x at x> 0;
at
x > x+x3j3
2
0 < x < Jt;2;
V l+x<I+2 x at O<x<oo.
(c) 1+2
Solution.(a) According to the Maclaurin formula with
x-T<
x
inder
we have)
R 2 (x)
In
(1+ x) ==
where 0 < < x.

According to the same formula
the rema-
.)
x-2 (I +
x'\"
,)
\037)2
\037
In
'0 <
\037l
<
X.
x2
Since 2 (l +
(I + x) ==
>0
\037)\037
with
x2
x-T+ 3 (I
x3
and 3
(l +
\0371)3
x-xj2<
2
3.3.8.
the remainder
x3
+\0371)3
(x) we have
, where)
> 0 at x > 0, it
In
R3
follows that
(1+x)< x.
Show that sin (ex + h) differs from sin ex + h

r.oore than h 2j2.
Sollit ion. By Taylor's formula
sin(a+h)=sina+hcosa\037
sinG;)))
cosex
by
not
3.4. Taylor'sFornzula:
\037
whence)
1
\037
Evaluation
h2
2 sin T
(sin a + h cosex) 1==
sin (ex + h)
]47)
of Limits)
h2
\037
\037
\302\267)
3.4.Applicationof Taylor'sFormula to E'valuation
of Limits)
The expression
f' (a)
\"
(a)
(a)
f(x)==f(a)-i-, (x-a)n\037]., (x-a)+\037(x-ap+...-tf
f<lZ)
L.
x-a
+ 0 (I
Ill)
the
in Peano'sform \\vhere
the
with
remainder
is
Taylor formula
==
\037 a, the function
x
a
means
as
that,
(x) has a high(x)
(x)]
= O.
er order of smaJIness than the function 1tJ (x), e. !inl x)
X
['l'
cp
In
cp
i.
particular,
f (x) = f (0)
at a
+ f'
===
,\\0)
\\ve
\037\302\253
x\037a't\"
have
f\"2('0)
x2
+ ... +
x\"
f(\"\037:O)
+ 0 (i x In).
Peano'sform
of the remainder for Taylor's formula shows that,

substituting the Taylor polynomial of degreen for f (x) in the
neighbourhood of the point a, we introduce an errorwhich is an
infinitesimal of a higher order than (x-a)nas x \037 a.
The following five expansions are of greatest importance In solving practical problems:
when
x
x
+ . + nT
+ x + 2T
+ a (x );
.
x
.
1)
+
+
(
slnx-x-3f 4
(2n-I)!+ a (x ),
x
+
cosx===
2T+4!+'\"+(_I)1Z (2n)' +0 (X );
x2 + .. + (1,(a-l) (a-n+J)
X /l + a (x ll) .
,
(1+X ) 1+ax+ a(a-1)
21
n!
2
x
X3
x
In (1+ x)
x-T+ :3+ . . + (- n + a (x ).)
eX
===
1-
1Z
...\302\267
lZ
\302\267
1Z
X 21Z
2lZ
...
X 21Z
X2
C1==
\302\267
2lZ
1Z
===
3.4.1.
Expand the
gral powers of x
wi th
r.espectto x.
I YZ- 1
\302\267
up
function f (x) = sin2 x

to the terrns of the
x%e-X
fourth
lZ
in positive inteorder of smallness
Solution.We have
X3
_X2 l-x+ +0(x2) =
t(x)=[X-T+O(X4)
]
1
[
x4
5 4
3
4
==x2
a
_X2 + X
x + 0(x4
+
+ a (x ) = x3 -lf
-T
2
X2
-T
X4
(xf'\302\273
).)))
148
III.DifJerential
Ch.
3.4.2.Expand the
(a) f (x) == xVrl-x2

(b)
ollowing functions:
-cosxIn (1+x);
positive integral powers of x

smallnesswith respect to x.
in
of
3.4.3.
Applying
.form,
(C)
.(d )
(e)
.
.
1m
It nl
eX
\"
It in
sin x
x (1-I-x)
.\037
ex +e-x
x2
-2
.'
\302\267
Solution.(a) Retaining the terms
respectto x
x
\037
I-
up
fourth
the denominator and the numerator, we get
in
. 1-(I+x2)1/2cosx
I+x2 cosx= 1m
=
x4
x 0
x2
x4
5
x4 +0
1-[ + 2 x2 + 1/2(-1/2)
2
1 [ 1-2 + 24 +0 )]
tan 4 x
\037
\037
I i rn
x
0)
order with
x.)
x--\037o
!im
to the
X\"\"
cosx_e-x2 / 2
X
\037
Peano's
V +3x--:-Vl+2x
x\037o
1
in
\037
the remainder
with
mits:
tan4
lim
x
order
Y 1 + x 2 casx ;
x\037O)
(b)
fifth
to the terms of the
up
the Taylor formula
compute t he li
(a) r1m
of Funct's)
(I + sin x)
(x) == In
\037
_'
-
hm
(X
(X4)
4\"
x\037o
3.4.4.Expand the
x4
+\"8x
4)
- 1...4+ -_'
24
,t-
0 (x 4)
0 (x4) _
+
4
] -3\"
[
hm
x4
X-40 3
following functions
in
\037
\302\267
X)
positive integral powers
of the variable x up to the terms of the indicated order,inclusive:

2X x2
up to the term containing
(a) f (x) ==e
cos
to
x
the term containing x6;
In
up
(b)
4
up to the term containing x
(c)
I
xC>;
.)
eX \037
\037
3.5.Testinga Functionfor M@notonicity
Let a continuous function f (x) be defined on the interval [a, b)

and have a finite serivative inside this segment.Then:
(non-increasing)on [-a, b] it is
(1) For f (x) to be non-decreasing
all. x in (a,
necessaryand suffi.cient that f' (x) 0 (f' (x) 0)
\037
\037
f\037r
b).)))
3.5.Testing
\037
Function
149)
for Monotonicity)
(2) For f (x) to be increasing (decreasing)on [a, b] it is suf ficient to fulfil the condition f' (x)> 0 (f' (x)< 0) for all x in (a, b).
Determine the intervals of monotonicity for the following
3.5.t.
funct
ions:
(a) f (x)== 2X2
9x\037
e ;
(c) f (x) =-::x:!
.\\-
(d)
f(x)=lnlx\\\037
(e) f (x)==
(f) f (x)
===
4x:\037
eX
-Inx;
(b) f (x) = 2X:1-
24x -r-7;
21x2+ 18x-+ 20;
+ 5x .
Solution.The solution of this problEm is reduced to finding the

intervals in which the derivative preserves its sign. If the function
f (x) has a continuous derivative in the interval (a, b) and has in
it a finite number of stationary points Xl' x2,
X n (a
Xl
then ff (x)
< X2 < < Xn < b), where ff (xk) = 0 (k == 2,
preserves its sign in each of the intervals (a, Xl)' (xJ , X 2),
(xn P Xn) , (xn' b).
(a) The function is defined at X > O.
Let us find the derivative
f (x) 4x 1IX
The function increases if
1Ix > 0,
X > 1/2.
The function decreases
if
< 0, e. X < 1/2.
And so, the function decreases
in the interval 0 < X < 1/2and
increasesin t he interval 1/2< x < -+-00.
(b) Evaluate the derivative
== 6x2
== 6 (x2
ff (x)
It
vanishes at the points x ==
and x== 4. Since ff (x) is a
trinomial
with
a
at
coefficient
its
quadratic
highest-powerterm 6 > 0,
then f' (x) > 0 in the intervals
and ff (x) < 0
00,
!J)
(4,00),
in the interval
4). Consequently, f (x) increasesin the
two intervals, \\vhereas in
first
4) it decreases.
the derivative
(c) In this 2case
x)
x ) e-X vanishes at
f' (x) (2x-==
2)
o)
the poi nts x 0 and x == 2. In
the intervals
00,0)and (2,00)
Fig. 39)
the derivative ff (x) < 0 and the
in (0, 2) the derivative ff (x) > 0 and the funcfunction decreases;
tion increases(see Fig. 39).)
Find the intervals of decreaseand increasefor the follo-
.,
\302\267
\302\267
..
< <
1, ...,n),
\302\267
_.
===
4x-
4x-llx
- i.e..
-18x-24
i.
-1
(- -1),
(-1,
===
(-
3.5.2.
wing
functions:)))
(--1,
-3x-4).
...,
150
Ch.
(a)
(x)
III.Differential
cos(njx);
\037
on
(b) f(x)\037sinx+cosx
Solution.(a) The function y

throughout
the number
As
[0,2n].
\037
cns (njx) is defined and differentiable
scale,exceptat
Y
of Funct's)
Jt. .
the point
x == 0;)
Jt
== -:)Sin
X)
X\"\"
is obvious, the sign of y' coincideswith that of the multi-
pliersin (njx).
(1) sin (njx)> 0 if

(k\037O, + 1,+ 2,
2kn<njx\302\2532k+l)n
(2) sin (njx)< 0 if
(2k + 1)n < njx < 2 (k + 1)n.
Hence,the function increasesin the intervals
( 2k
and
In
decreases
\037
'
'
2\037
...);
the intervals
( 2k
\037
2k \037
\302\267
behaviour of the function f (x) ==2 sin x +

the interval
nj2).
Solution.The derivative)
x-2cos2 x) =
1
- x) (I +cos
3 = (I-cos
f (x) = 2 cosx + cos.2 X
cos.2 X
4 sin 3 (xj2) sin (3x/2'
cos2
is positive in the intervals
0) and (0, nj2) and vanishes
x==
O.
i
n
at
Hence,
nj2) the function f (x) Increases.
only
+ tan x-3x
(-nj2,
in
'
X)
(-nj2,
(-nj2,
3.5.4.Prove that at 0 < x 1 the iniqualities
x-x3j3< arc tan x < x-x3j6)
\037
are fulfilled.
Solution.We
will prove only the
is proved analogously).
right
inequality (the left one
The derivative of the ftInction

f (x)
is equal
to)
,
f (x)
x3
= arc tanx-x+\"6)
+
I
\037
x2
x2
x2
(x
I)
2= 2 (1-1)
1 -1-
x2
\302\267)))
\037
3.5.Testing
Function
tor Monotonicity)
151)
The function f (x) is continuous throughout the entire number

continuous in the interval [0, and inside this segment f' (x) < O. Therefore, f (x) decreases
on the interval
[0,1]and, ==consequently,for any point x, 0 < x 1,the inequali ty
f (x) f (0) 0 or)
x3
arc
< 0)
1],
scale,in particular, it is
\037
\037
tanx-x+(f
IS
u I fi
lied, whence)
arctanx<x-x6.
Prove the
.3.5.5.
inequalities
x-x/6 < sin x < x

3
3.5.6.
x> O.
at
Prove that for 0 p 1 and for any positive a and b

the ineq uali t y (a -+- b)P a P -t-bp is valid.
Solution.By dividing both sides of the inequality by bp we get
\037
\037
\037
: :
( +IY\037( Y+I)
or)
(1+ x)P
b.
where x =
Let us show
Introduce the
that the
function)
\037
1 -t- x P
(*))
,)
inequality (*) holds true at any positive x.
-+
t (x) == 1 -t- xP (1 x)P;

The derivative of this function
O.
\037
' x- pxP-l-p(l + x)P-l_

--p[Xl-P _ (l+.X)L-P]
f ( )
is positive everywhere, since, by hypothesis,
1-
>
p 0 and x O.
function increasesin the half-open interval
00),
whence 1 xP (1 x)P, which
t (x) == 1 xP (1 x)P f (0) ==
then we obtain
completes the prcof. If \\v e put p
Hence,the
-+
[0,
+ > +
>
3.5.7.
3.5.8.
Determine
functions:
(a) f (x) == x3 + 2x
followit1g
i.e.
0,=
Iln,
a+b\037v/ a + Vb (n I).
the function y ==x5 + 2x3 + x increases
everywhere,
3
==
\037
\037/
Prove that
and the function y
\037
l-x decreaseseverywhere.
the intervals of
--5;
(c) f (x) == cosx -x;)
increaseand decreasefor
(b) f (x) == In ( 1
I
x2);
I
(d) f(x)=3\"x3 --X;)))
the
152
Ch.
III.Differential
Calculus: Investi[!,ation
of Funcl's)
2x
2x
(e) f(x)=TfiX;
(f) f(x)= l+x\037
Prove the following inequalities:
tan
x > x + x3/3, if (0 < x < :rrj2);
(a)
(b) eX 1 + x for all values of x;
(c) eX > ex a t x >
to.
values of the coefficient a does the function
At what
3
increasealong the entire number scale?
f (x) = x
:>
value of b does the function
At what
\302\267
3.5.9.
1.
\037
3.5.
-ax
.5.11.
f (x) == sin
decreasealong
\037
x-bx+c
the entire number scale?)
3.6.Maxima and Minimaof a
Function
a function y == f (x) is defined on the interval X, then an inof

Xo of this interval is called the point of maximum
the function f (x) [the point of minimum of the function f (x)] if
there exists a neighbourhood U E X of the point xu, such that the
inequality f (x) f (xu) [f (x) f (xo)] holds true within
The genericterms for points of maximum and minimum of a function are the points of extremum.
A NecessaryCondition fQr the Existenceof an Extremum. At
points of extremum the derivative
(x) is equal to zero or does
not exist.
The points at which the derivative (x)== or does not existare
If
teriorpoint
\037
it.
\037
f'
f'
calledcriticalpoints.
\302\260
Sufficient Conditionsfor the Existenceof an Extremum.

I. Let the function f (x) be continuous in some neighbourhoodof
the point xo'
If f' (x)> at x < Xo and f' (x) < at x > Xo (i.e.if in moving from left to right through the point Xo the derivative changes
sign from plus to minus), then at the point Xo the function reaches
1.
a maXimum.
If
(x)
2.
\302\260
\302\260
<
<
>
> (i.e.
at x Xo
at x Xo and
if in mo(x)
to
left
the
the
derivative
from
right
ving
changes
point Xo
sign from minus to plus), then at the point Xo the function reaches
a mInimum.
If the derivative does not changesign in moving through the
point xo, then there is no extremum.
I
Let the function f (x) be twice di\037erentiable (that is f' (xo) = 0)
has a
th\037n at Xo the function
at a critical point xo' If f\" (xu)
then at Xu the function has a minimum;
maximum; if f\" (xo)
but if f\" (x() == then the question of the existence
of an extrenlum
at this point remains open.)))
f'
\302\260
f'
through
3.
I.
0,
> 0,
< 0,
\302\260
3.6.Maxima
t\037
I.
I'
and Minima
..
of
153)
Function)
0,
. {<n-l)(xo) ==
O. If
II Let
but f(ll) (xo)
(xo) I\" (xo)
is even, then at f(fl) (xo) a there is a maximum at xo, and at
a minimum.
{<'l) (X(I)
If n is odd, then there is no extremurn at the point xO'
IV. Let a function y == f (x) be representedparametrically:
n
===
===
===
<
> 0,
=1==
x==cp(t), Y=='P(t),
where the functions
and
cp
(t) and 1jJ (t) have derivatives both of the first

a certain interval of changeof the arguFurther, let, at t == to
secondorders within
t, and
ment
(b)
0.
=I=-
'P'(t) == 0.)
Then:
(a)
== Xo
<p' (t)
if
===
cp
if
\",\"
< 0, the function y ==f (x) has a

f (x) has a
(to) > 0, the function y
(t 0)
max I mum a t x ==
(to);
\",\"
===
minimum
== Xo == cp (to);
(c) if \",\" (to) ==
at
x ==
0, the question of the existenceof an extremum

remains open.
The points at which cp'(t) vanishes require a specialstudy.
t. Using the
3.6.
wing
first
functions:
derivative,
find
the
extremaof
the follo-
I (x) 43 X 4 -x3 -9x2 + 7;

4
3
(b) I (x) x -8x-t- 22x2 24x + 12;
(c) f(x)==x(x+l)3(x-3)2;
2
x2-3x+
(d) f (x)
+2x +
(a)
===
===
===
\302\267
x\037
Solution.(a) The function is defined and differentiable over the

entire number scale.Therefore, only the real roots of the derivative
--
-3)
18x 3x(x + 2) (x
are crit ical points. Equating this expression
to zero,we find the
x2 == 0, x3 == 3 (they should always be arcriticalpoints:Xl ==
f' (x) == 3x3
3x2
===
-2,
ranged in an increasingorder). lJet us now investigate the sign of

the derivative in the neighbourhood of each of these points. Since
there are no critical points to the left of the point x==
the
has one and the same sign: it
derivative at all the points x <
is negative. Analogously, in the interval
0) the derivative is
positive, in the interval (0, 3) it is negative, at x > 3 it is positive. Hence,at the points Xl ==
and X 3 == 3 we have minima
and
and at the point x2 =0, maxi-
-2
(-2,
-2
{(-2)o=-9 {(3)=-40+,
=
mum f
(0)
7.)))
-2,
154
Ch.
III.Differential
Calculus: I nvesligation
Funct'
of
s)
(c) Just as in item (a), the criticalpoints are the roots of

derivative f' (x), since the function is defined and differentiablethroughout the number scale.Find f' (x):
th\037
I' (x) = (x +
(x
+ 2x (x + 1)3x
3)2+ 3x (x + 1)2(X-3)2
2
)2(x-3)(2x
-3x-l).
x(x-3):=3(X-i-
l)\037
to zero,we find the criticalpoints:

Equating this expression
x I == I, X2 == (3 V 17)/4, X 3 == (3 -1-J/-17)/ 4, X 4 3.
\037-=
Let us tabulate the sign\037 of the derivative

tween the criticalpoints:)
x
lnterva Is
Sign of
I' (x)
< Xl
Xl
minimum
a minimum at
x 3,
3.6.2.
Using the
first
ions:
funct
x2
< x < X 3 x:j < X < X 4
Xt
X..
<X
-1-)
I)
table,there is
from
wing
<
the
is seen
there is a
-1,
and
point
As
==
Xl
<
the intervals be-
in
no extremum at the point

at the point X2, a maximum at thethe point x4
derivat ive,
the
find
extremaof
the follo-
2
(a) f (x)== 3 V \"X2- x ;
(b) f (x) =
V(x-l)2+V(x+ 1)2.
Solution.(a) The function is defined and continuous throughout

the number scaIe.
Let us fi nd the) derivative:
,
f (x) =
2(Vx
From the equation f' (x) == 0 we
+ 1.
x==
F ur
-x)
the roots of the derivative:
find
- 1,
to
thermore,the derivative goes
==
Thus, the critical points are
Xl
\037
\037O 1'-...-)
\037
\037
-1
x)))
3.6.3.Using the
second derivative,
the following functions:)
o.
1.point
The results
of investigating the sign

of the derivative in the
neighbourhood of these
points are given
40.
The
in
Fig.
investigation
shows that the function
maxima:f(-I)==2; f(I)==2 and
extremaof
x ==
at the
infinity
X 2 == 0, X 3 ==
Fig. 40
has two
\302\267
find
a minimum
out the
f(O)==O.
characterof the
\037
(a)
(b)
y
f
== 2 sin x
3
(x) == 2x
3.6.Maxima
-+
and Minima
of
155)
Function)
cas2x;
15x\037-84x
+ 8.
Solution.(a) Sincethe function
is a periodic one we may confine

2Jt]. Find the first and second deri-
[0,
ourselvesto the interval
vatives:
y' ==2 casx
2 sin 2x 2 cosx ( 1 2 sin x);

-2
sin x-4 cas2x.
2 sin x) = 0 determine the
From the equation 2 cosx (1he
interval
on
[0,2Jt]:
points
y\"
==
=-\037=
critical
== 'JI/6,
-<
> 0;
-<
Xl
X2 == Jt/2,
x 3 == 5Jt/6,
x4 == 3Jt/2.
find the sign of the second derivative at each criticalpoint:

(Jt/6) == 3 0; hence, we have a maximum y (Jt/6) == 3/2 at
the point Xl = Jt/6;
=-=
hence, we have a minimum y (Jtj2) == 1 at the
y\" (J1j2) 2
==
X
point 2 'JI/2;
== 3
0; hence, \\ve have a maximum y (5Jt/6) ==3/2
y\" (5'JI/6)
at the point x:J == 5Jt/6;
==
0; hence,\\ve have a minimum y (3Jt/2) == 3 at
y\" (331/2) 6
the point x4 == 3Jt/2 (see Fig. 41).)
Now
y\"
>
x)
Fig. 41
(a) f (x)
-_
-2x
following functions for

(x
< 0),
extrenla:
;;;::
3x + 5 (x 0);
2X2 + 3 (x=1= 0),
(b) f (x) == 4
{
(x==O).
Solution.(a) Though the derivative
2 (x < 0),
f' (x) = f
3
\\
(x > 0)
existsat all points, exceptthe point x = 0, and changessign from
minus to plus when passing through the point x = 0, there is no
)
minimum
here:)
(0)= 5 > f (x)
at
-1< x <
O.)))
155
Ch.
III.Differential
of Funct's)
This is explained by the fact tha t the function
is discontinuous
at the point x == O.
(b) Herethe derivative ff (x) == 4x (x=I=- 0) also existsat all points,

sign from minus to plus when passexceptat x == 0, and it changes
==
we have here a maximum
x
O.
the
Nevertheless,
ing through
point
which can readily be checked.
but not a minimum,
It is explainedby the fact that the function is discontinuousat
the point
x ==O.
3.6.5.Find
the
extremaof
(a) f (x) ==3x4 + 8x3
(b) f (x) == J/ex2
50
-.
18x2
the following functions:
+60;
Solution.(a) Hereit is simpler to find

-18x2 + 60.Since
the extrema of the func-
tion f1 (x) == 3x4 + 8x3

f\037(x)==
f\037
the
(x)==
2
12x3 +24x2 -36x==12x(x
+2x-3),
12(3x2 + 4x-3),
criticalpoints are:
Xl
==-3, X2 ==0, X 3 1,
===
and the character of the extremais readi ly determined from the

> 0; hencer at the point Xl ==-3
sign of the secondderivative
and the given function f (x)
the function f1 (x) has a minimum,
== 2/3,
obviously has a maximum f
(0) < 0; hence, at
the point x2 == 0 the function f1(x) has a maximum, and f (x) a
minimum
f (0)==5/6; (1) 0; hence, at the point x 3 =-= 1 the
function f1 (x) has a minimum, and f (x) a maximum f (1)==50/53.
(b) In this case it is easier to find the points of extremum of
the radicand)
== ex2
1,
f 1(x)
f\037
f\037
(-3)
(-3)
l;
>
which coincidewith the points of extremum of the function f (x).

Let us find the criticalpoints of f1 (x):
x2
(x) ==0 at the point x ==O. Determine the sign of
t; (x) ==2xe ;
the second derivative at the point x ==
0:
f\037
f\037
(x) ==2ex\037
(1+
2x2
),
f\037
(0)==2 > O.
Therefore the point x ==0 is a minimum of the function f1 (x); it

of the given function f (x): f (0)==O.
11 also be a minimum
Investigate the characterof the extremum of the function
y==coshx+cosxat the point x==O.
Solution.The function y is an even one and apparently has an
extremum at the point x ==O. To determine the characterof the)))
vvi
3.6.6.
\037
3.6.Maxima
and Minima
of
Function)
157)
extremum let us evaluate the derivatives of this function at the
x==0:)
point
x-
sin x, y' (0)==0;

y' == sinh
==
coshx-cos
x, y\" (0)== 0;
y\"
==
sinh x + sin x, y'\" (0) ==0;
y'\"
==
coshx + cosx; y(41 (0)== 2 > O.
y(4)
Sincethe first non-zero derivative at the point x ==0 is a deri vative
of an even order,which takes on a positive value, we have () minimum y (0)== 2 at this point.
3.6.7.
Investigate the
x ==0:
the point
(a)
;-!2
y==cosx-l+
Solution.(a) y' ==
y\"
y'\"
following functions for an extremun1 at

2
(b)
y==cosx-l+ .
\037
x-
- x-I;+ 1- - *
sin x +
==
===
\037!
cosx
sin
\037
x;
y'\"
y' (0)==0;
y\"
(0)==
(0) ==0;
1 O.
And so,the first non-zero derivative at the point x == 0 is a derivative of the third order, e. of an odd order; this means that
there is no extremum at the point x == O.
i.
3.6.8.Investigate
the
4 - x2
following functions for extrema:

{(x)== sin 3x 3 sin x.
Solution.(a) The function {(x)== x4e-x2 is continuously differentiable everywhere. Equating the derivative
(a)
{(x)==x e
(b)
2
2
2
.
2
{, (x) == 4x.e- -2x5e- =x3e- (4-2x)
the criticalpoints:
J
to zero,
find
Xl
==
-V2;
X2 ==
0; x3 == V 2.
Compute the values of the second derivative at the
-8xe- -10xe-
criticalpoints:
+4x6e-= = 2 2
2x e- (6 9x2
V2) < 0; (V2 ) < o.)
(0) ==0;
Consequently,at the points x] == V2 and X3 = + V2- the function
x2
e{\"(x)==12x
2
{\"
2
X
2
X
.2
[\"
(-
'
2
As far
maximum
f ( -+-V 2 ) = 4e- =
==
x
point 2 0 is concerned,nothing definite can be
reaches a
e\037
have to
first
as the critical
said as yet, \\ve
derivatives of f (x) of higher orders (up to the fourth

process is cumbersome, therefore \\\\'e will turn to
sufficient condition of an extremurn:let us find the signs)))
find
order!).But
the
--7- 2x\\037
{\"
this
158
CIl.
ofthe
fi r
III.Differential
st der i vat i ve
f'
Hence,at
n e i g h b 0u r hood
the
in
X 2 ==0:)
of Funcl's)
0f the cr i tica I poin t
(-1)< 0; f' (1)> O.
the point x 0 the function has a mInImum f (0) ==O.

The function y ==f (x) is rppresentedparametrically:
===
3.6.9.
'l'
\\
Find the
-- --
x == (p (t) == t j
== 4t 3
y == (i)
extremaof
Solution.We have
5r
3t 2
\037
5t
<I
- -20.
15t2
O.
(-2,2) cp'(i)to=Fzero:
equate
(t) == 12t -6t
In the interval
Find
(t) and
Whence i 1 ==
(-2< < 2).)
this function.
(P' (t)
'1\"
20t -i- 7,
18t -1-3
-18
it
\037'
1 and 12 ==
==O.
3/2.
These roots are interior points of the considered interval of vari ation of the parameter i.
Furthermore:)
'l'''(-1)
== 30 < 0,
6;
(3/2)-= 30 > O.
Consequently, the function y=f(x) has a maximum y==14 at
at x==31)and a minimum
y==-17.25at 1==3/2
'l'''(t) ==24i
'1'''
t=-I (i.e.-
(i.e. at x= 1033/32).
3.6.to. Find the nlaxima) and
-
2
( a) f (x) = x e x;
minima of the following functions:

(b )
4x
(x) == x2
_I-
4;
14
(c) f (x) == x2 V (X-2)2; ( d) f (x) ==x4 _ 8x2 +2

(e) f (x)== V2x3 + 3x2 -36x;
2
(g) f (x) ==x In 2 x.)
(f) f (x) ==x I n x;)
3.6.t t. Investigate the
the point x ==0:

(a) f (x)== sin
\037
following functions for an extremum at
x-x;
(b) f (x) == sin
x4
x\037
(c) f(x)==sInx-x+3f-4f;
(d) f (x)=
el/X
if
{ 0,'if
x
x=
=1=
;)
0
0.')))
x-x+ x /3;
3
\037
\037
3.7.Finding
the Grfatcst
and the Least Values 01
159)
Function
3.7.Findingthe Greatestand the Least
Valuesof a Function
The greatest (least) value of a continuous function f (x) on an

interval [a, b] is attained either at the critical points, or at
end-pointsof the interval. To find the greatest(least) value of the
function
we have to compute its values at all the criticalpoints
on the interval [a, b], the values f (a), f (b) of the function at the
end-points of the interval and choosethe greatest(least) one out
of the numbers obtained.
If a function is defined and continuous in some interval, and if
this interval is not a closedone, then it can have neither the
greatest nor the least value.
th\037
3.7.1.
Find the greatestand the least values of the following

functions on the indicated intervals:
2
3
i2x+1 on
(a) f{x)==2x
5/2];
2
==
(b) f (x) x -I n x 0n
e
];
x 0n 0
, -1-00] ;
(c) f (x) == xe
r
on
(d) f(x)==V(I-x2)(I-t-2x2)
Solution.(a) Find the derivative f' (x):
I' (x)==6x2 6x 12.
-3x
[-2,
[1,
[-1.1].
2.
It vanishes at two points: XI == 1 and X2 == They both lie inside the indicated interval
consequently both of them
must be taken into consideration.To find the extrenlevalues of
the function it is necessary to compute its values at the points
x1 and x2, and also at the end-points of the segment:
[-2,
\037
];
f{-2)=-3,f{-I)=8; f(2)=-19,f( )=-16 .

== 8 and the least f (2)==
19.
Hence,the greatest value is f (-1)
The derivative
critical
the
Find
\037
points:
(b)
\037
f'(x)==x(1+2Inx).
[I,
e].Th\037refore
f' (x) does not vanish inside the gi ven interval
there are no critical points inside the indicated interval. It now
remains to compute the values of the function at the end-points of
the interval
e]
2
f ( 1) == 0; f (e) == e
2
Thus, f(I)=Ois the least value of the function and f(e)==e the
test.
grea
Find the greatest and the teast values of the following
funct ions on the indicated intervals:
00,00);)))
(a) y ==sin x sin 2x on
[1,
3.7.2.
(-
160
Ch.
III.Differential
(b) 11 == arc cosx2 on
[-
\037/
of Funct's)
2/2,J;r-2/2];
(c) y == x + J/-x' 0n [0, 4].

Solution.(a) Represent the function
y==
cosx-cos
3x
== sin x sin 2x In the form
whence it is seen that the function is an even one and has a period 2Jt. Hence,it is sufficient to seek the greatest and the least
values among the extrema on the interval [0,Jt]. Find the derivative y':)
y' =
In
\037
(3 sin
3x-sinx).
[0,Jt] the derivative vanishes at the points

= 0, X2 = arc cos ' X3 = arc cos
= n.
,
(
)
XI
Compute the values of

y (0)= y
Hence,the
;3
the function
(n)= 0, y
at
cos +
[arc (
x\037
Y\0373
these points:
;3) ] = + 3
\037:f'
least value of the funct ion in the interval

is equal to
V 3 ), and the greatest to 4/(3 V3).
The function
3.7.3.
-4/(3
(-00, 00)
x>o)
f(x)==ax+.!!...
(a, b,
x)
summands: one summand is proportional to the

variable
x, the other inversely proportional to it.
independent
Prove that this function takes on the least value at x == Vb/a.
Solution.Find the roots of the derivative f' (x) in the interval
consi\037ts
of two
(0, 00):
f' (x) = a
-:'
\302\260
at x == V b/a (x > 0). Sincef\" (x) ==2b/x3 > for any x > 0,the function f (x) reaches a minimum at this critical point. This is the
in the interval (0, 00). Hence,at
only extremum (minimum)
x == J/ bla the function f (x) attains the least value.
3.7.4.As a result of n measurements of an unknown quantity
x the numbers Xl' X2,
Xu are obtained.
I t is required to find at what value of x the sum of the squares
of t he errors
\302\260
...,
f (x) == (x
will be the
least.)))
-XI)2 + (X-X2)2 + ... + (X-X )2

n
\037
3.7.Finding
Least Values
the Greatest and the
of
Function
IAI)
Solution.Compute the derivative

f' (x) -= 2 (X-Xl)-t 2 (x-x2) + ... + 2 (x-xn).
The onl y root of the deriva t i ve is
x===
+ X 2-t- ... + xn
n)
Then, for all x \\\\'e have f\" (x) = 2n

f (x) has its minimum at the point)
Xl
x::..:.=
> O. Therefore,
the function
+ 2 + .. .+ n .
X
n)
Being the only minimum, it coincideswith the least value of

the function (cf. Problem t
the best (in the sense of \"the principle of the minimum
And
squares\")approximate value of an unknown quantity x is the arithmetic mean of the values Xl' x2
xn'
Find the largest term in the sequence)
.3.8).
so,
' \"',
3.7.5.
an
-=
n'!.
n3
+ 200
.
.)
f (x) = x 3 :\"200 m the interval
Solution. Consider the function

[1,00). Sincethe derivative
3)
x (400-x
I
f (x) == (x3 200)2
-t
< <
>
is positiye at 0 X
V 400 and negative at x V 400, the
at X V 400
function f (x) increasesat 0 x V 400 and decreases
From the inequality 7 V 400 8 it follows that the largest term
in the sequencecan be either a 7 or as' Sincea 7 ==49/543 a 8 ==
the largest term in the given sequenceis
<
< <
<
>
>
8/89,
49
a 7 == 543
.)
3.7.6.
Find the greatest and the least values of the following

(a)
f(X)=+ X4_\037 X3_ X2+2
(b) f (x) == V 4
on
-x on [-2,2];
2
[-2,4];
[ ;3' V3l
on
(d}f(x}=2sinx+sin2x
[0. nJ;)
(c) f(x)=arctanx-flnxon
\037
-3
I 48)))
162
Ch.
III.Differential
[1,e];
on
(e) f{x)==x-2Inx
(f) f (x) =
2X2
\037
+ :2for
\\
-2
\037
of Fllnct's)
x < 0; 0 < x
\037
2,
or x ==O.)
3.8.SolvingProblemsin Geometryand Physics

3.8.t. The force of a circularelectriccurrent acting on a
axis perpendicular to
the plane of the

its
centre
is
expressedby the formula
passing through
with
rnagnet
the
Cx
F ==
a == radius of the
x == distance from
circle
the centre of the
(0 < x < 00)
C ==constant.
At
x wi
what
11
+x;!) '
31 2
(d\037
\\vhere
the value of
Solution.The derivative
cireIe
to the magnet
F be the greatest?
F'(x ) ==C (a2a2-2x2

+
==
singlepositive root x a/V2. This solves the
X2)
has a
small
circleand
5/2
problem.
Note. It often happens that reasons of purely physical or geo11letriccharacter make it unnecessary to resort to the differential
methods in investigating a function for the greatest or the least
value at the point under consideration.

Determine the most economicaldimensionsof an open-air
3
swimming pool of volume 32 m with a square bottom so that the
facing of its walls and bottom require the least quantity of ma-
3.8.2.
terial.
Solution. Let
height by
us denote the side of the bottom

y. Then the volume V of the pool will be
V
and the surface
==x2y
(*)
S to be faced
x from
through
--x +
2
-.
the relation (*), we get

V
2
4x---;-==x
+
Xl
128
X)
Investigate the function thus obtained for a
interval
x and the
= 32,
S==x2 +4xy.
Expressingy
by
'-- _
(0, 00):
5
2X
'. 2x-128
x2 ==0;
128
x2
minimum
x=4.)))
In
the
.\037
3.8.Solving
Problems in Geometry and Physics)
163)
The single point thus found \\vill obviously yield the least value
since it has no greatestvalue (it increasesunof the function
boundedly as x \037 0 and x \037 00).
2 m.
And so, the required dimensionsof the pool are:x == 4 m, y
S,
-==
3.8.3.
3.8.4.
Inscribe into a given sphere a cylinder with the greatest

lateral surface.
20 m of wire is available for fencing off a flower-bed
which should have the form of a circularsector.What must the
radius of the circle be if we wish to have
Y
a flower-bed of the greatest possible surface
area?
Solution. Let
us
denote the radius of the
circleby x, and the

(see Fig. 42). Then
length of the arc by y
20 ==2x + y,
whence)
== 2
0)
(IO-x).
Fig. 42
The area of the circularsectorS= xy=x(lO-x)

(O:::;;;x:::;;;lO
has a root x:.=::
The derivative Sf (x) ==
Since the least value S ==0 is reached at the end-points of the
interval [0, 10],the obtained value
x==5 yields the greatest surface area
10-2x
--1-
\037
5.
S.
I
I
I
I
\037x)
3.8.5.It is required to construct

open cylindrical reservoir of capacity o' The thickness of the material
an
is d. What dimensions(the base radius

and height) should the reservoir have
so as to ensure the least possible
expenditureof the material?

Solution.Figure43 represents a longitudinal section of the reservoir,
where the radius of the base of the
Fig. 43
and the
V
==Jt
\\vall
inner cylinder is denoted by x and

the height of the inner cylinder,
by h. The volume of the bottom
of the reservoir
(x+ d)2 d + Jt [(x+d)2_X2) h == Jtd
(x+d)2 + Jth (2xd+d2). (*)
On the other hand, by hypothesis we must have

Vo
= Jtx 2h)
\\\\Thence)
\037\037
3tX2
\302\267)))
164
Ch.
III.DiUerenfial
of Funct's)
Substituting into (*), we get

V
\037
nd (X
2
+ d )2 + nV.2 (2xd+ d2 ) ==nd (X + d )2 + 2V od + Vxo.d .
II
Jrx
2)
Now we have to investigate the obtained function

extremum at x > O.
We have
V'
(x)== 2nd (x + d) _
od
x2
2\037
2V od2
x3
==
2d
(x+d) (nx a
x3
(x)
V0)
The only positive root of the derivative is the point x =

This solves the prob lem:
h ==
V O V\037
-_ V -_
Vo
V\037
for
an
3/-
V Vo/n.
X.)
3.8.6.
A factory D is to be connected by a highway

with a
straight railway on which a town A is situated.The distance DB
from the
to the rai lway is
]) equal to a,factory
the segment AB of the
R
railway equals t. Freight charges on
//
the highway are m times higher than
/
/
on
the rai lway (m > 1).
a
//
I
DP be
How should the highway
//
I
I
//
connectedwith the railway so as to
/
I
I
ensure the least freight chargesfrom
a/
x)
P
factory to town?
Solution.First,let us make a draw44)
\037
I
I
I
I
--0
0--
A)
B)
Fig.
ing
(see Fig. 44).
clear that
the
It
is
absolutely
also be
straight (a straight line is shorter than any curve connectingtwo
given points!).Furthermore,the point P cannot lie either to the
left of the point A or to the right of the point B. If we denote
the distance AP by X, it will mean that 0 x
Let the freight chargeson the railway (per ton-kilometre) be k,
will be km. The total
then the freight charges on the highway
N
from
D to A amounts to)
for
loads
freight charge
transporting
\037
N ==kx+kmVa2
Hence,we
have to
find
must
highway
\037
1.
+ (l-X)2.
the l east val ue of the
funct
O\037x\037l.
f(x)==x+m\037/a2+(x-lr\037,
Take the derivative)
(x -l)
f'(x)= 1 + 11
a2+(x-I)2
m
\302\267)))
ion
\037
3.8.Solving
Problems in Geometry and Physics)
It vanishes only at one point:)
x==lIf
this point lies
in
a)
Vm2
y';_
\302\267
[0,I], I.e.
the interval
\037
165)
if)
or
I
\037
\037
V m2
- 1,
then it yields the least freight charge (which is easy to check).

If the indicated inequality is not observed, then t (x) increaseson
and therefore the least freight chargeis obtained at x ==
In constructing an a-c transformer it is important to insert
into the coil a cross-shaped iron coreof greatest possible surface
ion
area. Fig. 45 shows the cross-sect
r
of the core with appropriate dimensions. Find the most suitable x and
y if the radius of the coil is equal
to a.)
0.
[0,l]
3.8.7.
3.8.8.If the
source of current is an
electriccel1,then
obtained
the effect
P (watts)
cutting a resistanceR
the circuit is expressed
by
by
(ohms) in
the formula)
ER
P == (R+
Ri)2
I
,)
where E is electromotiveforce
tance in ohms.
Fig. 45
in
volts and R i the internal reSlS-)
Find the greatest effect which can be obtained at given E and R i -
3.8.9.A
What
use
of a given volume V has the form of a

the ratio of its height h to diameter 2R
the least amount of material for its manufacture?)
tin
must
\037e
cylinder.
so as to
3.8.
to. In a given cone inscribe a cylinder having the greatest

1ateral surface so that the planes and centresof the base circles
of the cylinder and cone coincide.
3.8.11.
Given a point (1,2) in the orthographic coordinates.

Through this point draw a straight line so that it forms, together
a triangle of the least area.
with the positive semi-axes,
Given a point M on the axis of the parabola y2 2px
at a distance a from its vertex. Find the abscissa of the point
on the curve nearest to the given point.)))
3.8.12.
=-==
166
Ch.
III.Differential
of Funct's)
3.8.13.
The expensessustained in one hour's sailingof a ship

are expressedin roubles by an empirical formula of the form
a + bv 3, where a and b are constants for a given ship, and v is the
ship'sspeed in knots (one knot is equal to 1.85km/hr). In this
the constant part of the expensesa refers to depreciation
fonTIula
and crew's upkeep, and the second term (bv 3) to the fuel cost.
At what
speed will the ship cover any required distance at the
lowest cost?
A trough is bui It from three boards of equal width. At
\\vhat
slope should the lateral boards be placed to ensure the largest
area of the trough?
cross-sectional
A tank with a vertical wall of height h is installed on
a horizontal plane. Determine the position of an orifice, at which
the range of a liquid jet will be the greatest if the velocity of
flow (accordingto Torricelli'slaw) is equal to }/2gx, where x is
the depth of the orifice.
Two aircraft are flying in a straight line and in the
0
to each other and with an equal
same plane at an angle of 120
speed of v km/hr. At a certain moment one aircraft reaches the
point of intersectionof their routes. while 1 he second is at a distance of a km from it. When will the distance between the
aircraft be the least and what is that distance?)
3.8.14.
3.8.15.
3.8.16.
* 3.9.Convexityand Concavity of a Curve. Pointsof
Inflection
If
(x) < 0 (> 0) on
on this
is
an interval (a, b), then the curve y ==f (x)

interval
convex (concave), it is situated below (above)
any of its tangent lines.
I f I\" (x\\)) ==0 or does not existbut
(x 0) does existand the second
derivative f\" (x) changes sign when passing through the point xo,
then the point (xo, f (xo is the point of inflection of the curve
I\"
i.e.
l'
\302\273
-= f
(x).
3.9.I.
Find the intervals in which the graphs of the following

functions are concave or convex and locatethe points of inflection:
3
4
+
(a) y == x -1-x -.18x2
4
(b) y 3x 8x 3 + 6x2 + 12;
=-:\037
(c)
(d )
==
24x-12;
+x2 ;
==x+ / ;
y
XO
(e) y==\0374V(x-l)5+20V(x-l)3
(x\037 1);
(f)
In:! x
=-==
-X (x >
0);)))
j.9.Convexity
\037
(g)
(h)
and Concavity.
Points of Inflection
167)
(x > 0);
==X sin (In x)
y==2-lx5-11.
Solution.(a) Find the derivatives:

y' == 4x3 + 3X2 -36x+ 24,
y\"
= 12x2+ 6x
36 =
12( x2 +
== -2,X 2 == 3/2.
Xl
3 ,
)
\037
whence y\" == 0 at
and (3/2, 00); y\" < 0
Hence,y\" > 0 on the intervals
on the interval
The
of
the
second
derivative detersign
3/2).
mines the convexity or concavity of the curve in a given interval.
This enables us to compilethe following table:)
(-00,-2)
(-2,
x
Sign of
Conclusion
y\"
<-2 --2< x < -23 x> 32
Concavity
+
Concavit y)
Convexity
Sincethe second derivative changes its sign when passing through

and
the points x 1==-2 and x 2 ==3/2, the points
are points of inflection.
( ,
)
(d) Find the derivatives:
(-2, -124)
; -8
I\037
y' = 1 + X'I.
,)))
\037
\"
10
Vx'
The second derivative is non-zero everywhere and loses its meaning

at the point x == O. At x < 0 we have y\"
0 and the curve is convex, at x > 0 we have y\" > 0 and the curve is concave.
At the point x== 0 the first derivative y' =
the second derivative changessign when passing through the point x== O. Therefore
the point (0, 0) is a point of inflection.
<
1,
(g) Find the
derivatives:
+ cns (In x),
y' == sin (In x)
- ,-,-,-,....
(lnx)]=
y\"=+[cos(lnx)-Sin
k-
\0372
sin (
\037
-lnx).
The second derivative vanishes at the points

k
0 + 1 +2
X
err / 4 + kJt
The function sin (Jt/4
when
passing through
In
x), and together
each point
Xk
sign
. Consequently thechanges
points x
\\vith
it y\",
I
k)
168
Ch.
Ill.
Differential
are the abscissasof
the points of inflection. In the intervals

(e2kn
the curve IS concave,and
3n/ 4
+ 3t/ 4
is convex.
(h) The given function can
y ==
Therefore)
Y
At
e2kn + 5JT/
be written
, == 1
5x4,
5x4,
\\
the point x == 1 there
y\"
the point
X
X
the fol1owingway:
> 1,
< 1.
is no derivative. Further,)
== J
-20x3,
3
tervals: (-00,0), (0, 1), (1,00).

Compile a table of signs of y\":)
x
x
> 1,
< 1;)
have to invest igate three in-
x<o O<x<l x>]
Sign of
in
x\037
,)
== 0 at
4))
1), x < 1.)
20x
\\
x==O. Hence,we
Y
))
2-(xl>-1), 1,
{ 2 + (xl>
\"
e2kn + JT/ 4
the intervals)
in
(e2kn
it
ot Funct's)
y\"
ConcI usion
Concavity Convex it y)
Convexity
The point (0, 1) is a point of inflection, the point (1,2) being

a corner point.
What conditions must the coefficients a, b, c satisfy for
the curve y == ax4 + bx3 + cx2 + dx + e to have points of inflection?
Solution.Find the second derivative:
2
y\" == 12ax+ 6bx+ 2c.
3.9.2.
The curve has points of inflection if and only

6ax2 + 3bx+c == 0
has different real
roots,i.e.when
3b2
the discriminant 9b2

8ac >
O.)))
if
the equation
24ac> 0, or
\037
.9.3.At
\\\\'
3.9.COn'l.'exity
and Concavity.
val u es of a
hat
Points of
t he
will
169)
1f117eclion)
cur ve
y=x4+ax\037+ x2 + 1
\037
be concave along the entire nun1ber scale?
Solut ion. Find
y\":)
+ 3.
\"--') :>,.-r 6ax

----1....,X
I
scale if
The curve will be concave along the entire number

when
[or all val ues of x,
2
4x -t- 2ax -1-1 0 for a II x.
i.e.
\037
For this it is necessaryand sufficient that the inequality 4a2

be fulfilled; whence)
y\"
\037
- 16 0
\037
lal\0372.
3.9.4.
Show that
the curve
x-+ I
=-=
x\037
lying in a straight line.

Solution.Find the derivatives:)
tion
--x:!
,-
has three points of inflec-
-1-1
2x
--
,
6x 2
Y
i
(x:>' -t- I r
The second derivative becorneszero at three
roots of the equation)
3x 1 == 0,)
x:!-tY
--=
(x\037
\"
=--
whence)
3x\037
\037
f)x\037
r\037
- ::-\037
JI
<x< -2-- V :3 <r-<

--y:f < -2 V 3
\037-
---00
< 2
_\037
\\'
--L
==
--
\"
1.
Hence,(--2
Concavity
<x<00
+
Concavity)
COllvexity
- /r-,-V3.-]
\037
_L
COil vc xi t y
yT <
<x<
Conclusion
X: 1
y\":)
Sigll of y
points, which are the
-2 I3,
2 JI 3, X2
+
x.
compilethe table of signs of
\037-=
Let us
--
--
2x:i -j
,(
2+ V
-3, + Y3) ' (1,1)

i
.J)
are points of inflection. It is easy to ascertainthat aU of
thenl)))
170
lie
CIl.
in
III.Di(Jerential
a straight
of Funci's)
line. Indeed,the coordinatesof these points satisfy
.
the relatIOn -2-Y3-J
3 4+1
3-1= ((I-Y3)/4--1
-2+-V1+-V-)/
3.9.5.Investigate the curves represented by
\302\267
the following equations for convexity (concavity) and locate the points of inflection:
(a) y\037x-t/(X-3)2;
(b) y
===
esin
(-n/2 x
\037
3.9.6.
Show that
lie on the curve

\037
\037
n/2).
the points of inflection of the curve

(4 + x2) 4x2
===
y2
\037
x sin x
.)
3.10.Asymptotes
A straight I ine is called an asymptote to the curve y

f (x) if
the distance from the variable point M of the curve to thp straight
line approacheszero as the point M recedesto infinity along some
branch of the curve.
We will distinguish three kinds of asymptotes: vertical, horizontal and inclined.
Vertical asymptotes. If at least one of the limits of the function
f (x) (at the point a on the right or on the left) is equal to infinity, then the straight line x==a is a vertical asymptote.
Horizontal asymptotes. If tim f (x) == A, then the straight line
X-:f::oo
y == A is a horizontal asymptote (the right one as x \037 + 00 and
the left one as x --+ 00).
Inclined asymptotes. If the limits
===
tim
(x) = k
I,
tim [f (x)
x-++oo)
x-+oo X
exist,
then
the
straight line
== ktx
asymptote.
(x) == k
and
ktx] ==bi
+ bi
is an incl ined (right)
If the lim i ts
litn
x--oo
Jim [f (x)
x....-oo
k2X] == b2
exist, then the straight line y = k 2x-t-.b2 is an inclined (left) asymphorizontal asymptote may be consideredas a particular
caseof an inclined asymptote at k == O.
tote.A
3.to.1.Find the
5x
(a) y == x 3 ;
asymptotes of the following curves:
(b) y == x
- -+
3x
3x; (c)
== .)x
x'\"
3x
;
1
(d) y=-x+4X2; (e) y\037xeX; (f) y==21n\037e3x)
;)))
3.10.
Asympto!es
\037
(g) y == VI + x2 -1-2x; (h)

( i)
== 2 V- X2
==
171)
}/l+ x2 sin x ;
\037
+ 4.
Solution.(a) The curve has
I trn
x\0373+0
==
a vertical
asymptote x== 3, Slllce
5x ==
I 1m
3
x_31=Ox-)
+ 00
(the point x==:3is a point of discontinuity of the

Find the horizontal asymptote:
I 1m
x
And
tal one
so,==the
5.
:i:.
second kind).
. 5x ==5.
= 1m
x-3
x-
00
:f::
00)
curve has a vertical asymptote x ==3 and a horizon-
(b) The curve has a vertical asymptote x == I, SInce)
Hn]
x\037l-O
y==
+ 3x) =-00;
( 3\\ +3x)\\=+00.
Hm
(x
x_l-O
!im
!im
x-J+Oy== x\037I+O
3x
\\.A
/
\037
I
I
:
I
x)
1/
inclined asymptotes:)
Find the
'
'
If)
lL=
k== !im
Iim
x-:f:oox
x.-+ :f:
X-:1: (
oo
(y-
b == lim
3x
+ 3x
I
(
x-:f:oo
X)
+ 3 ) =3;
II
I
I
kx) ==
'JJ)
liIll
x)
\037
I
I)
3x ==
x)
3.
Thus, the straight line y == 3x+3 IS an

g . 46
incl ined asymptote (see Fig. 46).
(e) The curve has a vert ical asymptote x = 0, since)
f-
!in]
x-+O
X\037+O)
e
-=+00
t
xe1 /X ==
== liln
Hm
=-1 _ +
t)
00
x)
(see Problem 3.2.2.).
Find the inclined asymptotes:

k ==
(xe1/
x-:i:oo
b ==
lin1
x)
.JL
Ii In
X-:1: x
oo
==
Ii m
e1/x = eO
\037
X\037:f::oo
lim
X\037:l:oo
e1/X _ I
I Ix
l''
e-!im
l/x=z-O
Z
z)))
==
1.
III.Differential
Ch.
72
Thus, the straight line y ==x

of the curve (see Fig. 47). Note
IS)
will be an inci ined
== linl
<0
!It)
asymptote
that)
xe1 / x = o.
x-+-o)
defined and continuous at
liin
.\\-)0-0
(f) The function
of Funcl's)
e-
> 3e] .
and x
> 0, I.e.at
3x
Since the
function is continuous at
of
the domain of definition,
every point
vertical asymptotes can exist only on
finite boundaries of the domain of definit
ion.
x--+-Owe have
As
- 0 y = Iim- 0 3;In ( e- ) ==
Iim
X-)o
== _\037
In
liln
(e+z)== 0
z
z + 00
-)0
= _J..
3x))
i. e. the straight
(see Problem 3.2.2.),
47
Fig
3\037
X -)0
line x ==0 is not a vertical asymptote.)
As x --+ + 0 we have
3e)
\037
.
3
1m
y=2
.t-+l/(3e)+0
}
i. e. the
line
Now let us
k ==
lirn
.t -+ :i:. 00
b=
lim
X\037i:oo
.JL
X
an
x 1n
I
x\037I/(3e)+0
e--) =-00,
]
3x)
Ij(3e) is
x-==-
find
a vertical asymptote.
the inclined asymptotes:)
3
Iim
2 x :f:
-)0
[y-kx]=
e--)
(
1
In
3x
00
lim x -In
\037
X-+:f:oo
3
2 ;
==
e- ) -1
_ 2 rtrn
_\037
Ine
3x
=2
==
In( l-\037)__\037
- I.
X-+:f::oo
Hence, the straight

(seeFig.48).
3\037
_x
I
- .
_J..
__\037
3e )
2e
. .
2e IS an Inc1 Ined asympt 0t e)
(g) The curve has no vertical asymptotes, since the function is

continuouseverywhere. Let us look for inclined asymptotes. The
limits will be different as x --+ + 00 and x --+ 00, therefore we have
to considertwo
casesseparately.)))
8.10.
Asymptotes)
FInd the right asymptote (as x --++ 00):
. V + xt + 2x . -.V \037+ +2
173)
\037
k t ==
x\037
+ 00
:= I 1m
I trn
x\037
= 3;)
x\"
00
b]= liln+ (VI+x2 +2x-3x)=

x\037
+x2 x2 =0.
2
=!im
( Il+x -x =!im
'2+
+ y' -I
x-
00)
\"1)
\037
00
\037
x)
= 3x.)
Thus, as x \037 + 00 the curve has an asymptote y
x)
:c)
11-1
-1)
1C1C)
48)
Fig.
Find the
left
k2 =
b2 =
asymptote (as x
.
11m
VI+
x2
-.-(0):
.
+ 2x = 11m
00
x\037
00
x\037
00)
x-+
x'
49)
r\"1
V x2 + +2x
Iim IVl+x +2x-xl=lim

-
K-
Fig.
00
+I.)
X'\"
\037-=
==0,
since both summands (VI +x2 and (-x))in the denominator are
positive at x < 0.
00.
And so,the curve has an asymptote y = x as x \037
(h) The curve has no vertical asymptotes, since it is continuous
at x =#= 0, and in the neighbourhoodof the point x == the funet ion
is bounded.
Let us find the inc1inedasympt otes.We have
\302\260
Iim x
X-+ :f:
00
hrn
x-+ :f:
- 1.0=0.
Ixl Vl+\037sin\037
x
=+
x
X
00)
Then
b-;-:lim
X)))
t\037:f:oo
lasx-++oo,
sin-=\\I _1 as X-+-oo.
(y-kx)= litn Ixl V I+ 2
X
X\037:1:OO
Ch.
174
III.Differential
of Funci's)
Thus, the curve has two horizontal asymptotes:y :=+ 1and y == 1

(see Fig. 49). The same result can be obtained proceedingfrom
symmetry about the origin and keeping in mind that the function
y
is
odd.
3.10.2.
Find the
inclined asymptote of the graph of the function

00
as
X-+
and show that in the interval (100,00)
this
y= I\037X
function may be replaced by the linear function y ==
with an
'J
1.
.
k ==
x-I
error not exceeding0.0

Solution.Find the inclined asymptote:
! \037-x
\037n\037
b == Hrn
X-+OO
so,
the equation of the

Form the difference:
And
8 == I
x2
+x
Hence,assuming)
Y=
for all
x2
+x) == 1;
=
l+x) )
(I
asymptote is
-(x
1)
-1.
y
-==
x-I.
===
+x
\302\267)
x2
I+x\037x-I,
x > 100,we introduce an
error of not rnore than

Find the asymptotes of the following curves:
3.10.3.
x2-6x+3
(a) y= x-3 ;
(b)
0.01.
y==xarctanx;
2
(c) y==x+(sinx)jx; (d) y=ln(4-x
);
I
(e) y==2x-arccos-.
x)
Functionsand
9 3.J J. GeneralPlanfor Investigating
SketchingGraphs
The analysis and graphing of functions by elementary methods
were consideredin Chapter I
and
Using the methods
of di.fferential calculus,we can now carry out a more profound and
comprehensivestudy of various propertiesof a function, and explain
the shape of its graph (rise, fall, convexity, concavity, etc.).
I t is convenient to investigate a function and construct its graph
accordingto the following plan:
Find the domain of definition of the function.
2. Find out whether the function is even, odd or periodic.)))
(\037\037
1.
1.3
1.5).
\037
8.11.
Investigating
Functions
and Sketching Graphs
175)
3.
Test the function for continuity, find out the discontinuities

and their character.
4. Find the asymptotes of the graph of the function.
Find the points of extremum of the function and compute the
values of the function at these points.
6. Find the points of inflection on the graph of the function,
compute the values of the function and of its derivative at these
points. Find the intervals of convexity of the graph of the function.
7. Graph the function using the results of this investigation.If
it is necessaryto specify certain regionsof the curve, calculate
the
coordinates of several additional points (in particular,the x- and
5.
y-intercepts).
This is a very tentative plan, and various alternatives are possible.For instance,we recommend the student to begin sketching
the graph as soon as he finds the asymptotes (if any), but in any
casebefore the points of inflection are found. It should be remembered that in sketching the graph of a function the principal reference points are the points of the curve corresponding
to the extremal
values of the function, points of inflection, asymptotes.
3.11.1.
Investigate and graph
6
(a) y==x
(C)
==
-3x+3x -5;
2x3
x2
_4 ;
(e) y = x+ In
(g)
the following funct ions:
-Vx+l;
(b) y=V x
l-x ;
(d ) y =
3
x2
(x
-1);
(f)
= {-sin 2x+ casx;

. x2
y = arc SIn +x2
y
==x 2e1 /x;
(h)
\302\267
Solution.(a) The function is defined and continuous throughout

the number scale,therefore the curve has no vertical asymptote.
The function is even, since f(-x)==f(x).Consequently, its graph
is symmetrical about the y-axis, and therefore it is sufficient to
investigate the function only on the interval [0,00).
There are no inclined asymptotes, since as x -+ 00 the quantity
large quantity of the sixth order
y turns out to be an infinitely
with respect to x.
Investigate the first derivative:
3
+ 6x ==6x (x4 2 + 1)==6x(x2
y' ==6x5-12x
-2x
the
criticalpoints are:
Xl
==
Since in the interval

increases.)))
- 1,
[0,00)
X 2 ==
0,
Xa
-1)2;
= 1.
the derivative y'
\037
0, the
function
176
Ch.
III.Different
Calculus: Inuest igat ion of Funct's)
ial
Investigate the second derivative:

y\"
== 30x4
36x
:a
+6
===
6 (5x4
6x2 -1-1).
The positive roots of the second derivative:

x J == 1I}/-5, x2 ==
1.
For convenienceand pictorialnesslet us compile the following

all the points of interest are arranged in an ascending
order:)
table,where
0
(0, ;5-)
Y5
\037
\037
. I)
(I.(0)
I
I
II
III
93
LJ
\037
25 Y-5-
1.7
-t-
,
I
I
I
I
I'
()
-t-
--
0
I
\037-\037
I
I
II
11
-4 \037
23
-,.-
-\037
:.)
On the right one more additi.onal value of the function is computed to improve the graph after the point of inflection.
Using the results of the investigation and the above table and
taking into consideratio.nthe symmetry principle,\\ve construct the
graph of the function (see Fig. 50). As is seen from the graph, the
funct ion has roots x + a, where a
1.6.
The
function
is
and
continuous
over the entirenumber
defined
(b)
scaleand is negative everywhere, si.nce V x < V x+ 1.
I'hegraph has neither vertical, nor inclined asymptotes, since the
order of magnitude of y is less than unity as x -?-00.Determine
the horizontal asymptote:
===
liln
X-IOO
y== Jim
X\037:1:00)
\037
(Vx -Vx+l)===
= hm.
x
Hpnce, the straight line y

gra
ph.)))
===
-':1: V- +
00
x2
3
V
-1
/ x (x + 1)+ 3/(x -t- I 1= O.

v
0 is the horizontal asymptote of the
3.11.
Investigating
\037
The
Functions
and Sketching Graphs)
177)
deriva t i ve
first
V (x+1)2--VXi
=3V
x2
- -1,
3VX2(x+I)2
3V(X+l)2
becomeszero at the point x2 =

!f)
and
\037
=
Xl
at
infinity
the points)
x == O.)
b
y)
-1-..L
0
x)
x)
-1)
2)
1)
o)
-1/2)
Y5)
1)
-5)
Fig. 50)
Fig.
The second derivative

y
\"
2.
=3\"( -3\") V x
&
-3\"(
does not vanish and is

Compile a table:)
x
y'
-I
(-I.-)
-00
00
-1
\\
-2,0)
I
16
+9V2
3
'-.:.'(f/
X 3 ==O.
(0, (0)
00
I
1
I
V'X5]
- 1,
1)\302\260
same points Xl =
0
I
-r-
<X+l)&
+ =-2[V'gVlx(x+l)j&
(x
at the
infinite
\037
y\"
-3) V
51)
00
-1
-0.26)
With the aid of this table,and of the asymptotey = 0 construct

the graph of the function (see Fig. 51).)))
Ch.
178
III.DitJerential
Calculus:Investigation
of Funci's)
is defined and continuous over the entire axis

the points x == + 2. The function is odd, its graph is
symmetrical abou t the origin, therefore it is sufficient to investigate
the function on the interval [0, 00).
The straight line x == 2 is a vert ical asymptote:
(c) The function
exceptat
1m \0374=-t-00.
=-00; x-2+0
.)
x....
2 - 0 x\"\"- 4
2X3
I 1m
Detern1inethe inclined asymptote:

k == Urn .!L= Iim
x....+
'The curve has

The
first
an
= 2,)
x....
+ x2-4
00
2X3
2X2
00)
8x
b= x....
Iim (y-2x)=!im x 2 -4) =0.
+00
x-++oo)
inclined asymptote y = 2x, and
8x
>o at x>2,
y-2x=x2-4
{ < 0 at x < 2
derivative
, 6x2 (x2 -4)-4x4 =
(x2 -12)
Y =
2X2
(x2-4):'.
(x2-4)2
In
[0, 00) vanishes at the points
x == 0, x == 2 V3 3.46
and becomesinfinite at the point x == 2.
The second derivative)
the interval
\037
\"
(x2 + 12)
= 16x
2
(x -4)3
: becomeszero at the point x == 0 and

Compile a table:)
x
(0, 2)
y'
-0
00
+0
y\"
\037
(2,
infinite
at x ==
2J!3) 2J!3
00
-;;;:
\\!)))
2.
(2 J!3\",00)
V3
I
I
\037
8.11.
Investigating
\037
and Sketching
Functions
179)
Graphs
Using the results of the investigation, sketch the graph of the
(see Fig. 52).
function
(e) The function is defined and continuous at all values of x for

which x2 I > 0 or x >
on two intervals:
00,
1)
and
(1,+ 00).)
!J
(-
1, i.e.
I
I
I
I
I
//
1/
I
/)
!f)
I
I
/1/
I
I
x)
2)
I
...71)
-1\\
I
I
I
I
I
I
Fig.
Fig. 52)
We
53)
seek the vertical asymptotes:

00;
- - 0 y== x-lim
- - 0 [x+ln(x2-1)]==-
lim
x\037
lim y==
2
-1)]==-00.
[x+ln(x
Iim
x\037I+O
x\0371+0)
Thus, the curve has two vertical asymptotes:

x == 1 and x == +
Find inclined
asymptotes:
k== lim JL== Iim

X
x
\037
b ==
:f:
X-:f:
00
Ii In
1.
[y
x+ln (x2 -1)=

X
00
x] == Iim In (X2
+ In
1) == + 00.
litn
x _ :f:
00
(X
2
x
-1) = 1,
]
x-:f:OC'
x-:f:oo)
Hence,the curve has neither inclined,nor horizontal asymptotes.
Sincethe derivative)
Y
existsand
, == 1
+ x22x
is finite at all points of the domain of definition of the

function, only the zeros of the derivative
==
1 V 2; X2 ==
Xl
can be
--
criticalpoints. At
-1+ J/2
the point x2 ==
- + V2
1
the function
is)))
180
III.DitJerenlial
Ch.
hence,there
not defined;
criticalpoint
is one
of Funci's)
(-00,-1).In the interval

> 0 and the function increase.
ging to the interval
derivative y'
The second derivative
XI
-(1,00)
1- 2
belonboth the
J;r
\"=_ '2 (x2 + I) < 0 ,

2
- 1-- --
(x
I)
\037
hpnce, the curve is convex everywhere, and at the point

=
the function has a maximum
V2\037-2.41
XI
O.R4.
V-2+ In (2 + 2 V 2)
where there are no characteTo plot the graph in the interval (1,00),
ristic points, we choosethe following additional points:
y
V 2)
\037
\037
x=2;y=2+ln3\0373.10and
x=I.2;y=I.2+lnO.44\0370.38.
.The graph of the function is shown in Fig. 53.

(f) The function is defined and continuous throughout the number scale and has a period 2Jt. Therefore in investigating we may
.confine ourselves to the interval [0,2Jt]. The graph of the function
has no asymptote by virtue of continuity and periodicity.
Find the
first
derivative:
x.
y' = cos2x-sin
On the interval
[0,2n]
xt
it
has three
roots:
=6' x =6' xs=T')

n
5n
3n
Evaluate the second derivative:

= 2 sin 2x-cosx.
y\"
[0,2n] it has four roots:

x2 = n + arc sin (1/4),xa =
3;, X. = 2n-arcsill (1/4).
On the interval
XI
table of the results of investigation of all criand second derivatives (the table also incl udes the end-points of the interval [0,2n]).
Since in the interval
(0, 3;) the roots of the first and second
derivatives alternate,the signs of the second derivative in the intervals between its critical points are indicated only for the last
three intervals.
The results of the investigation enableus to construct the graph
Let us draw
tical points
up a
of the
first
Fig.
positive and continuous on each of
00,0) and (0, 00). The point x = 0 is a disconti-)))
of the function (see

54).
(g) The function is defined,
the intervals
(-
\037
3.J J. I nvesligating
- -
5Jt
31
- e;
31
\037
]81)
Funct{ons and S/?etching Graphs
x2
3n
2
. 3;)
\302\267
4 (x4,2n) 231
i
'I
L/
'
-2
IJ.
8
\037
II
i
I
1'1
- Y3
:3
\\
\"
Jl3
2
:L
II
I
I
r \\ \037
JV3
-'\"\"
\\!\037
16
\302\245!/
cO
16
/\302\245fI
I)
nuity. Since(see Problem 3.2.2.)
x2e 1lx ==
Iim y== Iim
=00
t=
e;
(
1_+00')
the straight line x ==0 is a vertical asymptote. But
x\037+o
Iirn
x\037+O
HIll y
X'\037-o
==
\037
),
x2el I x == O.
lirn
x\037-o)
There are no inclined asymptotes, ince the function y == x2e1 Ix

has the second order of smallness with respect to x as x ---++ 00.)
\037
.in
6
2n)
:..:c
-f)
Fig. 54
Let us find the extremaof the function, for which purpose we

,evaluate the derivative:
== 2e1/ x
y' == 2xellx-el/x
1/2),
(x-
whence we
Sincefor
find
the only
criticalpoint x=
IIX _
Y\"(X)=2e
;e
;.
+ eIIX= eIIX(2x2_2x+
1)>
11x
\0372
\0372
0,)))
CIl.
182
III.Differential
of Funci's)
on each of the intervals of the domain of definition the graph of

the function is concave,and at the point X==1/
2 the function has
a minimum
1.87.
2 \037
Y(+) =+e
From the information obtainedwe can sketchthe graph as in Fig.55.

To specify the graph in the intervals
00, 0) and (1/2'00) the
additional points are used:
following
!f
(-
y==e-l\037O.37; x=I,
y==e\0372.72.
x==-I,
(h) The function is defined and continuous

throughout the number scale, since at any x
-1 0 1/21
Fig.
:c
\037
\037
\037:
1.
Since the function is even, we may confine

ourselves to the investigation of the function
55)
at x O.
the function is continuous,the graph has no vertical asymptotes,but it has a horizontal asymptote:
\037
As
linl
y == arc sin
x\037+oo
The
,
Y
derivat ive
first
=\"li1-
at
the
function
decreases.
-1,
x)
-2
'fC,
-92(I+x2)2x
-__\037
>
(l +
(l +
(x) u_
4x
(1+X2)2
x == 0 the
point
1.
\"
If)
derivative is equal to
and the left one to +
The second derivative is posi-
right
ti ve:)
)2
> 0, therefore the
\037
that
\037
=-2/x/
(l+x2)2
The derivative is non-existent

at the point x == O. By virtue of
the symmetry of the graph about
the y-axis there will be a maxiNon1um at the point y (0)=
tice
-.
2
-2x(l+x2)-2x(l-x
)
(1-x2r\037
2
X
V
(1
is negative for x
(-1)=
60J
)4
)3
Fig.
0 f or a 11 x
56)
> .
\302\260
the graph of the function is concave.

the interval (0,00)
Also note that the curve intersectswith the x-axisat the points
Hence,in
x == +
1.)))
\037
3.12.
Algebr.
and Transcendent.
Equations
183)
Taking into consideration the results of the investigation, const r u ct the gr a ph ofthe fun ct ion (see Fig. 56).
3.1t .2.Investigate and graph the following functions:
4
x
x
(b) Y= (l+X)3;
y=l+x2 -\"2;
x3
2
; (d) Y= x- ;
(c) y=-+4x
x
(e) == v x2 V x2 4;
== 2
== 3
(a)
(f)
(h)
-- +
In
(x
2); (g)
= f xarctan
\\
at
\037
\037
x e-4X;
x 0,
=1=
at x == O.)
* 3.12.
ApproximateSolutionof Algebraic
and TranscendentalEquations
Approximate determination of isolated real roots of the equation
carried out
the intervals [a, which

1.Separating roots, i.e.determiningstages:
contain one and only one root of the equation.
2. Specifying the roots, i.e.computing them with the required
f (x) ==0 is usually
in
two
\037]
degreeof accuracy.
...,
The process of separation of roots begins with determining the

signs of the function f (x) at a number of points x ==aI' a 2
of the function f (x).
whose choicetakes into account the peculiarities
If it turns out that f (ak) f (ak + l) < 0, then, by virtue of the

property of a continuous function, there is a root of the equation
f (x) ==0 in the interval (ak , ak +l ).
Real roots of an equation can also be determined graphically as
x-interceptsof the graph of the function y ==f (x). If the equation
has no roots closeto each other, then its roots are easi1 y separated
by this method. In practice,it is often advantageous to replace
a given equation by an equivalent one
'l-\037l
(x) =='P2(x),
where the functions 'PI (x) and 'P2(x) are simpler than the function
f (x). Sketch the graph of the functions y == 'PI (x) and y == 'l'2 (x)
and find the desired roots as the abscissasof the points of inter-
section of these graphs.

The Methods of Approximating a Root. 1.Method of Chords. If
the interval [a, b] contains the only real root S of the equation
f (x) ==0 and f (x) is continuous on the interval, then the first approximation Xl is found by the formula
Xl
==a
t (a)
(b
t (b)__ f (a)
a).)))
184
Iff.Differential
Ch.
of Funct's)
To obtain the second approximation x 2 a similar formula is applied to that of the intervals [a, x 1 ] or [Xl' b],at the end-points
of which the function f (x) attains values having oppositesigns.The
process is continued until the required accuracy is obtained, \\vhirh
is judged of by the length of the last obtained segment.
2. Method of Tangents (Newton's method). If f (a) f (b) < 0, and
f' (x) and f\" (x) are non-zero and retain definite signs for a x b,
then, proceedingfrom the injtial approximationxo(xoE[a, b]) for
which f (xo) f\" (xo) > 0, we obtain all successive approximationsof
the root by the formulas:
\037
\037
(xo)
... -
(xd
\037
n d
X ==
, Xn ==X n -1 f'
f' (X o) , 2 Xl I' (Xl)'
(X n 1)
To estimatethe absolute error in the nth approximationwe can
apply the general formula
Xl
==X o
t
\037
Xn
\\
I
\037
-......;;::::
f (Xn)
\302\267
ml
where)
m l == min
(x
'\" (x)
')
,.
a<x<b)
Under the above conditions the method of chords and the rnethod
of tangents approximate the sought-for root from different sides.
Therefore, it is usual pract iceto take advantage of their combination,
i.e. to apply both methodssimultaneously.In this caseone can obtain
the most preciseapproximation of a root more rapidly and the calculationscan be checked.Generally speaking, the calculationof the
approximationsXl' X 2, ... , Xn should be continueduntil the decimal
digits to be retained in the answer ceaseto change (in accordance
with the predetermineddegreeof accuracy!).
For intermediate transformations we have to take one or two spare digits.
3. Iteration Method. The equation f (x) == is first reducedto the
b. Starform X == (x) where cpl (x)
X
q < 1 (q ==const) for a
from
initial
value
ting
any
Xo E [a, b], successiveapproximationsof
the root are computedby the formulas Xl == (xo), X2 ==Cp (Xl)\" . .,Xn ==
=-=
(xn - l ). The absolute error in the nth approximation can be
estimated by the following formulas:
\302\260
cp
\037
\037
\037
cp
\302\243
<p
Is-xnl\037qq lxn-t-xnl.)
1
if
the approximationsxn -l and
Xn
lie on the sameside of
the root,
and)
Is-Xnl:;: lxn-t-xnl.
I\037q
if
the approximationsxn -l and
Xn
lie on di'fferent sides of the
root.)))
3.12.
Algebr.
\037
3.t 2.t. Locate the
and Transcendent.
185)
Equations)
-x:'-6x+
roots of the equat ion

2 O.
f (x)
\037
Solution.Compile a table
of
-..
- x
signs of f (x) at some chosen points)

x
(x)
-3
-1
00
--
(x)
+
+
+00
+)
From this table \\ve draw the conclusionthat the equation has
three real roots lying in the intervals
(0, 1) and (1 3).
Determine the number of real roots of the equation
(-3,--1),
3.12.2.
+ eX ==O.
Solution.Sincef' (x) == 1 +ex > 0;f (-00) ==
f (x) == x
root.
the given equation has only one real
00; f (+ 00)==+00,
An approximate value of the root of the equation f (x) _

3.12.3.
-x
1 ==0 is x == 1.22.Estimate the absolute error in this
root .
== x4
-1
1he root
== 4x3
\302\243
- -
-1.22 1 = 0.0047.Since at
2.2153
-1.23 ==0.0588,
f (x) ==2.2888
lies in the interval (1.22,
The derivative f' (x) ==
1.23).
Solution.We have
x == 1.23)
f (x) ==
increases monotonically, therefore its least value
given interval is
m1
-1
3
=4 X 1.22
=4 X 1.816-1
==6.264,
wherefrom we get an estimate of the error
x-sI:::;;;f
I
\037\037)
\037
\302\2606..0206\037
3.12.4.
Solve graphically the
x log
Solution.Let
us rewrite the
0.00075
< 0.001.
equation
x-I
== O.
equation in the
log x =-=
-.
I
x)))
form
in
the
186
Ch.
III.Differential
Here'PI (x) == log x,
'1'2(x) =
of Funcl's)
-.
I
There are tables for the val ues of
these functions, and this simplifiesthe constructionof their graphs.

Constructing the graphs y == log x and y = x (see Fig. 57), we find
the approximate value of the only
/:I
\037
2.5.
3.12.5.
Find the real
root
\037
\302\243
root of the
equation
+ 3x-5==0)
4:
up to 10-
f (x) == x 3 _2X2
1)
wi
(a) by applying the method of

chords,
(b) by applying the method of
x)
o)
than accuracy
tangents.
Solution. Let
us first make sure

the given equation has only
one rea] root. This follows) from the fact that the derivati ve)
Fig. 57
that
f' (x) =3x2 -4x+3> 0.

3 < 0, f (2)== 1 > it follows
that the given

Then, from f (1)==
polynomial has a singlepositive root, which liesin the interval (1,2).
(a) Using the method of chords, we obtain the first approximation:
\302\260
Xl
== 1
Since)
-4-3
-0.5156<0,
\302\267
1 == 1.75.)
==
f (1.75)
and f (2) == 1 > 0, then 1.75

<
The second approximation:
\302\243
x2 ==
< 2.
== 1.8350.)
1.75
+ 0.0850
+ 0.5156
1.51560.25== 1.75
\302\267
= 0.05059
Sincef (1.835)
< < 2.
< 0, then 1.835
The sequenceof the approximations converges very sloVJly. Let
\302\243
us try to narrow down the interval, taking into account that the
is considerably
val ue of the function f (x) at the point x 2 ==
less in absolute value than f (2). We have
1.835
<
Hence,1.835
\302\243
> O.
(1.9)== 0.339
< 1.9.)))
3.12.
Algebr.
\037
Applying
Xa
approximation:
===
1.9),we
(1.835,
-0.05059 0.065
==
1.8350.339+0.05059 1.8434.
\302\267
calculations by the method of chords yield
1.8437,X5 1.8438,
sincef (1.8437)
> 0, then
< 0, and 4 f (1.8438)
X 4 ==
and
187)
Equations)
the method of chords to the interval
will get a new
Further
Transcendent.
and
===
\037
1.8438
with
the required accuracy of 10(b) For the method of tangents we chooseXo=2 as the initial
4 > 0 in the inapproximation, since f (2) 1 > 0 and f\" (x)2==
terval (1,2). The first derivat ive f' (x) == 3x 4x+ 3 alsoretains its
sign in the interval (1,2), therefore the method of tangents is ap-
-6x-
===
plicable.
The
first
approximation:
Xl
== 2
\037
1/7== 1.857.)
The second approximation:
= 1.857 0.0779
=:
x2 == 1.857f'{(1.85?)
5.9275 1.8439.
(l.857)
The third approximation:

xa ==
==
1.8439f' (1.8439)
(1.8439) 1.8438,)
f
already gives the required accuracy. I--Ierethe sequenceof the approximations convergesmuch more rapidly than in the method of
chords, and6 in the third approxinlationwe could obtain an accuracy
up to
10-.
3.12.6.
Find the least

an accuracy up to
positive root of the equation tan x ==x \\vith
0.0001
applying Newton's method.
a by
Find the real root of the equation 2-x-Iogx==
3.12.7.
combining the method of chords with the method of tangents.
Solution.Rewrite the left member of the equation in the following
way:
-x)+ (-
log x),
f (x) == (2
the
function
seen that
f (x) is a sum of two monoto-
whence it is
itself. Connically decreasingfunctions, and therefore it decreases
sequently, the given equation has a single root
Direct verification shows that this root lies in the interval (1,2).
This interval can be narrowed still further:)
\302\243.
1.6<\302\243<1.8,)))
188
Ch.
sInce)
III.Differential
of Funci's)
> 0; {(1.8)=-0.0553
< O.
f(I.6)==0.1959
Then)
f' (x) ==
and
f' (x) < 0;
-1
\037
log e;
{\"
(x) ==
\037
x)
> 0 over
log e
[1.6; 8].
the whole interval

1
both
the
method
interval
of
chords
and the
Applying
method of tangents with the initial point x() == 1.6we obtain the
{\" (x)
to this
-(1.8f(l.8)-r(J.6) . -1-.
= 1.6= 1.6+ 0.1540
= 1.
approximations:
first
x)==1.6
x;
f,
1.6)f (1.6)== 1 6 0 1559 ==.

1 7559',
7540.
\037\\
..\037)
the same methods to the interval [1.7540,

1.7559J,we
ions:
the
second
approxin1at
get
I .7559)f (I .7559
) == 1 75558
x == 1 7559 (I.
Applying
75\0370
--
.
,=
x2 1.7540
J' (l.7540)
2
(I 7540)
(1 . 7540) =
f
the root
-x;=0.00001,
0.00001.
Since x2
to
up
(I 7559)
1.75557.
\037
is computedwith an accuracy
3.12.8.
Using the combined method find all roots of the equation
5x -t- 1 == 0 accurateto three decimal places.
3.12.9.
Applying the iteration method find the real roots of the
equation x-sinx=0.25accurateto three decimal places.
f (x) == x3
Solution.Representthe given equation in
the form
= sin x.
x-0.25
Using the graphical method, we find that the equation has one
real root which is approximatelyequal
to Xo == 1.2(see Fig. 58).
!y)
Since)
\302\243,
\037
\037\037.
\037)
sin 1.1
==0.8912
> 1.1-0.25,
=
=
sin 1.3 0.9636
< 1..3 0.25,
1 3).
the root lies in the interval (1.1,
Let us rewrite the equation in the
\037t$>
\037-)
!I=sinx)
\037
x)))
form
+ O.25.
interval (1.1,1.3)does.
x == (x) == sin x
Fig. 58
cp
in the
Since the derivative cp'(x)==cosx
exceedcas1.1< 0.46< 1 in absolute value, the itpration rnethad
is applicable.
Let us write successiveapproximations
xn == sinxn _ +0.25 (n == 1, 2, .),)
not
..
\037
taking
Xo
3.12.
Algebr.
1.2for
and Transcendent.
189)
Equations)
the initial approximation:)
1.2 +0.25=0.932
+0.25=1.182;
+0.25=1.173;
xa==sin1.175+0.25==0.923
x1 ==sin
X2
= sin 1.182
+ 0.25 0.925+ 0.25== 1.175;
x4
=sin1.173+0.25=0.9219+0.25=
1.1719;
===
1.1715;
xr.=sin1.1719+0.25=0.9215+0.25=
xA===sin
1.1715+0.2.5===0.9211
+0.25===1.1711.)
q
Sinceq == 0.46and hence, I -q
< 1, we have
===
1.71 wi thin
\037
the
required accuracy.
3.12.10.
Applying
root of 1 he
the iteration
equa t ion)
XB
method, find the greatest positive
+ x = 1000)
accuratp to four decimal places.

Solution.Rough estimation gives us the approximatevalue of the
root
Xu
We
= 10.
can rewrite the given equation

X==
or
In
the
1000-x
a
,)
x----
form)
1000
x2
or
in
the
the lorm)
in
')
form)
X==
1000-xand
\037/
so
on.)
The most advantageous of the indicated methods is the preceding

[9,10]for the main int erval and putting
one, since taking
(P
we
find
that
(x) =
V 1000-x,)
the derivative)
cp'(x) ==
-I
3 V (1000-X)2)
does not exceed1/300

in absolute value:)
1
cp'(x) I
\037
3 V 990
2)))
1
\037
300
= q.
190
Ch.
III.Differential
Compute successiveapproximationsof
Xn with
the formula)
Xn+l
n
(n == 0, 1,2,
V 1000-x
===
of Funct's)
one spare digit
by
...),
10,
==
==
Xl
V 1000-109.96655,
== 9.96666,
9.96655
X2
V 1000==9.96667.
x3 == V 1000 9.96666
4.
9.9667
with an accuracy of 10We may put
lvTote. Here,the relatively rapid convergence of the processof iteration is due to the smallness of the quantity q. In general,the
Xo
==
\037
===
\302\243
smaller the q, the faster the process of iteration converges.

3.12.11.
Applying the method of chords, find the positive root of
the equation)
with
f(x) == x3 + l.lx2 +0.9x-I.4=0
an accuracy of
0.0005.
3.12.12.
Using the method of chords, find approximate values of

I:
the real roots of the following equationswith an accuracy up to 0.0
X
e
-2(I-x)2==0.
(
b)
(a) (x-I)2-2sinx==0;
Applying Newton's method, find with an accuracy up
1 the positive roots of the following equations:
to 0.0
(b) x:{+x-32==0.
(a) x:}+50x-60=0;
Using the combined method find the values of the root
of the equation)
==a
3.12.13.
3.12.14.
x3-x-l
on the interval
[1,2] with
3.12.15.
Applying
tion
an accuracy
up
to
0.005.
the iteration method, find all roots of the equa-
4x-5 In x= 5 accurateto four
decimal places.)
Problems
* 3.13.Additional
Does the
3.13.1.
function
f (x)
=
{\037/x)
if
x<1
if
x\0371
satisfy the conditions of the Lagrangetheorem on the interval [0,2]?

the number
Prove that for the function y==ax2+\037x+y
in the Lagrange formula, used on an arbitrary interval [a, b], is the
arithmeticmean of the numbers a and b: =:;(a + b)j2.)))
3.13.2.
\302\243
\302\243
\037
3.13.3.
Prove that
8.13.
Additional
ii the
Problems)
191)
equation
+ a -1+ ... + an-lX ==0
QoXn
x ll
has a positive root x o, then the equation

n
naox
- l + (n-l)QlXn - 2 + ... + an -
has a positive root less than xo'

Prove that the equation x4
real roots.
3.13.4.
3.13.5.
Prove
the function
that
-4x-l
== 0
== 0
has two different
f(x)==xn+px+q cannot
have
roots for n even and more than three for n odd.

3.13.6.
Prove that all roots of the derivative of the given poly-
more
two real
than
are real.
f(x)==(x+l)(x-I)(x-2)(x-3)
nomial
3.13.7.
Find
The
mistake in the followinl reasoning.
*0,
function)
f (x) =
x2 sin ( 1/x)
\\
for x
for x = 0
is differentiable for any x. By Lagrange'stheorem

x2 sin x = x 2t sin \037-cos
\037
whence)
casTI =
\037
\037
2t'
. SIn -r- sin. X
1
\302\243')
\302\243
(0
< t < x)
\037
\302\267
As x tends to zero will also tend to zero.Passing to the limit,

we obtain Hm cos(l/\037) ==0, whereas it is known that lim cos(1Ix) is
\037
\037
non-existent.
x\037
3.13.8.
Find a mistake in the following deduction of Cauchy's

formula. Let the functions f (x) and (x) satisfy all the condit ions
of the Cauchy theorem on the interval [a, b].Then each of them
will satisfy the conditions of Lagrange'stheorem as well. Consequently, for each function we can write the Lagrange formula:
a < S < b,
f
(a) = f' (s)
=
a
< < b.
(p(b)-(()(a) (()' (s)
Dividing the first expressionby the second,we obtain:
<p
(b)-f
I
cp
(b-a),
(b-a),
- - --
\037
(b)-I(a) _ I' (b-a)_ t'

(\037)
(b)
q; (a)
cp'
(\037)
a)
(b
cp'
Prove the following inequalities:

3.13.9.
a-b
< In < a-b 0 l.
(b)pyP-l(x-y)<,xP_yP\037pxP-l(x-y)
Prove that
3.13.10.
all roots of the Chebyshev-Laguerre

polynomial)
Ln (X )
are positive.
Prove that
t.
3.13.1
if
conditions:
(1) it is defined and has
-e
n
x d
dx
ll
n
(x
e)
.\\'
the function f (x) satisfies the following

a continuous derivative of the (n
order f(n-u (x) on the interval [xo, x n ];

(2) it has a derivative of the nth order
'
(x o x n );
==f (xrJ (x 0
(3) f (x 0) ==f (Xl) ==
then inside the interval [Xo, x,J there
==0.
that f(ll)
f(n)
(x)
in
1)th
the interval
< Xl < ...< Xll) ,
...
is at least one point
\302\243
such
(\037)
The limit of the ratio of the functions

3.13.12.
. e-xl+2tanx
.
==
.
1m e-2X(cosx+2sinx)
l+tanx
e-X(cosx+slnx) tm
.
. . .
x
tan
.
2
.
+
IS d Iscont Inuous
th e expreSSIon
t t ,SInce
IS non-eXlSen
I
x\037oo
x\037oo
...),
1
+ tan
at
at the same time the
the points
0, 1,
+
limit of the ratio of the derivatives does exist:
Xn
I 1m
x\037oo
Jt/2 (n ==
==n:rt
but
[e-2X(cosx-+2sinx)]'
.
' = I.
-.
5
-5e-2Xsinx
. =
x-oo -2e-xslnx 2
+slnx)]
[e-X (cosx
1111
I 1m
e_ x
==.
0
x\037:y))
Explain this seemingcontradiction.
3.13.13.
Prove
formula of the
that the number
first
tends to 1/3 as
order
e in
the remainder of the Taylor
(a+h) = f (a) +hf'(a) +
\037;
f\"
(a+8h)
f'\"(x) is continuousat
a and
(a) =1=0.
Prove that the number e is an irrational number.
h
\037
\302\260
3.13.14.
Prove that
3.13.15.
if
for
\302\260
<x
decreases.From this obtain
\037
f'\"
Jt/2 the function f (x) (sinx)jx

the inequality 2x/Jt < sin x < x for
\037
=--=
o < x < 'Jt/2 and give its geometricmeaning.

Show that the function f (x) ==x+cosx-aincreases;
deduce that the equation x + cosx== a has no positive roots
\\\\'hence
for a < 1 and has one positive root for a > I.
3.13.16.
3.13.17.
Show that
root found
in
the
has only one positive

equation xex ::::::2
the interval (0,
1).)))
Additional
3.13.
.\037
3.13.18.
Prove that
193)
the function
2.
( X + x Sin x f or
{\"2
1
f(x)=
is not monotonic
graph f (x).
Problems)
x=l= 0,
for x = 0
l 0
any interval containing the
in
3.t 3.19.Prove the
origin. Sketchthe
theorem if: (1) f (x) and (x) are continuous

the interval [a, b] and differentiable inside it; (2) f (a) = (a);
and (3) f' (x) > cp'(x) (a < x < b), then f (x) > (x) (a < x < b).
cp
in
cp
cp
has neithermaxima,
Show that the function f (x) =
3.13.20.
;;t\037
nor minima at ad-be O.
In the trinomial x2 + px + q choosethe coefficients p and q
3.13.21.
so that the trinomial has a minimum at x = 3 and that the minimum equals 5.
Test the function f (x) = (x-xo)n (x) for extremum at
3.13.22.
the point x x o' where n is a natural number; the function (x) is
and
continuous at x
(xo) O.
3.13.23.
Given a continuous function
=1=
cp
\037-=
cp
-==
Xo
=1=
cp
(2
f (x) = f
sin
\037
\\
xI
at
x 0,
at
x=O.
=1=
Show that f (x) has a minimum at the point x = 0, but is not

monotonic either on the left or on the right of x = O.
Find the greatest and the least values of the following
3.13.24.
(a)
== x
(b) y = E (x)
I
3.13.25.
for
for
--
\037
\037
\037
\037
1,
1.
Do the following functions have the greatest and the

least values on the indicated intervals?
for
(a) f (x) ==cosx
(b) f (x) -== arc sin x for
3.13.26.
3.13.27.
Prove that
-Jt/2 x <
-1
< x < 1.
\037
Jt,
Prove that between two maxima (minirna) of a continuous

function there is a minimum (maximum) of this function.
the function
f (x)
-_ {
X2
sin2 (l/x) for x =1=

for x =
0,
0)))
194
Ch.
III.Differential
of Funct's)
at the point Xo ==0 (not a strict minimum).

Prove that if at the point of a minimum there existsa
right-side derivative, then it is non-negative, and if there existsa
has a minimum
3.13.28.
left-side derivative, then it is non-positive.

Show that the function
3.13.29.
y ==
Ijx2 (x > 0),

{3x2 (x 0)
\037
has a mInImum
not
0, though
at the point x==.:
its
first
changesign when passing through this point.
derivative does
3.13.30.
Let Xo be the abscissa of the point of i flection on the

curve y = f (x). Will the point Xo be a point of extremum for the
funct ion y == f' (x)?
3.13.31.
- -1-
Sketchthe graph of the function

if
bourhood of the point x ==
3.13.32.
1)==2, f' (
f(
For what
probabilities\
choiceof
- yn
have points of inflection
1,f
1)==
lf
= f (x)
1)==0, f'\"
the neigh-
in
(x)
> O.
the parameter h does the
h2x2
(h
>
\"curve
of
0))))
x == :f:a?
Show that any twice continuously differentiable function

3.13.33.
has at least one abscissa of the point of inflect ion on the graph of
the function between two points of extremum.
2
3.13.34.
+ 8 as an example,
Taking the function y ==x 4 -1-8x3 + 18x
no
be
of
extremum between the
ascertain that there may
points
abscissasof the points of inflection on the graph of a function.
Prove that any polynomial with positive coefficients,
3.13.35.
which is an even function, is concave everywhere and has only one
point of minimum.
3 has
Prove that any polynomial of an odd degreen
at least one point of inflection.
Proceedingdirectly from the definition, ascertain that
the straight line y = 2x + 1 is an asymptote of the curve y ==
3.13.36.
3.13.37.
2x 4+X3
3)
\037
Chapter4)
INDEFINITE
\037
INTEGRALS.
INTEGRATION)
METHODS
OF
Bt\\Slc
4.1.DirectIntegration
and the Methodof Expansion)
Direct integration consistsin using the following table of integrals:
un+1
(1) 5 undu= n+1+C
(n*-l);
=
5 d: In u + C:
(3) 5 aU du = a aU + C;
(4) \037cosudu=sinu+C;
(5) coshu du = sinh u + C;
du
(6) cas2 u = tan u + C;
(2)
ell
du
\037
1\037
5 SI.n
du
t.I
cosu + C;
sinhudu = coshu + C;)
\037
=-
sin u du =
\037
\037
du
= e'l+ C;
'2
cot u -{-C;
(7)
-a-arccota-+C1(a>0);
5 u2+a2 =a-arctana-+C=
(8)
. =arcstn-+C=-arccos-+C
1 (a>0);
a
a
S V a2 -u'l
(9)
du
.du
J V u 2 :f:a2
(10)5
= In(u+Vu 2 + a2) +C;
-a =-2a In
\"du 2
U\"
a
+ +C.
a)
In all these formulas the variable u is either an independent

variable or a differentiable function of some variable. If)
\037
f(u)du=F(u)+C,)
then)
5f(ax+b)dx= F(ax+b)+C.
\037
The method of expansionconsists in expanding the integrand into

a linear combination of simpler functions and using the linearity)))
Ch. IV.
196)
Integrals)
Indefinite
property of the integral:
aJi(x)dx =
i\0371
4.1.1.Find the
aj ) fi (x)dx
i\0371
C\037I
ai I> 0
).
1=S X2+\037;-ldX.
integral
Solution.)
2
1= S +5X-1dx= S (x'/.+5x'/.-r'l.)dx=
X
\302\245-X
\037
x'/.dx+5) x'/.dx-)x-'/.dx=
52
=s+C1 +3X3/2+C2-2xl/2+C3==)5
2x \"/2
\302\267
=2 V-X ( + 3X
\0372
- )+C.
1
Note. There is no need to introduce an arbitrary constant after
calculatingeach integral (as is done in the above example).

By combining all arbitrary constants we get a single arbitrary constant,
denoted by letterC, which is added to the
final
answer.
d
4.1 2 / 5 6X3+X2_2x+
2x_
\302\267
\302\267
413/= 5
\302\267
\302\267
X.)
\302\267
dx
sin 2 x cos2 x
\302\267
Solution.Transform the integrand

I
sin 2 x
cos2 x
in
x+cos
2
sin 2
sin 2 x
2x
the following way:

I
Hence,)
dx
dx
= tan x
1= 5 cos...
x + 5 sIn x
'J
4.1.4.1=
.\037
tan 2 X dx.
Solution.Since tan 2 x = sec2
\037
1=
\\
\037
4.1.5.1=
\037
tan 2
cot x +
\302\267)
c.
x-I,then
xdx=j cosdx2
- dx=tanx-x+C.
\
x)
\037
(x2 + 5)3dx.
Solution. Expanding the integrand
we
cos2 x + sin 2 x
cos x
by the
binomial formula,
find
15xo 75x3
1=5 (x6 + 15x4 +75x2 + 125)dx=T+T+a-+
125x+C.
4.1.6.
1=\037(3x+5)17dx.)))
X7
\037
4.1.Direct
and the Method of Expansion
InteRration
197)
Solution. Here it is not expedientto raise the binomial to the

power, since u ==3x + 5 is a linear function.
Proceedingfrom the tabular integral)
17th
S
we
U 17
du=18 + C
Ul8
')
get)
. (3x+18Sp8-t- C
I --J.3
\302\267
4.1.7.
I = s \037x
x+l-VXx '
4.1.8.
I=
cas(J'tx + 1)dx.
Solution.Proceedingfrom the tabular integral (4)
\037
\037
casudu=sinu+C,)
we obtain)
4.1.9.
I=
==\037
3t
sin (nx+ 1)+ C.
cas4x cas7x dx.

\037
Solution.When calculatingsuch integrals it is advisable to use
the trigonornetric
product formulas. Here
cas4x cas7x ==2\" (cas3x + cosl1x))

1
and therefore
I = + S cas3xdx + S casllxdx =
\037
Note.
\037
solving such problems
sin 3x + 212 sin llx+ C.

is
to
expedient
ities:
sin mx casnx = {-[sin(m-n)x+ sin (m + n) x];
sin mx sin nx = -}[cas(m-n)x-cas(m + n) x];
cosmx cosnx==2'[cos(m-n)x+ cos(m + n) x].
When
it
use the
following trigonometric ident
4.1.10.
I=
cosxcas2x cas5xdx.
\037
Solution.We have
I
(cosx cos2x) cos5x ==2'(cosx -{-cos3x) cos5x=
= 4I [cos4x + C056x] + 41 (cos2x+cos8x).)))
Ch, IV. Indefinite Integrals)
198)
Thus,
1. I. 1. 1.
=
1= [5cos2xdx+
5 cos4xdx+
5 cos6xdx+
5cos8xdxl
sIn 2x+16
s1n4X+ 24 SIn 6x+ 32 SIn 8x+C
=8
4.1.t 1.I = \\ sin2 3x dx.
\037
1-cos
. SInceSIn. 2 3x =
t
Sal Ulan.
6x
.\"
' th en
I=-}5 (1-cos6x)dx=x-/2 sin6x+C.

4.1.12.
1= cosh2 (8x+5)dx.
\037
\037
Solution.Since cosh2 u = cosh ;U+
, then
1=-}5 [1+ cosh(16x+ 10)]dx=-}X+32 sinh (16x+lO)+C.

4.1.13.
1= 5 x2+:+5
=
Solution. 1= 5 X2+\037:+5 = 5 (X+:;2+
1 arc tan (x + 2) + C.
'
4.1.14.1=
5
4.1.15.
1= 5
dx
4.1.16.
I = r 4-9x2
S
1
\302\267
4X2\03725
\302\267
X2+\037+1
\302\267
=
=
4/9-x 3 arc sin 2 + C.
s r 4-9x 3 S r-=.
4.1.17.I=
Sv 5-x2-4x
dx
Solution.I =
3X
dx
dx
. I=
Sal u t ton.
2
J' 5-x
S ..r
4.1.t 8.I = V dx
4.1 19.I =
\302\267
Solution.
x\037+
S4 -x
6x+ 1
4x
\037x
4x
4.1.20.
1= S
lOX\037\037
\302\267)))
\302\267
\302\267
dx
4x
\302\267
\302\267
- =,8-(x+2)2=
I= S 4-xdx2
2
= arc sIn x+
3 +C
dx
S V 9-(x+2)2
\302\245'2
In
2Y2+X+2
Jf2-(x+2)
)2
-t-
\302\267
4.2. Integration
\037
4.1.21.
Eval ua te
dx
3-2
(b) r
\037
x-I dx;
dx'
lX')
X
(d)
cos
\037ot2
2 3x2
5 x2 (l +x 2) dx.)
2x+1-5x-l
r
dx;
I
x4
J VI-\037+VI+X2
(c) 5
(b)
cos2x dx'
sin x '
5 cosx
dx; (d) 5 (sin 5x
lOX
199)
J V X2
4.1.22.
Integrate:
(a)
Substitution)
the following integrals:
(a) JC x 2 6x+ 13 ;
(c)
by
sin 5a)dx.)
4.2.Integration
by Substitution
The method of substitution (or change of variable) consists in sub(t) for x where
(t) is a continuously differentiable
function. On substituting we have:
stituting
<p
cp
\037
f (x)dx =
\037
[cp
(t)] cp'(t) dt I
and after integration we return to the
stitution t ==cp-I (x).

The indicated formula is
old variable by inverse sub-
also used in
f[(p (t)] cp'(t) dt = f (x) dx,
\037
the reverse direction:)

where
\037
4.2.1.
1=
\037
xV
x = (t).
cp
x-5-dx.
Solution.Make the substitution
Vx-5=t.)
Whence)
x-5=t, x=t +5, dx=2tdt.

2
Substituting into the integral we get
1= 5 (t2 + 5) t
\302\267
2t dt
=2
Now return to the initial
5 (t4 + 5t ) dt
variable x:
2
= 2 + lOt + C.
\037
1= 2 (X\0375)'/' + 10(X;5)3/.+ C.
4.2.2.1= 5
\302\267
Solution.Let
\037xex
us
make the substitution 1 + eX = t. Whence
ex=t-l,x=ln(t-l),dx=dtl(t-l).)))
Ch. IV.
\037uo)
Indefinite
Integrals)
Substituting into the integral,we get

J
=
\037:x
But)
-1)=
therefore)
- -T
I
t (t
5 t (t\037 I)
\302\267)
')
dt -- dt
C
1=5 t-I
5 t=lnlt-II-Inltl-t.)
x, we obtain)
eX
C = X -In(1-1-eX) + c.
eX +
Coming back to the variable
1= In +
1
Note. This integral can be calculatedin a simpler way

tiplying both the numerator and denominator bye-x:
e-X
=
5 e- + dx
X
- e--e-X+ 5
dx =
=_ln e
e)
+ dx.
.2.3.I = 5 Y (2x-5)3
4.2.4.I =
\037
=x-In(ex+I)+C.
dx
(x2-1)
'
x2 + l
(x4 + 3x2 + 1)arc tan
x
Solution.Transform the integrand
(I 1/x 2) dx
1 5 [(x+l/x)2+
Ij arc tan (x+I/x)
\302\267
Make the substitution x-t-- x = t; differentiating, we get

\037
\\Vhence)
(1-;2)dx=dt.)
I = 5 (t2+ I)dtarc tan t
Make one more substitution:arc tan
t ==
\302\267
u. Then
dt
t2
+1=du)
and)
1=S u=ln)ul+C.)))
dU
mul-
(e- + I) + C =
In
\037.+
X2
by
4.2. Integration
\037
Returning
by
x, we
to t, and then to
first
Substitution)
201)
have
)/+C.
1=lnlarctantl+C=lnlarctan(x+
\037
4.2.5.
I ==
5
dx.
Y\302\243l2\037
x4
Solution.Make the substitution:

dt
x==T; dX=-fi\".)
Hence,)
I= 5
-1-
Returning to
2t 2
\037\037t2
substitution: Va2t 2
Now make one more
=2zdzand)
=-5 Va
dt
\037\037;\037
a2 S Z
2 dZ
--
3a2 z
- dt.
I
1 = z. Then 2a2t dt
::::
+C
\302\267
x, we obtain
2
1==-(a2_x
23)3/:a +C.
3ax
and then to
4.2.6.I = S a2 sin 2
2 cos2 X
x\037 b
\302\267
Solut ion.
i-
I== a2 sin 2 dx b2 cos2 x ==\037b2 a2 1

x+
tan 2 x
b
\037
Make the substitution
a
b
2)
a
tan x ==t; dt == b
cos x)
d\037
. cosdx2 x
\302\267
. Then
dt
== arc tan t + C.
I ==ab Jr 1+
t2
ab
I
Returning to
x, we obtain
I = arc tan
\037
tan
x) + C.
4.2.7.I=\037 Vl+3sinxcosxdx.
Solution.i\\\\ake the substitution 1 +3sinx==t,

3cosxdx=dt.
Then
..-
-3
-3
I-\037 V tdt-\037 tl/adt

S
S
428 f
\302\267
r sin x dx
J V cosx
\302\267)))
-3
_\037.\037t\037/a
+ C_ (l+3sinX)./a
+C
4
\302\267
...r'
Ch.
202)
1==
4.2.9.
5 (arc cos
\"
x\037x
I ndefinite
IV.
Integrals)
x\037
Solution.Makethe substitution:arc cosx= t;
= dt. Then
Vld\037
x\037
1=-5 tf>=-5 t-f>dt-==Tt-4+C==

4arccos4x+C.
dt
-!- dx.
J V +3x+
4.2.11.I == 5 +sin . 2x.) x dx.
x2
1= r
4.2.10.
x3
SIn'\"
Solution.Make the substitution:

1
+ sin2 x== t;
..,
Then)
2 sin xcosx dx ==sin 2x dx
\037
dt.)
2
1=5 =Int+C=In(1+sin
x)+C.
+ x dx.
4 2 12 1
3
+
5 x x
\037t
In
In
===
Solution.Substitute
and
3 + x In x == t,
get)
1= 5 = In
\037t
(1+.In x) dx ==dt)
+ C = In 3 + x In x + C.
I
Evaluate the following integrals:

4.2.13.
;
(a) Vl:lnxdx; (b) 5
x\037\037x
\037
(c)
x dx
5 V3
d
-x ()
4;
(e) S Si\037X dx;
Fin d
4.2.14.
th
(f)
xll
x21l -!-a dx;

t.\\
\037
S ( In
r
J
X2
\037
sf>
+ dx)
\302\267
dxX
integrals:
follo\\ving
1 x dx; (b)
5 V
(c) CO X Vsin xdx; (d)
(a)
In
X
x dx
\302\245l+lllx
x.
SV
1-. dx.
x\037)
4.3.Integrationby Parts
The formula)
\037
is
known
udv=uv-
vdu
\037
as the formula for integration
are differentiable
functions of
x.)))
by
parts, where [l
and v
\037
4.3. Integra.tion
Parts)
by
203)
To use this formula the integrand should be reduced to the product of two factors: one function and the differential of another
function. If the integrand is the product of a logarithmic or an
inverse trigonometric funct ion and a polynomial, then u is usually
taken to be either the logarithmic or the inverse trigonometric
function. But if the integrand is the product of a trigonometricor an
exponential function and an algebraicone, then u usually denotes
the algebraicfunction.
4.3.1.I ==
arc tan
\037
Solution.Let
us
x.dx.
here)
put
u == arc
tan
dv
x,)
= dx;)
whence)
du
= +dxx2
I
v ==x;)
;)
I ==Sarc tan xdx==x arc tan x-S xdx

+X2)+C
+ x2 =x arc tan x-2'ln(1
4.3.2.1= arc sin xdx.
4.3.3.1= xcosxdx.
I
\037
\037
Solution. Let us
put)
u ==x;)
dv == cosx dx,)
whence)
1=
\037
We will
v == sin x,
du ==dx;
sinxdx==xsinx+cosx+C.
xcosxdx=xsinx-\037
show now what would result from an unsuitable choice
multipliers u and dv.

In the integral xcosxdx let us
of the
put
\037
whence)
du
=\037
=-\037
cosx;
dv ==x dx,)
I
sin xdx'
V==2X
,)
2
\302\267)
In this case)
x2 cosx -t- S X2 sin xdx.

As is obvious, the integral has become Inore complicated.
4.3.4.1= x3 In x
\037=
\037
dx.)))
\037
\037
2)
Ch. IV.
204)
Solution.Let
us
Indefinite
Integrals)
put
u = In x;)
dv ==X 3 dx
,)
- -
whence)
dx
du == x
\302\267
')
-.\037
-I
4)
dx
4
= J..
r 3
1=14 x 1n x- 4 S x
4 x41nx-\037
4 J dx
4.3.5.I = (x2 -2x+5) e- dx.
\037
X4
X4
\037x41nx-J..
4
16 + C
===
\302\267
\037
Solution.Let
us
put
x -2x+5;)
u == 2
dv ==
e- dx
X
whence)
du ==
x
v ==
-e-
x dx.
(x -2x+5)e-dx=-e-(x -2x+5)+2(x-l)e2
I=\037
(2x-2)dx;
,)
\037
We again integrate the last integral by
x-I
== u;)
dv ==
whence)
du == dx'
, v ==
11=2
parts.
e- dx,)
X
-e-.
X
x dx=-2ex +C.
(x-l)+2 e- dx=-.2xe(x-l)ex
\037
Put)
\037
Finally we get
1= e- (x2-2x+5)-2xe-+ c = e- (x2 + 5) + C.
X
Note.As a result of calculationof integralsof the form P (x) eax dx

we obtain a function of the form Q (x) eax, where Q (x) is a polynomial of the same degreeas the polynomial P (x).
This circumstanceallows us to calculatethe integrals of the indicated type using the method of indefinite coefficients, the essence
of which is explainedby the following example.
\037
4.3.6.Applying
\037
Solution. (3x3
\037
the method of indefinite coefficients, evaluate

= (3x3 17)e2x dx.
-17)
e2X
dx = (Ax 3 + BX2 + Dx+ E) e2X + C.
Differentiating the right and the left sides,we obtain

e2X = 2 (Ax 3 + Bx2 + Dx + E) e2X + e2X (3Ax2 + 2Bx+D).
(3x3
-17)
Cancellinge2X , we have
3x3
-17_ 2Ax + (2B+ 3A) x + (2D+2B)x+(2E+

3
D).)))
4.3. Integration
\037
205)
Parts)
by
Equating the coefficients at the equal powers of x in the left and

sides of this identity, we get
right
O=2B+3A;
-17==2E+D.)
3 2A;
o == 2D + 2B;)
\037
Solving the system, we obtain

3
9
B=-4;
A=\"2;
Hence,
3
5 (3x
-17)e
2X
=_ 718
9
77
3
9
dx= ( 2X3-TX2
+TX-s
\302\267)
e2X + C.
(x3 +I)cosxdx.
I=\037
us
4.3.7.Integrate:)
Solution.Let
D=T;)
put
u ==x 3
whence)
+ 1; dv = cosx dx,)
du = 3x2 dx; v = sin x.

3
+ l)sinx-3/
1.
1=(x3 + l)sinx-3 x2 sinxdx=(x
\037
where
11= x2 sin xdx.

\037
- cosx+2/
Integrating by parts again, we get
/1=
12 = xcosxdx.
x2
2,
where
Integrating by parts again, we obtain
\037
/2==xsinx+cosx+C.)
Finally, we have:
I ==
\037
(x
2 cosx-6x
sin x-6cosx + c=
+ 1)cosx dx==(x3+ 1)sinx+3x
== (x3
-6x+1)sinx+(3x
-6)cosx+C.
2
Note. The method of indefinite coefficients may also be applied

to integrals of the form
\037
4.3.8.1=
\037
\037
(x
\037
P (x)casaxdx.
(x2 + 3x+ 5) cas2xdx.
Solution.Let
2
P (x)sin axdx,
us
put
+3x+5)cos2xdx==
== (AOX2 + A1x + A 2) cos2x + (BoX2 + B1x
+ B2) sin 2x+
C.)))
Ch. IV.
206)
Differentiate both
sidesof
Indefinite
Integrals)
the identity:
-2
(x2 +3x+5) cos2x=
(AOX2 + A1x+A 2) sin 2x+

+ (2A ox+ At) cas2x+ 2 (BOX2 + B1x+ B2) cas2x+(2Box+Bt)sin2x=
== [2B + (2B1+ 2Ao) x + (AI + 2B2)] cos2x +
+ [-2AoX2+ (2Bo -2A])x + (Bl -2A2)] sin 2x.
oX2
Equating the coefficients at equal powers of x in the multipliers

and sin 2x, we get a system of equations:
2 (Bl+ Ao) == 3;
2Bo= 1;
At + 2B2 == 5;
B1-2A2 ==O.
2 (Bo-At) ==0;
2A o == 0;
cos2x
Solving the system, we

Ao ==
find
0; Bo= 2\";
Al == 2\"; B1=
Thus,
A 2 ==
3
4\";
B2 == 9
\"\"4
2
2
fX + ;x+ ) sin x+C.
+3X+5)COS2xdx=(+ )cos2x+(
4.3.9.I = (3x2 + 6x+ 5) arctan xdx.
2
(X
\037
3
2;
\037
\037
Solution.Let
us
put
u == arc tan
whence)
dU==
Hence,)
dv == (3x2
x;
+ 6x -1-5) dx,)
dx
3
2
I+x2 ; v=x +3x +5x.)
I == (x3 + 3x2 + 5x) arc tan x-J(' x3+3x2 +5xdx.

1-\037x2
Singleout the integral part under the last integral

the numerator by the denominafor:
by
dividing
X3+3x2+.5X
dx == (x 3) dx--t- 4X-3
/t ==5
x2
5
5 x 2 I dx
2
2
x
2xdx
dx
x
2
1+
=2 -{-3x+ 25
x\037.+
+ =
= + 3x+2In(x
tanx+C.
+ l)-.3arc
S x2 +
-3.
Substituting the value of
== (x3
3x2
11'
\\ve finally
get
2
+ 5x.+3) arc tan x-x2/2-3x-2In
(x + 1)+ C.
4.3.10.
Find the
integral
I=
Solution.Let
2\"
e5x cos,4xdx.
\037
us
put
e5X ==u; cas4xdx =.dv,)))
4.8. Integration
\037
Parts)
by
207)
whence)
5e5 dx = du; v == sin 4x.

.\\
\037
4)
Hence
,)
I=
Integrat ing
(I
5X
Thus,
ebX sin 4x
\037
- -
sin 4x dx;:;;
11 J e
/=
5 e5X sin 4x dx.
parts again, we obtain
by
===
sin 4x -\037
4
5X
4e
\037
\037
1.e.)
e5X cos4x+\"4 e5X cas4x dx.

\"4
1
ebX
\037
cas4x + 5 e cos4x dx )
bX
\037
.
5
25
5x
1==-e
---I
4
4
( sln4x+-cos4x
) 16
1
\302\267)
Whence)
/=
I=
4.3.11.
\037
Solution.Let
ebx
44)
(sin4x+ COS4x)+C.
\037
cos(lnx) dx.
us
put
u ==
whence)
cas(In x); dv ==dx,)
dx
;
du=-sin(1nx)
x)
Hence,)
v==x.
I = cas(In x) dx = x cos(In x) +
\037
I ntegrate
parts once again

II -= sin (In x);)
by
dv
-==
\037
sin (Inx) dx.)
dx,)
\\vh\037ncc)
dx
v==x.
du==cos(lnx)-;
x)
Hence,)
11 =
\037
sin (In x)dx= x sin (In x)
\037
cas(In x) dx.)
Thus)
I ==
\037
cos(In x) dx ==x cos(In x) + x s in (In x)
lienee)
J :=;
\037
[cas (ln x) -t- sin (l n x)] +
c.)))
I.)
,)
Ch. IV.
208)
/ = S x In ( 1 +
4.3.12.
Solution.Let
In
Indefinite
dx.
\037
us transform the integrand
(1+ )=ln
X\037I
\037
Hence)
Integrals)
/ = x In (x+ 1)dx
\037
Let us integrate
11and 12
u == In
whence)
\037
x In xdx = /1-/2.
parts. Put
by
dv == x dx,)
(x-I-1);
dx
du == 1 x ;
V ==
Hence
=ln(x+l)-lnx.)
'2(x2
1).)
-I)dX==
2
/1==S xln(x+l)dx==\"2(x
-1)ln(x+l)-\"2
S I+x
(X
= x22 In(x+l)-\"2(x-l)dx== 2 In(x+I)-Tx2 +-2x + C.

S
I
X2
Analogously,)
/2 = J(' x In x dx =
x2
2 x -\"4x + C.
I
ln
Finally we have
-1)
I = S x In ( 1 + + ) dx = + (x2 In (x+ 1)x; In t + +C.

2
4.3.13.
I = V x + [In + 1)-2In xl dx.
I
\037
<::
Solution.First apply the substitution
1+2 =t.
I
x)
Then)
dt ==
Hence,)
/+
I == 5 -.V
-:r
2dx
x
x2
In
x2
x)
x2
- dt.
- v-
3=
dx
or
\302\267
dx
==
x3
_2
I
\"2
The obtained integral is easily evaluated

u == In
t;
= dtt
.'
Then)
du
dv ==
v
==-
Vidt
\037
3)))
by
5 t In t dt.
parts. Let us
.)
i.
put
4.3. Integration
\037
by
209)
Parts)
Whence
-f
-f [; Vi -; Vidt]
=--}[; tVtlnt-:tVi] +c.)
1=-+ l ; (I + :2
+ :2 -f + :2 + c
5 ViIn t dt
In t
x, we obtain
to
Returning
3/2
I=
4.3.14.
In
= (x2+ l\037tX2+
) 3/2]
sin x I n tan xdx.
[2-3 ( I + :2) ] + c.
In
\037
4.3.15.1=\037ln(VI-x+VI+x)dx.
us
Solution.Let
u=ln(Vl--x+Vl+x);dv=dx,
whence
du=
put
2 V\037 2 V\037)dX=
=.!.y - + y\037+ - =.!. YI-x--1

v=x.)
Vf=X\037YT+X
Hence,
/ =xln( V
dx
\037\0371
l-x+V 1 +x)
VI
-I
YI
x Yx I
x2
VI
x2
dx;
--- dx=
x2
VI
x2
=
=x In (Vl-x+V I +x)--} dX +-}
5
5
=x In(VI-x+VI +x)-fx+f arcsinx+C.
V\037\037X2
Note. In calculatinga number of integrals we had to use the

method of integration by parts several times in succession.
The
result could be obtained more rapidly and in a more conciseform
generalizedformula for integration by parts
by using the so-called
(or the formula for multiple integration by parts):
u
\037
-.
...; -
= u (x) VI (x)-u'(x) V2 (x) + u\" (x)v3 (x) . .

... + (_I)n-1u(n-u(x) Vn (x) (_l)n-I u(n) (x)Vn (x)dx,
(x) v (x) dx
\037
where
vn (x)= v n I (x)dx.
(x)= V (x)dx; v2 (x)= VI (x) dx;
Here,of course,we assume that all derivatives and integrals appeaVI
\037
ring
in
this formula
\037
exist.)))
\037
Ch. IV. I nde.finite
210)
Integrals)
The use of the generalizedformula for integration by parts is

especiallyadvantageous when calculatingthe integral Pn (x) (x) dx,
where Pn (x) is a polynomial of degree n, and the factor (x) is
such that it can be integratedsuccessivelyn + 1 times.For example,)
cp
\037
cp
ekx
ekx
.-iS Pn(x)ekxdx==Pn(x)T-P\037(x)-f2+\"
kx
e
(x) kn + 1 +c==
+(-l)np:zn>
= ekx Pnk(x) kI2 Pn' ( ) + + (_1)n
P(n) (X) + C
kn +
I
J
x..
\302\267
\302\267
It
4.3.16.
Applying
the generalizedformula for integration

the following integrals:
2
3
2xdx,
(a) (x
find
\037
(b)
parts,
-2x +3x-l)cos
(2x +3x -8x+1)V2x+6dx.
2
\037
by
Solution.
3
(a) S (x
-2x+ 3x-l)cos2x dx= (x -2x+ 3x--1)si 2
-(3x2-4x+3)
(_ co: ) +(6x-4)( _
2X
(b) (2x3 + 3x2

\037
Si\0372X
n 2x
Si\0372X
(2x3 -4x2 + 3x)+
)_ 6
2x
co\037
COt62X
+c=
(6x2-8x+ 3) + C;
8x+ 1)V- 2x+ 6 dx =
= (2x3 + 3X2-8x
+ 1)(2X\0376)3/2_ (6x2 + 6x-8)(2xt\037)./2 +
(2x+6)9/2
+ (12x+6) (2x+6)7/2
3.5.7 -123.5.7.9+C=
2
=
396x+ 897)+ C.
(2x+ 6) (70x3 -45x
\037\037;\0376
Evaluate the following i ntegrals:
4.3.17.
\037ln(x+Vl+x2)dx.
4.3.18.V x(In X)2 dx.
arc sin x dx
.
4 3 19
Y l+x
...
\037
x cosx dx
4.3.20.
S sin3 x
4.3.21.3x cos
\037
\302\267
dx.)))
\037
4.4.Reduction
211)
Formulas)
4.3.22.(x3 -2x2 +5)e3X dx.

4.3.23.(1+ X2)2 casxdx.
4.3.24.(x2 + 2x I) sin 3xdx.
4.3.25.(x2 -2x+3)Inxdx.
4.3.26.x3 arc tan xdx.
\037
\037
\037
\037
\037
4.3.27.x2 arccasxdx.
\037
4.3.28.
Applying
the formula for multiple integration by
calculatethe following integrals:

(a)
(3X
parts.
2
2
dx.
+x-2)Sin
(3x+l)dX;(b) -7X+l
S 2x+
X
1)
4.4.ReductionFormulas
\037
Reduction formulas make it possible to reduce an integral dependon the index n > 0, calledthe order of the integral\037 to an
integral of the same type with a smaller index.
ing
4.4.t. Integrating
t he
lat ing
(a)
==
III
by
parts, derive reduction formulas for calcu..
integrals:
following
dx
x
a2)1l ;
5 (2+
(b) In
'cos
-
==
sinn x
m x
dx;
(C)
In=\037(a2-x2)ndx.
Solution.(a) We integrate
u == 2
(x
by
parts. Let us put
+a2)n '
I
dv == dx,)
whence)
du==)
lIenee,
III
== 2 x 2
(x + a )'Z
-_
2n x dx
(x2
a2)lZ+
,)
v=x.)
X2
+ 2n 5 (x2 + a2)'l+1dx ==
x
(x2 + a2
-t-\"\"n
C)
)1Z
whence)
In + J
===
(x2+a2)-a2 _ x
5 (x2 +a2)rl+ dx (x2 +a2)1l + 2nln
1
2n
. a2 I .
. x
2na:!. (x2 i-a 2 + 2n
\037
\037
n)))
)\"
2na2In+t.
Ch. IV.
212)
Integrals)
Indefinite
The obtained formula reduces the calculationof the integral 1n+1

calculationof the integral In and, consequently,allows us
to calculatecompletely an integral with a natural index,since
to the
dx
C.
11 ==S x 2+
a2 =-arctan--ta
X
a)
n ==
For instance, putting
1,we obtain
==/2== \\ (0)+
a 2rl 2a x2+ a 2
x'\"
== 2, we get
putt ing n
dx
2'
_\037.
4a2
to
J--S
3
dx
+-211=2\037
+
I
2a
2a
a\"2+2a3
=-2'(2+ +-
3
x
8a 4- x 2+ a 2
4a
a)
2-
__\037/(x2+a2)2t 4a2
(x2+a2)3
arctan-+C;
a2)2
x
+ 83a arctan-+C.
&
(b) Let us apply the method of integration by parts,

sin x
U = sinn 1 x; dv ==
cosm X dX
a)
putting
\302\267
')
whence
n -2
xcosxdx;V==( m-l)cosm-1x
du==(n-l)sin
(m
I
Hence,
1n,
- xdx =
n-I
1
m-I S cosm(m-l)cos
sinn-Ix
n-I
(m-l)cos -1 m-l n-2,2-m)
-m ==
sin n
Sin n 2
2X
X)
(c) Integrateby parts,

\\\\'hence)
---I
_x2)n;
(nl
=1=
1).)
dv ==dx,)
du=-2nx(a2-x2)n- 1 dx;
Hence
1).
putting
u == (a2
In = X (a
=1=
v==x.)
_x2)n+ 2n x2 (a2 _x2)n-ldx =

=x(a2-x2t+2n(x2-a2+a2)(a2-x2)n-ldx=
==x (a2 _x2)n_ 2n/n + 2na2f
n-l'
\037
\037
Wherefrom, reducingthe similar terms, we obtain

(1+ 2n) J n = X (a2 _x2)n+ 2na2f n-l')
Hence,)
Jn
= x (a2n2-x2)n+ 2n2na 21 1n
-1')))
4.4. Reduction
\037
F or
213)
Formulas)
instance, not ing that
J 1/2 =
we can
fin
dx
5 V a2_ x2
= arc sin 3a + C,
successively
11/2=SVa2-x2dx=(a2 -x2)1/2+ 1-1/2=
a2
x
=-2 V a -x +-arcsin-+C
2
X
13/2 = 5 (a _x )3/2dx=
2
\037
4.4.2.Applying
t ion
formulas:
a'
\037
\037
(a
_x )3/2+
/ 1/2. and
a2
\037
so on.
integration by parts, derive the following reduc-
n1n_l;
In= (Inxrdx=x(lnx)nx +1 (In x)n
n
(b) In== S X (lnx)ndx== a+1
a+l/n -1 (a=#=-l);
(c) In= xnexdx=xnex-nln_l;
n
(d ) 1n = ea.xsin X dx
. n -1X (aSlnx-ncosx
.
n (n
1)
_ -:x- 2 SIn
) + a 2+ ' 1n -)2.
a +n
(a)
\037
\037
\037
,==
efJ.X
n'--
4.4.3.Derive
= C sIn
J
.d\037
the reduction formula for the integration of In==

and use it for calculatingthe integral 13== SIn' x
5
.d\037
4.4.4.Derive the
(a)
(c)
In=
1n ==
\037
reduction formulas for the following integrals:

tannxdx; (b) In= cotnxdx;
\037
xndx
5 yx2 +
a)))
Chapter5)
BASIC CLASSES
OF
\037
FUNCTIONS)
INTEGRABLE
5.1.Integrationof RationalFunctions
If the denominator Q (x) of the
be represented in
proper rational fraction

the following way:
...
can
\037
\037;\037
...,
2
Q (x) = (x-a)k(X-b)l
(x
P)' (x2 +1'x+f.1)S
where the binomials and trinomials are different and, furthermore,
the trinomials have no real roots,the.n
+ax+
P (x) =
Q (x)
Al
A2
Ak
x-a + (x-a)2+ + (x-a)k+

81
8
8,
+ xb+(x-b)2+\" '+(X-b)l+\".
\302\267
...
...,l'
\302\267
\302\267
M 1x+Nt
+ (x2+ax+\037)2 +
+ x2+ax+\037
R2X+L2
+ x2Rtx+Ll
+yx+Jl+ (x2 +YX+Jl)2
where
l'
M2\037+N2
\"', l' l'
..
+..
...,l'
\302\267
M,x+N, +
+ (x2+ax+\037)r
+ (x2Rsx+Ls
+yx+l-t)s
\302\267
+....,
..
B B2'
M N M 2' N 2'
A 2'
R Ll' R 2J L2'
A
are some real constants to be determined.They are determined by
reducing both sides of the above identity to integral form and
then equating the coefficients at equal powers of x, which gives
a system of linear equations with respect to the coefficients. (This
A system
method is calledthe method of comparison of coefficients.)
of equations for the coefficients can also be obtained by substitut ing suitably chosen numerical values of x into both sides of the
identity. (This method is calledthe method of particular values.)
A successfulcombination of the indicated methods, prompted by
often allows us to simplify the processof finding the
experience,
coefficients.
is imp-roper,the integral part should
If the rational fract ion
\037
Mrst
be singled out.)))
\037;\037
\302\267
5.J. Integratioli
\037
5.1.1.)
of Rational
215)
Functions)
I5x2-4x-BI dx.
I ==5 (x-3)
(x+4)(x-I)
Solution.The integrand is a proper rational fraction. Since all

roots of the denominator are real and simple,the integral will
appear in the form of the sum of three simple fractions of the form
D
A
B
15x2 -4x-BI
(x-3)(x-r-4)(x-I)= x-3+ x+4+ x-I'
where A, B, D are the coefficients to be determined.Reducing the

fractions to a common denominator and then reject
ing it, we obtain
the identity
-4x-81=A (x+4)(x-I)+B(x-3)(x-I)+
15x2
+D(x-3)(x+4).(*)
Comparing the coefficients at equal powers of x in both sides of

the identity, we get a system of equations for determining the
coefficients)
15; 3A-4B+D==-4; -4A+3B-12D==-81.

A+B+D:-=:
Solving the system of equations we find A ==3, B ==5, D 7.
=-=
Hence,)
\037=
1==3S \037+5
x-3 .)r \037+
x+4 7 S x-I
== 3 In x
I
-31+
+ 7 In x I + C ==
== In l (X-3)3
C.
(x..t-.
4)a (x--l)71-+-
5 In x -{-4
Note. Let us use the same exampleto demonstrate the application of the method of particular values.
The identity (*) is true for any value of x. Therefore, setting
three arbitrary particular values, we obtain three equations for
determining the three undetermined coefficients. It is most conveto chooset he roots of the denominator as the values of x,
nient
since they nullify some factors. Putting x== 3 in the identity (*),
we obta in B 5; and putt ing x -=
we get A ==3; put t ing x ==
==
D
7
we get
x4 dx
== C
J (2+x)
2
J ==
x
x dx.
5 XL;;-3X2\0373\037Solution.Since the power of the numerator is higher than that
of the denominator,
the fract ion is improper, we have to single
out the integral part. Dividing the numerator by the denominator,)))
-4,
I
5.1.2.
5.1.3.
'
(x2-1)
-x'-
i.e.
===
1,
Ch.
216)
V.
BasicClassesof
we obtain)
Integrable
Functions)
- 1-
2
-3x
x+2
-3x-2__X +
X3-x2-2x
x(x2-x-2)
Hence,
2-3X-2
(x+2)dx '
1=S X4-3X
3 -x2-2x dx= S (x+l)dxS x(x-2)(x+I)
x4
')
Expand the remaining proper fraction into simple ones:

B
D
A
x+2
=-X+x-2+ x+I
x(x-2)(x+I)
')
Hence)
x+ 2 = A (x-2)(x+1)+ Bx (x+1)+Dx (x-2).

Substituting in turn the values Xl ==0, x 2 == 2, x 3 =
(the
sidesof
of the denominator) into both
A=-l;
And
-I
roots
the equality, we obtain
B=\"3; D==a')
so
\037-\037\037.=
1==S (x+l )dx+S dxx -\037
3 S x-2 3 S x+
2
x2
1n x+ 11
+C.
=T+ x + In X 3 1n x-21-3
I
1-
.1.4.I=
dx.
-3:+3
-f-x
S x2:-2x
Solution.Herethe integrand is a proper rational fraction,

denominator roots are real but some of them are multiple:
x 3 _2X2 .t- X
= x (x --1)2.
Hence,the expansioninto partial

A
2X2-3x+3
3
2
x
\\\\Thence
\\\\rhose
fractions has the form

D
-2x+x=7-1-(X-l)2+ x-l'
we get the identity:
2X2-3x
+ 3 == A (x-1)2+ Bx-t-Dx2(x-I)==
==-=(A+D)x+(-2A-D+B)x+A. (*)
Equat ing the coefficients at equal powers of x we get a system
of equat ions for determining the coefficients A, B, D:
A ==3.
A + D ==2; -2A D + B =
Whence A = 3; B == 2; D ==
Thus,
--1.
-3;
dx
J=3S dXx +2 S (X-l)2
xxJ\\\037=3Inlxl-\037-lnlx-ll+C.
1
1)))
5.1.Integration
\037
Functions)
ot Rational
217)
Note. The coefficients can be determined in a somewhat simpler
the identity (*) we put Xl 0; X 2 == 1 (the denominator

X 3 equal to any arbitrary value.
At x
0 we get 3 ==A; at X 1 we will have 2 == B; at X == 2
we obtain 5 A + 2B + 2D; 5 ==3 + 4 + 2D; whence D =-=
way
in
if
===
roots), and
-1.
=--=
===
===
X3+ dx.
5.1.5.1==
S x(x-l):J
5.t 6 I ==S x3xdx
+ .
J
\302\267
\302\267
-x+
Solution.Since x 3 + 1 == (x+ 1)(x2

1) (the second factor is
not expanded into real multipliersof the first power), the expan-
sion of the given fraction will have the form

x3
Hence,
x == A (x2
A
x
Bx+ D
+1= x+1+ x2-x+l
')
+ (Bx+ D) (x -t- I) == 2
== (A + B) x + (-A + B + D) x + (A + D).
x -t- 1)
Equating the coefficients at equal powers of x, we get

I
A==-3'; 8==3'; D==3')

Thus,
+
1==-3S x+J +TS x2_x+l
dx:=:-Tlnlx+l
.+3'/1'
dx
To calculatet he integral
11==S x2X+
-xI,T-
let us
dx
take the perfect square out of the denominator:
-x+1 = (x --}r + ;
and make the substitution x- = t. Then
x2
\037
/1 r
\037
t::;;
= -}In
Returning to
dt
(t +
2
=r
t2t:\037
4
) + V3\" arc
x, we obtain
+;
tan
=
\\
0.1
t2:\037
4
;3+ C.
11==\"2 In (x2 -x+1)+ V 3 arctan2x-l

V3 +C.)))
I
Ch. V. BasicClac;ses
of
218)
Functions)
Integrable
Thus,
I=S
X3\037
dx =
I
=-T1nlx+ 11+6
1
5.1.7.I = S (x2 +
In
(x
- +C.
Y3
-x+I)+\037arctan
yT
2x
\302\267
1\037\037X2+4)
Solution.The denominator has

complex
pairs of different conjugate
two
roots,therefore
Ax+ B Dx+E
+ 1)(x2 +4) = x2 + + x2+4
1
(x2
')
hence)
1 == (Ax
+ B)(x2 + 4) + (Dx+ E) (x2 + 1).
Hereit is convenient to apply the method of part icular values for

determining the coefficients, since the complexroots of the deno-
minator (x == + i and x == + 2i) are sufficiently

Putt ing x == we obta in
i,
whence
=0, B= .
whence D ==0, E ==
38+3Ai == 1,
-3'
\037
x=2i,we obtain -3E-6Di=

I,
Putting
Thus,
dx
= 3S x2dX+
3'S x2 +4 =
dX
S (x2 + 1)(x2+4)
= 3arc tan x-6 arctan x + c.

I
simple.
\"2
(x + 1)dx
(x2
'
/
5.1.8.
S (x2+x+2) +4x+5)
3 + Ilx2 + 12x+8
5.1.9.I _ J x 4(x+4x
2 2x-t-3)2
+
(x+ l) dx.
\\
Solution. Herewe already have multiple

the fraction into partial fractions:
complexroots.Expand
+llx2 +12x+8 2Ax+B + Dx+E + F '

+2x+3)2(x+l)(x +2x+3)2 x2+2x+3 x+l
x 4 +4x3
(x2
- 1;
Find the coefficients:

A = 1; B ==
Hence,
+24x + 11 + 12x+8 dx =
/ = 5 X4 (x
+2x+3)2(x+I)
3
D == 0; E = 0; F == 1.)
x2
x-I
dx
5 (x2+2x+3)2dx+5 x+l =In x+ 11-f-/t.)))

\\
5.2.Integration
\037
Calculate/1=
S (X2+x;:\0373)2
1 ==
-\037-
t. Then we obtain
t
\037
/1
(t2
=..\037
-+
The integra
is
dt
2)2
r
J
(t
+2)2 dt
I)
219)
Expressions
dx.
Since x +2x+3=(x+
1)2+2,let
2
of Certain Irrational
substitution
us make the
dt
S (/2 +2)2
2/2,
2 (12 2)
tIt
tit
dt
tie
/2 = S (t2 + 2)2
calculated by the reduction formula (see Problem 4.4.1):

J2 =
Thus
T /2 +2 + T J /2 +2 = 4\" (2+2 + 4 Y2 arctan y 2 + c.

1
/1=
x, we obtain
I
2 (x2
+ 2x+3)
x+l
2Y2arctanY2 +C.
I
2 (x2 +2x+3) 2 Y2
arc tan
x+1-+C.
y2
obtain
finally
J= S
1
/1=-2(/2+2)
2(/2+2)
Returning to
We
dt
4 +4X3 +IIX2
2
(x
+12X+8
+2x+3)2 (x+1) dx =
x+2
=In x+l 2(X2+2X+3)
I
Find the following
-2Y2
arctanx+ I-+ C
Y2
\302\267
integrals:
+9x32 -22x-8dx
5.1.10 S x 4x
5.1.11.
(X+3)3
S(x+I)
5.1.12.
S (X2-4X+4:\037X2_4X+5)
5.1.13.
S (I +x)(I
(I +x3)
dx.)
5.1 14. S (x +x3+3
1) (x2 + 1)
5X3
\302\267
\302\267
\302\267
(X\037\037)2
\302\267
\302\267
\037:2)
\302\267
\037
5.2.Integrationof CertainIrrationalExpressions
Certain types of integrals of algebraicirrational expressionscan

be reduced to integralsof rational functions by an appropriatechange
of the variable.Such transformation of an integral is calledits rationalization.)))
Ch. V. BasicClassesof
220)
I. If
Functions)
Integrable
the integrand is a rational function of fractional powersof
...,;,:
i.
an independent variable x,
e. the function R (x, ;;\"
),
then the integral can be rationalized by the substitution x== t m ,
where m is the least common multiple of the numbers qt, q2'
qk'
II. If the integrand is a rational function of x and fractionaJ
powers of a linear fractional function of the form ;:t\037 then rationalization of the integral is effected by the substitution
= t m , where m has the same senseas above.
\302\267
\302\267
\"
\037;t\037
5.2.1.1=r x+V x2 +
dx.
J x(I+V\037)
V\037
Solution.The least common multiple of the numbers 3 and 6 is

therefore we make the substitution:
x ==t 6,
whence
===
t 4 + t)
6 (16t+
6
t
tl>
(l -t- 2)
dt
dx 6t dt
I>
==.;
,)
+/3+2 dt =
+t
3
= 6 5 t dt + 6 5
=6
tl>
t2\037 I
Returning to
6,
t4
\037
+ 6 arctant + C.
x, we obtain
1=; x3+6arctanVx+C.
2
5.2.2.1= yx+
i v--v-dx.
V\037
x7
xl>
5.2.3.J ==
(2x-3) dx .
(2x-3)3 +
\037
\037
Solution.The integrand is a rational function

6
refore we
put
2x-3= t , whence)
dx = 3tl> dt;)
Hence,
J
=5
t2\037
1dt
=3
5 (t6
(2x-3)2= t 3 (2x
;)
-+t4
t2
1)dt -I-3 5 I
7
of
V2x-3,the-
3) 3 ==t 2
t2
.)
t
t3
-35+33-3t+3
=37
arc tan t +C.)))
tl>
\037
\037
5.2.Integration
Returning to
of Certain Irrational
221)
Expressions
x, we get
-5(2x-3) 3(2x-3) -
2.
1==3I\"7I (2x-3) 6
\037
\037I
6
Ii-+ arc tan

+ C.
-(2x-3)
(2x-3f\037]
5.2.4.
I=
\302\267
Sx ( 2+ V\037)
-;,
2
2-x
1= S (2 -X)2
5.2.5.
V 2+x dx.
\037
Solution.The integrand is
pression V ;+
a rational function of
x= 2-2t
l+t3
3
Hence)
\302\267
ex-
--x
;)
2-x= t 3
2+x
4(3
x == I +
(3
')
-+
2
dx == (1 12t
dt.)
3
t )2
;)
3 (.12t 2
3
3 dt
)2
1==-S 2 (I16t+6 t(I+t
+ C.
3
)2 df=-2S 'j3=4t 2
Returning to
5.26. I
the
therefore let us introduce the substitution)
V 2+x==t;)
whence)
x and
x, we
-S V 4
(x
get
2
==\037
dx
1)3(x
2+X
V( 2-x) +c.
+2)5
\302\267
Solution.Since
=(x-l)(x+2)V
V (x-l)3(x+2)\037
the integrand is a rational function of x and
us introduce the substitution:
:\037\037
V-:+
\037;
x- = t 4
V X+2
x- -_ t., x+2
I
whence)
+2 ;
x= tt 44_1
3
x-l=t4_1
;
dx =
12t:i
(/4-1)2
dt.)))
')
x+2=t 43t_1;
therefore let
Ch.
222)
V.
BasicClassesof
Hence,)
12t dt
I) (/4-1)
=
1== 5 (144t (t 4 1)2
3.3t
Returning to
dx
5.2.7.
_____
j (I-x)VI-x2 '
/1
\037
\037
5 t2
= 3t + c
\037
\302\267
x, we obtain
X- l
5.2.8.
Functions)
Integrable
1=3V x+2+C.
dx
V (x+ 1)2(x -1)4
\\
\037
\302\267
-./1+xdx
5.2.9.
S (x-2) JI l_x
.)
* 5.3.Euler'sSubstitutions
caIculatedwith
Integralsof the form \037R(x.Vax2+bx+c)dxare
the aid of one of t he three Euler substitutions:
(1)V ax2 -1--bx + c == t + x V a
(2) V ax + bx + c= tx + V c
2
if
if
> 0;
c > 0;
a
Vax +bx+c=(x-a)tif
ax2 + bx + c = a (x-a)(xi.e.if a is a real root of the trinomial ax2 + bx + c.
(3)
\037),
5.3.1.
I = + V xdx2 +2x +2
s
\302\267
Solution.Herea =
> 0, therefore we make the

Vx2 + 2x-t-2 =
t-x.
substitution
Squaringboth sides of this equality and reducingthe similar terms,
we
get)
2
-2,)
2x+2tx=t
whence)
t +2/+2
x = 2t(l -2
+t) ; dx = 2 (1+ t) 2 dt;
2
+ Vx2 + 9_x
_'._
2 ._ 1 + t
_ 2t(I2-+2t) _ t 22+(I4/++t)4
Substitutinginto the integral,we obtain
2t
dt
2 (I + t) (t2 +2/+ 2)
dt = (t2 + + 2)
1= 5 (t2+
4t +4) 2 (1+t)2
5 (1+1)(t +2)2
.)))
\302\267
5.3.Euler'sSubstitutions)
\037
obtained proper rational fraction into par-
Now let us expand the

tial fractions:)
+2t+2
+ I) (t +2)2
t2
(t
Applying
B ==0, D ==
Hence,
t2
-2.
223)
B
D
A
+ + I +2 + (1+2)2
\302\267
the method of undetermined coefficients we find:
+2t -f-2
dt
dt
2
5 (t+I)(t-i-2)2dt 5 t+i 5 (t+2)2 In
Returning to x, we get
x2+2x+2)+x +2
1=ln(x+l+V
==
dx
/ ==
5.3.2.
.
5 x+ y x 2 --x-r-
lt+l/+
A ==
I,
x 2 + 2x+ 2
+2 +C.
+C.
Solution.Since here c == 1 > 0, we can apply the second Euler
substitution)
V x2
whence)
-x+1
==
tx-I,)
2t-l) x==( -I) x .,
dx= - (t2
t2
[2
t _L
-I'r\037
dt;
/, we obtain
Substituting into
x= 2tt 2
--I.'
i
t
x+ Vx2 -x+1 == 1-
an integral of a rational
-1
By the method of undetermined coefficients we
Hence
dt
dt
/=2 5 7-\"2
t_I
5
find
133
=
5 (t+I)2-'25 t+l
1-2 - + t+ -2
3
dt
== 2 In J t
where
\302\267
3
B=-2; D==-3; E=-2-)
1
A:==2;
Yx 2
fraction:
-2t2+2t-2
--x + = s t (t I) (t + I)2 dt ,
5
-2t +2t-2= A + B + D + E
t (t
I) (t + 1)2 T t
(t + 1)2 t +
dx
x -1-Yx 2
2
\302\267
1n t
j
-x+
+ .
x
I
dx
5.3.3.
/=
.
S (l+x) Yl+x-x
2)))
dt
1J
In
+ I1-t--C,
Ch.
224)
V.
BasicClastesof I ntegrable
Functions)
x dx
.
5.3 4 I ==S ( ..r
10_X2)3
7xr
\302\267
\302\267
Solution.In this casea < 0 and c < 0 therefore neither the
first,
But the quadratic

second Euler substitution is app1icable.
2 has real roots a==
trinomial
2, == 5, therefore we
use the third Euler substit ution:
nor the
7x-lO-x
\037
V7x-lO-x2 == V(x-2)(5-x)==(x-2)t.)
Whence)
5-x==(x-2)t 2;
5+2t22 ; dx = 6t dt 2 ;
X=
+t
(1-r-t 2)
2t
(x-2)t=( 5+
l+t2
Hence
I=
where
2(2
dt
-_ Y7x-IO-x
x- '
2\037
5\0372
2 t==
3t
')
:-
l+f\037
s + 2 ) dt = C\037
\037
+ 2t ) + c,
Calculate the following integrals with the aid of one of the Euler
substit ut ions:
5.3.5.
r X\037:2X+4
S x-..r
\302\267
5.3.6.
r 1\037:2-1
S ..r
5.3.7.
r
S ..r
\302\267
\302\267
(2X\037X2)3
5.3.8.(x+YY ++X2)lD
dx.
x
I
t-
\037
\\
2)
5.4.Other Methodsof Integrating

IrrationalExpressions
The Euler substitutions often lead to rather cumbersomecalcu-
lations, therefore they should be applied only when it is difficult

to find another method for calculatinga given integral. For (alculating many integrals of the form
R(x, V'ax2 +bx+c)dx,
\037
simpler methods are used.
I. Integralsof
the form
I=
M x -t- N
S Yax2 +bx+c)))
dx
5.4.Methods
\037
I rrational
of Integrating
are reduced by the substitution x +
I ---M 1
t dt
Yat 2+K
:a= t
225)
Expressions
to the form
+ N 1S Vat dt2+K'
where Ml' N 1, K are new coefficients.

The first integral is reduced to the integral of a power function,
while the second, being a tabular one, is reduced to a logarithm
0, K 0).
(for a > 0) or to an arc sine (for a
I I. Integralsof the form

dX,
Vax2+bx+c
where Pm (x) is a polynomial of degree m, are calculatedby the

reduction formula:
Pm
=P _ 1 (x)Vax2 +bx+c+KrVax 2 dx
J
+bx+c ,(1)
(x)dx
S JI ax2+bx+c
m-l,
and K is some
where Pm -1(x) is a polynomial of degree
constant number.
The coefficients of the polynomial Pm -1(x) and the constant
number K are determined by the method of undetermined coefficient s.
III. Integralsof the form)
+bx +c
S(X-al)m
v::\037
are reduced to the precedingtype
by
the substitution
1
x-a1=T')
IV. For trigonometric and
hyperbolic substitutions see
\037
5.7.
(x+3)
s y 4x2 + 4x-3.
5.4.t. I ==
dx
Solution.Make the substitution 2x+1 = t, whence

t
---I
x=\037,
Hence,)
I= 4
(t
\037
SY
Returning t o
+5) dt =
-+
4 V [2
\037
r\037---4
dX=2dt.)
\037
In
-+
+ V[2
41
C.
x, we get
I =\037 V4x2 +4x-3+ Inj2x+1 + V4x2 +4x-31+c.)))

\037
Ch,
226)
BasicClassesot
V.
F uncttons)
Integrable
4
5.4.2.1= 5 V x25x+
dx.
2x
+ +5
5.4.3./ = 5 Vx3-x-1
dx.
x 2 +2x+
2
-x-l.
Hence,
=
D.
3
Solution.HerePm(x)==x
Pm
VVe
-1(x)
AX2
+ Bx+
seek the integral in th e form

I == (Ax 2 -1-Bx+ D)Vx2 -t- 2x + 2 + K
dx
5 V x2+2x+2
Differentiat ing this equality, we obtain
-x-1 =
/'= Yx2+2x+2
x3
= (2Ax+B) V x2+2x+2+(Ax2
+Bx+D)
X+ I
V x 2 2x 2
+ + +
K
+ Yx 2 +2x+
2
Reduce to a common denominator and equate the numerators

1 == (2Ax + B) (x2 -t- 2x + 2) + (Ax 2 + Bx-t- D) (x -1-1)+ K.
x3
Equating the coefficients at equal powers of x, we get the following
system of equations:
2A +A == I,
B +4A +B+ A ==0;
-x-
2B+4A+D+B==-I; 2B+D+K==-I.
Solving the system, we obtain

A
Thus,)
/=
(f
1
5
=3\"; B = --6-; D=6';
x2
\037
x+
\037
x2 + 2x+ 2 +
)V
K =2')
;5V
X2
+d;x+2
where)
=
/1= Jr V x2+2x+
2
dx
dx
= In (x + I + V x2 + 2x+ 2) + C.
5 V (x+1)2+1
5.4.4./ = S V4X2-4x+ 3 dx.
Solution.Transform the integral to the
for m
2
1=5 y .-4X2_4x+3
-4x+3+K
4x2-4x+3dx=(Ax+B)V-4x
dx
5 Y4x2-4x+3
\302\267)))
5.4. Methods
\037
the method of
- -{ V -
Applying
I= ( 2 x
1
= +
(
227)
Expressions
u ndetermined coefficients\037
dx
4x + 3 +
4x2
Irrational
of Integrating
S y.(2x-- + 2
we get
l)\037
x-{) V 4x -4x+3++
2
(2x-1-I-
In
4x2
-4x+3)-I-C.
5.4.5.S y9X3_3x2+2
dx.
3x2 -2x+
5.4.6.Vx2 -I-x-l1 dx.
I
\037
5.4.7.I==
(X+\037dX
S (x-I)(X+2)2
x2+x+1
Solution.Represent the given integral as follows:
x+4
(x+4)dx
S (x-I)(x+2r\037V x\037+x+l
Expand the fraction
(x-
x+4
dx
==,f (x-l)(X+2)2 V x2+x+l
\037t\037
\302\267
\302\267
into partial fractions
2)2
(x-I)(x+2)2x-I +(X+2)2 + x+2

Find the coefficients)
A
Hence,
-5 .
-9')
B=
-3; D= -g')
2
.
I--S [ (x-I)-3(x+2)2-9(x+2)
-Vx2+x+l5
'
=9
5
dx
dx
j (x-I)V X2+X+ -\"3

I
\\
tJ
dx
(x+2)2Yx2+X--1-1
5
dx
--9S (x+2)Y
the substitution x --I= +, the
\302\267
x\037+x+
The
first
integral is calculatedby
second and the third by the substitution x-l-2 = +.

We leave the solution to the reader.
Ilx-6 dx.
x3-6x2+
5.4.8.
S Yx 2 .+4x+3
dx.
5.4.9.S 3X;tSX2_7X+9
2x2 + 5x-r-7
5.4.10.
S (x+1)6..r +2x)))
\302\267
\037XX2
Ch.
228)
V.
BasicClassesof
5.4.t 1.5(X2-3X+2\037 ...r2 4x+3

r
.
5.4.12.
::+3X+2
J (x+1)3)1
I) dx
.
5.4.13.
5 x VI +3x2 +X
:XX
(X2
Functions)
Integrable
\302\267
4)
\037
5.5.Integrationof a BinomialDifferential
xm (a + bxn)p dx, wh ere m, n, p are

bers, is expressed
through elementary functions only
ing three cases:
The integral
\037
rational numthe follow-
in
Case I. p is an integer.Then,
if p > 0,the integrand is expanded

the
Newton
the
of
formula
binomial; but if p < 0, then we
by
k
put x==t , where k is the common denominator of the fractions m
and n.
r
is an integer. We put a+bxn==t
Case II. m+1
\\ where ex is
n
the denominator of the fraction p.
I
Case III. m +
+ p is an integer.We put a + bxn == ta.x n , where (1,
n
is the denominator of the fraction
p.
x
5.5.1.
I=\037 V {2+V)2dx.
X
Solution. 1= x+ (2+X-}rdx.Herep = 2,
i.e.an integer; hence,
\037
we have Case I.)
4
5
1=S x3( x+4x2+4) dx= S ( x3+4x6+4x3) dx=
3
= 3 x2x + 3x 3 + c.)
+ 24!.!.
l
\037
()
IT
7\"
5.5.2.1=S x-+(l+X\037f1dx.
5.5.3.I = r-v 1+Vx dx.
J
VXi
Solution. 1= S x
2
\037
(1+ x+ )+dx.
m=-3;n=3\";P=2;
Here
- - ;+ ) =1, i.e.
m+ 1 _ (
n
3)
integer.)))
an
5.5.Integration
\037
We
of
Binomial
229)
Differential)
have Case II. Let us make the substitution)
-2
+x3 = t 2
1
3'x 3 dx = 2t dt.)
I
;)
Hence,)
1= 6 S 12 dt = 2t 3 + C = 2 (1+ x-}) + C.
5.5.4.
1=SX+(2+X
\037
)+dX.
5.5.5.1= S (l+x2 ) dx.

5.5.6.1= Sx-u (l+x4 )-+dx.
\037
x&
. Here p ==
SaIu t ton.
a fraction,
but
Case III. We
-2I.IS
t.
--} -
a f rac lon,
m+ 1 == -11+ 1 =
4
5
\"2
a ]so
= 3 is an integer,i.e.we have
+p=
4
2
4
== x t . Hence
put 1 + x
t dt
x=
; dx==
5
2(t2-1)4
(t2-1)4
I
m\037-
\037
\302\267
Substituting these expressionsinto the integral,we obtain

C2\0371 )-+
1=-+S(t2-1)\302\245
(t 2
ldly\"'
-1)
4
2
= -\037
2 S (t
-1)2dt =
Returning to x, we get
\037+\037_1.+C.
10 3
2)
1=- 10:
V(1+X4)3_ 1/1+x4 +C.
10 V(1+ x4)&+
f'
+ Vx
3\0376
5.5.7. }/y_x
I
dx.
\\
t.I
5.5.8.
Sx
(I+dVx )'
5.5.9.S x3 (1+ x2 dx.
\302\267
f2\"
v-+ .
r
5.5.10.,
J
x4
dx
1
x\037)))
2\0372
Ch.
230)
BasicClassesof
V.
Functions)
Integrable
5.5.11.Vx V I + V x'dx.)
\037
dx
5.5.12.)
\\
')
Jx3VI+
\037
\037
and Hyperbolic
5.6.Integration
of Trigonometric
Functions
I. Integralsof
the form
I=
\037
n
sinm xcos
xdx,
where m and n are rational numbers, are reduced to the integral

of the binomial differential)
n-l
I=
tm
\037
(l-t)z-dt,
2
= sin x
and are, therefore, integrated in elementary functions only

following three cases:
(l)
(2) m
is odd
is odd
an
( mt
the
integer).
an
m
in
integer),
-t- I
fl-
(3) m + n is even ( \037+ \037 an integer )

If n is an odd number, the substitution sin x = t is applied.
If m is an odd number, the substitution cosx = t is applied.
the sum m + n is an even number, use the substitution
If
tanx=t(or cotx=t).
In particular,this kind of substitution is convenient for integrals
of the form)
tan n xdx (or cot n xdx) ,
\037
\037
where n is a positive integer.But the last substitution is inconvenient if both m and n are positive numbers. If m and n are nonnegative even numbers, then it appears more convenient to use the
method of reducing the power with the aid of trigonometric transformations:
cos2 x = + (I + cas2x), sin2 x =
or
.
.
SJnxcosx
=2'sln2x.
1
5.6.1.1=S
sin3 x
cos.2
dx.
X)))
\037
(I-cas2x)
\037
5.6.Integration
Solution. Here m==3
sin xdx==
217
of Trigonom. and Hyperbolic
odd number.
is an
dt, which gives
Funct's
We
231)
cosx==t,
put
1=-S(l-t)t-T dt=-3{3+ ; t T +c:::::;

2
= 3 V casx + cos2
(
dx.
x-1) + C.
5.6.2.
I= 5
5.6.3.
I = sin4 xcas6 xdx.
:\037\037:\037
\037
Solution.Hereboth
m and n are positive even numbers. Let

use the method of reducing the power:
UIS
I = /6 5 (2 sin xcasX)4 cas2 xdx = 32 S sin 4 2x(1 + cas2x) dx = 11+ 12,

1
calculatedby
The secondof the obtained integrals is
tion:
I2
We
sin 2x= t, cas2xdx=

I
32 S
. 4 2x cos2xdx
sin
again apply to the
-5 \037
dt,
5
\037
320sin 2x +
integral the method of reducingthe
64
first
\037
the substitu-
t 4 dt
320+ C
\037
\302\267
power:
dx=
11= 3'2 5 sin4 2x dx = 5 (l-cas4x)2
= (x-+sin4X) + S (1+cas8x)dx=
= x-2;6sin 4x+ 2d48sin 8x+ C.)
And so,finally,
. 5 2x+ 0
3
I == 256
x 256sin 4x + 2048sin 8x + 320Sin
1\0378
2\0376
1\0378
I.
2\0376
- I.
\302\267)
5 .6.4.I == cos6 dx.

5
Solution.Hereboth m and n
is negative.Therefore, we put
sin2
x)
tanx=t.
, cos2 x
I
are even numbers, but
one of them
.
- + 'COS2
=dt.
1
dx
t2
X)
Hence,
1= t2(I+t2)dt=+ +C=
\037
t\037
t\037
ta\0373x
ta\0375x
+C.)))
Ch.
232)
565
\302\267
\302\267
BasicClassesof
V.
Functions)
Integrable
I == 5 C?S4
x.
SIn 2 x d
X
\302\267
Solution.Herewe can put cot x== t'l

by expansion:
dx=
J==5 (l-.si\0372X)2
SIn x
5( .Ie
SIn x
2 +Sin2 x
is simplerto integrate
it
but
) dx===
= -cotx-2x+
dx=
-}S (l-cos2x)
=_
(cotx+
+ 3;)+ C.)
Si\0372X
5.6.6.1=5
5 6.7
e
/=
co\037:
'
dx
Sv
sin ll x
cosx
Solution.Hereboth exponents(
num b
\342\202\254rs
fore we
an d
th
put)
S cos4 x V tan!!x
=S
(t + t
\037
\037
cos?
+ t 2 dt
===
S V t ll
13
5.6.8.Find the
\037
=dt.
x
tanx== t;
J=
Ii and
) are negative
4 IS an even num ber, th ere-
-3-3=11
etr sum
dx
) dt =
- - - ; - + c=
t
\037
\037
\037
__ 83(l+4ta\037+C.
integrals of tan x and cot x.
Solution.)
tan 2 x Vtan2
sin x
xdx 5 cos
dx == In cosx 1-1-c;
x
x =
cot x dx = C?S
dx In sin x + C.
SIn
x
S
5
5.6.9.I == ,.tan? xdx.
Solution.We put tanx==t,x==arctant;dX= dt 2 '
1+t
=
=
t
J = t' I
t3+ t
dt
[2 5 (
I
[2)
5
= \037-\037+\037-J-.ln
=
6
4
2
2 ( 1 + t2 ) +c
tan
===
x)
\037
\037
==
We
get
\037
6\"
tan 6
x-Ttan
I
2
x+\"2tan x+ In cosx1+
I
c.)))
\037
5.6.Integration
5.6.to. (a) I = cot6 dx;

5.6.11.
. x dx.
/ = S COS4
sin 3 x
\037
raised to an odd power. Let us

sin x dx == dt.
casx = t,
We
is
obtain an integral of a rational
I == S
COS
4 x sin
sin 4 x
233)
(b) I = tan 3 xdx.)
\037
Solution.Heresin x
Funct's
dx ==
put
function.)
t4
S ( I _ t 2)2
dt.
Here,it is simpler to integrate by parts than to use the general

methods of integration of rational functions (cf. Problem 4.4.1
Let us put)
(b).
t dt
dv ==
2
)2
u == t 3
(l-t
;)
\302\267)
Then)
du=3t2 dt;
V=
')
2(1\037t3)
Hence,)
1=-2(I-t +2 S l-t =
t3
t2 dt
=-2(I-t2)+2\"S - + dt=
2
==
t3
t2
l-t\037
t3
3
3
+ +c=
-2t+Tln
I-t
-dx.
5.6.12./=
S
- -- + - -+
I
==
sin4 x
cosx
2(l_t2)
cos3 x
2 sin 2 x
3
2
3
4 In
cosx
cosx
cosx I
+C
\302\267)
I I. Integrals of the form

R (sin x, !.:Os
x) dx where R is a rational
function of sin x and casx are transformed into integrals of a rational
function by the substitution:
\037
tan(
This is
; )=t (-n<x<n).
so-calleduniversal substitution. In this
. x = 2t 2
sIn
I
t
+
casx = II-t
+
2
2
t
;)))
x = 2 arc tan
t;)
dX=
2dt
1+t2
')
case)
Ch.
234)
V.
BasicClassesof
Integrable
Functions)
=t
Sometimesinstead of the substitution tan
it
is more advan-
\037
tageous to make the substitution cot = t (0 < x < 2Jt).

Universalsubstitution often leadsto very cumbersomecalculations.
Indicatedbelow are the caseswhen the aim can be achieved with
the aid of simpler substitutions:
(a) if the equality
R(-sinx,cosx)==-R(sinx,cosx))
\037
or)
== -R(sinx,
R(sinx,-cosx)
cosx)
is satisfied, then
casx = t
(b)
if
it is more advantageous to apply the substitution

to the former equality, and sin x = t to the latter;
the equality
== R(sinx,cosx)
R(-sinx,-cosx)
is fulfilled, then a better effect is gained by substituting tan x ==t

or cot x = t.
The latter
form
\037
caseis encountered,for example,in integrals of

R (tan x)dx.
5.6.t 3.1= 5 sin x (2+C::x-2sin x)

Solution.Let
us
tan
put
\037
= t;
the
\302\267
then we have
t 2) dt
+t 2
= JC t(t(I2+
'
4t
-4t+3)
\037_ 2
2 2+ + t2
l+t (
l+t )
1=
2t
\037
Expand into simple fractions
l+t2
A
=
t-3 t-l
t(t-3)(t-l) t +\037+\037.
Find the coefficients

5
A=T; 8==3\"; D==-l.)

I
Hence
1=\037
3
dt
5t
+\037
3
\037-3 5 \037=
t-l
5t
=3'ln t 1+3 In
I
t-31-ln
It-II+ c =
={-lnltan 1+ Inltan -31-1nltan-ll+C.)))

\037
\037
\037
.. \037
5.6.Integration
1 5 5 + sin xdx+3 cosx dx

5.6.15.I = S sin. x (2 cos
2 x-I) '
Funct's
235)
5 6 14
\302\267
Solution. If
x-
the expression sin x cos2

we substitute
(2
1)
its
sin
fraction
then
will
x for x,
the
change sign. Hence,we
take advantage of the substitution t = cosx; dt = sin xdx. This
in
-sin
gi yes)
I = j (l-f\037)dt(2t2
Since)
\037
I)
\302\267)
2)
2
_ (2-2/2)-(1-2t
2
2
(I-t ) (I-2t) (l-t) (1-2t) 1-2t'2 1-/2'
I
then
dt
dt
r I-t
r I-2t
2
2=
1=2J
-J
+ +c=
Tln
I-t
l_tY2
1
In
Y2
+ t V2
= \037 In + V!cosx + 2 In +cosxx + c=

V2
V 2 cosx
= \037 In + cosx + In tan
I
\037
CQS
V\037
I-V2cosx
V2
+ C.
\037
2)
x cosx
5.6.16.
1= 5 sin x+
cosx dx.
\037in2
Solution.Sincethe integrand does not change sign when sin x

cosx do changetheir signs, we take advantage of the substi-
and
tution)
t
= tan x;)
dx
2 X)
\302\267
COS
Hence,)
dt
/2 dt
x.costSx dx
I 5 tan2
(tan x+ I) cos2 x
5 (/+ 1) (/2+ 1)2
\302\267
Expand into part ial fractions

12
(t -1-I) (t
\037
A
Bt+D Et+F
+ I)2 = / + + t 2+ + (t 2 + 1)2
I
\302\267
Find the coefficients

1
A=T;
8=-4; D=T;
I
Hence,)
1=45 t+I-45
I
dt
-+1
t
t2
dt
\302\243=2';
F=-2I
t
2
+25 (t +1)2dt
1
;)))
Ch.
236)
BasicClassesof
V.
Functions)
Integrable
1+t _
+t
I = ..!..
4 In V + t 2 4
+t 2 + C =
= {-Insin x+ cosxI-{-cosx
C.
(sinx+ cosx)+
56171= 5 sin 2tanx+3
2 x+2 cos2 x dx.
1
\037.
...
Solution.Dividing the numerator and denominator
substituting tan x = t;
cos x
d\037
3
1=5 sin 2 x+x+
2 cos2 x dx= j
2 tan
\037
==dt,
(2 tan
sin x
sIn x
+.
and
x+3) dx x
=
tan 2 x+2
cos\037
5.6.18.I = 5
cos2 x
we obtain
+3 dt = In (t 2 + 2) +
= (' 2t[2+2
J
by
arc tan
+c=
Y2
Y2
3
2
I n (t an x+ 2) +
arctantan x + C
Y2
Y2
\302\267)
dx.
Solution.This integral,of course,can be evaluated
with
the aid
; = t,
but
it is easierto get the
substitution tan
desired result by resorting to the following transformation of the
of the universal
integrand:
sin x
+ sin x
_ sinx(l-sinx)
-_ +sinx(l-sinx)
(1- =
(I
sin x)
sin x)
sin x
sin 2 x
cos2 X cos2 X
cos2 X
sin x
cos2 X
an 2 x.)
Whence
sin x
2
I == j cos
2 x dx-5 sec xdx+5 dx= cosx -tanx+x+C.
r)
5.6.19.1=
5 cos4 x sIn. 2 x dx.
1
Solution.Here the substitution tan x == t can be applied, but it

is simpler to transform the integrand.Replacing,in the numerator,
unity
by the trigonometric identity raised to the secondpower, we
get)
cos
. 2x
I == 5 (sin2cosx+
4 x sIn
2
==
sin2
S cos4 x
dx -1-2
X)2
dX ==
dx
sin4
5
dx
5 cos2 x + 5 sin. 2 x
I
=\"3tan
3X
2
cos4 x
x+2 sin 42 x cos
. .) x+
CLS
==
sln\037
dX
dx
2
5 tan x cos-.)x + 2 tan x
+ 2 tan x-cc>tx+
C.)))
===
cot x ==
\037
5.7.Integrating
Irrational
Functions
Substitutions
by
237)
I. Integration
of hyperbolicfunctions.Funct ions rationally depending on hyperbolic functions are integrated in the same way as
I
trigonometric f unct ions.

Keep in mind the following basic formulas:
2 x=
cosh2 x-sinh
1; sinh 2 x=
\037
-1);
(cosh2x
cosh2 x = -}(cosh2x+1); sinh xcoshx = + sinh 2x.)

If
tanh
===
\"2
t, then sinh
x = _2tt'l
1
x=2Artanht=ln(:+\037)
5.6.20.I = cosh2 X dx.
+t 22 .'
.' coshx = 1t
I
(-I<t<1); dX=
1\037tt2
'
\037
Solution.
I = 5 -}(cosh
2x+1) dx=
5.6.21.
I=
sinh
\037
2x+-}x+C.)
cosh3 X dx.
Solution.Sincecoshx is raised to an odd power, we
\037
coshxdx===dt. We
obtain
put
sinhx==t;
I = 5 cosh2 x coshx dx = 5 (1+ t 2) dt = t + t:+ C =

= sinh x+ + sinh 3 x+ C.
5.6.22.
Find the
(a)
5 sinh2 x
cosh2
integrals:
x dx; (b) 5 sIn.
h;;
x
cosh x)
\302\267
with the
* 5.7.Integrationof CertainIrrationalFunctions
or Hyperbolic
Aid of Trigonometric
Substitutions
Integrationof functions rat ionally dependingon x and Vax2 + bx + c
can be reduced to
finding
integrals of one of the following
I. R (t,Vp2t 2 + q2) dt;

II. R (t, Vp2t 2 _q2) dt;
III. J R (t, V q2_p2t 2)
\037
\037
dt,)))
forms:)
Ch.
238)
where
BasicClassesof
V.
Functions)
Integrable
= x+ :a; ax2 +bx+c=+ p2t 2 ::f:q2 (singlingout
a perfect
square).
Integrals of the forms I to I II can be reduced to integrals of
expressionsrational with respect to sine or cosine(ordinary or hyperbolic)by means of the following substitutions:
I. t = !L
tan z
p
I I. t = !Lsec2
p
I I I . t = !Lsin z
p
= !Lsinh z.
or
or
t = .!Lcoshz.
p
t == .!Ltanh
or
z.
5.7.1.
1=..'Y (5+dx2x+ 2)3 .
\\
2
Solution. 5+2x+x
==4+(x+ 1)2. Let
IS
us
dx
= 2 tan Z',
dt
x+ 1 ==t. Then
JI(5+2x+X2)3 S (4+t 2)3'
We have obtained an integral of the form

the substitution:
t
put
dt
I. Let
us introduce
cos2 Z
' V4 + t 2 ==2 VI + tan 2 z == cos2 z .
tanz
2dz
\302\267
We get
J
=
\037
S
==
cosz dz =)
-.
I
sIn z +c
== 1
__
+C_
I
+ tan 2 z
4)
+ C-
4
Y 1+t2
x+
4 Jl5+2x+x\037)
5.7.2.I==S(x+1)2V::+2x+2
+ C.
\302\267
Solution.x2 + 2x+2 = (x+1)2+ 1.

Let us
put
x+ 1 =t; then
I--S
dt
t2
J1t2
+1'
Again we have an integral of the form

t = sinh z. Then
dt
= coshz dz;
Vt
I. Make the
substitution)))
+ I = VI +sinh2 z = coshz.)
5.7.Integrating
\037
Irrational
Functions
by
Substitutions
239)
Hence,)
I==
sinh\037
z coshz
s sinh 2 z ==-cothz+)C==
sinh 2 z
:C
+C=- Yx2+2x+2
+ c= yT+t2
t
sinh
x+ 1 T')
CCJshzdz
dz
z)
5.7.3.I
x2 Vx2
=\037.
-1dx.
5.7.4.I=S Y\0372+1
5.7.5.I =
\037
dx.
V(x2 -1)3dx.
Solution.Perform the substitution:

x ==cosht;
dx ==sinh
t dt.)
Hence)
sinh t dt = sinh4 t dt =
I=
t-l)3
2
=S
dt =
(
)
= 5 cosh2 2t dt -\037 cosh2t dt + {-S dt =
S
= S (cosh4t+l)dt-+sinh2t++t=
\037V(COSh2
COSh
\037
\037t
\037
\037
32 sinh 4t
\037
_J..
4 sinh 2t +
8')
\037
+C
Let us ret urn to x:)
t ==Arcosh == In
(x + Vx2
- -1;
- -1).)
1
);
cosht = 2x V-x 2
sinh 4t ==2 sinh 2t cosh2t ==4x x2 1 (2x2
sinh 2t ==2 sinh
\037/
Hence
1=+x (2x2 -1)Vx2 -I-\037xJ/x2

5.7.6.I = Jr ( + x x . '
I
v-\037xV
-1+ ;
In
(x + V' x2
-x\037
Solution.We make the substitution:

x ==sin2 t;
dx -== 2 sin t cast
dt)))
-1)+C.
Ch.
240)
V.
BasicClassesof
Function\037)
Integrable
and get
/=
2 sin t cost dt
(1 sin t) JI sin 2 t
-sin
=2
1-
4t
sin t
S cos2 t
dt
2 dt
+ sin t
= 2 tan
_ cos2 t + c =
2(VX-l)+C.
I-x+C=
y\037
I-x
\037
y'
l-x
5.7.7.I = V3-2x-x2 dx.

dx
5.7 .8. 1= r
.
\037
J (x2-2x+5)+)
\037
5.8.Integrationof Other TranscendentalFunctions)

5.8.1.1=S X2x dx.
in
Solution.We integrateby parts, putting)

u = In x;)
dx
dv=-'
x2
du=-;
x
v=--;
,)
dx
/ =_
5.8.2.I = S \037
5.8.3.I ==S (l +eXdxe2X)2
In x
+ S dxx2 = _ InXx _\037x + c.
In
\302\267
\302\245l-x
\302\267
Solution.l.etus put: eX = t;
eX
dx =
dt. We
get:)
1= S ( +t2)2 .
dt
App
ly
the reduction formula (see Problem 4.4.

t):)
t
r
1=/2=2(t2+1)
+2'J
1
dt
l+t\037
eX
t
I = 2 (t2+
arctant + C = 2 (1+e2X)
+ 2arctanex + C.)
I) +2
I
5.8.4.I = e- In (\037+ 1)
X
\037
dx.)))
5.8.Integration
\037
Solution.We integrate
of Other Transcendental
241)
Functions
by parts:)
u=ln(eX+l);dv=e-xdx;
eX
du =
+ex dx; V =- e- ;
X
dx
e +l -eX
dx=
=-e-Xln(l+eX)+
1=-e-Xln(l+eX)+
l+ex
5
S l+e
x
-e-
==
aarctan
5.8.5.I = r e
..-
J (1+
586
\302\267
3
2
X2
In
(I + eX) + x-In(1+ eX) + C.)
dx.
r X arc tan x dx
J VI X2
\302\267
Solution.Integratingby parts, we
u
= arctan x;) dv=
du
J
get)
dx
x2)
xdx
;
1 +X2
v= VI +X 2
;)
= VI +X2arctanx- VI +x2
=
5
= +x2 arc tanx-ln(x + V x 2 + 1)+
1
V\037l
\037X2
C.)))
Ch.
242)
V.
BasicClassesof
Functions)
Integrable
5.9.Methodsof integration
(Listof BasicFormsof Integrals))
\037
No.)
Method of integration)
Integral)
[<p
(X)] <p'
Substitution
(x) dx
cp
(x) =
t)
\037
2)
(x) <p' (x) dx)
Integration
\037
parts
by
(x) dx = f (x) It' (x)
f (x) <p'
\037
This
<p
(x)
\037
t' (x)dx.
is applied, for example, to

form
p (x) f (x) dx, where
and
f (x) is one of the
pol ynomial,
method
\037
Is
is
p (x) a
of the
in tegra
\037
functions:
following
cosax; sin ax; In x;

arc tan x; arc sin x, etc.
e'Xx;
and also to integrals

nential function by
3)
Reduced
(x) q,(n) (x) dx)
\037
f<n)
to
integration
formula
by parts
(x) cp (x)
tegration
of products of an
sine.)
cosineor
by the
f (x) q;<n) (x) dx = f (x) <p(n

\037
expo-
of the product
for multiple
in-
-1)(x)-
- +
-+ ...
- ...(-1)n-lf<n-l)
f' (x)
2) (x)
cp(n
f\"
-I-
(x) cp<n -:J)(x)

(x) cp (x)
+(-I)n
f(n)
(x)
<p
(x) dx)
\037
e'xPn (x) dx,
4)
\037
where Pn (x) is a polynomial of degreen.)
Applying the formula for multiple

tion by parts (see above), we get
integra-
e'XPn (x) dx=

\037
e7.X
pn (x)
p\037
X)
ex2
+(_
5)
Mx+N dx,
5 x 2+px+q
p2-4q<
0)
P\037
x+E.=t
...+
(X)
a/Z + 1)
p\037n)
1)1l
Substitution)
2)))
(x)
a3
] +C
\037
5.9.Methods
J nt
No.)
P(x)
Method
1)
formula
Reduction
In =
is
used
2n
In +
(2n _ 2) (x2 + l)n -1 2n __ 2
1)
+
+
)2+'..+
8 +
. + (x-x +
+ + +
...)
+
+x 2+px+q+ (x2+pX+q)2+
kX + N k
+ .+(xM2+px+q)k)
=
...
..
(x-
+...
:....
f R (x.x .
.where
R is a rational
) dx.
function of its arguInents.)
..
+
+
ax b
dx,
ex
d)
[ (
\\vhere
R is a rational
r
J
x,
function
\037
+c
- ...,m)
Reduced to the integral

tion by the substitution
ax+b
cx+d)
of its arguments.)
Mx+N
r
J Yax 2+bx
+...
Reduced to the integral of a rational fraction by the substitution

x t k where k is a
common denominator of the fractions
n
10)
integration)
where
x-\302\243-
9)
of
243)
P(x)
is expressedin the form of a
Integrand
Q(x) sum of partial fractions
is a proper rational frac- P(x)
A2
Al
At
tion
Q(x) (X-Xl) (X-Xt
(x-x1)l
Q (x) = (X-X1)l
1
B2
8m
x 2)m
(x2 px
(X-X2) (X-X2)2+
2)m
q)k
M 1x+N 1
M 2x+N 2
S Q(x) dx,
8)
(List of BasicIntegrals)
Integration
In=S) (x2dx
+ I)n)
6)
7)
egr a
of
r)
s)
of
rational
frac-
tn
By the substitution
x)
is
reduced
to
the integral
x+2\037=t
sum of two integrals:
tdt
Mx+N dx=M1 r
r
J Vax 2 bx+c
J
Vat\037+m
+ N 1Jr
dt
at\037
-1-m
The first integral is reduced to the integral

of a po\\ver funct ion and the secondone is a
tabular integral.)))
244)
Ch.
No.)
integral)
II
V.
BasicClassesof I ntegrable
Method
(x.Vax 2 +bx +c)dx.
\037
\\vhere
function
R is a rational
of x and
Vax\037+bx+c
Functions)
of
integration)
to an integral of rational
substitutions:
Reduced
+bx+c=t va
:f: x
(a > 0),
Yax 2
Yax 2 +bx+c=tX:f:
(c > 0),
2
2<
Yax
0).
(X-Xl) (4ac-b
\\vhere Xl is the root of the trinomia I ax2-t\302\245c
+bx+c=t
+bx+c.
The indicated
integral
ted by the trigonometric
/
2
can also be eva luasubstitutions:
-4acsIn. t
Vb 2 -4accost
()
Yb
x+2a=<
2a
...a
(a < 0,
2<
4ac-b
-4acsect
x+2a= Yb 2 -4ac
cosect
(
Yb
2a
, Y4ac-b2
2a
b
2a)
(a > 0,
4ac-b2 < 0))

tan t
x+-=< Y4ac-b2 cott)

2a
Pn
(x)
dx,
Write
pol yno-
r
S .r
S Y ax2 + bx+c
where
Pn (x) is a
mial of degree n.)
0))
2a
12)
fraction
by the Euler
(a > 0,
4ac-b2 >
0))
the equality
Pn
ax\"!.
-l.
(x)dx
+bx+c =Qn-dx)Vax +bx+c+

dx
+k
S Yax2+bx+c,
2
of degree
where Qn-l (x) is a polynomial
Differentia ting both parts of this equan
2
bx+c, we
by Yax
lity and multiplying
get the identity
,
2
==
Pn
(x)
Qn-l (x) (ax +bx+c)+

1
Qn-l (x) (2ax+b)+k,
+2'
gives a system of n 1 linear equathe coefficients of the

tions for determining
Qn-l (x) and factor
pol ynomial
which
k.)))
\037
No.)
5.9.Methods
(List
of Integration
BasicIntegrals))
of
Met hod of
Integral)
n t\037grati
245)
on)
And the integral

dx
is
S y ax2 + bx +c
taken
by the method
consideredin No. 10
(M==O; N==I).)
13 r
J (X-xl)m
dx
2
\302\245ax
This integral
+bx+c sidered integral
is reduced to
above-con-
the
by the substitution
I
x-x1=Y)
xm (a
14)
\037
+bxn)P dx,
where m, n, p are rational

numbers (an integral of a
binomial differential).)
This integral is expressedthrough elementary functions only if one of the following

conditions is fulfilled:
(1) if p is an integer,
. m+
(2)
If
(3)
if
nl
1.
IS an In t eger,
+ + p is an
1
n)
integer.
1st case
if p is a positive
integer, remove the
brackets (a bxn)P according to the Newton
(a)
+calculatethe
binomial and
irHegrals of powers;
negative integer, then the
substitution
t k , where k is the common
denominator of the fractions m and n, leads
to the integral of a rational fraction;
2nd case
(b)
if
p is a
if
x=
m+ 1 is
n
a+
bx n
tion
denominator
an integer,
= tk
then
the substitu-
is applied, where
of the fraction
p;
is
the
3rd case
+!+pis an integer, then

n
tu tion a + bx ll ==xnt k is a pplied,
the denominator of the fraction
if
R (sin x,
15)
cosx) dx)
Universal
\037
If
then
substitution
tan
the substiwhere k
p.
is
===t.
\037
R(-sinx,cosx)=-R(sinx,
cosx),
the substitution
cosx = t is
- x=-
applied.
If
cosx) == R (sin x, cosx),
R (sin x,
then the substitution
sin
t is applied.
'
If
R
x,
x) ==R (sin x, cosx),
'then the substitution
tan x ==t is applied.)))
(-sin -cos
Ch.
246)
I ntegr
No.)
16)
R (sinh
V.
BasicClas5esof
Integrable
Funct ions)
Method
al)
x, coshx) dx)
The substitution
of
Integration)
2:= t
tanh
\037
case
this
sIn h
17)
sin
ax sin
sin
ax cosbx dx
bx dx
\037
\037
cosax cosbx dx)
is used.
I +t
cash x=l_t
2; d
2t
x=l_t2 ;
In
2dt
x=1_t2
')
Transform
the product of trigonometric
functions into a sum or difference, using one
of the following formulas:
sin ax sin bx
=2[cos(a-b)x-cos(a-t-b)
1
\037
x])
cosax cosbx =
I
=2\"[cos(a-b)x+cos(a+b)x]
sin
ax cosbx =
=i-[sin (a-b)x+sin(a+b)
xl)
sin m x cosn
18)
\037
where m and n
gers.)
x dx,
are inte-
If m is an odd positive number, then apply

cosx t.
the substitution
If n is an odd positive number,
apply the
sin
substitution
If m
n is an even negative number, apply
the substitution
tan x t.
If m and n are even non-negative
numbers,
use the formulas
x=t.
sin 2 x
l-cos2x ,
.)x = 1 +cos2x
cos'\"
2)
2)
sin P x
19)
cosqx dx
\037
< 1[/2),
q-rational num-
(0 < x
and
bers.)
Reduce
differentia!
sinP
by the substitution
of the binomial
sin x t
xcosq xdx=
(l-t)q-l
to
the
integral
\037
\037
tP
dt
(see No. 14)

.)
20)
R
\037
(eax ) dx)
into an integral of
Transform
function by the substitution eax
a
t)))
rational
Chapter
6
THE DEPINITE INTEGRAL)
* 6.1.Statement of the Problem.

The
Lowerand Upper IntegralSums
Let a funct ion f (x) be defined in t he closed i nterva 1

following is calledthe integral sum:)
[a,b].The
n-l
In==
where a ==Xo
The sum Sn ==
n-l
Sn == \037 mi
i=o
(\302\243i)
\037Xi'
0)
< Xt < X 2 < ..< Xn -1 < Xn ==b,)
-n-]
i ==Xi +1
\037X
\037
i=
\037Xi
Xi;
\037
i=o
Mi
\302\267
\302\243
E [Xi' Xi +1] (i ==
\037Xi
is
0, 1, .
\302\267
\302\267
,n
1).)
calledthe upper (integral)sum,
is called the lower (integral) sum, where M i =
= sup f (x) [mi == inf
f (x)] for xE [Xi' xi+l]'

The definite integral of the funct ion f (x) on the interva I
the limit of the integral sums
n-l
\037
f (x) dx= Hm.\037 f (s;)

L=O
If this limit
val [a,
Any
b].
and
\037Xi
when max
\037Xi
[a, b] is
1-+o.
function is calledintegrable on the intercontinuous function is integrable.
exists,the
6.1.1.
For the
integral)
1t
\037
sin x dx
o)
find
the upper and lower integral sums corresponding

to the division
closedinterval [0,n] into 3 and 6 equal subintervals.)))
of the
Ch.
248)
/. The Definite
Integral)
Solution.Divide the closed interval

the points:)
===
Xo
3
1t
0,)
Xl
===
[0,1t]
3'
21t
X 2 ===
')
into 3 equal
by
X 3 == n.)
sinx increasesmonotonically on the
The function
parts
interval
[0, ] ,
=
and therefore for this interval we have mo ==sin ==0, Mo

\302\260
= sin
.
IS
3'\"3
l
]
J1
\0373
\037
2n
The least value of the function on the interval
m 1 == SIn
= sin = 1. On
Y3 an
3= 2'
11
monotonically
S3=k=o M k 1Xk =
+ 1+
\037
subdividing the closedinterval
- \"6'
51t
')
V3
\037
.
pOints
X6
= 1t,
xo===O, x t
we
find
\0373
[0,1t]
=2'
2'
6 =2'
1
m 5 == sin 1t ==0,)
\037
2Jt
1t
6= 2 '
1t
M 1=Sln
2.86.
into 6 equal intervals
1t
\302\267
1t
= 1t(Y\037 + I)
M o == SIn
1t
V3 \0370.907,
by analogy:)
.
Sln(f=2'
.
Y3
m 2 ==
slnT
. 2n = Y3
m 3 ==slf1
T
.
51t
m 4 S10
===
Jt
==6' x2 ==a' x3 ==2' x4 ==3'

11
mo ==0,)
m 1 ==
decreases
Y3
2+0 =
Jt
i: !
by the
function sin x
M t ==
1t
\"3
s3=\037nlkdxk==3
(0+
k=o)
\037
IS
===SlOa=2')
are equal to
dX k
great est va I ue
the interval
===
When
th
[2;, n 1 the
and therefore)
. 21t
m 2 == sin n
0,) M 2
\037
Sinceall
Y3
3=2')
1t
== 1
M 2 == sin \037
2
')
M3
=sin
M4
. 21t V3
=sln
==
\037
1,
3=2'
. 51t
M 5 ==sln
6=\"2')))
Xs
===
\037
6.1.The Lower and
249)
Sums)
Upper Integral
For this division we obtain
+...+mJ==lf(l+V--
j'[
j'[
s6=-6(tn+m1
O
3)\037
+MJ=6(3+V3)
S6==(f(Mo+Mt+...
j'[
j'[
As
would be
expected,the
1.43,
2.48.
\037
inequalit ies)
n
S3 \037 S6 \037 .J\\
sin x dx
\037
Sf)
S3
\037
o)
hold true (the

At
6.1.2.
exactvalue
what
>a
\037
:rt
\037
does the relation)
n-l
sin xdx-
.\037
t=o
sin\037k
Solution.Since sn
differ
by
it
Llx k
< 0.001
< O.
for the required inequality to
then
In < Sn'
is sufficient that the upper and the lower integral sums
follow from the inequality max
hold true
equal to 2).
of the integral is
\037Xi
0.001:
a < Sn-sn< 0.001.)
less than
But)
Sn
<
-5
n-l
n-l
.-m.) < 8 i= (J\\1.-m.

I')
\037
== \037
(M I
i= 0
\037X.
\037
\037
0)
..n-
where M i and m; are the greatest and the least values of the function sin x on the interval [xi' Xi+l] (i ==0,
1).Assuming
for simplicity that the point
is chosenas one of the points of
division and taking advantage of monotonicity of the function sin x
n
and
we obtain)
on the intervals 0,
1,
\"
\037
n-}
\037
[ ' ]'
\037
(Mj-mj)=2 (sin -sinO)=2.

L.
t=
\037
0)
I,
Consequently,the required inequality is satisfied if 20 < 0.00
i.e.8 < 0.0005.

Show that
6.1.3.
the Dirichlet function [seeProblem 1.14.4

(b)]
integrable in the interval [0, 1].
Solution. In dividing the closed interval [0,1] into a fixed number of parts we must take into consideration, in part icular) t\\VO
possiblecases:(1) all points Si are rational\037 (2) all points;iare)))
is
not
Ch.
250)
irrational.In
/. The Definite
/ ntegral)
first case the integral sum is equal to unity,

in
zero.Hence,no matter how we reduce the maximum
length of subintervals, we always get integral sums equal to uni ty
and integral sums equal to zero.Therefore, the limit of integra I
the
the second to
sums is non-existent,which means that the Dirichletfunct ion is

not integrable on the interval [0, 1].
6.1.4.Find the distance covered by a body in a free fall withi n
the time interval from
= a secto
===
sec.
Solution.A body moves in a free fall with constant acceleration

g
and initial velocity Vo = O. Consequently,the velocity at the instant t
is equal to the velocity increment within
the time interval from
to t,
e. v (t) == For a short time period the velocity increat the instant t
ment is approximately equal to the acceleration
is constant, thereBut in our case acceleration
multiplied by
fore \037v==g\037t, and hence,v(t)==gt, since \037t==t-O==t.
Let us subdivide the time interval from t ==a to t ==b into n
of each subinterval will be equal
equal parts; then the duration
==
to
We
that
assume
during each subinterval of time the
n
body moves uniformly with a velocity equal to its velocity at the
beginning of this interval, i.e.)
i.
\302\260
\037v.
\037t
\037t.
b-a.
\037t
\037t
Vo ==
ga,
==g a + 1 b-a '
)
(
...........
VI
V2 ==
g (a + 2
fl
b-a
-n)
')
.)
b-a
vn-1==g[a+(n-l)-n_
l
\302\267
Whence we
distance covered by
ith
body during
b-athe
) . The entire distance covered
by the body is
the
find
v.l (
the
-- - - -
subinterval: n
approximately equal to)
s
\037
b-a(vo + + + v -1) =
n
b-a
b-a
= n g na + 1 b-a
2 n + ... + (n-1)b-a =
n +
[
]
b-an{n-I)
(b -a) g [a + fi2 2 ]
Sn ==
VI
\302\267
\302\267
\302\267
With
\302\267)
increasingthe distancecovered can be evaluated Illore accu-)))
6.1.The Lower
\037
Upper I ntegral
and
Sums)
251)
rately. The exact value of s is found as the limit Sn as

=
1-\037
s== Iim Sn== HIn g(b-a)
n
(
[a+-}(b-a)
n-oo
n-(\302\243
-+ 00:
)]
= (b2-a2).)
=g(b-a)[a+-}(b-a)]
SinceSn
'n')
IS an integral sum)
n-]
\037
Sn == \037
v.\037t.
I
I
i=
the distance S is an integral:)

b
; -a).
s= S vdt=Sgtdt=
a
a)
6.t .5.Proceedingfrom
b-a
==)
( \037t.==\037t
0)
\037
(b
the definition, compute the integral)

1
\037
xdx.
o)
Solution.By
definition,)
1
\037
xdx= Hm
n-l
.\037
\302\243i
l=O)
where)
O==Xo
< Xl
/).Xj
as max /).xi \037 0,
<...<
xn ==
1,
[Xi'
\302\243iE
Xi+l]'
\037Xi==Xi+l-Xi')
1.Subdivide the
poi n ts
==
xi ==\037
n (i
closed interval
0, 1,2, \"',n).
[0,1] into
The length of each subinterval is eq ual to
as n
-+ 00.
L\\x.l
equal parts by the

==
-n' 1
and
\037
Let us take the right-hand end-points of the subintervals as the

==Xi + 1== i + I (i == 0,
,n
1).
i
poin ts
n
Form an integral sum:)
\302\243
i:
1,...
\302\243
n-l
.\037=\0372
In ==Sn ==\037 i+l
(1+ 2 +
n
n
n
\037
\302\267
\302\267
\302\267
+ n) == n (n + 1)-.)
i=o)
As
n ---+00 the limit of this sum
is equal to
. n+l = _
1
hin
n
00
n)))
\302\267
2n:a
Ck.
252)
I. The Definite
Hence,)
Integral)
SXdX=-}.
o
2. Using this example,we

the limit of the
will show that for any other
integral sum will be the sanle.

points ;i
Take, for instance, the mid-points of the subintervals as
of
\"
+2
n
(i=O, 1,
;i: =
...,n-l).)
Form an integral sum
n-l
In = L 2i2n+ n = 2n2 [1 + 3 + 5 +
I
choice
\302\267
\302\267
\302\267
\302\267
i=O)
\302\243i
+ (2n 1)J1 = 2n4n 2 = 2\"

I
\302\267
Hence)
lim In
00)
= -}
\302\267
the definition, compute the integral:
(m=l=-I,O<a<b).
\037xmdx
a)
Solution.In this examplethe following points can be conveniently

chosenas points of division:)
- ...,=
:r, ..., :
:
1
Xo
= a; XI = a
They form a
Xi
=a
( ) n,
geometricprogressionwith
Xn
:r -.
fL
b.
the common ratio
1)
q=( )n>1.
The length of the
-1).
subinterval is equal to
ith
== aqi (q
I1xi= aqi+l_aqi
Therefore the maximum length of the subintervalsequalsmax dXj

rl-l
1
= aqn-l(q_1)= a
: -1]
n
and tends to zero
( ) [( )
lirn q = 1.
increasingn, since n-+oo
Now let us choosethe right-hand end-points of the subintervals
+
as
\302\243
i:
\302\243
i = Xi +J = aqi
(i
= 0, 1,2,
...,n
1).)))
with
6.J. The Lower
\037
integral sum:)
n-l
Form an
n-l
In=i= 0
\037
== am+1
i=0
(q-l)
qm
=am+1(q
m u'+
\"'22a
\037r\037xi=
_l)q
um
I ntegral
and Upper
..
Sums)
253)
aqi(q_I)==
[I+qm+l+. +q<n-l) 1)] ==

q
q <m+l)n_1 = bm+l_am+l
)q qm+l_1.
qm+l-l (
<m+
-l
Let us calculatethe
of the integral sum
limit
i.e. as q ---+1:
as max AX i ---+0,
+1
limln ==(bm+1_a + 1) qli m q qmq-I
+ 1 = (bm+1_a ) m + 1 .
m
\037
Thus,)
b
S xmdx=m\037 I (b
+1_a +1).
m
a)
6.1.7.
Proceedingfrom
the definition, compute the integral:)

2
S d:
1)
Solution.Subdivide the interval

points of division Xi (i ==0, 1,2,
gression:)
Xo == 1; X 1
==;
q X2
whence q == V 2
The length of the
2.
q ,
X3
2] into
parts so that the

the geometricpro-
,...- -\-
n) form
3.
Xn
subinterval is equal to
ith
\037Xi
[1,
...,
- .
= qi+l_qi== qi (q-1),
---+0 as n -+ 00, i.e. as q ---+I.

so max \037Xi== qn-l
let us choose the right-hand end-points of the subintprvals
as the points Si' i.e.,Si=Xi+1=qi+l.
(q-I)
and
Now
Form an integral sum:)
-1).
=E..
n (2+
In = \037
(q-l)=\037
q
..!.._ 0 \037qj(q-l)
._ 0 \037\037x.= \037
ql +
1.,n
2
' n 2+ -1)= n 2,
.
1m J n == 1m (
-.
n
2
I
\037i
-I
since 2 n
1 ,.....,
n)))
-+
In
00
t1
00
2 as n --+ 00.
n)
Ch.
254)
And
I. The Definite
so,)
2
dX
SX
Integral)
= In 2.
I)
6.1.8.Evaluate
the integral
5
I = V25-x2 dx.
\037
proceedingfrom its geometric meaning.

2 is the
Solution.The curve y== V25-x
upper half
x\037
+ y2 = 25.The
of the circle
to
the
variation
curve
of
the
corresponding
portion
of x from 0 to 5 lies in the first quadrant. Hence,we conclude

that the curvilinear tra pezoid bounded by the lines x == x==5;
2
2 is a
quarter of the circlex y2 == 25;and
y == and y = V25
25n
I t S area IS equa I t 0
-x
. 0, .
4'
Hence,)
0;
1=5 V25-x2 dx=
2\0371t
6.t .9. Evaluate
the integral, proceedingfrom its geometric
meaning:)
I = (4x-l)dx.
\037
I)
6.1.10.
Prove that)
x
2 -x2
1=S Va2-x2 dx={xVa
+
arcsin
\037
\0372
(0 < x\037a).
o)
!J
Solution.The
integral)
I = Va2 -x2 dx
A)
\037
a)
Fig.
59)))
:\302\243)
the area SOAMx of the porexpresses

tion of a circleof radius a lying in
the first quadrant (see Fig. 59).
This area equals the sum of the
areas of the triangle OMx and the
sectorOAM.
x
xy
SOiUx=2=2
V a2
-x.)
2
6.1.The Lower and
\037
The area of the sector)
SDAM
where sin t =
\037
a)
Hence,)
SOAM
and consequently
Upper
2\"
Integral
a 2t
Sums)
255)
,)
. x
= a2 arc SIn
a
')
t)
Va
1=\"2
6.1.11.
Proceedingfrom
show
that)
a2
x
-x +2
arc sin(i.)
2
the geometricmeaning of the integral,
211:
(a)
sin3
\037
xdx=0;
(b)
o)
Solution.(a) The graph
e- dx= 2 e-
X2
X2
-1
\037
dx.
\037
0)
of the function
==sin3 x
is shown
in
Fig. 60. Let us show that the area situated above the x-axisis
equal to that I ying below this axis. Indeed, let 1t X 2Jt, then
x==Jt+x where O\037Xl\037Jt and sin3x==sin3(1t+xt)==-sin3xl
\037
\037
Therefore, the second half of the

graph is obtained from the first one
it to the right
by shifting
by Jt
and using the symmetry about the
x-axis.Hence,
If)
x)
o)
231
\037
sin3 x dx= O.
Fig.
o)
6.1.12.
Given
60)
[-2,3],
the function f(x)==x on the interval

the lower (sn) and the upper (Sn) integral sums for the given
interval by subdividing it into n equal parts.
find
integral, prove that:)

11:
(a) sin 2x dx= 0;

\037
o
2
the geometricmeaning of the defini te

211:
(b)
\037
o
3
cos3 X dx = 0;
(c) S (2x+1)dx=6;(d) S V9-x2 dx= 9;.

1)
-3)))
Ch.
256)
6.t .14.Passing to
/. The Definite
Integral)
the limit from the integral sums, compute the
integral)
4
I = x3 dx,
\037
1)
by
subdividing the interval [1,4]:

(a) into equal parts;
(b) by points forming a geometricprogression.In both cases
choose as:
(1) left-hand end-points of the subintervals;
(2) right-hand end-points of the subintervals;
(3) mid-points of the subintervals [xi' xi + 1].)
\037i
\037
6.2.EvaluatingDefiniteIntegralsby
Newton-LeibnizFormula
the
The following is known as the Newton-Leibnizformula:

b
\037
f (x) dx = F (x) Ib = F
(b)-F(a),
Q)
where P (x) is one of the antiderivatives of the function f (x),

P' (x) f (x) (a \037x\037b).
6.2.1.Evaluate
i.e.
the integral)
V3
I = S +dxXl
\302\267
1)
Solution.Since the function P (x) ==arc tan

derivatives of the function
formula we get
f (x) =
\037X2
is one of the anti-
using the Newton-Leibniz
vr
n
Jt
n
dx
V3
==arctanV 3-arctanl=3\"-T=
J= S l+x
2 =arctanx
12.
/
1
1)
6.2.2.
Compute the
integrals:)
:rt
:rt
(a) S
o)
sin 2xdx;
(b)
cosX
.
(\\ sIn 3 X
1t
6')
dx; (c) S
YI:\037X2
o)))
\302\267
.\037
6.2.3.
Given the
6.2.Newton-Leibniz
function
\\
\\
Eval uate
\037
x2
1
f (x)==
for 0
x for 1
257)
Formula)
\037
\037
\037
\037
1,
2.
f (x)dx.
Solution.By the additivity property of the integral

2
\037
f (x)dx=
f(x)dx+ f (x) dx= 0 x dx+ Vxdx=

2
\037
\037
\037
\037
;3 1
r-
+ x21= + 4r32_
\"I
\037
o)
6.2.4.Eval uate
3 2
\037
;=+(4V2-1).
the integral
1=\037ll-xldx.
o)
Solution.Since
1--x for
II_ x = ,I x-1 for
I
we
\037
\037
\037
x
x
\037
\037
1,
2,
obtain, taking advantage of the additivity property of the integral,)
2
o
(l-x)dx+(x-I)dx=
11-xldx=
0
\037
\037
1)
==_ (1-X)2
+ (X-l)2
2
2
1
Evaluate
6.2.5.
the
=\037-j-\037=l
2
2
\302\267
I)
integral)
b
J == \037 dx
where a
< b.)
Solution.If 0
=b-a.
'
a)
\037
<
b, then f (x)
= I; = 1,therefore
\037
f (x)dx=)
a)
If
a<b\037O,then
f(x)=-I
and
\037f(x)dx=-b-(-a)=
a)
==
a--b.Finally,
if
< 0 < b,
then divide the integral
('
\037
a)))
(x)dx
I. The Definite
(x)dx+) f (x) dx=
bOb
Ch.
258)
into two
Integral)
integrals:
\037
(x)dx=
The above three
\037
b-(-a).
0)
casesmay be represented by
single formula:)
dx = b I-I a I.
I
\037
a)
Note. When evaluating integrals with the aid of the Newton-Leibshould be paid to the conditions of its legitimate use. This formula may be applied to compute the definite
niz formula attention
integral of a function continuous on the interval [a, b] onl y when

the equality F'(x) == f (x) is fulfilled in the whole interval [a, b]
[F(x) is an antiderivative of the function f (x)]. In particular,the
antiderivative must be a function continuous on the whole interval
[a, A discontinuousfunction used as an antiderivative will lead
to the wrong result.
Find a mistake in the following evaluation:
b].
6.2.6.
V3
dx
5.
o
l+x2=2
where
arc tan
(-}arc tan
V 3)-arctanO]
l-x2 =2 [arctan(=-6'
J/3
2x
I-=-XX2
3t
)'=
(x
=#=
\037X2
1).
Solution.The result is a prioriwrong: the integral of a function

positive everywhere turns out to be negative.The mistake is due
arc tan
to the fact that the function
=
of the first kind at the point x 1:)
\037
.m
The
2x
arc tan
x-I-O)2
11
correctvalue
V3
\037X2
_ x2 = 4 ;
j'[
has a discontinuity
. _ arc tan
2
hm
x -+ I +
- =-2x
of the integral under
= arc tan x
\037X2
j'[
-)
x...)
considerationis equal to
= arc tan V 3 -arctan =

\302\260
1\0373
\302\267
\302\267
\037
o)
Herethe Newton-Leibnizformula is applicable,since the function

F (x)= arctan x is continuouson the interval [0, J and the equality
F'(x)= f (x) is fulfilled on the whole interval.)))
\037
6.2.Newton-Leibniz
\037
6.2.7.Find
1t
259)
Formula)
mistake in the following evaluation of the integral:)
a
JT
+
S
o
1
dx
2 sin
===
2X
r
J
dx
cas:!x-j-3 sin<a
==
0)
=r
cos2 x
'+3d\037an2X
,..arctan(V :1tan x) --0.

V3
o)
(The integral of a function positive everywhere turns out to be
zero!
)
Solution.The Newton-Leibniz formula

arc tan
since the antiderivative F (x)=
tinuity
!im
at the point
F (x) =
1(
x\037--o
2
x=
\037
lim
3
n
V'x\037--o
2
!im F (x) = !im

IT
X\037-+O
2
arc tan
S
o
cot2 x+3
0)
It
can also be found
;3arctan(1/3tan x).
[0,nJ
n
.
arctan(+oo)=
2 V3
.r-arc
J(
dx
discon-
y=
1
v'-3 arctan(V\"3 tan x)
The correct result can be obtained
=r
cos2 x+3 sin 2 x J
(V3tan x) has a
(V3tan x) =
=r
n
applicablehere,
. Indeed,)
=
1(
x\037-+O
2
is not
dx
sin 2 x
in
tan
(-00)=
- v- .
n
the following way:)
=-
V3
(J/3 cot x)]:=
arc tan
\302\267
;\037r
the aid of the function F (x)==

For this purpose divide the interval of
with
[ '
and
into two subintervals,
and
[0,
n]
take into considerationthe above-indicatedlimit values of the function F (x) as x ---+ + O. Then the antideriva tive becomesa continuous function on each of the subintervals, and the Newton-Leibniz)
integration
\037
\037
9*)))
\037
Ch.
2:0)
/. The Definite
/ ntegral)
becomesapplicable:)
formula
2
.1\"J
= + =
sin 2 x
50 5n
5o (OS2
x\037-\\
2)
arctan(V3 tanx) =
+ ,;._
f3
a rctan(V'-3tanx)
\037
\037
V3
6.2.8.
Compute the
;3 [(;-0 ) + ( 0 -( - ;) )] = ;3
l
2)
\302\267)
integral)
Jt
2x
j'o V +c;s
Solution. J/ I +c;s2x =
dx.
x
2
V cot =
cosx 1=
::;;,
x::;;'
cosx,
==
COSx,
\037
\037
\037
n.)
Therefore)
n'
_a
J'[
2
I
-t- cas 2x
Jt
\"
dx== cosxdx-t- (-cosx)dx==

j
J
0
J'[
2)
== sin X
\037
(-sin x)
Jt
n ==
-1-
- -(-
(1 0)+ (0
\302\273
= 2.
\"\"2)
Note. If we ignore the fact that casx is negative

and
put)
2x _
... + cos
-cosx,)
2
we get the wrong result:)

n
\037
o)))
cosxdx=sinxl\037=O.
in
\037
1t
6.2.Newton-Leibniz
\037
6.2.9.Evaluate
261)
Formula)
the integral)
IOOJt
J=
Solution.We have
V1
Since sin x has
Vl-cos2xdx.
o)
cas2x == V2 s n x I.
I
period Jt, then

lOOn
lOOn
\037
Vl-cos2xdx=V2 Isinxldx=
\037
0)
= 100V2
Jt
sin xdx= 200V2
\037
o)
Evaluate
6.2.10.
the integrals:
-I dx
==
I
(a)
S (11+5x)a ;
-2
-2 dx
==
1
(b)
S x2
-3
Jt
' x,
Sin2x d'
(c) 1== S
(d)
2\"
-Jt
x2
J=S0 x2 +
dx;
2
J't
dx
(e) I=S x In
e
.
x '
(f)
I=l
sinx
I
x2
dx;
Jt
I
eX
(g) 1 S I -te dx;

0
==
(h)
2X
(i)
1=J Yx+l+xdxY5x+l
0)
Jt
(j) 1=
3
xdx;
V COSX-COS
\037
J1
Y3
(k) 1=
dx
l (I +
1)))
3
x2 2
x3 dx
1=S l+x
S;
\302\267
/. The Definite Integral)

an Integral.
* 6.3.Estimating
The DefiniteIntegralas a Functionof Its Limits
Ch.
262)
1.If
f (x)
\037
cp
(x) for a
\037
x b,
then
\037
\037
(x)dx\037
\037
cp
(x)dx.
a)
In particular,)
b
\037
(x)dx
\037
\037
f (x) dx.
I
m(b-a)\037 f(x)dx\037M(b-a).
2.)
\037
a)
where m is the least value, and M the greatest value of the function f (x) on the interval [a, b] (estimation of an integral).
If the function f (x) is continuous on the interval [a,b], then
3.
\037f(x)dx=f(s)(b-a),a<s<b
a)
(mean-value theorem).
4. If the functions f (x) and
cP
(x), in addition, retains
its
(x) are continuous on
cp
\037
f (x)
cp
(x) dx = f (s)
\037
cp
(x) dx, a
<s <b
a)
(generalized mean-value theorem).)

a
5. :x5 f (t) dt = f (x); :x5 f (t)dt =
f (x) at
each point
of
x)
a)
cont inu
[a, b], and
sign on this interval, then
of the function f (x).
ity
6.3.t. Estimate
the following integrals:)

;ry)
(a) I = 5 V 3
-\037
x3
dx; (b) I = 5
I)
si: dx;
J(
4)
(c)
5
I == 5 x 2+
+ 2 dx.
X2
Solution.(a) Sincethe
function f (x) V 3 x2 increases monothen m==2, M==V30, b-a==2.)))

tonically on the interval
===
[1,3j,
\037
6.3.Estimating
an
Integral.
as a
Integral
Funct. of
l-Ience,the estimationof the integral has the

3
2 2
V 3 + x3 dx
\302\267
\037
\037
\037
Its
Limits
263)
form
30.2,
1)
1.e.)
\037
f/3+ x3 dx 2 V 30 10.95.
sin x
on the interval
f (x) = x decreases
\037
\037
\037
(b ) The integ rand

since its derivative
sin x
' = x cosx= (x-tanx2x) cosx < 0
.)
f (X )
Hence,the
\302\267
x\037
least value of the
ion:
funct
m=f( )= 3\0373- ,
its greatest value being
M=f(
Therefore)
\037
)=
.)
2\037i
Jt
_!:) :::::::: dx
3
\037
Y3
2n
\037
r
J
\037
sin x
x
2
\037
Vf
\037_\037
Jt
i.e.)
4)
(3
')
4)
Jt
3-
-S
0.22 yf
\037
\037
u\\
Jt
f)
Y2
sin x
-Xdx
\037
\037
0....4.
C)
6.3.2.Estimate the
absolute value of the integral

19
sin x
5 + x8
1
d X.
10)
Solution.Since sin x
I
1, for x 10the inequality

< 10- is fulfilled.)
\037
\037
Therefore)
t\037;8
19
510
dx
t\037\037
10- <
< (19-10)
(the true value of the integral
\037
-10t4).)))
1O-\037
\037
,
\037
\302\267
Ch. VI. The Definite I nfegral)
264)
6.3.3.Which
of the two
integrals
1
\037Vxdx,
o
is the greater?
Solution.As
IS kno\\vn,
\037x3dx
0)
Vx>x3 for 0 < x < 1.Therefore

Vxdx > x3 dx.
o
1
\037
\037
0)
6.3.4.Prove the
inequalities:)
(a) 0 <
'
..
\\
o)
X7
dx
< \"8;
V ) +x8
(b) 1 < ex2 dx < e.

\\
o)
Solution.(a) Since 0 <

then)
X'
V I +x
8)
:'
o<
\037
S
o
< x < 1,
for 0
dx
<x
<
r x7 dx
J
V]+x\037
I
=-\037
\037\037
i.
(b) Since for 0 < x < 1 there existsthe inequality

then)
\037
6.3.5.Prove
< ex2 < e,
000)
I
Hencethe inequality
dx < ex2 dx < edx.

\037
\037
considerationholds true.
under
the inequality)
1t
S
o
e-R
sin
x dx
<
(l-e-
Solution.Since the function
(R > 0).
R)
21!R
t (x) = sinxx
;=
( ;)
decreases
on
Problem 6.3.1
(b)], then for 0 < x <
x
t (x)= si:
Hence,on
this interval
>t
\037
sin x > 11' x, therefore

\037
e-R
sin
<e
--x
2R
Jt)))
(0,
\037
) [see
\037
6.3.Estimating
an
Integral. Integral as a
and)
n
\037
Funct.
:::dX=-2 [e-
\037
e-R sinxdx < { e-
\037
0)
of
Its Limits
265)
J\037
= (l-e-R).
2\037
6.3.6.
Prove that for any funct ions f (x) and g (x), integrab Ie on
the interval (a, b), the Schwarz-Bun
yakovsky inequality takes place:
.-
./.
\037
t (x) g (x) dx \037'v
Solut ion. Consider

where
is
g2 (x) dx.
t (x) dx
\037
the f unct ion

F (x) == [f (x)
\037
a)
2
(x) ] ,
real number. SinceF (x)
then
any
Ag
0,
\037
\037
[t(x)-Ag(x)Pdx\037O,
a)
or)
b
\037
1.2 g2 (x) dx-2A t (x) g (x)dx+

\037
f2
(x) dx
\037
O.
\037
a)
The expressionin the left side of the latter inequality is a quadwith respect to A. It follows from the inequality that
at any 'A this trinomial is non-negative.Hence,its discriminant is
ratic trinomial
non-positive, i. e.
t (x) g
Hence)
{f
(X)dX)
-f
(x)g (x) dx
\037
\037
which
g2 (x) dx
(x)dx
/.
f2
11
t (x) dx
from
above)
\037
\037
the
completes
O.
\037
g2 (x)dx,
a)
proof.
6.3.7.Estimate the integral
===
x
+ dx.
(' sin
J 1
x\037
o)
Solution.By the generalizedmean-value theorem we

1
5o
sin x
l+x\037
.
dX==Sln\037t
dx
. t
5 l+x2=Sln\037arct an x
0)
have)
1)
o)))
T sin
\037
(0 <
\037
< 1).
Ch. VI. The Definite
266)
Integral)
Since the function sin x increaseson the interval

sin < sin 1.Whence we get an upper estimate of the
\302\243
sin
sin 1
Tj'[.
5 I +x2 dx <
\037
[0,1] then
integral:)
0.64.
o)
It is
theorem
I
possible to get a better estimation if we apply the same

the
in
form)
sin
x
2
5o l+x
dx==
I-cosl\037O.46.
S slnxdx==l+\037 \302\243(l-cosl)<
1+\0372
0)
geometricreasoning, prove that:

(a) if the function f (x) increasesand has a concave graph
interval
[a, b],
(b-a)f (a) < 5 f (x)dx < (b-a)
f fa)
a)
(b)
if
interval
the
(b)
the
in
the
ion f (x) increasesand has a convex graph

then
(b-a)
f
funet
[a, b],
in
then
(a)
f (b)
< 5 f (x)dx < (b-a)f (b).

a)
Solution.(a) \\\\Tithout limitation

(x)> O. Concavity of the graph of
of generality we may assume

a function means, in particular, that the curve lies below the chord
through the points A (a,f (a)) and
B (b, f (b)) (see
Therefore the
area of trapezoid aABb is greaterthan
that of the curvilinear trapezoidbounded above by the graph of the func-
!J)
f(b))
--,-----,.. \".\"/:.
-- \"------J
.\".,
I(a))
Fig.61).
AI
I
o)
I
I)
:c
a)
b)
Fig.
61)
t ion,
b
i. e.
S f (x)dx < SaABb
f (a)
= (b-a).
a)
The inequality)
(b-a)f(a)<
f(x)dx
\037
a)
is obvious.)
6.3.9.Estimate
the integral
\037
o)))
VI + x4 dx using
f (b)
\037
6.3.Estimating
an
Funct. of
Its Limits
267)
(a) the rnean-value theorem for a definite integral,

(b) the result of the prece
ding problem,
(c) the inequality VI + x4 < 1 +
,
\0374
(d) the Schwarz-Bunyakovskyinequality (see Problem

Solution.(a) By the mean-value theorem)
6.3.6).
I = VI +x4 dx VI + 1;4,where
'--=
\037
\037
1.
1;
\037
o)
But)
1
whence)
< VI + 54 < V2,)
1<I<V2\0371.414.
(b) The function f (x) == VI + x 4 is concave on the interval
since)
f\"
4
2X2
(x)== o +(xx 4+3)
3 2 > 0' 0
) /
\037
[0,1],
x -.;;:::1.
\037
On the basis of the precedingproblem we get

1
< 5 V 1 + x4 dx < +[2 1.207.

I
\037
(c) < I = S VI + x4 dx < S ( 1 + x;) dx = I + -io= 1.1.

1
0)
(d) Put f (x) == VI x4, g (x)== 1 and take ad vantage of the SchwarzBunyakovsky inequality
1
1
1
1
....
4
=JVI+x dx=l<V
\037V-l+x4dx
(J
\037(l+x4)dx.\037
()
== V
Find the
6.3.10.
derivative
with
functions:)
x3
(a)
F (x) =
In t
\037
dt
(x > 0),
2)
v-x)
(b) F (x) =
\037
1)
x)))
COS(t2) dt
(x > 0).
12dx=
0)
1.2 1.095.
\037
respect to x of the following
Ch.
268)
/. The Definite
/ ntegral)
Solution.(a) Write the given integral
F (x)=
In t
dt
\037
In t
dt
dt
\037
\037
x2
In t
x2
the following way:)
in
x3
x3
In t
\037
dt,
c)
c > 0 is an arbitrary constant.

let us find the derivat ive F'(x) using the rule for differenfunction and the theorem on the derivative of
fiat ing a composite
an integral with respect to the upper limit:
\\vhere
Now
'
\037
(x) ==
In t dt
\037
'
[I
(X3)\037_
x3
Int dt
= In x3
(X2)\037
-lnx2 2x=
3x\037
x2
== (9x\037
v-x
4x) In x.)
2
(b) F(x)=\037cos(t
)dt-l-\037cosW)dt=
I
X)
1
-:;
v-x
cos(t2) dt -I-
\037
+
F'(x) [
[
]
= - 2 -2 + cosx.
y=
cos(t2)dt
\037
\037
\037
cosx
6.3.t. Find the
derivative
==
x)\037=
V x
2 COSx2 + 2 y- cosx.
1
x)
2;X
(a)
] __(V
respect to x of the following
\\vith
funct ions:)
F (x) = S
'
2
)dt
V?cOS(t
c
)\037
cos(t 2)dt;
\037
c)
t
Si\037
dt;
(b) F(x)=SV1-l-t4dt.
x)
o)
.I
6.3.12.
Find the points of extremum of the function F (x) =
S
.in
the domain x
> O.
Solution.Find the derivative)
F'(x) =
Si\037t
[\037
The crit ical points are:

x = nn
(n
==-
1,2,
dt
I=sin
x)
x)))
...),
where sin x = O.)
Si\037t
dt
6.3.Estimating
\037
an
Funct.
of
Its
Limits
269)
Find the second derivative at these points:

P\"
x cas
(x ) ==
x- .
- -(sin x
x2
')
= nn cos(nn) ==
I
P\"
(nn)
nn)
)n=l= O.
Since the second derivative
...),
is non-zero at the points x ==n:rt

these points are points of extremum of the funct ion,
namely: maxima if n is odd, and minima if n is even.
6.3.13.
Find the derivative of y, with respect to x, of the funct ion representedparametrically:)
(n
===
1,2,
13
\037
x=
Vzlnzdz;y=
\037
Solutio/l.As
is known,
y\037
== Yt,
z2
\037
lnzdz.
Vi
Xt)
Find x; and
y;:
'
xi ==
(]{Vz
(
y; ==
\\
z dz\\ (t3)i =
In
'
Z2
z dZ
In
\037
Vi
tint 3 .3t 2 = 9t 3 1n t;
13
) (Vi);=
In
1/\",
VI 2
=
\037_t)
- }It
-{-
In
t;
whence)
y\037
9t 3 In t
-- IrI
4 r
6.3.t 4. Find
==
t In t
_.36t 2 Vi
x
sin
(arctan
\302\245xdx
(c)
x-o)
.
11m
x\037
+ 00
X)2
dx
\037
\037
Iim
> 0).
the limits:)
.{2
(a))
(t
(b) Iim
+
3)
x\037
ex'dx
(\037
o)
00)
Yx 2
1)
\302\267
(' e2x2dx
J
o)
Xl
Solution.(a)
0 the integral sin Vx dx equals zero; it is

)
o
easy to check the fulfilment of the remaining conditions that ensure)))
At
x=--=
Ch. VI. The Definite
270)
the legitimacy of using the
Jim
Vxdx
l'sin
0
(c)
We
L'Hospi tal
x-+
\\0
00
'
sin VXdX
3X2
x--+O
]x'
(X2);
= lim 2Xt\037 x =
X)
x--+O
have an indeterminate form of the type
00
00
2
3
Use the
rule:)
( f ex2 dX
]1m
L'Hospitalrule. Therefore
=!im[0
x3
x--+O
Integral)
x2
2 ex2 dx.e
\037
o)
Jim)
X_
(' e2x2 dx
2X2)
00)
J
o)
2 ex2 dx
\037
o)
Iim)
X--+
6.3.t 5. Find the

y
(a)
\037
e-t2 dt +
et dt
\037
o
x
e)
Ii tn
X--++OO
x2
2 xe2 == O.
e 2
x)
of the follow ing imp licit fund ions:)
\037\037
sin2 t dt = 0;
\037
0)
(b)
x2
derivat ive
+ 00)
==
x2
sin t dt = 0;
\037
0)
(c) \037V3-2sin2zdz+\037costdt=0.
0
\037
2)
Solution. (a) Differentiate the
respectto x, putting y==y(x):

y
e-
t2
\037
dt
. +
\037\037
y2 dy
Hence.solving
X2
sin2 t dt
\037
dx
dy
\037
(X2)\037
= 0;
x2
+ sin2 x2.2x
the equation with

dx)))
side of the equation
e-
left
-==
O.
respect to
-2XR+y2sin2 x 2
\037\037,
we get
with
\037
6.3.Estimating
an
tn/tgral.
(c) Differentiate the

y ==y (x):
Integral
sideof
left
putt ing
Funct.
5 V3-2
of
the equation with
Its
Limits
271)
respect to x,
'
'
= O.
+ s cost dt
[0
]y
sin2 Z dZ
as a
\037\037
n:
x)
\"2
Whence
V3-2sin2x+cosy=O;)
Find: (a) the points of
6.3.16.
cosy)
extremum and the points of
dx)
inflect ion on the graph of the
funct ion)
I=
x
\037
Y3-2sin 2 x
dy
\037\037
(t-l)(t-2)2dt;
o)
(b) curvature of the line defined by the parametric equations:

(
t
X = a Vn
cos dt.
1t\0372
- ,..
\037
\037
nt
y = a V n sin
\037
dt)
(the Cornu spiral).

Solution. (a) The function is defined and continuously differenthe entire number scale.Its derivative
tiable throughout
1\037==(x-l)(x-2)2
equals zero at the points Xl == 1,x2 ==2, and when passing through
the point Xl it changes sign from minus to plus, whereas in the
neighbourhood of the point x2 the sign remains unchanged.Consequently, there is a minimum at the point
extremum at the point X 2 ==2.
The second der.i'vat i ve)
==3x2
lOx+ 8
I;
vanisHes at the points Xl -=
:.
Xl
==
1,and
there is no
=2
and changessign when passing through these points. Hence,these points are t he abscissasof
the points of inflection.
(b) We have
, ==
Xt
X2
T'
nf2
a V 1t COS
-.
nt 2
, ==
a V 1t Sin T')))
Yt
Ch.
272)
/. The Definite
hence,)
-,-
, =.:::Yt ==
tan
Yx
Xt)
2'
-,-
== (
\"
'Jtt\"!.
Yxx
6.3.t 7.
(0, 00)
by
y\"
II
); ==
Y.\037
+ (y') 2
Vn
a
Vi(
,.
'lIt!.
a cos:3
2)
Xt
whence the curvature)

K==
/ ntegral)
'1
I
Prove that the function L (x), defined

the integral)
x
In
the interva
t'
dt
L (x)
\037
5
1)
is an inverse of the function eX.

Solution.Let us take the derivative
L' (x) =
(x
\037
> 0).
Since the derivative is positive, the function

and, hence,has an inverse function
X==L-l(y).
---
\037=
L (x) Increases
The derivative of this inverse function is equal to

dx
-x
,
L' (x)
it follows (see Problem 3.t.to) that
x== CeY.
C, substitute x -== 1.Since
L(I)==O,i.e.ylx=l==O,)
dy
\\vhence
To
find
then)
1 ==Ceo= C
,)
\\vhich
proves our
assertion:
x == 1.J
6.3.t 8. Given the gra ph

the
of the
(y)
==
funct
eY
io;}
shape of the graph of the antiderivative
==
f (x)
I ==
(Fig. 62), find
f (t)
di.
\037
the given function

a].increases.
On the
Solution. On the interval [0,

tive; consequently, the antiderivative
is posiinterval)))
6.3.Estimating
\037
;I = I
l0, ] the
an
Integral.
Integral
as a
Funct.
of
Its Limits
273)
derivative of the given function is positive; hence,the
curve
(x) is concave.On the interval r , a] the derivative
of the given function is negative; consequently, the curve I == I (x)
is convex, the point x == being a point of inflect ion. The interval [a, 2a] is considered in a similar way. The point Xl == 0 is a
since the derivative (x) ==f (x) changesits
point of minimum,
sign from rninus to plus; the point x2 ==a is a point of maximum,
since the sign of the derivative changes from plus to minus.)
\037
/'
!J)
x)
o
Fig.
\037
3a 2a.
x)
62)
Fig.
63)
The antiderivative I (x) is a periodicf.unction with period 2a,

since the areas lying above and below the x-axisare mutually
cancelledover intervals of length 2a.Taking all this into account,
we can sketch the graph of the antiderivative (see Fig. 63).
6.3.t 9. Find the polynomial P (x) of the least degreethat has
a maximum
equal to 6 at x == I, and a minimum equal to 2 at
x ==
3.
Solution.The polynomial is an everywhere-differentiable function.

Therefore, the points of extremum can only be roots of the derivative. Furthermore, the derivative of a polynomial is a polynomial.
The polynomial of the least degree with roots Xl == 1 and X 2 == 3
has the form
Hence,
a(x-I)(x-3).
Sinceat
t he
x
- -+
P'(x)==a (x I) (x 3) ==a (x2 -4x+ 3).

point x == 1 there must be P ( I) == 6, we
x
P (x) = P' (x) dx -1-6 = a (x2 4x

\037
\037
ha ve)
3) dx + 6 =
- + - -}
1)
=a
C;
2x2
:3x I
) -1-6.
The coefficient a is determinedfrom the condition P (3)= 2, whence

a ==3. Hence,)
p (x) ==x a 6x2 + 9x-I
2.)))
Ch.
274)
/. The Definite
/ ntegral)
Find the polynomial P (x) of the least degreewhose graph

6.3.20.
has three points of inflection:
(I, 1) and a point with
abscissa 0 at which the curve is inclined to the axisof abscissas
(-I,-I),
at an angle of
60\302\260.
Solution.Since the required function is a polynomial, the abscissas of the points of inflection can only be among the roots of the
second derivative. The polynomial of the least degree with roots
0, 1 has the form ax (x2 1).Consequently,
-1,
P\"
x == 0
Since at the point
(x) ==a (x
-x).
P'(0)==tan
the derivative
have)
get)
P (x) = S P'(x)dx+I = a (
\037\037
- + :0 +
)
\037
\037
C\037
o)
Then, since P (1)== I, we
==V3, we
- )+V .
P'(x)= S P\"(x)dx+V3 =a
60\302\260
V3
(x-I)+l.
The coefficient a is determined from the last remaining condition

60(Y3 I)
P(-I)==-l,whence a=
P(x)='V37
Hence,
- (3x -IOx +x V-3.

7
\302\267
6.3.21.
Taking advantage of the mean-value theorem for the

definite integral,prove that
1
(a) 3 < V q +x2 dx < 10,

\037
2;, I.
3t
/-3
xdx<2 2'
(b)2<So V 1+2\"sln
j'[
2n:
dx
2n
'II
<T'
23t
(c) 'i3<S 10+3cosx

o
6.3.22.
Using
3 dx
5 V I +x <
the Schwarz-Bunyakovskyinequality, prove
\0375
. Make sure that
that
the application of the mean-
value theorem y.ieldsa rougher estimate.)))
6.4.Clzan[!.in[!.the
\037
6.3.23.
Find
Variable
in
Definite
275)
Integral
the derivatives of the following functions:)

x2
(a) F (x)= S In t dt (x
> 0);
(b)
F (x) ==
dt
ST
\302\267
2)
1)
x)
6.3.24.
Find
t he
\037\037
rically:)
t
(a)
111
o In z
J
( eZdz;
Jit
sin t
(b)
S
c
arc sin z dz,
== C sin
Z2
dz.
n)
6.3.25.
Find the
X
(a)
representedparamet-
x= zdz, y= J'
2
5
X ==
of functions
derivative
\037
(2
-2(1-t)dt;
F (x)= e
1
points of extremum of the following functions:)

2
x2
(b)
2
dt.
F(x)=S t -5t+4
2 +e
t)
\037
6.4.Changingthe
Variable in a DefiniteIntegral
If a function x == (t) satisfies the following conditions:

(t) is a continuous single-valuedfunction defined in
and has in this interval a continuous derivative cp' (t);
the values of the function x ==
(2) with t varying on
do not leave the limits of [a, b];
cp
(1)
[a,
cp
[a,
\037]
(3) cp(a)==aand
\037]
cp
(t)
cp(\037)=b,
for changing the variable (or substitution) in the

definite integral is valid for any function f (x) which is continuous
on the interva I [Q,
then the formula
b]:
\037
f3
f (x)dx = f
\037
[qJ
(t)] qJ' (t) dt.
ex)
Instead of the substitution x == (t) the inverse substitution

(x) is frequently used. In this casethe limits of integrat ion
a and are determined directly from the equalities a = '\" (a) and
=='\" (b). In practice,the substitution is usually performed with
the aid of monotonic, continuously differentiable functions. The
change in the limits of integration is conveniently expressed
cp
t =='\"
\037
\037
in)))
/. The
Ch. V
276)
Definite
Integral)
the tabular form:)

x
t)
I
ex.
b p
.)
V3-
6.4.1.
Compute the
integral
-Va
\037
4-x dx.
2
SoLution. Make the substitution x=2sint, assuming that

t
The function x == (t) ==2 sin t on the interval
iable,monotonic
\037
\037
\037
the
\037
cp
' ] satisfies all the

variable in a definite
\037
\037
cp
so,
And
x ==2 sin t;
since cost
>0
conditions of the theorem on changing
integral,since it
- -V3,
\037
dx = 2 cost dt;
V\037
-J/3\"
cp
V4
4-x dx=4
2
\037
= V3
x 2 ==
.)
21cost
::=2 cost,
' ].
\037
n
3
\037
[-
on the interval
Thus,)
V3
is continuously differen-
and)
\037
1t
eos2 tdt=2
_\037
3
\037
(l+C0s2t)dt=
_\037
3)
=2 [t+-}sin2t] = 4;+V3 .
4
6.4.2.Compute the
integral S
\037n
3)
y x 2 4 dx.
x4
2)
Solution.Make the
substitution)
x ==2 seet;
dx =
sin t
2 cos2 t
xl
di''
2 0
4
n
3)
the function 2
On the interval
[0,
is
ion
valid.)))
fore the substitut
\037
see t is monotonic, there-
6.4.Changing
\037
the Variable
in
Definite
277)
Integral
Hence,)
- .2
3't)
.S
2
y x2---4
dx==
4
V 4 sec2 t 4
16sec4 t
sin t
==
cos2 dt
t)
0)
:rT)
11)
= 4 JC sin2 t cost dt ==12sin3 t

I
o)
6.4.3.Compute the
a
(a) S
x2 V a 2
-x dx;
2
Jf-;
(b))
dx
V (1
1)
' 6-5
(a) .J
\\
\302\267
X2)=1
11
cosx dx
sin
integrals:)
:'T
\302\267
integrals:)
o)
6.4.4.Compute the
V3
= 32
x+sin 2 x ; (b) S
x'
2/C:5
o)
o)
Solution.(a)
Apply
the substitution)
sinx=t;
x It
cosxdx=dt;)
I)
The inverse fund ion x= arc sin t ( 0
\037
for 0 t
1) sat isfies
.all conditions of the theorem on changing the variable.Hence,)
\037
\037
\037
\037
\037
j(
t-3 1=ln\037
dt
2 ==ln t-2o
2 x = 5 6-5t+t
3'
5o 6-5sinx+sin
2
1==
cosxdx
0)
(b) Make the substitution

x ==2 arc tan t ,
t=tan'2
dx == 1 2dtt 2
,)
.11
2)
which is valid due to monotonicity of the function tan
2' on
the)))
Cil. V
278
interval
lO,
\037
/. The Definite
Integral)
\"
:rt
dx
=
x
jo 2+cos
50 2-1-
Y3
dt
2dt
--/2 . 1+/2 = 2 5 3+/2 =
-t--
\037
arctan
Y3
6.4.5.
Compute the
0= Y3 (arctany3 -arctanO
) 3Y3
j'[
\"
integral)
1t
4
dx
a:!.cos2 x+b2
sin\037
(a > 0, b > 0).)
o)
Solution.Make the substitution
tanx=t,
dx
cos2 x
It
j'[
411
= dt
')
4)
Hence,)
j1.
dx
a?cos2 x+b2 sin 2 x

S
o
= S a\"2+bdt 2t 2 = b2 S a2dt =
2
0
0 b2 + t
I
=-.-arctana
a ==-arctan-.
a
b
bt
b2
\\
=b = I, then :barc tan\037 =arc tan 1 =
If a
cides\\\\'ith
the result of the substitution a
===
b == 1 into
.:rT)
= dx
S a2 cos2 x+b2 sin 2 x S
dx
6.4.6.Compute the
'/3-
(a))
5
1)
V1
+2 x2 dx;
0)
integrals:)
e
dx
(b) S x V I + In x ;
V(X-2)l dx.
(c) 5 3+
3
V (X-2)2)))
3
1)
=--:
ab
,whichexactlycoin-
\037
integral)
:rt)
1t
4\"'
\302\267
the initial
\037
6.4. Changing
the Variable
in
Definite
279)
Integral)
:'1
6.4.7.Comput
e the
nt
x sin x
I == S +
cost x dx.
egra 1
o)
Solution.Reduce this integral
to the sum of two integrals:)
Jt
x sin x
- I2'
dx = I1-1
I = S l+cos2xdx -f-S 1+cos2x
x
sin
Jt
2)
To the integra 1
x sin x
dx
I2 = S 1+cos2x
Jt
apply
the substit ut ion
x==='Jt-t,
dx
===
dt ,
Jt
3t
'Jt
Then)
J 2 ==
1[
2
(3t-t)sin (3t-t) dt
Sn l+c082 (3t-t)
===
S
0
(3t-/) sin
dt ==
2t
l+cos
2)
1[
222
2
1C
=n S + cos2 t dt _ S +t sincost2 t dt
sin t
o)
Hence)
1[
1C
3t
t sin t dt
sin t dt _
x dx
n
I I1+ I2 S x+sincos
x + S + cos t
+cos t
S
0
o
===
=-=
\037
\302\267
o)
\037
\302\267
\037
0)
Sincethe first and the third integrals differ only

of the variable of integrat ion, we have)
31
2)
I=n S +sin t dt t
1
o)
cos\037
\302\267)))
In
the notation
Ch.
280)
I. The Definite
Integral)
To this integral apply the substitution
u ==
du ==
cast ,
sin t dt,
0)
j[)
o)
\037)
==
du
Jt \\
du
==Jt r
u2
j0
(1
J1\037
I -t-- u 2 ==\"\"4
\302\267
S1I1
Note. The indefinite integral J I eos x dx is not expressed in

elementary functions. But the given definite integral,as \\ve have
shown, can be computed with the aid of an artificial method.
Evaluate the integral
\\
\037
\037
6.4.8.
1 5 In(l+x)
dx.
+ x2
o
===
Solution.Make the substitut
ion
x == tan t,
dx
== dt2
eos) t
'
t
I)
o)
j'[)
1)
4)
Hence,)
n
4
I == JC
In
+tan2 t)
(1
see t
Transform the sum 1 + tan

1
see2 t
tan t ==tan
4*
d t == l
J
t:
n
In
(1+ tan
t) d t
+ tan
V2-sin
t =
\037
(t -/- 4 ) .
cost
Substitutinginto the integral, we obtain
\"tI
n
4
)dt-Sincostdt
\037
()
n
4
\037
In 2
\037
c: + 5o
(t +
Insin
In
\037
2+
=cc5\037ln2dt+Slnsin(t+
) dt-51ncos
0
t
\037
n
4
51nsin
(t + ) dt 5 In cast dt
o
\037
dt
0)))
-=
\037
-/2'
In2 + 11
\037
Now
6.4.Changing
let us show
the Variable
dz
.11
0)
,)
Integral
281)
the substitution)
ap\037ly
Jt
\037=
Definite
1 ==120 To this end
that
t==--z
'
4
dt
in
3t
3't
/2 =
to the integra I
SIncast dt
\302\267
())
Then)
/2 =
Jt)
()
S cas(
In
\037
-z)
.t
dz =
\037
In sin
S
0
\037
\037
-z)] dz =
4)
..
J1)
S In
sin
\037
.+
z)
dz = /t.
o)
Therefore)
Jt
2.)
I ==BIn
Note that in this problem, as well as in the precedingone, the

In
dx is not expressed
in element ary funindefinite integra I
S l
et ions.
\037 \0372X)
6.4.9.Prove that for any given integral with finite limits a and b
one can always choose the linear substitution x pt + q (p, q constants) so as to transform this integral into a new one with limits
o and
Solution. We notice that the substitution x===pt+q satisfies
explicitly the conditions of the theorem on changing the variable.
Sincet must equal zero at x a and t must equal unity at x ==b
\\ve have for p and q the following system of equations
\037
1.
\037
a==p.O+q,
b ==
p.1 --1-q
,)
b-a, q ==a. Hence,)
whence p ==
\037
f(x)dx=(b-a)f [(b-a)t+a]dt.
\037
0)))
282
Ch,
6.4.10.
Compute the
/. The Definite
sum of two
integrals
2
3
-5
e ( x-3\")
\037e(X+5)2dx+3\037
-4
/ ntegral)
dx.
us transform each of the given integrals into an

0 and 1 (see the precedingproblem).
with
limits
integral
To this end apply the substitution x == t 4 to the first integra Then dx == dt and
Solution.Let
--
1.
11=
Apply
e<x+5)2dx =
\037
the substitution x=
dx--3) and
e(-t+
1)2dt
\037
\037
e<t-I)2dt.
\037
to the second integral. Then
\037
dt
2
3
/(
12=3\037
1
2 2
X-3\" )
dx=\037e(t-1)2dt.
0
3)
Hence)
11+ 12 =
\037
e(t-1)2dt + e<t-I)2dt=0.
\037
0)
2
9
Note that neither of the integrals (' e(x+5)2dx and J e (

evaluated separately in elementary functions.
Prove that the integral)
X_\037
\037
6.4.11.
3T
() sin 2kx
\\
cJ
SlIlX
dx
equals zero if k is an integer.

Solution. Make the substitut ion)
dx
-- ,
x ==j(
dt
S
o
2kx
sIn x
si\037
dx =
S
\037
o)
Jt
Jt)
o)
,)
Then at k an integral number we

IT
t)
2k
sin.
sIn
get:
(1[-t) dt ==_
(It-i)
\037
S
0)))
2kt
sIn t
si\037
dt.
3 ) dx IS
\037
6.4. Changing
the Variable
in
Definite
283)
Integral
Sincethe definite integral does not depend on notation

able of integration, we
of the vari-
have)
I == I
6.4.t 2. Compute the
,)
whence
O.
===
integral)
V3
2
dx
r
J
JI'I
\302\267
x\037
2)
Solution.Apply the substitution x
sin t (the given function is

==
The
new
dx
cas
limits
of integration t 1 and
t
dt.
monotonic),
are found from the equax)
. I ==SIn,
. t . Y3 ==sIn
. t
t Ions
2
\"2
===
not
t2
\302\267
We may put
3'
3t
===
but
t1
3t
(3 and
===
t 2 ==
other values may
also be chosen, for instance,

5n
23t
11
==6 and 12=-=3\"'
Jl
3)
1C
In both casesthe variable

x ==sin 1 runs throughout the
entireinterval
[ .
\0373
\037
monotonic both on
t)
k.&\302\243
Fig.
5)
64)
(see Fig. 64), the function sin t being
5
[ . ] and [2;. 6 ] .
1t
\037
\037
Let us show that the results of the two integrations will

Indeed,)
V3
rr
r
J
dx
x\302\245l-x
=
2
rr
cost
3
df
rr
\037
\037
sint
- sin/cost.,
-
\\
I 3=
= In tan2)
Jt
rr
tan\"::=
''::-In
6
12)
On the other hand, taking into considerationthat

21t
on the interval 3 ;
we obtain)))
\0371t
:n:
6)
= In tan
coincide.
In
2\037\0373
cos1 is negative
Ch,
284)
.1\"3
2)
-.f5n
6
-J 6
3
X V\037\037X2
Jntegral)
5n
2\037
2)
.\\'
1
/. The Definite
dt
sin \037O(\037::s
t)
sin
t)
2\037
3)
51t
= In
tan\"2
51t
Note. Do not take t l = 6
the interval
51t
, 6
(0, (0)
that
= In
t an
tan
123t = In
1t
t2
\037
'
3
[\037,
\037
].
the function L (x) defined on the interval)

x
by the integral L (x) = 5
possessesthe following properties:
\037t
L (X IX2) = L (Xl) + L (X 2),

L
:\037
= L (X I
Solution.By the additivity
C dt
===
J
1
Let us change the variable
)-L
(x2).
property)
X 1X 2
L (X 1X2)
in
() 2dt
X'I
X'1
= dtT +
5
T'
X,)
the second integral)

z
t
I
t ==XIZ,
1
x
Xl
X 1X 2
dt ==x1dz,
2)
Then)
Xt
L (xt x2) ==
ere X IX2 = X 3'
\302\267
X2
L (X3) = L (Xl) + L
dt
dz
5T+5z
1
P U t t Ing
2 + Y3
V-3
since, with t varying on

' the values of the function x = sin t lie beyond
the limits of the interval

Prove
6.4.13.
6\"
2n
===
L (Xl) + L (x2).
--,
1)
X3
we 0bt aln
Xl)
(:;), i.e. e:) =

L
L (x3)
L (Xl)')))
6.4.Changing
\037
It is
in
I nte[!,ral
Definite
also easy to obtain the other corollary L(x ) =

\037
integral
any
the Variable
and n.
positive m and n this follows
I ndeed, for
L(x
\037l
and for a negative
from
285)
L (x) for
the relations)
)=mL(x+), L(x)=nL(/n).)
exponent,from
L (1)= 0, L
(r1) = L (-1-) =L (1)-L(x)=- L (x).
Now, taking advantage of the continuity of the integral as a function of the upper limit,we get the general property L (xa) ==aL (x).
Note. As is known, L (x)== In x. Herewe have obtained the principal properties of the logarithm proceedingonly from its determination with the aid of the integral.
3
6.4.14.
Transform the
== t.
(X-2)2
Solution.A
integral
\037
dx
(X-2)2
the substitution
by
the
application of the substitution throughout
would lead to the wrong result, since the inverse
the function x
function x == (t) is double-valued:x = 2+ V
The former branch canX 2 ==2 +
has two branches: Xl ==2
not attain values x > 2, the latter values x < 2. To obtain a COfrect result we have to break up the given integral in the following
interval
formal
[0,3]
-Vi;
cp
way:)
\037
put
i, i.e.
002)
200)
3
and to
Vi.
(X-2)2dx=(X-2)2dx+(X-2)2dx.
\037
\037
x ==
2-Vi in the
integral,and
first
second.Then we get
2
/1=
S
o
(x-
2)2dx =
J4
2 \037T
S
0
\037
dt
==2 -t- J/- t in
the
Vidt =
\302\267
\037
t
tdt
/2=j (X-2)2dx=
j 2VT =\"2S V =3'
\037
which
Hence,1==3+3=3,
is a
correctresult.It can be easily)))
Ch. V
286)
/. The Definite
Integral)
verified by directly computing the initial integral:
(xS
o
= + + = 3.
2)2dx = (X--;2)'1
I
0)
6.4.15.
Compute the integrals:)
5
dx
.
r
r
' (b) I
(a ) I
- +
I - 5 I-sin
1
y-x
dx
2X-1- Y3x+ I
J
o)
o)
31
dx
(c)
2
dx;
(d) 1=5 V-2x-x
\302\267
31
o)
4)
31
e) I - 5
4
sin
x+cas x
+ sin 2x dx,
\302\267
o)
a
(f)
I =.fx2 -V:+;dX, a> 0;)

o
2a
2
dx;
(g) I = 5 V2ax-x
I = Jr (1+dx
(h)
-1)
o)
\302\267
x\037r\037
6.4.16,
Applying a suitable change of the variable,

lowing definite integrals:)
a
2
dx
r
;
(a) .1 vX+T VlX+ 1)3 (b) f
2 ;
a
o)
V(a 2+b 2 )j2
2
dx
+x 4) ;
(d))
xdx
Y (x:!-
.f)
a\037)
V(3a 2 +b 2 )j2)
I)
6.4.17.
Consider the
integral
-2)
that
it
is equal to
\037
4\037\\2
-x )
'
It
,)
is easy to conclude
4-( -4) ] =4'
5 4+x2 =2arctan2-2=2[
]
-2)))
(bt
. Indeed,)
2
dx
the fol-
,x+ 1/:-x
o)
(C).f x (l
find
j'[
j'[
j'[
6.4.Changing
\037
the Variable
in
1ntegral
Definite
On the other hand, making the substitution x

x
dx=
\037=
\037b7)
+. we have)
-(i' -2
dt
2
I
2)
r dx 2 =
4+x
-J2
r
J
dt
--
t2
+ t2 )
\037
r
J
dt
4t 2
2\"
+1=2\"arctan2t
--
_\037
=-4.)
3t
2)
This result is obviously wrong, sincethe integrand

4+x2 > 0, and\037
this
be equal
the
function
cannot
of
definite
integral
consequently,
Find the mistake.
to a negative number
I
-.
\037
23'1
6.4.18.
Consider the
dx
integral 1==JC 5-2cosx ' Making the substio)
tution tan
2:= t
x
\\ve
23'1
\\
Jo
have
0
dx
2 dt
5-2COSX=\\
J (I+t )(5_21-t
1+t 2)
2
=O.
The result is obviously wrong, since the integrand is positi ve,

and, consequently,the integral of this function cannot be equal to
zero.Find the mistake.
Make sure that
6.4.19.
a formal change of the variable
=:x
2
f)
leads to the wrong result in the integral

V x2 dx. Find the
-2
mistake and explain it.
Is it1 possible to make the substitution x= sect 111 the
6.4.20.
\037
integral
I=
\037
V x2
+ 1 dx?
o)
6.4.21.
Given the integral
x = sin
for
t?)))
t. Is it
\037
l-x dx. Make the

2
possible to take the numbers It and
3t
\"2
substitution
as the limits
Ch, VI. The Definite Integral)
288)
Prove
6.4.22.
the equality)
Q
-Q
\037
for any cont inuous
f(x)dx=
dx
[f(x)+f(-x)]
ion f (x).)
funct
6.4.23.
Transform
\037
0)
2Jt
the definite integral
\037
f (x) cosxdx
by
the sub-
o)
stitution
\037
sinx===t.)
6.5.Simplification
of IntegralsBasedon
Properties
of Symmetry of Integrands
1.If
then)
f (x) dx ==2 \\ f (x) dx.
\\
-Q
\037
2.
[-a,a],
the function f (x) is even on

a
\037
[-Q,a],
the function f (x) is odd on
If
the
then)
f (x) dx = O.)
\037
-Q)
3. If
periodicwith period T, then)
the function f (x) is
b+nT
\037
f (x)dx =
\037
a+ nT)
where
11
f (x) dx,
is an integer.)
1
6.5.1.
Compute the
integral
Solution.Sincethe integrand
-1
\037
x dx.
I
f (x) ==
IS
an even function, we
have)
1
-1
\037
x dx = 2
I
6.5.2.
Compute the
\037
x dx = 2 xdx= x2 10
I
\037
--=
1.
0)
integral
7
4
r x sin x dx
.) x6 2
-7)
\302\267
Solution.Since the integrand is odd, we concludeat once

the integral equals zero.)))
that
6.5.Simplification
\037
6.5.3.Evaluate
289)
of Integrals)
the integrals)
Jt
(a)
f (x) cosnx dx;
\037
-3T
:IT
(b)
f (x) sin nxdx,
\037
-J[)
if: (1) f (x) is an even
funct
ion; (2) f (x) is an odd
funct ion.)
6.5.4.
Calculate the
integral
x
dx.
x 4 +2x2 +
5
-5
xl>
sin\037
Tn
6.5.5.Compute
the integral
.
xdx
5 cos4
periodicfunction with period Jt, since
S\037\0372:in4
3T)
Solution.The integrand
is a
(x +11)
= cos4 x + sin4
(x+ Jt) = cos4(x +n) +
sin 4 (x+n)
sin 2
Therefore it is
and lower limits:)
possible to subtract the number
Tn
sin 2x
:rt
sin 2x dx
cos4 x + sin 4 x
3T
50
1t
= f (x).
from the
upper
\"
sin 2x dx
cos4 x + sin 4 x
=2
4
tan
x dx
5 cos2 x (1 + tan 4 x)
\302\267
0)
= tan x,
dx
dt = cos2 x '
t
:rr
tan x dx
Prove the
6.5.6.
4)
-_ 5
2 S cos2x(l+tan4x)
n
0
n
\"\"4
2 _
_
-arctant
o-T.
l+t4
2t dt
1t
0)
equality)
cosxf (x )dx= 2 cosxf (x2) dx.

2
-0
\037
Solution.I t
IS
\037
0)
sufficient to show that the integrand IS even:

cos
t [( _X)2J = cosxt(x2
(-x)
).)))
Ch,
290)
6.5.7.
Compute the
V\"2
/. The Definite
Integral)
integral
3 -12x
2 +x+I
+3x6-IOx-7x
dx.
2
2x'1
-V2\
+2
Solution.
V\"2
+3x6
2x'1
-V2')
- -+210x() 7x3
x2
12x2
+x+ dx =
1
V2
\037
V2'
x-
2x'1-10xD-7x3+x
3X2(X4_4)+I_
dx +
d _
x2 +2
x2 +2
S
S
-V2
-V2
V2
=0+2 S [3(x4 -2x2) +

o
X2\0371
2
x
=-56 x -4x + ,m
arc an ..rr 2
r 2
0
V\"2
] dx=
=
-- -2+ v- .
In calculatingwe expandedthe given integral
two
integrals so as to obtain an odd integrand
and an even integrand in the

Compute the integral
second.
in
16
5V
j'[
'2
into the sum of
the
first
integral
6.5.8.
\"2
S cosxIn
1
:+
\037dx.
2)
Solution.The function f (x)= cosx is even. Let

funct
+x
us prove that the
-x is odd:
I-x=n I+X -1=-lnl+x=-cp(x).
cp(-x)=lnl+x
l_x
( I-x)
ion
cp
(x) -==
In
Thus, the integrand is the product of an even function

one, i.e. an odd funct ion, therefore
I
T
SI
cosxIn:+;dx=O.
.'2)
6.5.9.Prove
the validity of the following equalities:)))
by
an odd
6.5.Simplification
\037
(a)
Jt
sinD
XU
\037
xdx= 0; (b)
ecosx dx = 2
\037
3t
8)
2)
291)
of Integrals)
\037
eCOSX dx;
(c)
sinmxcosnxdx=O
(m
\037
and n natural numbers);
-JT)
Q
(d)
sin xf (cosx) dx ==O.
\\
-a)
6.5.10.
Prove the
equality)
h
\037
f (x) dx =
\037
f (a
+ b-x)dx.
a)
Solution.In the right-hand integral make the
-==
a+b
t,
dx ==
dt
x
,)
Then we obtain)
\037
t)
b)
a)
dx =
f (a+b-x)
\037
substitution)
f (t) dt =
\037
f (t) dt =
\037
f (x) dx.
a)
Note. The relationestablishedbetweenthe integrals can be explained geometrica

11 y
The graph of the function f(x), consideredon the interval [a, b],
is symmetrical to that of the function f (a +
consideredon
b
the same interval, about the straight line x =
Indeed,if the
point A lieson the x-axisand has the abscissax, then the point A',
which is symmetrical to it about the indicated straight line, has
the abscissa x'-==a-tb-x.
Therefore,
==f (x). But symmetrical figures have equal areas which are
expressedby definite integrals.And so,the proved equality is an
b-x),
at .
f(a+b-x')==f[a+b-(a+
+b-x)]
equality of areas of two symmetrical curvilineartrapezoids.

6.5.t I. Prove the equality
t
\037
f (x) g (t -x)dx = g (x)f (t -x)dx.

\037
0)))
Ch. V
292)
/. The
/ntegral)
Definite
Solution.Apply the substitution t -x==z in the right-hand integral;
then we have)
o
\037
g (t-z)f (z)dz=
1[
6.5.12.
Prove
the equality
31
sinm x dx =
cosm x dx and apply the

\037
\037
obtained result
in
(t-z)dz.
f (z) g
\037
0)
computing the following integrals:)

31
31
sin2 xdx.
cos2 X dx and
\037
\037
0)
we
Solution.On the basis of Problem6.5.10
1[
1[
sinm x dx =
\037
\037
Hence,in
sinm
\037
\037
1[
:rt
1[
x) dx = cosm x dx.
part.icular,)
2
=
have)
cos2 xdx;
sin2 xdx=
\037
\037
0)
add these integrals:)

31
:rt
2/=
hence,
(sin x+cosx)dx=S dx=

2
S
o
\037
.;
0)
1=4'
1t
Prove
6.5.13.
the equality)
31
31
(sinx) dx = 2
\037
\"'2
f (sin x) dx.
\037
0)
Solution.Since)
2'
:rt
1[
f
o
\037
(sinx) dx =
\037
f (sinx)dx +
:rt
f
\037
1[
T)))
(sinx) dx,
6.5.Silnpli
\037
it
is sufficient to prove
/ ntegral
fication of
293)
s)
that)
1[
1[
f (sinx) dx=
\037
f (sinx) dx.
\037
Jt
2')
In the left integral make the substitution)
dx=
dt
- -
x= 'Jt-t,
j(
j'[
,)
'Jt
0)
Then)
0
n
\037
Jt
f[sin(n-t)]dt=)
f(sinx)dx=-\037
1[
\"2)
2)
1[
31
(sint) dt =
f
\037
6.5.14.
Prove the
f
\037
(sinx) dx.
0)
equality)
:t
:rt
S
o
Solution.In the
xf (sinx) dx =
left integral
\037
f (sinx) dx.
S
0
make the substitution
X='Jt-t,
dx= -dt,)
t)
Jt
o)
'Jt)
Then we obtain)
- (n-t)
0
:rt
\037
xt (SIl1x)dx=
\037
[sin(n-t)]dt=
1[)
\037
nf (sint) dt
Whence)
31
;rr
xf
\037
(sinx)dx= n f (sinx) dx,
which is equivalent to the gIven
1[
3t
\037
equality.)))
\037
0)
tf
(sint) dt.
294
Ch,
6.5.15.
Using the
sin
/. The Defini.fe
Integral)
equality
+ )x _
= 2 + cosX + cos2x + ... + cosnx,
. x
I
\037
2 sIn
prove
2)
that)
sin
31
('
J
that
+ ;) x
Sin
Prove
6.5.16.
dx == n.
2)
2 cos2x+
cp(x)=+ao+atcosx+btsinx+a
if
then
+b2 sin2x+...
+ancosnx+bnsinnx,
2n
231
(a)
cp
\037
(x)dx = 3ta o; (b)
cp
\037
(x)coskx dx = na k;
231
(c)
cp
\037
(x)sin kx dx = nb k
(k
= 1,2,
o)
\037
...,
n).
6.6.Integrationby Parts.ReductionFormulas
If
and v are functions of x and have continuous derivatives,
then)
b
U
\037
or, more
(x)v' (x) dx = u (x)v (x)\\:
\037
v (x)u' (x)dx
a)
briefly,)
b
\037
udv=uv\\:- vdu.
\037
a)
6.6.1.Compute the
integral
xe dx.
X
\037
o)
Solution.Let
us
put)
x = u,
du ==dx;
eX
dx == dv;
v ==eX ,
since the funct ions u =- x and v ==eX are

which is quite legitimate,
continuous and have continuous derivatives on the interval [0,
Using the formula for integration by parts, we obtain
)
xe dx = xe
X
I\037
\037
1].
\037
eX
dx =
e-
eX
I\037
1.)))
6.6.Integration
\037
by
.)
Parts.
Formulas
Reduction
295)
bn
6.6.2.
Compute the
I = eax sin bx dx.
integral
\037
o)
Solution.Let
us
put
= eaxdx',
I
v = (!lx.
u == sin bx,
du
dv
= b cosbx dx,)
a)
v = \037
a eax togetherwith their deri.

the formula for invatives are continuous on the interval
tegration by parts is applicable:)
Sincethe functions
u == sin bx,
[0,It],
b --j
I=-eaxsinbx
j{
'\\
eaxcosbxdx=
o)
b
:rt
-\037
a
5 eaxcosbxdx=
\037
11.
o)
= cosbx,
du ==
Then)
11'Put)
parts the integral
Now let us integrate by
dv ==eax dx,
b sin bx dx,)
v ==
a)
eax
,
n
b
( J...
_.!!..
=
1 a a eaxcosbx 0 + a S eaxsin bx dx ) =
I
I
\\
\\
\037
a:t
= _ a (_
\037
eb
a
an
_ a )_ a2 I =
\037
b\037
b+
(e
2)
Hence)
a2
+ = (ea;2+ I )
a2 I
a
b2
1_
In part icular, at a ==b
,)
b+
aT[
(e
= 1 we get)
1);
SexSinxdx=(e +1).
1l
\037
o)))
a2 +b 2
)
\302\267)
-b2
a)2
\302\267
Ch, VI. The Definite Integral)
296)
6.6.3.
Compute the
xdx.
In 3
integral
\037
1)
1[2)
6.6.4.Compute the
integral
\037
sin V:Xdx.
o)
Solution.First make the
substitution)
vx- = t,
x = t 2,
dx == 2t dt
j[
1[2
,)
2)
Whence)
n2
4
3in
\037
Vi dx = 2
t
\037
sin t dt.
0)
Integrateby parts the latter integral.

Put)
t
sin t dt = dv;
= u',
du =
v=
dt;)
cast
.)
Then)
2?
o
tSintdt=2-tcostl0 + ? coStdt =2Sint\\ =2.
6.6.5.
Compute the integral
I= r
arc sin
, VI
\037
+x
a)
dx.
o)
Jt
6.6.6.
Compute the
integral
\037
x2 sin xdx.
o)
6.6.7.Compute the
tural
number.
integral
2
2
In = (a _x )n dx,
where
is a na-
\037
Solution.The integral can be computedby expandingthe integrand

2
(a _x )n accordingto the formula of the Newton binomial, but it
2
It is simpler to deducea formula

involves cumbersomecalculations.
reducing the integral Into the integral In-I.To this end
for
let)))
6.6.Integration
\037
us
expand the integral

fn =
\037
2
(a _X 2)n-l (a2
Formulas)
297)
in the following way:)

a
2 dx a2f
X (a2 _X 2)n-l X dx
)
In
Parts. Reduction
by
n-l-
-X
\037
0)
and integrate the latter integral by parts:)

(a2 _x2)n-l X dx == dv,
u=x;)
v=
du ==dx;)
We obtain)
-x a -x
In ==a2jn -1+ 2n
I
2n
(a2 _x2)n
2n
(n
=1=
0).)
--
--I.
2n
)'ldx==a21
n -1
5 (a2-x2
2n
o)
Whence)
jn = a2 2n2n+ In -1
\302\267
This formula is valid at any real n other than 0 and

In particular, at natural n, taking into account that)
-i-.
I0 =
\037
dx = a,
o)
we get
In ==a
2n +
2n (2n
- - . .6....5.3
4) .
2) (2n
(2n+I) (2n-l)
(2n-3)
where)
6.6.8.
Using the
lowing
== a 2n + 1
...
I)!! .3.5. ..
(2n)!!==2.4.6
(2n +
4.2
(2n),
(2n + 1).
== 1
1-3+ 5-7 +...+(-1)

2n+l
c\037
C\037
c\037
==
are binomial coefficients.

Solution.Consider the integral
\\vhere
')
result of the precedingproblem obtain the fol-
formula:)
c\037
(2n)!!
(2n+I)!!
C\037\037
J n =- ( 1
5
o)))
x 2) n dx ==
(2n)!!
+I)!!
\302\267
(2n
(2n)!!
'
(2n+l)!!
Ch,
298)
J. The Definite
J ntegral)
Expanding the integrand by the formula of the Newton binomial

and integrating within the limits from 0 to 1, we get:)
I
In=
(l-x)ndx=
2
\037
o)
= (1
o
\037
= [x-
C\037X2
CAX3
C\037X4
C\037xD
C\037X7
the
completes
+...+ (-I)n
dx =
x2n + 1
1
_
J 01
(_l)n
+ 2n+l
-3\"+5-7+'\"
Ch
c\037
C;\037
')
proof.
6.6.9.
Compute the
integral)
1[
Hm =
dx =
sinmx
\037
\037
a natural number).
Solution.The substitut
2'
31
(m
C\037x2n)
2n+
=1
which
+ ... + (-1)n
C\037X6
cosmxdx
0)
ion)
sinx=t,
casx dx = dt,
Jt
2)
reducesthe second integral to the

:rt
\"2
Hm=
m-}
\037
m-l
(l-sinx)-;-cosxdx=(l-t)-;-dt,
2
integral)
\037
0)
consideredin Problem 6.6.7with a
\037
1 and
n ==
m-l .
the reduction formula)
li = m-l
m. Hm-2
m
is valid here, since)
2.m-l
2
Hm==/m-l= m2. 2 +
\037
1)
Therefore,
(m=i=O, m=l= 1)
m-lI - = m-I
- = ---1
Jm 1
2)))
Hm -2
\302\267
\037
If
6.6.Integration
by
Parts.
Reduction
Formulas
299)
is an odd number, the obtained reduction formula reduces
Hm to)
:rt
HI= cosx dx = I,
\037
o)
therefore)
Hm = (m-I)f!
mil')
reduction formula transforms
If m is an even number then the
Hm
into)
j[
2
Ho=Sdx= ,
\037
o)
therefore)
(m-I) ..::
H =
II
Tn
6.6.to.Compute the
2.)
mIl
integral)
1=
1t
xsinmxdx
\037
o)
(m a natural
number).
t4 and
results of Problems6.5.
000)
Solution.Taking advantage
we get)
6.5.13,
of the
1t
1t
1=S xsinmxdx=
S sinmxdX=JtS sinmxdx,
\037
which, taking into considerationt he result of Problem

n2
\302\267
\"2
(m
- I)!!. .
m!!
If
I=\037xsinmxdx=
Jt (m-l)fI.
If m
o
mil
m IS
IS
6.6.9,gives
even,
odd.
6.6.t 1.Compute
na tural
the integral
1n =
\037
xm (In x)n dx; m
> 0, n
is a
number.
the integrand f (x)-== xm (In x)n
can be made continuouson the interval)))
Solution.First of all note that,
has no meaning at
x= 0
it
though
[0,1]for
any
by virtue of
m
/. The Definite / ntegral)

m > 0 and n > 0, by putting f (0)==O. Indeed,
!irnxm(lnx)n=!irn
(x lnxr=O
x -+0)
x-++O
Ch. V
300)
Problem 3.2.4.
follows that the integral In existsat

we integrate by parts, putting
dv==xmdx,
u=(lnx)n,
xm + 1
n (In x)n-l
du=
dx, V=
Hence,in particular, it
> 0, n > O. To compute it
m+l
Hence,
1
Xm
')
+ 1(In x)n
n
xm(1nx)n-ldx=ln_l'
m+,
m+'
S
o-m+'o
In=\037xm(1nx)ndx=
The formula obtained reduces In to In-I' In particular, with a na\\
tural n,
taking into account that

1
I
/ 0 = S xm dx = m+1
,
o)
we
get)
In=(_I)n(m+ ;)n+l'
n
6.6.12,
Compute the
where m and
Solution.Let
integral
Im.n=o xm(l--x)ndx.
\037
are non-negative integers.

us
put
(l-x)n=u; x dx =dv;xm+l
v= m+I
du=-n(1-x)n-1dx;
m
')
Then)
1
1m.n =
:n\037J,
(1--x)n]+
\037
m +1
m\037 I
Sx
(l-x)n-ldx =
o)
m\037
+1.\"-I'
- 1.
If n
The obtained formula is valid for all n > 0, and m::---is a positive integer, then, applying this formula successivelyn
times,we get
(n-I)
/m,n=m+ 1/ m+ 1, n -1 = (m+l)(m+2)Im+2,n-2=='\"
n
..- (n-I)...[n-(n-I)]
n
\302\267
.(fn-t- n )
(m+ 1)(m+2)..
m +n
O')))
\037
But)
6.7.Approximating
301)
Integrals)
-m+n+1 -m+n+1
-5
lm+n,o1
xm +n + 1
xm+ndx
o)
Hence,)
Definite
\302\267
.3.2.} .
(n-I)(n-2)..
Im, n = (m+ I)n(m-t--2)..
.(m+n)(m +n+I)
The obtained result,

in the form)
non-negative integer,can be written
m a
with
mln!
'
1 , n == (m+n+
1)1
m
6.6.13.
Compute the integrals:
(b) (x-l)e-xdx;
(a) arctanV'xdx;
o
1
\037
\037
0)
Jt
(c) 5
xdx
sin2
(d) xarctanxdx;
x;
\037
3t
o)
4)
:rt
(e)
x n (1+
1
\037
x2
) dx;
(f)
In (1-\\- tan
\037
x)dx;
o)
o)
:rt
16
(g) sin 2x arc tan (sinx)dx;
(h)
\037
arc tan
\037
1)
Prove that
6.6.14.
1
-{Vx-ldx.
=
5 (arccasx)n dx n(
Prove
6.6.15.
lowing formula
that
r-l- (n-l)S (arccasx)n-2
if
is valid
xf\"
(n
> 1).)
0)
f\"
(x)
is continuous on [a, b],then the fol-
\037
dx
\037
(x)dx = [bf' (b)
- - f (b)]
[af'(a)
f (a)].
a)
\037
6.7.ApproximatingDefiniteIntegrals
1.Trapezoidal
interval [a, b]
. formula. Divide the b-a
...,
into n equal
k==O, 1,
n, and
parts by pOints xk=a+k h, where h==---,
n
apply the formula
b
b-a
Jf\037)dx\037l1
[ 2f(xo)+f(xt)+...+f(xn-l)+\"2f(xn)
]
\302\267
t1)))
Ch,
302)
error R
The
J. The Definite
Integral)
this formula is estimated as follows:

M,
. where M, = sup I f\" (x)
IR I
l(\037;a)a
in
\037
a\037x\037b
(assumingthat the second derivative is bounded).

2. Simpson'sformula. Divide the interval [a, b] into 2n equal
b
parts by points Xk = a+kh. where h = 2n a, and apply the formula
h
dx
S f (x)
a
{f (xo) + f (x,n) + 4 [f (XI) + f (xa ) +
6n
\302\267
\302\267
)+...
+f(X - )]}.
+f(X 2n -1)] +2 [f(x2)+f(x4
that
Assuming
...
b
\037
is estiInated
(x) existsand is bounded, the error

the following way:
in
flv
in
h
IRI M4(b-a)O
180(2n)4 ' were
\037
M4
2n
If
IV
this formula
X.
)1
a\037\037\037b
6.7.1.
Approximate the integral
formula at
n ==
10.
I = S I':X using the
trapezoidal
...,
Solution. Let us tabulate the values of the integrand,

= 0, 1,
10) being calculatedwithin
Yi = f (Xi) (i
nates
cimal places.)
I +x&
Xi
0.0000
O.]000
0.2000
0.3000
o 4000
0.5000
I
1
1
.0000
.1000
.2000
.3000
.4000
.5000
Yi=r+x
1 +Xi
Xi
I,
0.6000
0.7000
0.8000
0.9000
1 0000
I 0000
0.9091
0.8333
0.7692
0.7143
0.6667
I
I
I
.6000
.7000
.8000
.9000
2.0000
ordi-
the
de-
four
Yi
=I
+ Xt
0.6250
0.5882
0.5556
0.5263
0.5000
-----)
Using the trapezoidal formula, we obtain

1
/=5
o)
I \037x
\037
l\037
1.000\302\2601\302\260.5000
+0.9091
+0.8333+
+ O.5S56+
+ 0.6667
+ 0.5882
+ 0.6250
+ 0.7692
+ 0.7143
;::::;
0.6938.)))
+ 0.5263= /0 6.9377= 0.69377
)
\302\267
6.7.Approximating
\037
Definite
303)
Integrals)
have f\" (x)=

(I \037x>3
t.hen f\" (x)
2. Consequently,we may take the
Sincea x
number 2 as M 2 and estimatethe error:
Estimate the error

\037
\037
the result
in
1,
\037
obtained.We
\302\267
\037
2 = 1
12X 102 600
< O.00 17
\302\267
We calculated the ordinates accurateto four decimal places,and

0.00005
= 0.00005more
the round-off error doesnot exceed 10 (1+ 9
. 9 = 0.000045,
since the
precisely,
O.O\037\03705
xl)
ordinatesYo and
YIO
are
exact numbers).Thus,
the total error due to using the trapezoidal

18.
and
formula
rounding off the ordinates does not exceed0.00
Note that when computing the given integral by the NewtonLeibniz formula we obtain)
1
dx
1=S I+x
=In(l+x)0=ln2\0370.69315.
1
o)
i.
Thus, the error in the result obtained does not exceed0.0007,e.

we have obtained a result accurateto three decimal places.
1.5
eO.IX
the
dx
6.7.2.Evaluate by Simpson'sformula
integral S
0.5
accurate to four decimal places.
accuSolution.To give a value of 2n which ensures the required
e 1x
=
we
we
find
flv (x). Successivelydifferentiating f (x)
get
racy,
x
-,
O
flv
3
2 -2.4x
lx'-O.004x
+ 24)= p ;:>e .IX ,
+ 0.12x
(0.000
(x) = eO;:x
P (x) is
the polynomial in parentheses.On the interval

1X increasesatld therefore reaches
the function (x) =eO.
= eO.IO
=
The upper estimate
its greatest value at x
(1.5)
can be
of the absolute value of the polynomial P (x) divided by
obtained as the sum of moduli of its separate terms.The greatest
therefore
value of each summand is attained at x=
0.000-1 0.004 0.12 2.4 24
P (x)
where
[0.5,1.5]
< 1.2.
1.5:
cp
cp
xC>
0.5,
xO
<
+ x4 +
0.0002
+ 0.016+ 0.96+ 38.4+ 768 < 808.
X 808
< 1 000.Hence,the number 1 000may
(x) < 1.2
x
x2
\037
And
so,
flv
be taken as M..)))
x3
XO
\037
\037
Ch. V
304)
/. The Definite
/ ntegral)
We have to compute the integral accurateto four decimal places.

To ensure such accuracy it is necessary that the sum of errors of
the method, operations and final rounding off should not exceed
For this purpose we choosea value of 2n (which will de0.0001.
termine the step of integration h) so that the inequality
I
= 5.1O1<+ 0.0001
1i)
\302\267
is sat isfied.
Solving the inequality
lox 000 < 5 X

1
180(2n)4
we obtain)
10
0
,)
> 19.
20;then the step of integration h will
b-a= ] = 0.05.
h
2n
Let us take
2n ==
==2n
be equal to
20
more accuratecalculationshows that at 2n == 20
/R/<3.5xlO-o.
i. e.
with an error
If we calculateYi within five decimal places,
then the error of the final rounding off will
not exceeding
also be not greater than
Thus, the total error will be less
0
than
X
eO. IX
Now compilea table of values of the function y==-Xfor the va10-\302\260,
1.
4.5 10-< 0.000
lues of x from
are carriedout
0.5to 1.5with
within
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
10-\302\260.
Xi
0.50
0.55
0.60
0.65
0.70
0.75
0.80
0.85
0.90
0.95
.00
1 .05
I
five
The ralculat ions

the step h == 0.05.
decimal places.)
O.1 Xl
0.050
0.055
0.060
0.065
0.070
0.075
0.080
0.085
0.090
0.095
O.100
o 105
\037o.
IX,
Yi
.05127
.05654
.00184
] .06716
1.0725]
I .07788
I .08329
I .08872
I 09417
] 09966
7
I 1 051
.
.
.
l.1107
2.lO254
I
I
.92098
.76973
. 178
.53216
6\037
.4:3717
l.35411
.28085
1.21574 !
I
.15751
.10517
.05782)))
6.7.Approximating
\037
17
18
19
20
.10
.15
I
I
0.110
0.115
1.20
1.25
] .30
1.35
1.40
o 120
O.125
O.130
O.135
O.140
O.145
O.150
1.45
1
.50
305)
Integrals)
eO'1xi
O.lx,
Xi
12
13
14
15
16
Definite
.11628
.12187
1.12750
.13315
.13883
.14454
I.15027
.15604
.16]83
1
Yi
1.01480
0.97554
0.93958
0.90652
0.87602
0.84781
0.79727
0.77455)
I
I
0.82162
For pictorialness sake we use the tabular data to compile the

following calculationchart:)
Yi
0
I
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
II
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
Xi
0.50
0.55
0.60
0.65
at
l=O and
i=20
2.10254
.50
Sums
.28085
1.15754
I
.05782
at an even t
.76973
.53216
.35411
1.21574
.10517
l.0 480
I
I
1.45
0.80
0.85
0.90
0.95
1.00
1.05
..15
10
1.20
1.25
1.30
.35
.40
.92098
.64178
.43717
0.70
0.75
I
I
at an odd l
0.97554
0.90652
0.84781
0.77455
2.87709
0.79727
12.02328
0.93958
0.87602
0.82162
10.62893)
Using Simpson'sformula, we get
1.5
I
eO.IX
+
+ 4 x 12.02328
(2.87709
xdx\037
60
5
0.5)
.
=
+ 2 X 10.62893)::;::
60 72.22807 1.2038.)))
1
Ch,
306)
I. The Definite
Integral)
6.7.3.
The river is 26 m wide. The table below showsthe successive depths of the river measuredacross its sectionat steps of 2 m:)
0
12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26
10
0.3 0.9 .7 2. 2.8 3.43.33.03.52.9 .7 .20.80.6)

I
Herex denotes the distance from
one bank and y, the correspondthe mean rate of flow is

ing depth (in metres). Knowing that
m/sec,determine the flowrate per second Q of the water in the
river.
Solution.By the trapezoidal formula the area S of the cross-section
1.3
26
S=
ydx
S
o
\037
+ 0.9+ 1.7+2.1+ 2.8+3.4+

2[ (0.3+0.6)
+ 0.8] = 55.5(m 2).)
+ 3.3+ 3.0+ 3.5+ 2.9+ 1.7 + 1.2
\037
Hence,)
1.3
72 (m 3/sec).
Q = 55.5X
It is impossibleto estimate the error accurately in this case.Some
indirect methods of estimationenable us to indicate approximately
the order of the error. The error in S is about 3 m 2, hence, the
error in Q is about 4 m 3/sec.
\037
6.7.4.Compute the
following integrals:)
J1
x
(a) S Si; dx accurate to three decimal places,using Simpson's
IT
formula;)
1
(b)
\037
rx2dx accurateto
three decimalplaces,by the trapezoidal
formula.
6.7.5.
By Simpson'sformula,
1
J=
approximate the
.36
\037
f(x)dx,
1.05)))
integral)
6.8.Additional
\037
if
\037
307)
Problems)
the integrand is defined by the following table:)
.10
.15
1.20 1.25 1.30 1.35
) .05
t (x)
2.36
2.50 2.74
3.46
3.04
3.98
4.6)
6.8.AdditionalProblems
6.8.t. Given the funct ion)
I-x
f (x) =
\302\260
{ (2-X)2
Check directly that the
at
at
at
O\037x\037
1,
< x< 2,
2 < x\037 3.)
I
funct ion)
x
F (x) =
\037
f (t) dt
[0,
is continuous on the interval

3] and that its derivative at
interior point of this interval existsand is equal to f (x).
Show that the funct ion
6.8.2.
;<
::
-I
<
f(X)={
\037
\037;:
(\037an
on the interval
6.8.4.A
point x
angle
\037
=a
[a, b],
then
I,
\037
at
is integrable on the interval

6.8.3. one assert that
each
x==l
[0, 1].
if
it
a function is absolutely integrable

is integrable on this interval?
line tangent to the graph of the function iJ = f (x) at the

the axis of abscissasand an
with
forms an angle
\037
at the point x = b.
b
Evaluate
f\"
\037
(x)dx,
if
f\"
(x)
IS
a cant inuous fund ion.
a)
6.8.5.Prove that)
x
S E (x)
o)))
dx = E (x) (E2(X)-I)+ E (x) [x-E(x)].
Ch
308)
Given
6.8.6.
ct ions
FI(x).=
J.
The Definite
Integral)
Jt
5 1+cos2 x . Make sure

dx
the integral
that
the
fun-
o)
cas
arc cas V2
and F (x) = .r--arc tan .r
.r2
2
r
r 2
V l+cos
x
2x
tan x
\"
are antiderivatives for the integrand. Is it possible to use both antiderivatives for computing the definite integral by the NewtonLeibniz formula? If not, which of the ant iderivat ives can be used?
6.8.7.For f (x) find such an antiderivative which attains the given

magnitude y = Yo at x = Xo (Cauchy's problem).)
6.8.8.At
what
value of
I)
; is the equality
e2X dx=e2\037
\037
(b-a)ful-
a)
filled? Show that)

t
10
6.8.9.
Investigate the
x
F (x)=
\037
> a+b
2')
function defined by the definite integral
VI-t'dt.
6.8.to.Show that
the inequalities
1
I
o 692::::;;; XX dx::::;;;
\037
o)
are valid.
6.8.1
t. With
the aid of the inequality
x sin x
\037
\037
\037
Jt
2
\037
2') show that < 5o dx <

6.8.12.
Using the inequality sin x x- x;
.n \\
sin
2\"
\302\267
\037
Bunyakovskyinequality, show
x ( 0::::;;;
x::::;;;
(x\037O)
and the Schwarz.
that)
:rr
1.096<
Vxsinxdx< 1.111.
\\
o)
6.8.13.
Assume that integra ble funct ions PI (x),P2 (x),P3 (x), P4(x)
are given on the interval [a, b], the function PI (x) is non-negative,)))
\037
6.8.Additional
309)
Problems)
and the functions P2 (x), P3 (x), P4 (x) satisfy the

P3 (x)
Prove
\037
P2 (x)
\037nequality
P4 (x).)
\037
that)
\037
/J
Pa (x) PI (x) dx
\037
\037
P2(x) PI (x) dx
P4
\037
\037
(x) PI (x) dx.
a)
Let
6.8.14.
Prove
that
the function f(x) be positive on the interval

the expression
h
5f
(x)
reachesthe least value
[a, b].
dx.5
f\037:)
a)
only
f (x) is constant on
if
this interval.
Prove that)
6.8.15.
:rt
arc tan x
5o
dx == 2
\037
-!-
5 sIn t dt .
0)
6.8.16.
Prove that one of the ant iderivat ives of an even funct ion
is an odd function, and any antiderivative of an odd function is
an even funct ion.
Prove that
6.8.17.
f (x) is a continuous
if
period T, then the integral
I=
a+T
\037
f (x) dx
periodicfunction
with
does not depend on
a.
a)
Prove
6.8.18.
through
b
uv\\fl}
\037
a)
that
if
u===u(x),
v=v(x) and their derivatives
order n are continuous on the interval [a, b], then)
dx = [uv<n-u -u'v<n-2)+ ... +
(-1)n-lu(n-II v]
I\037
+(
1)
U (11) V
\037
a)))
dx.
Chapter7
APPLICATIONS
OF THE DEFINITE
INTEGRAL)
7.1.Computingthe Limitsof SUlnswith

the Aid of DefiniteIntegrals
\037
It is often necessary to compute the limit of a sum when the

number of summands increasesunlimitedly. In some casessuch limits can be found with the aid of the definite integral if it is possible to transform the given sum into an integral sum.
For instance, considering the points \037,
, n as points of
n
n
2,
....!!:..
division of the interval [0.1]into n equal parts of length

for each continuous fun,ction f (x), we have
\037x
= -!z.
[f ( )
COlnpute
}\037\037
7.1.t.
-k-
\037
Ii rn
f1.
-+
\037
00
+f ( ) +
\302\267
\302\267
\302\267
\037
2n
n
\037
.....,
in'::+ sin
n
-+-f
( ) ] = So
+ . .. + sin (n
1)n
(x) dx.
1.
Solution. The numbers in brackets represent the values of the

function f (x) = sin x at the points
=-; =-,
n
2n
X2
xn
- = (n-I)
1
11
n)
==.::.
subdividing the interval [0,Jt] into n equal parts of length
n
nn
Therefore, if we add the summand sin n = 0 to our sum, the latter will be the integral sum for the funct ion f (x) = sin x on the
\037x
interval [0,Jt].
By definition, the limit of such an integral sum as n -+ 00
definite integral of the funct ion f (x) = sin x from 0 to n:
n
lim
n
-+
(1J)
..n
n ( sIn n + SIn n +
\037Jl
\302\267
\302\267
\302\267
. (n
+ sIn
i\037
the
. nn =
+ sIn
n)
1)n
:11
= S sinxdx=-
cosxl:= 2.
o)))
\037
7.1.Computing
7.1.2.
Compute the
.
1m
limit
...
Solution.l'ransform the
I
1
_+I
Y4n2-1
+
4n 2 -22
( y 4n 2-1+ y__
I
n-+oo
Y4n 2
-2 +
2
sum
311)
the Limits of Sums)
+ y 4n 2-n2) .
1
\302\267
\302\267
\302\267
parenthesesin the following way:
in
+_Y4n 2 -n2 _
I
+ -.f
+\"'+-of4- '
/
4( V 4-fi2
( y)
(n2Y
=n
\037
The obtained sum is the integral sum for the function f (x) =
=
on the interval [0,I] subdivided into n equal parts.
2
4-x
V\037
The limit of this sum as n \037 00 is equal to the definite integral

of this funct ion from 0 to 1:)
I 1m
n- (
00
Y4n 2
-1+
___ + . .. + Y4n 2-n2 ) =

Y4n 2 -2
I
:\"
/)
=../
S
1
\037
\"
\037
II +
. _x I =
=arc SIn
2
0
_n6
\302\267
o)
7.1.3.
Compute
}\037moo
x2
n\0373
+Y
n\0376
+Y
n\0379
]'
+'\" + V n+3\037-1)
Solution.Transform the given expression in t he following way:

\037
l l-t===
-./+ + -./+ +
n
-.
\037
r-
+ 0 +..
V
I
I
1
.. -./
2.+
n
\302\267
\037
- -
+3 (n 1)
+ ' + -.
+\037
n
.. /
1
I
1
--
+3 (n n I)J
\302\267
The obtained sum is the integral sum for the funct ion f (x) =
= V 1 on the interval [0, therefore, by defin it ion,
\037x
}\037noo
\037
33
3];
(1+Y
=
n\0373
j'o Y
+Y
l\037x
dX=
n\0376
+'
.. Y
+
n+3\037n-lJ
J(l+X)-2dx=2VI+x :=4-2=2.
0)))
Ch.
312)
II. Applications
7.1.4.
Using the
Integral)
definite integral, compute the following
.. . + n +n ) ;
lin1
(a) n-+oo
( n + I + n +2 +
-. 1
-.
lim J.1
(V +n +
(b)fl-+OOn
of the Definite
\037
limits:
/+
- ..
\037
+ .. . + -.V 1 + n ) ;
\037
. + V + V 3+ . + V .,
V 4
.
21t
1 cas -1-cas + . + cas(n-I)1t'.
(d )
2n
2n ( +
2n
2n
)
.
n
(e)
[(n + 1)2+ (n+2)2+. (2n)2 J
ni,
7.1.5.
Compute the limit A = Iim
(c)
I Hn
-+
\"2
-\037
00
1t
11
..
\302\267
n l\037oo
fl
\302\267
-t--
\037\037
Solution.Let
n-+
us
\302\267
V n.)
n
00
take logarithms
nj
InA=Iimln v n n! =Iim
l.
n
n
n
[ ln\037+ln\037+...+ln\037
the
The expressionin brackets is the integral sum for
integral
\037
n-+oo
fl-+OO
In
\037
Consequently, In
\037
xdx= (xIn X-X)I\037=-1.
=-1and !irn
fl-+
V;;J =e-1.
n)
00
7.2.FindingAverage Values of a Function

The average value of
(x) over the interval
[a, b]
is the number
f.t
b-aJCf (x) dx.

a
The square root
f
\\
\037
()
b-aj
[f
(X)j2 dX
\\
of the average value of the
square ot t he function is calledthe root mean square (rms) of the

function f (x) over [a, b].
Find the average value
the interval [0,
7.2.1.
Solution.In
1].
this
case
-5
1
f.l
c)))
f.t
of the function f (x)== V x over
\037
3x 3
3 r
V x dx == 4
= \"43
\302\267
7.2.Finding
\037
Average Values of
313)
Function)
7.2.2.Find
the average values of the functions:

(a) f (x)
[0,2Jt];
1
==
(b) f (x) eX l over [0,
==
sin2 x over
2].
the
7.2.3.Determine
x2
average length of all vertical chords of the

lover the 1nterval a x 2a.
y2
==
b2
hyperbola a2
Solution.The problem consists
f (x) ==2y -==
the function
-2a
f.t
== 2
() b
2
a J a Vx
\\
[; V x -a
2
:\037
7.2.4.Find
the interval
Solution:)
a)
\037
the average
in finding
2 over the interval
-a
[a, 2a]:
a; In (x + Vx
-a ) l:a=b [2 V3-ln(2 + V3)].

2
the average ordinate of the sinusoid
[0,jt].
n
n
5o sinxdx==-.!.cosx
=\037
==\037
= sin x over
rr
f.t
value of
-a dx=
a)
2!!.V
x2
\037
\0370.637.
0)
Rewrite the obtained result

!.t
\302\267
Jt
in
the following way:)

;r
\302\267
\037
Jt
= sin xdx.
5
o)
Using the geometricmeaning of the definite integral,we can say

that the area of the rectanglewith the altitude f.t ==
and the base
n
Jt equals the area of a figure bounded by a half-wave of the sinusoid y sin x, 0 x Jt, and by the x-axis.
7.2.5.Find the average length of all positive ordinates of the
\037
===
\037
\037
circlex2 + y2 == 1.
7.2.6.
Show that the average value of the function f (x), contiis the limit of the arithmeticmean
nuous on the interval [a,
of the values of this function taken over equal intervals of the
argument x.
b],
...,
Solution.Subdivide the interval [a, b] into

b a
(i=O,
n).
points xi=a+i
n)))
1,2,
equal parts
by
the
Ch. V
314)
II. Appl icat ions
of the Definite
...
..
Integral)
Form the arithmeticmean of the values of the function f (x) at
points of division Xo, Xl'
=f
I1n
(X o
-:
xn 1
+ f (Xl)
\302\267
(Xn-l)
\037
n-l
= L.f (Xj).
;=0
\037
This mean may be representedin the following form:

\037n
==
n-l
b-a L.f (Xi) dXit

i=O)
where)
b-a.
[\\X.=I
n)
The latter sum is the integral sum for the function f (x), the-
refore)
tim I1n
n-oo
which
=b
n-l
f (Xj) /1xj = b
a n-oo
i=O
I_ Hm
L.
r
aJf
a
(x)dx = 11,
the solution.
completes
7.2.7.Find the average value of pressure (Pm) varying from 2

10atm if the pressureP and the volUllle v are relatedas follows:
3
pv = 160.
Solution.As p varies from 2 to 10atm, v traverses the interval
[4V4, 4V IOO]; hence
to
2\"
4
Pm
t;/ 00
1
-V-) 4V
,f
4 (V\037
100
3
-2'
dv =
160v
-- (V-100-r-) -+ Vt./.- -_ V-(V-10+V-)

320
V 4
too
40
20
___
\"\"
4.32atm.
7.2.8.In hydraulics there is Bazin'sformula expressingthe velocity v of water flowing in a wide rectangularchannel as a function
of the depth h at which the point under considerationis situated
below the open surface,
v=v o
20 VHL
( )2,
\037
where 00 is the velocity on the open surface, H is the depth of

the channel, L its slope.
of the
Find the average velocity Vm of flow in the cross-section
channel.)))
7.2.Finding
\037
of a
Average Values
Solution.We have
H
Vm
=
l\037
o
S
lV
o
-20VHL (
YJ
\037
315)
Function)
dh = v o
VHL.
230
7.2.9.Determine the
average value of the electromotiveforce

over the time from t = 0 to t = T, if
over one period,
electromotive force is computed by the formula
i.e.
Em
T'
E = E0 sIn 2nt
where T is the duration of the period in seconds,Eo the amplitude

(the maximum value) of the electromotiveforce correspondingto
the value t = O.25T.
The fraction 2;t is calledthe phase.
Solution.)
T
Em
. 21tt EoT
..2 T =0.
=y So sIn ydt = T.21t
-COSy
[
]0
1tt
Eo
Thus, the average value of the electromotiveforce over one period equals zero.
Each of the two vertical poles OA and CD is equipped
with an electriclamp of luminous intensity i fixed at a height h.
The distance between the poles is d. Find the average illumination
of the straight line OC connectingthe bases of the poles.
7.2.1 Find the average value of the square of the electromotive
over the interval from t = 0 to t = (seeProbforce
7.2.10.
t.
(\302\2432)m
\037
lem
7.2.9).
Solut ion. Since)

we ha ve)
2
(\302\243
2.
)m == T
21tt
E = Eostny,)
\302\243
2\"
2
0
S
o
. 2 21tt dt
sIn
T
T
2
-TO'
2r
\037
41tt
cos T
2
\302\243
dt
[tdefined on
\037
7.2.12.
If
[0,00), then
0)
a function f (x) is
its average value will be
b
\037
=
l\037\037
-}Sf (x)dx,
o)))
\037
an
sin 4;t o; =
J
infinite
\037\037
interval
316)
Ch,
this
if
II. Applications
Integral)
exist.s.Find
limit
the average power consumption of an

the current intensity I and voltage u
the following formulas, respectively:
circuit
alternating-current
are
of the Definite
expressedby
if
I = I cos + a);
= Uo cos + a + ),
(ffit
(ffit
cp
where
is the constant phase shift of the voltage as compared
with the current intensity (the parameters
and a will not enter
into the expressionfor the average power).
Solution. The average power consumpt ion
cp
ffi
wm=!im
locos(cot+a)uocos(CJ)t+a+cp)dt.
T-+oo S
0
Taking into considerationthat
cosa cos = 2\" [cas(a + P) + cos(a

1
\037
we will
\037
)]
,)
get)
T
Wm
= !im
5o [cos(2(1)t + 2a+ cp) + coscp] dt
T-+oo
I\037\037o
.
_ 1m
lou o
T-+oo 4w
. sin (2wT +2a+

T
sin
(2a+
lou o
_ lou o COS
+ 2 COS I 2
{
Hence,it is clear why so much import ance is at tached
quantity cos in electricalengineering.
I
<p)
<p)
cp
cpo
to the
cp
Find
7.2.13.
the average value
indicated intervals:
f.t
of the function f (x) over the
(x) = 2X2
+ lover [0, 1];

(b) t (x)=+ over [l, 2];
x
-2x+3over [0,2].
(c) f{x)=3
(a) f
A body falling
7.2.14.
to the ground from a state of rest acquis =SI' Show

res a velocity
1 on covering a vertical path
the average velocity Vm over this path is equal to
that
v t = V2gs
2\0371
The cross-section
7.2.15.
of the trough has the form of a parabolicsegment with a base a and depth h. Find the average depth
of the trough.
Find the
7.2.16.
average value Im of alternating current intensity

over time interval from
to
(see Problem 7.2.12).
\037
\302\260
w)))
\037
7.3.Computing
7.2.17.Prove
Areas
Coordinates
in Rectangular
317)
the average value of the focal radius of an

b2
and 8 is
ellipsep = 1 ccos , where p = a ; a, b are the semi-axes
eccentricity,is equal to b.
On the segment AB of length a a point P is taken at a
distance x from the end-point A. Show that the average value of
the areas of the rectanglesconstructed on the segments AP and
a2
PB is equal to \"6
that
<p
7.2.18.
\302\267
7.2.19.
Find
the average value of the function

cos2 x
f (x) == sin2 x+4 cos2 x
over the interval
\037
to
\037
the
within
\037
that
this average,equal
certainx =
\302\243
lymg
indicated interval.)
7.3.Computing Areas in Rectangular Coordinates

Y2
(x) (a
\037
by the straight lines x= a, x ==

==Y2 (x), provided Yl (x)<
=
Y
Yl (x), Y
is bounded
If a
figure
= b (a <plane
b) and the
\037
]. Check directly
lO,
value
of the function f (x) for a
, is the
curves
x < b), then
its area
is computed by the formula
S=
\037
[Y2
(x)-
Yt
(x)]dx.
a)
In
certain casesthe
x = b)
left boundary x ==a (or the right boundary

can degenerate into a point of intersectionof the curves)
c)
!J)
!I)
J])
: 11::111
(x)
x)
I)
o)
x)
a)
(a))
b)
o)
a)
b)
(b))
Fig.
65)
and Y = Y2 (x). Then a and b are found as the abscissCls

points of intersectionof the indicated curves (Fig.65,a, b).
7.3.1.Compute the area of the figure bounded by the straight
lines x==O,x=2 and the curves y=2x , y=2x-x2 (Fig. 66).)))
= Yl (x)
of the
Ch. V I J.
318)
Jntegral)
of the Definite
Applications
tained
Y
= 2x
2x-x
2 is atmaximum of the function Y =

=
at the point x 1 and is equal to
and the function
1 on the interval
we have
Solution.Since the
1,
[0,2],
\037
S = [2X
S
o
-(2x-x )] dx =
2
7.3.2.
Compute the
l\037x2
area of the
-(x - ) I:= -
1:
figure
X=_2y2, x= 1-3y2 (Fig. 67).)
X;
I\037
\302\267
\037
bounded by the parabolas
II)
4)
I:;
<v
II
\037)
o)
z)
-2)
2)
!J=2x-:x
1)
1)
x)
66)
Fig.
Fig.
67)
Solution.Solving the system of equations

J
\\
X=2y2;
x== 1
3y2 ,
find the ordinates of the points of intersectionof the curves Yl =

for
\037y\037 1,then we have)
Y2= 1.Since 1-3y2\037-2y2
-1
s= S [(1-3y2)_(-2y2)]
dy=2(y_
7.3.3.Find
-1
) I\037=
:.
the area of the
contained between the

parabola x2 ==4y and the witch
figure
of Agnesi
\0373
-1,
2 4
XI
\037
x2=4!J)
(see Fig.
!J-x
_
68).
Solution. Find the abscis-
sas of the points A and C of

intersection of t he curves. For
this purpose eliminatey from
+4
-2
Fig.
68)
X)))
7.3.Computing
\037
Coordinates
Areas in Rectangular
319)
the system of equations)
Y=X2\0374'
x2
w h ence
8
x2
- --.
{ Y=T'
x2
4
' or x + 4x2
<I
32
-2
The real roots of this equation are the points Xl =

and
x2 =2. As is seen from the figure. X2\0374
on the interval
(It is also pDssibleto ascertainthis by directly computing
the values of these functions at any point inside the interval, for
\037
[-2,2].
\0372
instance, at X = 0.)
Consequently,
2
s= S C2\0374
-2)
7.3.4.Find
= x2 + 1 and
\0372
dx = 4 arctan
\037
\037\037
1\0372
=2n-
\302\267
\037
the area of the figure bounded by the parabola

the straight line x + Y =
3.
7.3.5.
Compute the area of the figure which lies in the first quadrant inside the circlex2 y2 = 3a2 and is bounded by the parabolas x2 = 2ay and y2 = 2ax(a 0) (Fig.
>
If)
69).
Solution.Find the abscissa of the po-
int
of
= 2ax
avJ)
intersection of the parabola

2
2
and the circle x

y2 ==3a
the
from
Eliminating y
system of equa-
y2
t ions)
2
( x
+ y2 = 3a2,
y2
\\
= 2ax
:x)
,)
+2ax-3a
2
we obtain x2
=0,=whence we
Fig. 69)
xA
Analoget the only positiveroot:
gously, we find the abscissa of the point D of intersectionof the
circle x2 + y2 = 3a2 and the parabola x2 = 2ay; xD = a V 2.
Thus, the sought-for area is equa I to)
S=
a.
aV7
[Y2
\037
(x)
Yl
(x)]dx,
o)
= X22a '
were
h
Yl (X )
==
Y2 (X)
')
Vr 2ax
t V
for
O\037x<a,
2
< x a V-.)))
3a2 x 2 f or a
\037
Ch. VII.
320)
of the Definite
Applications
Integral)
By the additivity property of the integral

aV2
u
S = S ( V2ax ) dx S (V 3a2 x2
) dx =
a
o
3
,.
X
X3 a
2
2
==
V 3a2
'2
3
6a
0
]
a
[
[2
--
- -
\037:
\037:
V2a.-x2---+
-x +-arcsin J!_3
3d\037
--]
2
x3 a V=
6a a
.
J!2
V-2
a2 3a2
2
= 2 V-2
arcsinV3 -arCSin
3 a -6'+T(
J!3) -\037a2+6a2=
I
.1
2
_ V2 + 3
(\037 2\"arCSlng) a.
Herewe make use of the trigononletricf ormula:

2
arcsina-arcsin\037
=arcsin(a
Jlrl_\0372_\037 VI-( )
(a\037
> 0)
for transforming)
. -. /2 -./2
.
/23-arcsln
=arcsln
( V\"3 3-V3 Y3. ) =
va
. -.
arcsIn
V
. ]
= arcsin
g
7.3.6.Compute the
.)
area of the
figure lying in the first quadrant

and bounded by the curves y2 = 4x,
x2 == 4y and x2 y2 = 5.)
!J
7.3.7.Compute the area of the

bounded by the lines y ==
x+ 1, y=cosx and the x-axis
figure
-1)
o)
(Fig. 70).)
:&
1C/2
Solution.The
Fig. 70
x+ 1
= f (x) = ( cosx if
if
-1
\037x\037O,
< x<
of the curvili-
\037
rr
rr
-2
s= S f(x)dx= S (x+ l)dx+S cosXdx=

-I
-1
7.3.8.Find the area
the line
\037
[-1,] . The area
is continuous on the interval

near trapezoid is equal to)
2
funct ion)
(X\037I)2
of the segment of the
x = 2 is the chord determining
+sinxlo; = ;
curve y2 == x3 --x2 if
\302\267
1\0371
the segment.)))
7.3.Computing
\037
A reas in Rectangular
Solution. From the equality y2 ==x2

x (x-I) 0, therefore either x ==0 or x
2
Coordinates
321)
follows that
(x1.In1) other words, the
it
\037
\037
domain of definition of the implicit function y2 == X 3 _X 2 consists

of the point x == 0 and the interval
00). In computing the area
the isolated point (0, 0) does not play any role, therefore, the
interval of integration is
2] (see Fig. 71).
we see
to
over
explicitrepresentation y == -I- xV
Passing
and
that the segment is bounded above by the curve y == x V
below by the curve y=
Hence,)
[1,
[1,
x-1,
x-I
-xVx-I.
x-l-(-xVx-I)]dx=
S = [xV
\037
\037
xV
x-Idx.
Make the substitution)
!I)
x)
t)
x-l==t2,
\037'
dx= 2t dt,)
2)
I)
I.\037
\037)
Then)
1
S= 4
2
2
=4
[ +
5o (t + I) t dt
\037
\037
o)
] = 7;
7.3.9.
31)
7)
\302\267
Determine the area of the figure

bounded by two branches of the curve
(y- X)2 ==x 3 and the straight line x =
Solution.Note first of all that y, as an
Fig. 71
implicit funct ion of x, is defined only for
x 0; the left side of the equat ion is always non-negative.Now
we find the equations of two branches of the curve y==
x,
and
we
have
Since
x+xVx\037x-xVx,
x\037 0,
y ==x+xV-X.
therefore)
1.
115
\037
x-xV
4
4 2
x
S= 5 (x+xV x-x+xV x)dx=25 x V xdx=-=5
0=5'
o
y2
7.3.10.
Compute
(x 1)2.
-=_
0)
the area enclosedby the loop of the curve
Solution.The domain of definition of the implicit function y is

the interval 0 \037x < + 00.Sincethe equation of the curve contains y to the second power, the curve is symmetrical about the)))
Ch VII. Applications
322)
x-aXiS.The pOSitive branch

Y
= Yl (x)= Vx
Yl
of the Cefinite
(x) is given
by
Integral)
the equat ion
l-x),0
x-l = { VV x(x(x-l),
\037x\037
1,
x> 1.
The common points of the symmptrical branches Yl (x) and Y2 (x) =

= Yl (x) must lie on the x-axis.But Y1 (x) = VX\"
0 only
11-=
at Xl = 0 and at X2 =
Consequently, the loop is formed by the curves
and y = IIX'(1 x), 0 x 1 (see Fig. 72), the area enclosed
bei ng)
1.
- -
<
S= 2
7.3.t t.
Find
f\"-
5o V
x(
t he
= (x-1)(x-2)2.)
x-
y=Vx(l-x)
\037
1-
x) dx = 2
5 (x
-:
1-
) dx
8
= 15
.
0)
area enclosed by
the loop of the curve
x)
x)
D)
Fig.
- - is.+ 3,
Find
7.3.t 2.
2
=
y
Fig.73)
72)
2x
x
and the LJ-ax
the area of the figure bounded by the parabola

the line tangent to it at the point 1\\1 (2,
-5)
-5)
Solution. The equation of the tangent at the point M (2,

or y=7-6x. Since the branches
has the form
of the parabola are directeddownward, the parabola lies below the
3 on the interval [0,2] (Fig.73).
\037-x2-2x+
tangent, e.7
Hence,)
y+5=-6(x-2)
i. -6x
s= 5[7-6x-<-x
-2x+3)]dx=
5<x-4x+4)dx= .
Z
\037
0)))
7.3.Computing
\037
7.3.13.
na t es.
We
7.3.14.
A reas in Rectan{!ular
Coordinates
323)
Find the area bounded by the parabola y===x2-2x+2,

the line tangent to it at the point M (3, 5) and the axis of ordi-
take on the ellipse)

x2
y2
\302\24322+&2\"=
(a > b)
lying in the first quadrant.

the sectorof the ellipsebounded by its semi-major
axisand the focal radius drawn to the point M has an area
a point M (x, y)
Show
that
ab
x
.
S = \"2
arccosa
With the aid of this result deduce a formula for computing the
area of the entire ellipse.)
x)
a)
-1 0
Fig.
Fig.
74)
Solution.We have (Fig. 74):

SOMAO:=: S
+ SMABA1; S
\037OA1B
\037O\0371B
MABA1
(}
==
t.\\y
-xy
\037
2a
Va 2
b
b
2
dx= 5 -J/a2-t2dt==a
2a ( tVa
75)
-x2.
,)
-t +a arcsin-)
2
2
2
l-xVa-x2+a (
.
x
arc COS-,we 0bt aln
= :a
===
SMABM
a)
Hence)
=S
\037OMB
+S
MABM
+ ab arc COSax
- ;
arc sin
\037
[-xVa -x +a arc cos ].)
= :a
SOMAO
X)
.
. _Jt -arcsIn
SInce
a
2
x)
\302\267)))
===
)J
\302\267)
Ch.
324)
II. Applications
of the Definite
Integral)
= 0, the sectorbecomesa quarter of the ellipse,i.e.

ab
j[ ab
arccos0 = ab 2=4
It,
\"4 SeJlipse=-2\"
and consequently,Se1Jipse= nab. At a = b we get the area of a circle
2
Scircle= na .
x2
Find the area bounded by the parabolas y=4x2,
7.3.15.
Y=g
and the straight line y = 2.
At
2'
Solution. In this case it is advisable to integrate with respect

to y and take advantage of the symmetry of the figure (seeFig.75).
Therefore, solving the equations of the parabolas for x, we have:
+ 3 V y.
x=:f:yy
2 ,x=
By symmetry of the
about
figure
SOABO:)
equal to the doubled area
the y-axis the area sought is
\037
S=2S0ABo =2S (3Vy--}V y ) dy=5 S Vy dy= 20

o
\0372
7.3.16.
From an arbitrary point M(x, y) of the curve y=x
(m > 0) perpendiculars MN and ML(x > 0) are dropped onto the
coordinateaxes.What part of the area of the rectangleONML does

the area ONMO (Fig. 76) constitute?)
If)
1)
!!
L)
x)
o)
x)
N)
Fig.
--
-1
--(;i,j;
........\037:-e\037)
76)
Prove that
7.3.17.
Fig.
the
x-axisand half-waves of
geometricprogressionwith
77)
areasSo, SI' S2' S3'. .., bounded by the

the curve y==e-axsinpx,
x\037O, form a
an
the common ratio q = e B.
Fig. 77 intersects the positive semi-axis
Solution.The curve of
Ox at the points where sin pX= 0, whence
xn = n; n = O. t, 2,
...
.)))
7.3.Computing
\037
Areas
Coordinates
in Rectangular
325)
sin px is positive in the intervals (X2k' X 2k+1)

The function y e-a.x
the sign of the function in the
and negative in (X2k+l' X2k+2)'
with that of the number
interval (xn , xn +1) coincides
)n. Therefore
i.e.
(-1
(n+ 1)3t
(n+
Sn=
Iyldx=(-l)nn3t
\037
\037
n3t
B
But
I):rt
e-axsin\037xdx.
\037
-+
the indefinite integral is equal to
e-a.xsin dx =
\037x
e-(J.X
a2
B2
(a sin px + cospx)+ C.
\037
Consequently,
Sn = (_I)n+1
(n + 1 ) 3t
(a sin
= <;;;
[e-a (n+
a\037:\0372
\037;21
\037x
+ cas
\037x)
\037
(-I
] Im/
If
q-s;;--) Sn+l e
ex
which
the
completes
7.3.18.
Find
(_l)n]=
)n+l_eannl/l\037
l)n/fi\037
-a
Hence)
(n + 1 ) :rtJ (3
cxn:rt/(3
proof.
==
e-ann/f:J
\037
e-
\0372
(I+ e-=//I).)
cxrr /(3
,)
the areas enclosedbetween the circleX 2 +y2_2x+

V3.
+4y- 11 0 and the parabola y = x-2 + 2x +
of
the
we
have:
Solution.Rewriting the equations
curves,
===
(x-I)2+(y+2)2=16,
y==-(x-I)2-2V3+2.
1-2
!I
Consequently, the centre of the
circle lies at the point C ( 1,-2)

and the radius of the circleequals
4. The axis of the parabolacoincideswith the straight line x == 1
and its vertex lies at the point
B (1, 2,
V3) (Fig.78).
:JJ)
-2
The area SABDFA of the smaller

figure is found by the formula
X
SABDFA =
\037
XA)
(Ypar-Ycircle)dx,
Fig.
78)))
Ch.
326)
where
/1.Applications
of the Definite
Integral)
and x D are determined from the system of equations
XA
J
\\
(X_I)2+(y+2)2==16,
+4,
y+2==-(x-I)2_2Y'\"3
xA=-l,xD==3.
whence
Hence,)
3
SARDFA =
[(-x2+2x+1-2V3)+(2+V16-(x-l)2)]
-1
r
/ 3)x+x 2 t - 16-(x-I)2+
= -3+ +(3-2}
l
16
X-I 3 32 8 J;j-4] =3- 3 +2 Y --12+3216arcsin2= 8
+2\"arcsin
X3
dx=
\037
X2
4 V3 +3 n.
=\"3--
area of the second figure is easy to determine.

Note.The computation of the integral can be simplified by using
= z and taking advantage of the evenness of the
the shift
The
x-I
integrand.
7.3.19.
Compute the
2
==
16-x
and the
area bounded by the curves
x-axis.
7.3.20.
Compute the
y= (X-4)2,
area enclosedbetween the parabolas
x ==y2;
7.3.22.
= 3 y2 + I.
4\"
7.3.21.
Compute the
area of the portions cut off by the hyperthe ellipsex2 + 4y2 == 8.

Compute the area enclosedby the curve y2 ==(I_X2)3.
the area enclosedby the loop of the curve
Compute
3
2
4 (y2
) + x == O.
7.3.24.Compute the area of the figure bounded by the curve
VX- +V.ry ==1 and the straight line
Compute the area of the figure enclosedby the curve
bola x2
3y2 == 1 from
7.3.23.
-x
x+y=l.
7.3.25.
2
y2 == x (l-x2).
x3
7.3.26.
Compute the
2
+ x y2 ==O.
7.3.27.Compute the
the curve x ==y2
area enclosedby the loop of the curve

area bounded by the
(1-y). area
7.3.28.
Compute the
2
bounded by the curve y ==x4 2x3+

two ordinates correspondingto
+ x + 3, the axis of abs(issas and
the points of minimum
axis of ordinates and
of the function
(x).)))
\037
7.4. A reas with
Parametrically
Boundaries
Represented
327)
7.4.ComputingAreas with Parametrically

Represented
Boundaries
\037
1fthe
boundary of a
is
figure
representedby parametric
equat ions
y=y(t),
x==x(t),
then the area of the
is evaluated by one of the
figure
three for
mulas:)
S=
Ii
Ii
x'
S = x (t)y' (t) dt;
S
S Y (t) (t) dt;
u..)
s=
B
\037
ex.)
S (xy' -yx')dt,
ex.)
are the values of the parameter t corresponding

(X and
respectivelyto the beginning and the end of the traversal of the
contour in the positive direction (the figure remains on the left).
where
\037
7.4.t. Compute the
area enclosedby the
x==acost, y=bsint
Solution.Here it
xy'
is convenient
yx' ==a cost
ellipse
(0\037t\0372Jt).
to compute
+ b sin t X a sin t ==ab.)
first
b cost
Hence)
s=
2n
2\037
\037
S abdt=nab.
S (xY'-yx')dt={
7.4.2.Find
0)
the area enclosedby the astroid
Solution.Let
3\"
= 1.
( ) +( )
3\"
\037
us write the equat ion of the astroid in

0 t
Here it is
form: x ==a cos3 t, Y ==a sin3
nient
to evaluate
xy'
==a 2
yx'
t,
\037
\037
2n.
parametric
also conve-
first
(cos 3 sin2 t cost + sin3 t 3 cos2 t sin t) ==

3t
\302\267
\302\267
2t
==3a2 cos
Hence,)
2n
S = + S (xy'-yx')dt
2n
a2
\037
S
0
sin2 2t dt
= a2n.
7.4.3.Find the area of the region bounded by an arc

y=a(l-cost)and the x-axis.
cycloid x==a(t-sint),
(0
Solution. Here the contour consists of an arc

t
2n) and a segment of the x-axis(0 x
\037
\037
\037
f,
apply the formula S =
\037
a)))
yx' dt.
sin2 t.)
of the
\037
of the
cycloid
2na). Let
us
Ch. V
328)
II. Applications
of the Definite Integral)
Since on the segment of the x-axiswe have y ==0, it only reto compute the integral (taking into account the direction
ains
rv
of a boundary
traversal):
2n
(l-cost)2dt=
a(1-cost)a(1-cost)dt=a
S=-\037
0
2n
2
2n
= a2
7.4.4.Compute the
S
o
[1
\037
2 cost +
\037
(l + cos2t) ] dt = 3:rr.a2.
area of the region enclosedby the curve
x==asint,y==bsin2t.
Solution.When constructingthe curve one should bear in mind

it is symmetrical about the axesof coordinates.
Indeed,if we
that
substitute
'It-t for t, the
variable
x remains unchanged, while
changesits sign; consequently the curve is symmetrical about
only
x-axis.When substituting 'It + t for t the variable y

unchanged,and x only changes its sign, which means
the
remains
the
that
curve is symmetrical about the y-axis.)

If)
t= 1t
2)
x)
t=1rc
4)
Fig.
79)
Furthermore,since the functions x = a sin t; y = b sin 2t have a

common period 2'It , it is sufficient to confine ourselvesto the fol2Jt.
lowing interval of variat ion of the parameter: t
From the equationsof the curve it readily follows that the variablesx and y simultaneously retain non-negative values only
when the parameter t varies on the interval
, therefore at
\302\260
\037
\037
[0, ]
\037
we obtain the port ion of the curve situated in the first

quadrant. The curve is shown in Fig.79.
As is seen from the figure, it is sufficient to evaluate the area
enclosedby one loop of the curve correspondingto the variation)))
o
\037
\037
\037
000
\037
7.4.Areas
of the parameter
n
with
Parametrically
t from
n
0 to
1t
Represented
Boundaries
329)
and then to double the result)

n
S = 2 yx' dt =2 bsin 2t xacostdt =4ab cos2 t sin t dt =

\037
\037
7.4.5.Find the
curve)
\037
= -4ab CO;3t
(
= fab.
) I:
area of the region enclosedby the loop of the

t2
x=3(6-t);y=s(6-t).
Solution.Locatethe points of self-intersection
of the curve. Both
x (t) and y (t) are defined throughout the entirenumber
functions
scale-00< t
<00.
the point of self-intersectionthe values of the abscissa (and

ordinate) coincideat different values of the parameter.Sincex=
=
+ A.. For the func(t-3)2,the abscissascoincideat
tion y (t) to take on one and the same value at the same values
= (3-A)2
must
of the parameter t, the equality (3+A)2
8 (3 -A,)
8 (3 + A,)
==
A,
be fulfilled for =1= 0, whence A,
At
t=3
3-+
:i::3.
B)
A)
J(
L
-4)
x)
Fig. 80)
Fig.
81)
t 1 ==0 and at t 2 ==6 we have x (t 1) ==X (t 2) ==

and
==
==
the poin t (0, 0) is the 0n I y poi n t of self y (t 1) y (t 2)
the points of the curve
intersection.When t changes from 0 to
the
are found in the first quadrant. As t varies from 0 to
point M (x, y) describes the lower part of the loop, since in the
Thus, at
0,
0, i.e.
6,
indicated interval x (t) and y (t) =

tion x (t) begins to decrease,
while
increase,and
3,
then the funcy (t) still keeps increasing.Figure 80 shows the traversal of the curve correspondingto increasing t (the figure remains on the left).)))
3\037X
Ch,
330)
II. Applications
enclosedby the loop sought
In computing the area

nient to use the formula
6
S=
(xy'
S
o
\037
7.4.6.
Find the
3
/2
yx') dt = S
0
(62\037t)2
is conve-
it
= 2;.
dt
area enclosedby the loop of the curve: x = t 9 ;
y=t- 3
t
7.4.7.Compute the area enclosed by

(I + cast); y = a sin t (I + cost).
== a cost
cardioid:x =
the
Solution.Since x (t) and y (t) are periodic functions, it is suffiThe curve is symmetrical
cient to considerthe interval
for t the value of the
about the x-axis,since on substituting
variable x remains unchanged, while y only changes its sign, and
0 as t varies from 0 to n.
y
As t changesfrom 0 to n the function u = cast decreasesfrom
and the abscissa x=au(l+u)=a
1 to
[-Jt,n].-t
\037
-I,
first
[-{+(u+r]
:_+
\037
decreases
from
xla=!=2a to xlu
and then increases
\037
to x :u= = O. We can show that the ordinate y increaseson the

t
on the interva I
t
:n:
interval
and decreases
)
(
)
The curve is shown in Fig. 81,the arrow indicating the direction of its traversal as t increases.
-1
:::;;;
(0:::;;;
\037
Consequent I y
,)
rr
S=
{-nS
(xy'
\037
yx') dt
= a2 (I + cost)2 dt =
S
0)
:n:a2
:::;;;.
7.4.8.Compute the area of the region enclosedby the curve

7.4.9.Computethe areasenclosedby the loopsof the curves:
2
y=t 3 -t;
(a) x=t
x =- cost, Y = b sin3 t.
-1,
-t
(b) x=2t-t2; y=2t2

t
2
).
(c) x=t2;
y=3(3-t
7.4.10.
Compute the area of the region
by the curve
y = b sin t ('OS2t .
7.4.11.
Compute the area enclosedby the evolute of the ellIpse)
.
= 2 CGs:it. y.=
sIn t C2 --If b2
\037nclosed
x ==a cost;
-b
C
\037
')
\037
-\037
;)
.)))
7.5.The Area
\037
7.5.The
Polar Coordinates)
in
331)
Area of a CurvilinearSectorin
Coordinates
\037
In polar coordinatesthe area of a

=
p ==p (cp) and the rays CPt ==(X and
CP2
Polar
sector bounded by the curve

is expressed
by the integral
\037
r\037
S=+S p2(qJ)dcp.
a)
7.5.t. Find
the area of the regionsituated in the first quadrant

and bounded by the parabola y2 =4ax and the straight lines
y==x-a and x==a.
Solution. Let us introduce a polar system of coordinatesby
placing the pole at the focus F of the parabola and directingthe
polar axis in the positive direction
along the x-axis.Then the equat ion of
the parabola will be p = I P
cos , where p is the parameter of the parabola.
!J2=4ax)
In this case p == 2a, and the focus F has
the coordinates (a, 0). Hence,the equation of the parabola will acquire the
20
and those of the
form p =
I
cos
stra ight
cP
If)

<p
r\037
-_
2a2
\037
j[
d<p
4 sin 4
\037
2=z,)
<p
we obtain)
cot
2
d<p
2 sin 2 (<pf2)
= dz
cp
into
'!t/4Icot('!t/8),
,)
'!t/21
1)
(\037/8)
-l-
2
(1+z2)dz=a
)
(cot + ; cof3
-cos (1(/4)= 1
1t
account that cot = +
+ J/ 2,
SFABF=a S
t
or, taking
\302\267
4)
Changing the variable:)

cot
82)
1t
\037
8\"
SFABF=2a(1+
2
sin (1t/4)
V2\.)))
\037
\037
Ch.
332)
II. Applications
of the Definite
Integral)
7.5.2.Compute the
area of the regionenclosedby

==
cardioid
the
p 1 + coscP;
(a)
==
a cos
the
curve
p
(b)
cpo
7.5.3.Find the area of the regions bounded by the curve

p::n:2a cos3cp and the arcsof the circle p ==a and situated outside
the
circle.
,
p = 2acos3cp has a period T
three equal loops of the curve as vathe radius vector describes
are those at
Permissiblevalues for
and
ries between
whence
which cos3cp
-jt
0,
\037
\0371t
n.
cp
cp
(k==O,+ 1,+ 2, ...).)

-6+3\037CP\0376+3
n
-i
2kn
2kn
Consequently,one of the loops is describedas varies between

and
and ' and the other two loops as varies between
7n
5n
3n
and between(3 and
respectCutt
the
out
ively (Fig. 83).
ing
parts,
belonging to the circlep ==a, we get
the figure whose area is sought. Clearly, it is equal to the triple area
cp
cp
2'
\037
(3'
\037
SMLNM'
Let us find the polar coordinatesof

the points of intersection M and N.
For this purpose solve the equat ion
2a cos3cp= a, e.cos3cp = -} Between
i.
-- -6.
n
Fig.
6 and
83)
\037
is
specifiedby the polar angleCPl

As is
SMLNA1
seen from t he
only
the roots
\037
==
\037
,and the point
rr/9
rr/9
r 4a2 cos2 3cp dcp-\037 r a 2 dcp

2
,J
cp
through the
\037.
a2
t)
-\0379)
7.5.4.Compute the area of

V2a cos and p = 3a sin
Solution.The
by
CP2
figure,
-\0379
p ==3
9 and
(k=O) are found. Thus, the point
==SOMLNO-SOMNO
=
=2
--
the
cpo
circle lies in
figure
bounded
.::
( +
9
by
the
==
;.
__
V3
6 )
circle
the right half-plane and passes

pole p = 0, touching the vertical line.The secondcircle)))
first
\037
7.5.The Area
in
Polar Coordinates
333)
.)
is situated in the upper half-plane and passes through the pole

p
touching the horizontal line.Consequently,the pole is a point
of intersection of the circles.The other point of intersection of the
circlesB is found from the equation 3
a casq> = 3a sin cp, whence
B (arc tan
As is seen from
a
84, the sought-for area
===
0,
V2
V2, V6).
Fig.
If)
:l]
x)
3\037a)
Fig.
2)
Fig.
84)
85)
is equal to the sum cf the areasof the circularsegments OABO

= arc tan
The
and GCBGadjoining each other along the ray
arc BAO is described by the end-point of the polar radius p of
the first circlefor arc tan
, and the arc OCB by the
end-point of the polar radius p of the second circlefor
V2.
cp
V2
\037
cp
\037
\037
\302\260
\037
arc tan
V2. Therefore)
:rr)
2
SaARa
= 9a2
arc tan Y2\"
arc tan
= a2
SOCHa
cos2 qJ dqJ = a2 (
YT
sin2 qJ dqJ =
\037
o)
Hence,)
SOARO
\037
-arctan V2
\037
Jl 2
3 )
cp
\037
y_
--i-).
a2 (arctan V2
2
+ SOCRO= 2.25a
(1t-arctan V2 V2).
7.5.5.Find the area of the figure
V3
cut out by the circlep

sin
from the cardioid p == 1 + cas (Fig. 85).
Solution.Let us first find the points of intersection of these curves. To this end solve the system
===
cp
p=
{P 1
V3sin cp,
===
whence CPt
3t
= 3\"'
CP2
==
It.)))
+ cas
cp,)
\302\260
\037
cp
\037
1t,
cp
Ch.
334)
II. A pplications
of the Defi nile Integral)
The sought-for area is the sum of tWJ areas:one is a circular

segment,the other a segment of the cardioid;the segments ad join
The arc BAa is describedby the
each other along the ray =
end-point of the polar radius p of the cardioid as the polar angle (()
to 1t, and the arc OCB by the end-point of the
changesfrom
<p
\037
\037
polar radius p of the circlefor 0
j'[
\037
\037
cp
\302\267
\"3
Therefore)
:'1
S =-}
S
o
n
.'3sin2 cp dcp
+-}Sn (1+ cascp)2dcp =

\037\037)
3
sin
_-4
( cp- 2
2CP
.
+ sin4 )
+ 2 ( (()+ 2 Sltlcp,-.
I
\037
cP
_I
IT
2<r
\037=
\037
\037)
3 ).
=\037(J(-V
4
7.5.6.Find the area of the =figure bounded by the cardIoid

coscp) and the c rcIe p a.
7.5.7.Find the area3 of ==the regionenclosedby the loop of the
p = a (1
folium
+ y3 3axy.
pass over tJ polar coordinatesusing the usual
formulas X==PCOscp,
y=psincp.Then
the equation of the curve is:
3
3
p3 (cos + sin (p) ==3ap2SIn CuS
of Dt scartesx
Solution.Let
us
A)
cp
or
X
Fig.
3a sin
cp
cos =)
P ==cosa cp+sin3
<p
CV,)
<p
cp
3a sin
2<p
+ cos<p) (2 sin 2(f')

It follows from this equation that,
j'[
p=O at cp=O and at CP==2 '
firstly,
331
and secondly, p -+ 00 as --+4 and
Jt
(P --+
T' The latter means that
86)))
(sin<p
\302\267
cp
the folium of Descarteshas an asymptote, whose equation y==

can be found in the usual way in rectangularcoordinates.
Consequently, the loop of the folium of Descartes is described
and is situated in the first quadrant
as changes from 0 to
=- x-a
<p
\037
(seeFig.,86).)
7.5.The Area
\037
Polar
in
Thus, the sought-for area is equal
Coordinales)
335)
to)
;n)
2
1
9a2cos2
<p
sin.\037
<p
SOAO=\"25 (cos:J4 -t- sin:J (p)2 dcp.

o)
Taking advantage of the curve's symmetry about the bisector

==x, i.e.about the ray
=
we can compute the area of half
cp
'
\037
= 0 to (p =
the loop
(from
les us to apply the substitution)
of
<p
tan
cp
d(p
cos2
which gives
SOAO5t ill
new
Q)
\037
= z,
=dz,
) and
fp
11
1
-)4
:rT
9a2
COS2
(cos3
<p
5o
double it. This enab-
then
sin\037
q;
<p+sin:Jtp)2
cp-
9a 2
z'!.dz
5 (l+z3)2'
0)
substitut ion
z
1
+ Z3=V,
=
3Z2
leads to the integra
dz
v
I
do,
2)
I)
\037
SOAD = 3a2
dv
v2
3 2
= 2'
a
\302\267
1)
7.5.8.
Compute
t he
the area of the region enclosedby one loop of
curves:)
(b) p = a
(a) p ==a cos2cp;
-cos
7.5.9.
Compute the
p = a (I
cp) lying
sin 2cp.
area enclosedby the port ion of the cardioid
inside the circlep = a cos
<po
7.5.10.
Compute
2
the area of
O.
t. Compute
7.5.1
the area of the region
=Qsin(pcos(P,
fJ
a
==a cos
q
(a
>
a>
0).)))
t he
region enclosedby the curve

enclos\037d by
the curve
Ch. VII.
336)
of the Definite
Applications
Integral)
7.5.t 2. Compute the

p=
0)
area of the portion

inside the circle
(lYing
of the figure bounded by the Bernoulli's
lemniscate p=
=a Vcos2cp.
7.5.13.
Passing over
the regionenclosedby
Passing over
the region enclosedby
7.5.14.
\037
to polar coordinates,compute the area of

the curve (x2 + y2)3 = 4a2x2y 2.
to polar coordinates,
evaluate the area of
the curve x4 + y4 = a 2 (x2 + y2).)
7.6.Computingthe
Solid
Volume of a
The volume of a solid is
by
expressed
the
integral)
= S (x) dx
\037
a)
where S (x) is the area of the section of the solid by a pJane perpendicular to the x-axisat the point with abscissa x; a and bare
the left and right boundaries of variat ion of x. The funct ion S (x)
is supposed to be known and cont inuously changing as x varies
between a and b.
The volume V x of a solid generated by revolution about the
x-axisof the curvilinear trapezoid bounded by the curve y ==f (x)
(f (x)
0), the x-axisand the straight lines x ==a and x = b (a < b)
is expressed
by the integral
b
\037
Vx=n\037!/dx.
a)
The volume V x of a solid obtained by revolving about the x-axis

the figure bounded by the curves Y = Yl (x) and Y ==Y2 (x) [0 Yl (x)
by the
\037Y2(X)] and the straight lines x==a, x==b is expressed
\037
\037
integral)
b
Vx = n
\037
(y\037
-yi}dx.
a)
If the curve is representedparametrically or in polar coordinates,

the appropriate changeof the variable should be made in the above
formuJas.
7.6.1.Find the
volume of the
x2
a2
ellipsoid
Z2
y2
+ C2 ==
+ b2
1.)))
7.6.Computing
\037
of a
the Volume
Solid)
337)
Solution.The section of the ellipsoidby the plane x= const
ellipse(Fig.87))
an
b2
with
b ...
semi-axes
V
(
y
\0372
x2
-\302\24322;
section(see Problem 7.4.1)

x2
-. 1
1
S (x) == nb ...
X C
V
V
-\302\24322
Therefore the volume

a
V==
S '!tbe(
-a)
c2
1
x2
-\302\24322
\0372)
x2
Hence the area
-\302\24322.
= '!tbe(
V sphere
the)
(-a\037x\037a).)
ellipsoid
X2
X2
1-\302\24322
of
is)
l- ) dX='!tbeXa2
=1
\037
11
of the
X3
3a2] _a=\"3nabe.
In the part icu1ar casea = b
and we have
is
= c the ellipsoidturns
into a
sphere,
:rta 3
.)
z)
x)
Fig.
87)
Fig.
H8)
7.6.2.Compute the volume of the solid spherical segment of two

bases cut out by the planes x = 2 and x ==3 from the sphere
2
+ y2
--1-
Z2
==
16.
7.6.3.
The axesof two identical cylinders with bases of radius a

intersect at right angles. Find the volume of the solidconstituting
the common portion of the two cylinders.
Solution.Take the axesof the cylinders to be the y- and z-axis
(Fig. 88). The solid OABCDconstitutesone-eighthof the soughtfor
solid.
Let us cut this solid by a plane \037erpendicular to the x-axisat

a distance x from O. In the section we get a square EFKL with)))
338)
Ch. V I J. Application\037
side EF=Va2
-x , therefore S(x)=a-x and
of
the Definite
Integral)
=85(a -x )dx =
2
o)
l6
3\302\260::1.
7.6.4.On
all chords (parallel to one and the same direct ion) of

a circleof radius R symmetrical parabolic segITlentsof the same
alt itude h are constructed.The planes of the segments are perpend icular to the p lane of the circle.
Find the volume of the solid thus obtained (Fig.89).
\"
\"<
1/
\037
\"
h
\"
x2+h
!J=-4h
a
I)
2)
x)
x)
Fig.
Fig.
89)
90)
Solution. First compute the area of the parabolic segment \\Nith

base a and altitude h. If we arrange the axesof coordinatesas
indicated in Fig. 90, then the equat ion of the parabola will be
y = ax
+ h.
Determine the parameter (x. Substituting the coordinatesof the

411
a2
.
a
0 , we get 0 =(X4 + h, w h enCt' a = a'l hence the
pOint B
2'
equation of the parabola is
S= 2
5o y dx
=2
50 (
x\037
4/\037
a)
\037\037
x2
+ h)
\037
desired area
and the
+ h ) dx =
ah.
If the axesof coordinatesare

No\\v
find the volume of the solid.
arra nged as indicated in Fig. 89) then in the section of t he solid
by a plane perpendicular to the x-axisat the point with abscissax
we obta in a p arabolicsegment of area S = ah, where a = 2y =
==
211 - .
R2
S (x) =
\037
x2
V R2
\037
I-Ience,
x2 h and V = 5 S (X) dx =
-R
h
\037
dx =
5 VR2_X2
0)))
nhR2.
\037
7.6.Computing
\037
the Volume of
7.6.5.
339)
Solid)
The plane of a moving triangle remains perpendicular to

the fixed diameter of a circleof radius
the base of the triangle
is a chord of the circle,and its vertex lies on a straight line parallel to the fixed diameter at a distance h from the plane of the
circle. Find the volume of the so1id generatedby the movement
of this triangle from one end of the diameter to the other.
Compute the volume of the solid generatedby revolving
about the x-axisthe area bounded by the axesof coordinatesand
a:
7.6.6.
2 + y2 = a2'.
1
the
parabola x
Solution.Let us find the points of intersection of the curve and

the axes of coordinates:
at x = 0 y = a, at y = 0 x ==a. Thus, \\ve
have the interval of integration [0,
From the
fore
a
= Jt
S
o
all
-
equation of the
y2 dx = Jt
a 2\"
S
(
0
a].
parabolawegety=( a 2
4
dx = Jt
\"\"2)
S
0)
-x
) ; there-
31
+ 6ax(
a2
4a
\"\"2
xT
-4a x2 +X2) dx= IS Jto

I
7.6.7.The
the
the
figure
and the straight line
y==-sin
1l
== 1
revolves about
x)
x)
o)
1\302\243
o)
2)
Fig.
.)
bounded by an arc of the sinusoid y = sin x,
axis of ordinates
y-axis (Fig.91).)
-2)
Fig.
91)
2)
x)
92)
Compute the volume V of the solid of revolution thus generated.

Solution. The inverse function x = arc sin y is consideredon the
interval [0,
Therefore)
1].
Y2
V =
11
= Jt (arcsin y)2 dy.

S dy
S
x2
Yl
0)))
Ch. V
340)
II. A pplications
of the Definite
Integral)
the substitution arc siny=t.Hence)
Apply
t,
y=sin
=
dy
cost dt
o
,)
12)
:rt
:rt
And
so,V = n S t 2 cost dt.Integratingby parts, we get V = n (n:-8).

o)
7.6.8.Compute the volume of the solid generatedby revolving

2 2
about the x-axisthe figure bounded by the parabola Y ==0.25x
+
and the straight line 5x-8y+14=0.
Solution. The solid is obtained by revolving the area ABCA
(Fig. 92) about the x-axis.To find the abscissasof the points A
and B solve the system of equat ions:
1
Y=TX2+2,
{ 5x-8y+ 14== O.
Whence xA=T; x B=2. In our caseYl(x)=4x2+2and
= (5/8)x+ 7/4. Hence,)
1
I 5
x 7
V=1t S I16
( \"2 + )
1/2)
-4 +
1
X2
Y2(X)
891
) ] dx= I 280 n.
\\
7.6.9.Compute the volume of the solid generated by revolving

about the y-axis the figure bounded by the parabolas Y = x2 and
8x= y2.
.)
on the in(y) =
coordinatesto the point of intersecterval from
tion of the parabolas (Fig. 93). Let us find the ordinates of the
points of intersect ion of the parabolasby excludingx from the system of equat ions:)
2
il = x
Solution. It
is obvious that
the origin of the
X2
(y)
= Vy
\037
Xl
{ = 8;.)
y\"a
We
obtain Yl = 0, Ya = 4. Hence,V = n
S
(Y
y\037
\037:
) dy
= 254 n.
o)
7.6.10.
Compute
the volume of the solid torus. The torus is a

solid generatedby revolving a circle of radius a about an axis
lying in its plane at a distance b from the centre (b a). (A tire,
for example,has the form of the torus.))))
\037
\037
7.6.Computing
the Volume
of
341)
Solid)
I. Compute
.6.1
the volume of the solid obtained by revolving

figure bounded by two branches of the curve
(y- X)2 ==x3 and the straight line x ==
Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving
about the line y == 2a the figure boundedby the parabola y2 == 4ax
and the straight line x ==a (Fig.94).
7
about the
x-axisthe
1.
7.6.12.
If)
x)
x')
x)
2)
Fig. 93
Fig. 94
Solution.If we transfer the origin of coordinatesinto the point
(0, 2a) retaining the direction of the axes,then in the new
system of coordinatesthe equation
of the parabola will be
0'
(y'
2a)2= 4ax.
Hence Y2 == 2a + V 4ax
(for the cur-
2a-
V4ax (for
OAB), and Yl =
the curve OCD). The sought-for volume is equal to)
-a)
ve
a
V
=n
S
o
(y\037
yi) dx = n
A)
:\302\243)
a)
[(2a+
S
0
-a
+2Vax)2-(2a-2V ax)2] dx = 332na3.
.
Fig. 95
7.6.13..
Find the volume of the solid generatedby revolving about

the x-aXISthe figure enclosedby the astroid:
x = a cos3 t; Y ==a sin3
t.
Solution.The sought-for volume
obtained by revolving the
is equal to double the volume
(Fig.95).Therefore,
V=2n S y 2 dx.
figure
OAB
a
o)))
Ch. V
342)
II. A pplicat
ions of the Definite Integral)
Change the variable
-3acos
a cos3 t ,
===
2t
dx==
y==asin3 t,)
x ,
sjn t dt,
o
a
Jt/2.
0)
Hence,)
o
V
= 2n
Sj[
a 2 sinG
-3acos
2t
sin t) dt =
2)
Using the formula from
integrals,we get
6
V == 6na3
(7
5 3 98
X
-J
sin7 t dt
6na{f
Problem 6.6.9for
6
54
sin 9
t dt
].
computing the above

2
3\"
32 3
= 105
na .
7.6.14.
Compute the volume of the solid generated by revolving
one arc of the cycloid
y===a(l-cost)about the
x-axis)
Compute the volume of the solid obtained by revolving
shown in Fig.
about the polar axis the cardioid p=a(l+coscp)
Solution.The sought-for volume representsthe differencebetween
the volumes generatedby revolving the figures MNKLO and OKLO
about the x-axis(which is th2 polar axis at the same tIme).
As in the precedingproblem, let us pass over to the parametric
representationof the curve with the polar angle as the parameter:
x == p cos ==a cos ( 1 + coscp),
x=a(t-sint),
7.6.15.
81.
({)
cp
==p sin
<p
cp
=a sin (1+ coscp).

cp
It is obvious that the abscissa of the point M equals 2a (the value

==0), the abscissa of the point K being the minimum of
of x at
the funct ion x == a (1 cascp) cos
Let us find this mininlum:
cp
cpo
= -Qsin (1+ 2 coscp) =0,

2
= 0; = 3
Jt.)
{j)
\037;
(f)1
At
CPl
=0 we obtain
XM
CP2
= 2a)
at
CP2
2
=3
Jt,
XK
T')))
\037
Hence,the
7.6.Computing
=n
-5a
y\037
Changing the variable
- -0
2a
dx n
5a
4)
+ cas<p)2sin2 <p,
-a sin (I + 2 cos
<p)
<p
dx.
y\037
x=acos<p(1
+cos<p),we get
== a 2 (I
dx -==
343)
Solid)
sought-for volume is equal to

V
y2
the Volume of
dcp,)
 [
-asin
q>
(1+ 2 cos
q\302\273]
dq>-
31)
:T1
-II 5
a 2 (1+ cas
q\302\2732
sin2 q> [
-asin
q>
(1+ 2 cos
dq>
q\302\273]
J1)
31
na 3
3
2
5o sin (1+ cos (1+ cas
q>
q\302\2732
q\302\273
dq>
=na3 5 (l-u2) (1+U)2(l+2u)du=

-I)
\037
.6.16.
Compute the
na 3
(u=cosq\302\273.
:-
solid bounded by:
volunle of the
Y
= 1 and the plaz:
(a) the hyperboloid of one sheet x:
a +b
c
nes z -== 1 and z = 1;
y 2, the planes of coordinates
(b) the parabolic cylinder z
and t he plane x ==a;
.)
.)
and the plane z ==k (k > 0).
(c) the ellipticparaboloid z = +
=4-
:;
\037;
7.6.t 7. A wedge is cut off from a right circularcylinder of radi us

a by a plane passing through the diameter of the cylinder base and
inclined at an angle a to the base.Find the volume of the wedge.
Compute the volume of t he solid generated by revolving
the figure bounded by the following lines:
1,x=4, y=O about the x-axIs;
(a) xy=4, x=
(b) y=2x-x2, y=O ebout the
7.6.18.
\037-ax!s;)))
II. Applicat ions of the Definite Integral)

(c) y ==x3, Y == 0, X == 2 about the y-axis;
(d) y2==siil x (one wave), y == about the x-axis;
(e) x _y2 = 4, Y == + 2 about the y-axis;
(f) (y_a)2 ==ax, x == 0, y == 2a about the x-axis.
Ch.
344)
\302\260
Find the
7.6.19.
ax3 x 4
curve
=
y2
a)
volume of the solid obtained by revolving the

about the x-axis.
7.6.20.
Compute the
about the
y
= 2 X.
x-axisthe
volume of the solid generated by revolving

bounded by the lines y == sin x and
figure
n)
.6.21.
(\037ompute
the volume of the solid generatedby revolving

catenary
x-axisthe curvilinear trapezoid bounded by the

y = (e + e
) = a cosh and the straight lines Xl =
== c (c > 0).
about the
\037
\037
\037
\037
C, X2 =
7.6.22.
about the x-axisthe figure bounded by the cosineline y == cosx and
9
the parabola y = 2n 2 x2
7.6.23.
about the x-axisthe figure bounded by the circlex2 + y2 == 1 and
3
the parabola y2 =\"2x.
7.6.24.On
the curve y ==x3 take two points A and B, whose

abscissas are a == 1 and b == 2, respectively.
Find the volume of the solid generatedby revolving the curvilinear trapezoid aABb about the x-axis.
7.6.25.
An arc of the evolute of the ellipsex ==a cost; y ==b sin t
situated in the first quadrant revolves about the x-axis
Find the volume of the solid thus generated.
7.6.26.
Compute the
volume of the solid generated by revolving

ta
the regionenclosedby the loop of the curve x==at2, y==a
(
)
about the x-axis.
7.6.27.Compute the volumes of the solids generated
by revolv2
==a 2 (x2 y2)
ing the region enclosedby the lemniscate (x + y2)2
about the x- and y-axes.
7.6.28.
the region enclosedby the curve p ==a cos2 about the polar axis.)))
t-3
cp
7.7.Arc
\037
Length of
a Plane Curve
in Rectang.
Coord's
345)
* 7.7. The Arc Length of a PlaneCurve in Rectangular

Coordinates
If a plane curve is given by the equation y ==y (x) and the
derivative y' (x) is continuous, then the length of an arc of this
curve is expressed
by the integral
b
l=
\037
VI+ y'2 dx
a)
where a and b are the abscissas of the end-points of the given arc.)
Compute the length of the arc of the
M(4,8))
semicubical parabolay2 ==x3 between the points
(0, 0) and (4, 8) (Fig. 96).
Solution. The function y (x) is defined for
x O. Sincethe given points lie in the first qu-
7.7.1.
\037
adrant,
==X
\037)
D)
2. Hence,
434
::
y' =
;V x
and
V 1 + y'2 =
-V\037
+ ; x.
Consequently,)
l=
=
5o Y 1 + x dx
\037
\302\267
Fig.
8
(1+ ; x)21 = 27 (10V 10 1).
0)
7.7.2.Compute
y2
96)
the length of the arc cut

= x3 by the straight line x= -}
off
from
the curve
.)
7.7.3.Compute the
the
arc length of the curve y==lnco\037x between

the abscissasx== 0, x= T
points with
Solution.Sincey' ==
tan
x, then VI + y'2 = VI + tan 2 x ==secx.
Hence,)
n
= seexdx= In tan
5o
( + )
\037
7.7.4.Compute
Xl
==a to
x2
===b
\037
T
I
3n
= In tan 8
\302\267
0)
the arc length of the curve y = In ex + 1 from

eX
(b >
-1
a).)))
Ch. VII.
346)
Applications
7.7.5.Find the
arc length of the curve X=+y2_{Jny between

the points with the ordinates y = 1 and y = 2.
Solution.Here it is convenient to adopt y as the independent
variab Ie; then
Vl+x'2=V({y+ Y=+y+ '
x'=-\037-y- and
2\037
[=
21y
2\037
Hence,
S V 1 + X'2 dy = S (
1
\037
+ ;y ) dy = +
2.
-222
- -.
+
\037
1)
In
\037
3 = a3
length of the astroid x 3
y
Solution.As is known, the astroid is symmetrical about the axes
of the coordinateangles.Therefore,
of coordinatesand the bisectors
it is sufficient to compute the arc length of the astroid between
the bisectory = x and the x-axisand multiply the result by
7.7.6.Find the
8.
In
at
\037
the
first
-s-.
a
\037
y= (a
quadrant
\037
-x )2and y=O at x=a, y=x

\037
'})
- --3=-X--x
Y'=7[
(-3)X
-) -
Further,)
(a 3
and)
../1+x-3
2
+ y'2 =
Consequent ly,)
[=8
a
\037
(a
32 -x32 )
_2 2
a 3 -x
3)
=( )3.)
a3 x-3 dx=6a.
I
23/t)
all
3
Note. If we compute the arc length of an astroid situated

first quadrant, we get the integral)
the
\037
x-3 dx,
whose integrand increasesinfinitely
as x --+
O.)))
In
\037
7.7.A rc Length
of
a Plane Curve
7.7.7.Compute
in Rectang.
Coord's
347)
the length of the path OABCO consistingof porof t he curves y2 ==2x3 and x2 y2 ==20 (F
97).
SoLution. It is sufficient to computethe arc lengths LOA and lAB
since by symmetry of the figure about the
t ions
ig.
x-axIs)
!f)
l==2(LaA+LAB)'
Solving the system of equations
X2
+ y2 = 20,
y2
==2x3,
we
find t he point A
Find lOft. Here
)/2 2
x)
(2, 4).
==
= \"23
x ,
V 2x,)
y' ==)
VI + y'2 =
}/I+
x.)
Fig.
\037
Hence,)
2
lOA
t\\
97)
-V1 + xdx = (IoVTO 1).

\037
2\037
Sinceon the circleof radius V 20LAB is the
2,
length of an arc
cor-
respondingto the central angle arc tan

== V 20 arc tan 2.)
LAB
Finally we have
I=
:7(10VTO-1)+ 4 V s arctan2.
7.7.8.Compute
==
(a)
the arc length of the curve:

1 cut off by the x-axis;
2-cas
x\037
x) betweenthe adjacent points of intersection\\vith

(2
(b) y
the x-axis.
(c) 3y'!.==x(x-l)2between the adjacent points of intersection
with t he x-axis(half the loop length).
== In
7.7.9.Compute the
y=
arc length of the curve
-}l x Vx2 I-In(x + Vx2
bet\\veen)
x == 1
and x ==a +
1.)))
1)])
Ch, VII. Applications
348)
of the Definite
7.7.10.
Find the
2
the curves
\037
arc length of the

x ==(y + 1)3 and y ==4.)
7.8.The Arc
Integral)
path consistingof portions of
Length of a Curve Represented
Parametrically
If a curve is given by the equations in the parametric form x ==x(t),

Y (t) and the derivatives x' (t), y' (t) are continuous on the interval [t 1, t 2 then the arc length of the curve is expressed
by the
===
],
integral)
t2
1=
\037
V X'2 (t)
+ y'2 (t)dt,
tt)
where t 1 and t 2 are the values of the parameter t correspondingto

the end-points of the arc (tt < t 2).
Compute the arc length of the involute of a circlex =
from t=O to t=2Jt.
y==a(sint-tcost)
Solution.Differentiating with respect to t, we obtain
xi ===at cost, y; ==at sin t,
7.8.1.
=a(cost+tsint),
whence
Vxi 2 + y;2 = at. Hence,

211:
1=
S at dt
=
a\0372
= 2an 2.
1;n
7.8.2.Find the
length of one arc of the
x=a(t-sint),
7.8.3.
Compute the
length of the
Solution.Differentiating
== a
cycloid:
(I-cost).
astroid:x ==a cos3 t, Y ==a sin3 t.
respect to t, we obtain
with
2
xi = -3acos t sin t;
2
=
3a sin t cost.)
Yt
Hence
Vx?+y;2 = V9a2 sin2 t cos2 t =3a sin t cost 1= I sin 2t I.

I
Since the function
\037a
sIn 2t has a period
')
\037
3't
1= 4 X
3a
sin 2t dt
2S
= 6a.
Note. If we forget that we have to take the arithmetic value of

the root and put V X;2 + y;2 ==3a sin t cost, we shall obtain the wrong)))
\037
7.8.Arc
a Curve Repres'd Parametrically
Length of
349)
result, since)
231
3aS sin t cost dt = 3:sin2 t 1:= o.

31
7.8.4.Compute
y==t-t3.
the length of the loop of the curve
x== V 3t 2,
Solution.Let us find the limits of integration.Both functions

x (t) and y (t) are defined for all values of
Since the function
x == 1/--3t2
the curve lies in the right half-plane. Sincewith a
change in sign of the parameter t, x(t) remains unchanged, while
y (t) changessign, the curve is symmetrical about the x-axis.Furthermore, the function x (t) takes
on one and the same value not
more than twice. Hence,it follows
that the points of self-intersection
of the curve lie on the x-axis.
0
at y == (Fig. 98).
The direction in which t he moving point M (x, y) runs along the
Fig. 98
\037
t.
0,
i.e.,
\037
\302\260
curve as
is
00 to 00
t changesfrom
indicated by the arrows.
1.
:i::
Sincex (t 2) == X (t 3) ==V3 , the point

at t 1== 0, t 2, 3 ==
y =
3
of
self-intersectionof the curve. Conse(V , 0) is the only point
the limits t 2 ==
and ==
must
within
we
integrate
quently,
Differentiating the parametric equations of the curve with respect
3t 2, whence
to t, we get x; == 2 V3\"t, Yt ==
But
\302\260
-1
1-
'=\037
1.
2
Vx;2+y ;2=1+3t
.)
Consequently,)
1
l = (l + 3t 2) dt = 4.
-1)
\037
6' 2-
7.8.5.Compute the
t6
{4
arc length of the curve x==
Y =
4
between the points of intersectionwith the axesof coordinates.
7.8.6.Compute the arc length of the ellipsex2a2 + y2b2 ==
Solution.Let us pass over to the parametric representation of the
ell ipse)
1.
x=acost, y=bsint, 0\037t\03721t.
Differentiating
with
respect to t, we obtain
x;== asint;
y; == b cas
t,)))
Ch. VII.
350)
of the Definite
Applications
Integral)
whence)
V X;2
where
+ y? = Va2 sin2 t + b2 cos2 t == a )/-I-E2 cos2 t
is the eccentricity of the ellipse,

c
y a2
E---a- -
b'l.
Thus)
\302\267)
J/l-8cos
2
=
dt 4a Vl-8 cos
Vl-8cos
dt
11:
2Jt
=a
\037
2t
2t
2t
\037
dt.
is not taken in elementary funeis called the ellipticintegral of the second kind. Putting
we reducethe integral to the standard form:)
The integral
\037
tions;
t
it
;-'I,
11:
Vl-8 cos tdt= Vl-8 sin Tdt=E(8).

2
\037
\037
0)
where E (E) is the notation for the so-calledcomplete ellipticintegral of the second kind.
Consequently, for the arc length ot an ellipsethe formula
good.
I ==4aE (E) holds

It is usual practiceto put
lues for the funct ion
E1 (a) ==
For instance,if a =
E
E=sinaand
to use the tables of va-
(arc sin E) = E (E).

10and b = 6, then
== Y
\302\2431
2
.
I02-6
==sIn 53 .
==0.8
\302\260
10
Using the table of values of ellipticintegrals of the second kind,

= 40 X 1.2776 51.1.
find I == 40E1
we
\037
(53\302\260)
7.8.7.Compute the
x==t2,
Y=T(t -3)
t
between the points of intersection with the x-axis.

7.8.8.Find the arc length of the cardioid:
x ==a (2 cost --cos2t ),
==a (2 sin t
-sin
2t).)))
\037
7.9.Arc
7.8.9.Find
the
Length
of
Polar
Curve in
351)
Coordinates
closedcurve
= a sin 2t.
x = 4 1/2a sin t;
of the
length
LJ
.8.to. Fin d t he a rc
eva
engt h of the
C2
C2
ofthe e
ute
3
t, Y=-7i sJn 3 t
x=(icos
7.8.11.
Compute the
,)
c2 =a2
11
-b
ipse)
.)
x= (t 2 -2)sin t + 2t cast,
= (2 t 2) cast -1-2t sin
y
t1
bet\\\\!\037en
=0
and
t2
t)
= n.
7.8.12.
-cost)find
x=a(t-sin y=a(l
arc of the
On the cycloid
t);
point which divides the length of the first
the ratio 1 :3.)
\037
the
cycloid in
7.9.The Arc Length of a Curve in PolarCoordinates
a smooth curve is given by the equation P = P (cp) in polar

the arc length of the curve is expressed
by the
integral:)
If
coordinates,then
l=
'I),
\037
{p2+
p\0372
dcp,
<P.)
at
are the values of the polar angle
endwhere CPt and
points of the arc (CP1 < (()2)'
Find the length of the first turn of the spiral at Archimedes p = acp.
Solution.The first turn of the spiral IS tormed as the (.>01al angle
changes from 0 to 2n.Therefore)
th\037
CD
CP2
7.9.1.
cp
2n
=
\037
Va 2cp2+ a 2 d<:p
2n
= a Vcp2+ 1 dcp =
\037
0)
=a
[:rt
V 4:rt2
1.
+ 1 + {-In(2:rt + V4:rt2 + J)
spiraI p =
7.9.2.Find the length of the logarithmic

a certain POiLt (PO) CPo) and a moving point (p,
cp).)))
aemr,p
between
Ch. VII.Applicat
352)
ions of the Definite
Solution.In this case(no matter
Po, is greater!)
=
\037
a2e2m\037
+ a2m 2e
which of the
magnitudes, P or
(f)
Integral)
2m ,,!
dqJ
(f)o)
m2
{JJ
= a VI + m2
\\
em\037
dqJ
=a
JI\\;
I-tm 2 P _ Po
m
t,.;
(f)o)
1=
= Y +m 2 ,
em'!'-em'\037o
nz
\037
I ,)
i.e. the
length of the logarithmic spiral is proportional to the

increment of the polar radius of the arc.
Find the arc length of the cardioid P ==a (1+ coscp)
0
>
0,
2n).
(a
7.9.3.
\037
cp
\037
Solution.Here p' ==
cp
Vp'2 + p2
==-
(f)
(1+
2a2
-asin
cp,
coscp) == V4a2 cos2 (cp/2)
===
2a cos(cp/2),
= 2a cos( /2) =
{ -2acos(cp/2),
cp
Hence,by
\037
cp
\037
Jt
\037
cp
\037
Jt
2n.
virtue of symmetry
n
2n
l = 2a
cas
SI
\037
7.9.4.Find the
dqJ = 4a cas
S
\037
dqJ
= 8a.
lemniscatep2 2a2 cos2cp bet\\veen

to == 0 and any point with a
the right-hand vertex corresponding
polar angle < 4 .
Solution.If 0
< ' then cos2cp > O. Therefore
length of the
===
cp
j'[
cp
\037
cp
\037
p=a
Vp2 +
Hence,)
p\"
(f)
V2 cos2cp;
' = _ a V 2 sin
Pcp
= 1/\"2a
, 2 ( cas2cp +
cp
2m
'Y
Vcos2cp
sin 2
cos
2cp
2cp
a Y2
V cos
cp
l=aV 2 s Ycos2<p=a V 2 S Yl-2sin2

o
dcp
2<p
dcp
\302\267
cp
The latter integral is calledthe ellipticintegralof the first kind.

be reduced to a form convenient for computing with the
It can
aid of
specialtables.)))
7.9.Arc
\037
Find the
7.9.5.
7.9.6.Compute
p = a see( qJ
\037
Length of
a Curve
between qJ =
and
\302\260
= a see qJ(
\037
since on the interval

is positive.)
:rr)
sec2 ( qJ
a.f
o
7.9.7.Find the
curve p ==a sin4
j.
\037
\037
(qJ--T);
V 1 + tan ( qJ2
\037
[0, ]
= a sec2
see qJ- )
(
qJ
IS
\037
\037
).
omitted,
this function
\037
qJ
(The sign of the modulus in the function
l=
353)
the length of the segment of the straight line
\037
p\037
Polar Coordinates
arc length of the curve p = a sin3
Solution. p\037=asec qJ- ) tan

(
Vp2 +
in
\037
) dqJ
= 4 \0373 a.
of the
length
closed
p ==a sin4
a)
x)
is even, the given curve is symmetrical about

the polar axis.Sincethe function sin4
has
Fig.
99)
period 4Jt, during half the period from 0 to 2Jt the polar radius
increasesfrom 0 to a, and will describehalf the curve by virtue
of its symmetry (Fig. 99).

Fur ther, p ==a sin3 (cpj4)cos(cp/4) and
\037
V p2
+ p'2 == V a2 sin
(f)
+ a2 sin6 (cp/4)cos2 (cp/4)==a sin3 (cpJ4),
(cp/4)
if O\037cp\0372Jt.
Hence,)
:2
1= 2a
7.9.8.Find
and p
===
4.
S
o
sin3 (qJ/4) dqJ = 8a
/2
3
= 6
50 sin t dt 13 a
the length of the curve
Solution.The
dl
'JT
.\"'1
diff
= V p2 +
p\037
erential of the arc

dqJ
(qJ
= 4t).
qJ=f(p+lip) betweenp=2
dl is
= V p2 dqJ2 + dp2 =
equal to
Vip2 (
2
\037:
-f 1
dp.)))
Ch. V
354)
II. Applications
of the Definite
From the equationof the curve we

4
1=
V p2 -}( 1
S
2
\302\267
::=-{ - ).
find
4
2
p12
+ 1dp = S
2
Integral)
JI-}(p2
2+
;2
p12
Hence,
+ 4 ) dp =
JI(p + r dp={(
s=
\037j
\037
2)
7.9.9.Find the
3
<PI
==\"4
and
CP2
length of the
4
\0372
+ ln p ) I:=3+
hyperbolic spiral
pcp
1\0372
= 1 between
\302\267
7.9.10.
Compute the length of the closedcurve p == 2a (sin + coscp).
7.9.11.
Compute the arc length of the curve p= l+P
cos from
cP
<PI
\037
-2
j'[
to
=2
<p)
j'[
CP2
\302\267)
7.10.Area of Surfaceof Revolution
The area of the surface generatedby revolving about the x-axis

the arc L of the curve y ==y (x) (a x b) is expressed
by the
\037
\037
integral)
P = 2n
\037
VI + y'2 dx.
a)
It
is more convenient to write this integral in the
form
P = 2n ydl,
\037
where dl is
length.
If a curve is representedparametrically or in polar coordinates,
then it is sufficient to change the variable in the above formula,
expressingappropriately the different ial of the arc length (see 7.8
and 7.9).
Find the area of the surface formed by revolving the
the differential of the arc
\037\037
7.10.1.
2
astroid x3\" -t- y3 ==a 3\" about the x-axis.

Solution.Differentiating the equation of the astroid we get
2
whence)
-...!...2
3 +3
x
1
3
y' == 0,)
' _ L13
x
3)))
\302\267
7.10.A rea of Surface of
\037
V I + y'2 = -.
V
Then,
+ y: = x3
a\037
1
x
355)
Revolution)
. Since the
astroid is sym-
3
l
metrical about the y-axis, in comput ing the area of the surface we
may first assume x 0, and then double the result.In other words,
the desired area P is equal to)
\037
p= 2 x2nS yVl + y'2 dx= 4n S ( a3-x3) 2a3x-3dx.

o
0)
Make the substitution)
--x-= ,
I
2 -- =
x dx 2t
2
2
3
a3
-3
I al/3
Then
P = 12na3
t 4 dt
t2
na 2
\0372
t)
I
1
\302\260
dt,)
a3
\302\260)
o)
7.10.2.
Find
the area of the surface generatedby revolving about)

!f
by
Solution. It is easy to check that the 1
given parabolas intersect at the points 0
(0,=0) and B (1, 1).The sought-for area
P PI+ P2, where the area PI is formed
by revolving the arc OCB, and P2 by revolthe
x-axisa closed contour OABCOformed

the curves y = x2 and x = y2 (Fig.100).
arc OAB.
ving the
Compute the area PI' From the equat ion

I
o.
x = y2 we get y = Vx and y' = 2
JIX
Hence,
Fig.
100)
VI +
dx = 2n
4\037
V +
.f 4;
6)
dx =
-.
= 6 (4x + 1)2 = _6 ( 5)r-5

j'[
Now
:c)
PI= 2n S V-X
1)
\302\267
compute the area
P2. We
have
1
\037
j'[
0)
y=:.x2, y'=2x and)
P2 = 2n x2 VI+ 4x2 dx.

o)))
1)
Ch,
356)
The substitution
Arsinh 2
P2 =
II. Applications
Integral)
x = -}sinh t, dx = cosht dt
\037
slnh 2 t
of the Definite
== Jt
cosh2 t dt
32 (
4 sinh 4t
gives)
o)
==
9 V5n
16
Arsfnh
32
==
1t In
(2
+ V 5.)
)
Thus,
P=P1+P2 = (5\037-1)1t
+ 9\03751t
nln(2+V'5)=
3\037
67
\0371t
7.10.3.
Compute the
In
)-
(2+V s
\037
area of the surface generated by revolving:

(a) the portion of the curve y= , cut off by the straight line
\0372
y=
, about the y-axis;

(b) the portion of the curve y2==4+x,rut off by the straight
line x== 2, about the x-axis.
Find the surface area of the ellipsoidformed by revolving
x2
y2 =
the ellipse + b2
1 about the x-axis (a > b).
Solution.Solving the equation of the ellipsewith respect to y
for y
0, we get
7.10.4.
\302\243l2
\037
==
a Va -x
b
2
;)
, ==
.
V 1
Hence)
P - S -V
a
2Jt
-a)
a2
-x
-{i ..r -x
b
x
2
J' a
\302\267
--b
- ( _(a(2a-x)
x--X
2
a4
+ y '2 _
a2
\302\267
2)
a4_(a2-b2)X2d
a2 2 2
(a
2 2
)X
4
==d _2 b
I -E +
a SVa-EX x-Jta (V
1tb
2 2
\037
...I 2 -b2 a
arcSinE
a
== c is the eccentricity of
where the quant ity E == V
a'!.
e IIip se
a the eccentricityE tends to zero and
When b
-).
In1
0
E -+
since the ellipseturns

area of the sphere:)
into a
arc sin
E
the)
= 1,
circle,in
p = 4Jta2
.)))
the limit we get the surface)
\037
7.10.Area
of
Surface of
357)
Revolution)
7.10.5.
the area of the surface obtained
Compute
2
==
4x
ellipse + y2 4 about the y-axis.
7.10.6.
An arc of the catenary
-a
x
y = '2( e:+ e ) = a cosh a '
the
by revolving
whose end-pointshave abscissas0 and x, respectively, revolves about

the x-axis.
Show that the surface area P and the volume V of the solid thJ..ls
2V
generated are related by the formula P = a
000:
Solution.Sincey' ==sinh
y'\037
dx = 2a'Jt cosh2
dx =
\037
hence, P
2V
===
:rr
5o
Therefore
a)
P = 2'Jt 5 y VI +
but)
VI + y'2 ==cosh\037.
we have
\037,
'Jt
\037
2
2
5 a cosh dx,
\037
a2 cosh2
dx = 'Jt
5 y2 dx
= v,
0)
a
Find the area of the surface
7.10.7.
of the curve 9ax2 ==y
obtained by revolving a loop

the y-axis.
by a moving point as y changes
respect to y both sides of the
(3ay)2 about
is described
Solution.The loop
0 to 3a. Differentiate with
equation of the curve:
== (3a18axx'
y)2_ 2y (3a -y) = 3 (3a
from
- (a-
y),
y)
whence xx'= (3a-\037a(a-y) Using the formula for computing the

area of the surface of a solid of revolution about the y-axis, we have)
!J2
Y2
2
P=2'Jt5 xVl+x'2dy=2'Jt
5 Vx + (xx')2dy=
ljl
= 2'Jt
3a
r
J
o
ljl
.. (3a-y)2 +
9a
V
y
3a
(a-y)2 d = (3a2+ 2a _
36a2
3aS
(3a-y)\037
\037
7.10.8.
Compute
== 2
2
y2) dy == 3Jta
the area of the surface generatedby revolving

4 about the x-axis.
the curve 8y2 x
7.10..9.
Compute the area of a surface generated by revolving
about the x-axisan arc of the curve x= (2; y = ((2-3) between
the points of intersection of the curve and the x-axis.)))
-x
\037
Ch. V
358)
II. Applicati
'Jns
cf
the Definite Integral)
== 0, find t 1 == and t 2, 3 == + V 3, and, hence,

y
Whence it follows that the curve intersects
and x 2, 3 =
with the x-axisat two points: (0, 0) and (3, 0). When the parametert changes sign, the sign of the function (x)t remains unchanged, and the funct ion y (t) changes
!J
its sign,which meansthat the curve
1
is symmetrical about the x-axis
Solution.Putting
3.
=0
Xl
\302\260
:c
(Fig. 101).
To find the area of the surface it

is sufficient to confine ourselves to
the lower port ion of the curve OnB
that corresponds to the variat ion
of the parameter between
and
,=
Xt
+ V Differentiating
to t, we find
'-- -)
2t ,Yt
and the linear element

dl = Vxi 2 + Y; i dt
Hence,)
P = 2n
/2
\037
t1
y (t)
Y3
=2n S
\037
\302\260
3.
Fig. 101
t2
with
respect
+ t 2) dt.)
== (1
Vx? + y? dt =
(t
-3)(1+t)dt=-
Va
n
\037
7.10.10.
Compute2the
S
0
(t
-2t -3t)dt=3n.
3
surface area of the torus generated by reabout the x-axis.

Solution.Let us representthe equat ion of the circlein parametric
form: x == r cast; Y ==b + r Si 11 t.
Hence)
,
volving the
circlex + (y-b)2==r 2 (0 < r < b)
The desired area
Xt
==
r SIn t ;
Yt
==r
cost
.)
is)
23t
P = 2n (b+r sin t) V(-r sin t)2+ (r cost)2dt =

\037
o)
2Jt
= 2nr
7.10.11.
Compute t he
\037
(b
+ r sin t) dt = 4n2br.
area of the surface fornled by revolving

the
about the polar axis.
Solution.Real values for p are obtained for cas2cp 0, e. for
(the right-hand branch of the lemniscate),or for
lemniscatep ==a Vcos2cp
\037
\037
cp
\037
\037
\037
n:::;;
cp:::;;n
\037
(the left-hand branch of the lemniscate).)))
i.
7.10.Area
\037
The
lin
ear element
r
dl ==JI p2
of
of t he
Surface of
359)
Revolution)
lemniscateis equal to
a sin
+ p'2dcp == Y a 2 cas2cp + ( \037cos2<p
)
2<p
adcp
dcp ==
\037cos2\037
==a sin Vcos2cp.

The sought-for surface area P is equal to double the area of the
surface generated by revolving the right-hand branch. Therefore)
Besides,y ==p sin
cp
cp
:rt
===
2X
2'Jt
5L Y dl
==4na 2
\302\245
50
cas2<p sin
V cos2<p
<p
d<p
= 2na2 (2 V2 ).
7.10.12.
Compute the area of the surface formed by revolving

about the stra ight line x + y =:.:a the quarter of the circlex 2 + y2 ==a 2
between A (a, 0) and B (0, a).
Solution.Find the distance MN from the moving point M (x, y).
2
2
==
lying on the circlex + y2 ==a , to the straight li ne x + y
a:
MN = x+ \037a2-x2-a= x+
I
2
'V a
\302\2452
since for the points
\302\2452
circle that
of the
x+ y a. Fur ther,
-x -a
2
lie in the
first
quadrant
\037
x
dl=Vl+y/2dx=-./l+
r ( \037a2-x2)
Hence,
a
-
P == 2'Jt j x +
o
\037
a2
-=x
\0372
a dx
adx
dx ==
\037a2-x2
==
\037a2-x2
=V2na[-Va2-X2+x-aarcsin
J:=
\037
\037;
(4-n).
7.10.13.
Compute the area of

the surface formed by revolving
one br anch of the lemniscate p ==
==aVcas2cp about the straight line
:c)
3t
B)
CP==T'
Solution.From the triangleOMN

(Fig.102)we find the distanceMN
of an arbitrary point M
axisof revolut ion
cp
\037
MN
of
= :
= P sin
cp
\037
Fig.
the right-hand
= a Vcas2
4)
7.10.14.
Compute the
area of the surface formed by revolving

3
between x==-2 and
about the x-axisthe arc of the curve y=
x===2.
Compute the area of the surface generatedby revolving
one half-wave of the curve y ==sin x about the x-axis.
Compute the area of the surface generated by revolving
about the y-axis the arc of the parabola x 2 = 4ay betweenthe points
of intersectionof the curve and the straight line y==3a.
t 7. Find the area (f the surface formed by revolving about
the x-axis the arc of the curve x = et sin t; y ==et cost between
j'[
t = 0 and t
==\"2
Compute the area of the surface 3obtained by 2 revolving
t
t
about the x-axisthe arc of the curve x==T; y==4- between
the points of its intersectionwith the axesof coordinates.
19.Compute the area of the surface generatedby revolving
the curve p ==2a sin about the polar axis.
7.10.20.
Compute the area of the surface formed by revolving
about the x-axisthe cardioid
x ==a (2 cos
2t),
==a (2 sin
2t).)
Y
\037
7.10.15.
7.10.16.
7.10.
7.10.18.
7.10.
cp
t-cos
t-sin
\037
7.11.Geometrical
Applications
of the DefiniteIntegral
Given: the cycloid (Fig. 103)
7.11.1.
x==a(t-sint);y=-=a(l-cost);O\037t\0372Jt.
Compute:
(a) the areasof
surfaces formed by revolving the arc OBA

y-axes;
(b) the volumes of the solidsgeneratedby revolving the figure OBAO
about the y-axis and the axis BC;
the
abowt the x- and
(c) the area of the surface generated by revolving the arc BA

about the axis BC;)))
\037
Geometrical
7.11.
Applic's
of the Definite
361)
Integral
(d) the volume of the solid generated by revolving the figure

ODBEABOabout the tangent line DE touching the figure at the
vertex B;
!J
(e) the area of the surface formed by JJ
revolving the arc of the cycloid [see
\302\243)
(d)].
Solution.(a)
item
When
revolving about
the x-axisthe arc OBA generatesa sur- 0
face of area)
Fig.
:!n
Px==2nj'YdL=2nJ
L
::c)
c)
A)
103)
a(l-cost)2asindt=
\037
0)
2Jt
== 8a2n
sin3 t2 dt
S
===
64J[a2
3
o)
When revolving about the y-axIs the arc OBA generatesa surface of area)
:ry
2
=
Py 2n .fxdl = 4na S (t-sint) sin +dt +
0
2Jt
+ 4na2 .f (t -sint) sin
2Jt
dt
= 4na2
\037
S (t -')int) sin
dt
\037
= I6n2a2.
0)
(b) When revolving about the y-axis the

solid of volume
2a
Vy = n
\037
(x\037-xi) dy = n
2a
\037
x\037
OBAO generates
figure
2a
dy-n0
\037
x\037
dy.
where X==X 1(y) is the equation of the curve BA, and x=x2 (y) is
the equation of the curve OB.
Making the substitution y ==a
t), take into consideration
that for the first integral t varies between 2n and n, and for the
second integral between 0 and n. Consequently,
(I-cos
IT
Vy=n
\037
a2
\037
2n
(t-sint)2asintdt-n0 a2 (t-sint)2asmtdt=
\037
= na 3
(t
\037
-sint)2 sin t dt =
2.'1:
Jta\037
f
r_2.
t 2 sin t
dt
2\037
(I-cos2t) dt + f
2Jt
sin3 t dt
== 6n 3a 3
For computing the volume of the solid obtained by revolving

figure OBAO about the axis BC it is convenient first to trans-)))
the
Ch,
362)
II. Applications
of the Definite
Integral)
fer the origin into the point C, which yields the following equations in the new system of coordinates
x' ==- a
t); y' ==a
t).
Taking into account only the arc BA, we get
(t-1t-sin
j[
2a
=n
X'2
\037
dy' = na3 (t
\037
Putting
(I-cas
-n-sin
t)2
sin t dt.
2Jt
t-n= z, we obtain
o
\037
na 3 (z + sin Z)2 sin z dz = na 3 (z + sin Z)2 sin z dz =

\037
\037
Jt
(9n2
Jt\037
(c) Making the above-indicatedshift
_ 16).
origin, we get
of the
Idtl=-2asin dt.)
dL=2asin
\037
\037
Therefore)
n
2a
2nXdL=-4na2 S (t-n-sint)sindt=
p=.f
o
\037
231)
Jt
= 4na2
.f (z +
sin z) cas dz = 4
\037
2n- )
\037
(d) Transferring the origin into the point B and changing

directionof the y-axis, we get
x' ==a (t
t), y' ==a (1+ cost).
Putting
-1t==
-1t to
= 1t
-n
\037
1t
a3 ( I
5
-n
Find
7..11..2.
cosZ)2 ( I + cosz) dz ==n 2a S.
31
1t
y dL
y' ==a (I-cos

z),
for the arc OBA. Hence
+ sin z),
31
(e) P = 2n
the
we have
Z,
changingfrom
V
-n-sin
x' ==a (z
z
na2
= 4na2
z) cas
5 (I-cas
-Jt)
the volume of the
and
z2==8(2-x)
X2 -t-y
2==2x.
\037
dz = 33 :rra2
solid bounded
by
.
the
surfaces
Solution.The first surface is a parabolic cy linder with generatfices parallelto the y-axis and the directrixZ2 ==8 (2-x)in the
plane xOz, and the second is a circular cylinder with generatrices)))
7.11.
Geometrical
\037
of the Definite
Applic's
363)
Integral
x2 + y 2 ==2x in the planexOy.

parallel to the z-axisand the directrix
2
The volume
is computed by the formula
presents the area of a triangle whose base is

tude to 2z:)
= S (x)dx. S (x)reo
equal to 2y and alti-
\037
S (x) ==2y x 2z ==4 V2x-x2 8 (2 -x).)

Hence,
2
2
= 4 VB (2-x)VX'dx =
4 Vx (2-x)8 (2-x)dx
V =
J/\037
\037
\037
= 4 VB
. 1.3.
; Vx 2
\037
256
Vx& ) = 5 .
I\037
7 t
Prove tha t if the figure S is bounded by a simpIe convex contour and is situated betweenthe ordinates YI and Y2 (Fig.104),
solid ge-
then the volunle of the
!J
nerated by revolving this figure

about the x-axiscan be expressed
by
the
!Jz
formula)
Y2
= 2:rt
\037
yh
dy,
!f)
Yl)
where)
h ==X 2 (y)
-Xl(y),
being the equation of the !if

portion of the contour llnd
x ==x2 (y) that of the right portion. 0
Solution.Let the generatingfig-
==Xl (y)
left
Fig. 104
S be bounded by a simple
convex contour and contained between the ordinates
ure
YI
and
Y2'
Subdivide the interval [Yl' Y2] into parts and pass through the
points of division straight lines parallel to the axis of revolution,
thus
cutting the
figure
by
strip and replaceit
the
strips. Single out one

rectangle ABCD, whose lower base is
into horizontal
equal to the chord AD = h specified by the ordinate y, its altitude

AB being equal to
The solid generatedby revolving the rectangle
ABCD about the x-axis is a hollow cylinder whose volume may
be approximately taken for the elementof volume
\037y.
\037V
\037
n (y
\037y)2
h-
2
ny h
= 2ny\037yh + nh
(\037y)2.
Rejecting the infinitesimal of the secondorder with respect t) \037y,

we get the principal part or the differential of volume
dV = 2n yh dYe
Knowing the differential of the volume, we get the volume proper)))
Ch. VII.
364)
of the Definite
Applications
Integral)
integration:)
through
Y2
=2n
\037
yhdy.
Yl)
Thus, we obtain one more formula for computing the volume of

the solid of revolution.
The planar region bounded by the parabola y==2x2 +3,
7.11.4.
and the verticals x== 0 and x == 1 revolves about the
x-axis
the
y-axis.Compute the volume of the solid of revolution thus generated.
Solution.Divide the area of the figure into elementary strips by
of the elemenstraight lines parallel to the y-axis. The volume
is
one
revolving
strip
by
tary cylinder generated
\037V
== n (x-\\- \037X)2
\037V
where
\037x
y-n x2
is the width of the
= 2Jt xy \037x+
ny
(\037X)2,
strip.
Neglectingthe infinitesimal of the secondorder with respectto
we get the different ial of the
\037x,
desired volume
dV ==2n xy dx.)
Hence)
1
V
=
\037
2n xy dx = 2n
\037
x (2x2 + 3) dx = 4n.
0)
7.11.5.
Compute the
z
area of the portion of the cylinder surface

x2 + y2 :::::tax sit uated inside the
sphere) 2
x -t-y2 + Z2 = a2
of the
Solution.The generatrices
cy linder are parallel to2 the z-axis,
2
a
the circle x
+ y2 == a
.)
a)
-2)
serving as directrix(Fig. 105

:c shows a quarter of the soughtfor
surface).
Subdivide the portion of the
circle shown
in
small arcs
passing through
Fig. 105 into
The generatrices
the points of di!I)
cut the cylinder surface
vi\037ion
Fig. 1 05)
into strips. I.f infinitesimals of
of the strip ABCD is equal to)
area
the
are
order
neglected,
higher
\037l.
CD.
\037l.
e polar coordinates of the point D, then

2
and CD==Va
-pz==asincp,and \037l===a.L\\<p, whence
p==acoscp
If p and
cp
are
t\037
we)))
\037
find
7.11.
Geometrical
of the Definite
Applic's
365)
Integral
the element of area:)
dP ==a2 sin
cp
dcp.)
Hence,)
.IT
P = 4 a2 sin
cp
\037
dcp
= 4a2 .
II)
7.t 1.6.Find
the area of the surface cut off from a right

a
cylinder by plane passing through the diameter of the
inclined at an angle of
to
z
the base.
circular
base and
45\302\260
Solution.Let the cylinderaxis

be the z-axis,and the given diameter the x-axis.Then the equation of the cylindrical surface
2
2
be x + y2 ==a , and that of

the plane forming an angle of
with
the coordinate plane xOy
will
45\302\260
will
be y==z.
The area of the infinitely nar- x

row strip ABCD (seeFig.106)will
Fig. 106
be dP ==zdl (accurateto infinitesimals of a higher order), where dl is the length of the
tary arc of the circumference of the base.
Introducing polar coordinates,we get
Hence dP==a 2 sin
elemen-
z==y=asincp; dl=adfP.
cp
dcp
and
:rt
P=a2 sincpdcp=a2[-coscp]\037=2a2.
\037
o)
7.11-.7.
The axesof
sect at
two circularcylinders with equal bases interangles.Compute the surface area of the solidconstitu-
right
ting the part common to both
7.t 1.8.Compute
cylinders.
the volume of the solid generatedby revolving

about the y-axis the figure bounded by the parabola x2 ==
the
axisof abscissasand the straight lines x=.Oand x=
Find the area S of the ellipsegiven by the equation
1. y-
7.11.9.
Ax 2
+2Bxy+Cy2== 1 (B=AC-B2> 0; C>0).

\\vith
respectt o y, w e get
-Bx+VC-bx2
== -Bx-VC-6x\037 .
Y
2
Solution.Solving the equati on

1
,Y
=-.=
where the values of x must satisfy the inequality
C-ox2
\037O.)))
\302\267
1,
Ch. V
366)
II. Applications
-{
Solving this inequality, we obtain the limits of integration:

'
\037x\037V'
Consequently,the sought-for area is equal to
\037
\037
\037
S=
\037
(Y2-Yl)dx=
.f
_(
in
f2;
t2
Vb
'
the figures bounded by the curves rep-
l+t
resentedparametrically:
x== 2f
_('jx2dx =
S
0
\037
\037
7.11.10.
Find the areasof
(a)
{ Vc
\037
== 2t 2
t
f3;
t 2)
2
(1
;
(b) x== 1+t2
y==
7.11.11.
Find the areasof the figures boundedby the curves given
polar coordinates:
(a) p ==a sin 3cp (a three-leaved rose);
(b ) p
--
\302\267
.
]'
\037
\037
2
[ 4 -.;::::-.;::::
==
==
3
3
sin
and
p V cos
(c) P
4
7.t
Find the arc length of the curve y2 == q (2
by the straight line x==-l.
Find the length of the arc OA of the curve
1
\037
cos
cp
\037
<p
cp
y ==a
wher.e 0 (0, 0);
- --
cpo
1.12.
7.11.13.
, a
7.11.14.
Compute the
In
In
:.
7.11.15.
off
-x '
2
of the curve
ta ined insi de the para bola y2 ==

Prove that the length of the
\037
cut
a2
a2
arc length
X)3
y2==\"3(x-l)3con-
ellipse
x==V2sint; y==cost
equal to the wavelength of the sinusoid y == sin x.
I
7.1
Prove tha t the arc of the parabola y == x2 correspon2p
ding to the interval 0 x a has the same length as the arc of
the spiral p==Pcpcorrespondingto the interval O\037p\037a.
Find the ratio of the area enclosedby the loop of the
x Vx to the area of a circlethe circumference
curve Y = +
)
(
of which is equal to the length of the contour of this curve.)))
is
1.16.
\037
7.11.17.
+-
<
\037
7.1t .18.Find
7.12.
Computing
Physical
the volume of the
segment cut
cal paraboloid + = x by the plane x ==

2p 2q
Z2
y2
7.11.19.
Compute the
2
367)
Quantities)
off from
a.
the ellipti-
volume of the solid bounded by the hyperand the planes z ==c and z == I > c.
== -1
2+ ---:F-T
x
boloid a
y2
tJ
Z2
c)
7.t t .20.Find the volume of the right ellipticalcone whose base

a and b, its altitude being equal to h.
ellipsewith semi-axes
7.t t .21.Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving
about the x-axisthe figure bounded by the straight lines y ==x+ 1;
y==2x+1 and x==2.
7.t t .22.Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving
x2
== 1,
about the x-axisthe figure bounded by the hyperbola a2 y2
b2
the straight line 2ay-bx==0 and the axis of abscissas.
is an
7.1t .23.Find
curve p ==a cos2
the volume of the

about the polar
cp
sol.idgeneratedby revolving the
axis.
7.11.24.
Find the areas of the surfacesgeneratedby revolving the

following curves:
about the x-axis;
(a)
y=tanx(O\037x\037 )
(b) y=x
\037
\037
(O\037x\037a)
about the
x-axis;
(c) +y2-2rx==Oabout the x-axisbetween 0 and

x2
\037
h.)
7.12.ComputingPressure,Work and Other Physical
Quantities
by
the
DefiniteIntegrals
I.
To compute the force of liquid pressure we use Pascal's

law, which states that the force of pressure of a liquid P on
an area S at a depth of immersion h is P = yhS, where y is the
specific weight of the liquid.
If a variable force X ==f (x) acts in the directionof the x-axis,
then the work of this force over an interval [Xl' x2] is expressed
by the integral)
II.
X2
\037
f (x) dx.
1)
III. The kinetic energy of a material point of mass m and velocity v is defined as)
n1V'l.
K==y-)))
Ch. VII.
368)
of the Definite
Applications
IV. Electricchargesrepulse each
other
Integral)
a force F ==
,
r
where e1 and e2 are the values of the charges,and r is the distance
wi th
el\0372
between them.
Note. When solving practicalproblems we assume that all the
in one and the same system of units and omit
data are expressed
the dimensionsof the correspondingquantities.
7.12.1.
Compu te the force of pressure experienced
by a vertical
triangle with base b and altitude h submerged base downwards in
water so that its vertex touches the surface of the water.
Solution.Introduce a systemof coordinatesas indicated iR Fig.107
and considera horizontal strip of thickness dx located at an arbitrary depth x.
Assuming this strip to be a rectangle,find the differential of area
dS== MN dx. From the similarity of the trianglesBMN and ABC
bx
bx
M N == x
dS == h
whence MN == hand
dx.
\\Ve h ave
f) Ii'
o)
70)
A)
A)
b)
c)
:c)
Fig.
Fig.
107)
108)
The force of pressureexperienced

by this strip is equal to dP ==xdS
of higher order (taking into consideration
that the specific weight of water is unity). Consequently,the entire
force of water pressure experienced
by the triangle is equal to
accurateto infinitesimals
h
\302\267
-'.
h
P ==.J xdS== h
{
r\037
\\
X2
dx == 3
bh 2
(I
of
7.12.2.
Find the force of pressure experienced
by a semicircle
radius R submerged vertically in a liquid so that its dianleter is
the liquid surface (the specificweight of the liquid is V).
flush with
A vertical dam has the form of a trapezoid whose upper
7.12.3.
base is 70 m long, the lower one 50 m, and the altitude 20 m.
Find the force of water pressure experienced
by the dam (Fig.108).
Solution.The differential (dS) of area of the hatched figure is
approximately equal to dS == MN dx. Taking into consideration
the)))
7.12.Conzputing
\037
Physical
369)
Quantities)
similarity of the triangles OML and OAE, we
find
\037OL
= 202-;;-x ;
ML==20-x,
MN==20-x+50==70-x.
Thus, dS==MNx
x dx == (70-x)dx and the differential of the force of water pressureis
equal to)
dP== xdS= x (70-x)dx.
Integrating\\vith respect to x from 0 to 20,we get
\\vhence
20
\037
P = (70x-x2)dx=11.3333\"'
1
,\\
(I)
7.12.4.
Calculatethe
performed
\\vork
pumping the water out
in
semisphericalboiler of rad ius R.

A rectangular vessel is filled with equal volumes of \\vater
7.12.5.
and oil;water is twice as t:eavy as oil.Show that the force of pressure of the mixture on the wall will
Z
0
reduce by one fifth if the water is
!J
rep laced by oi 1.
Solution.Let h be the depth of
of a
\037
the vessel and I the length of the
wall. Let us introduce a system of 2

coordinates as shown in Fig. 109. x
Sincethe oil is situated above the h
water and occupiesthe upper half of
J
the vessel, the force of the oil presI
m
sure experiencedby the upper half
of the wall is equal to
Fig. 109
2
lh2
P = 2S xl dx = 16
1
\302\267
The pressure at a depth

oil column of height
-2'
h
\037
x>
is made up of the pressureof the
and that of the water column of height
and therefore
dP2 =
[ x -}+ ( x
\037
-; ]
)
1dx =
\037
) 1dx.
Consequently,the force of pressure of the mixture on the lower half
of the
\\va
11 is)
P2=,h 1 ( x-T) dX=T'

\037
\\
2)))
It
lh2
Ch. VII.
370)
of the Definite
Applications
Integral)
The entire pressure of the mixture on the wall is equal to

2
lh
lh
== 5 lh2 .
P = P1+ p2 = '4
+ 16
T6
If the vessel were filled only

the same wall would be)
p ==
oil,the
with
force of pressureP on
r xl dx ==lh'l.
'..1
\302\267
o)
Hence,)
p-p- ==16 5P.

I
lh2
===
7.12.6.
The electricchargeE concentratedat the origin of coordinates repulses the chargee from the point (a, 0) to the point (b,O).
Find the work A of the repulsive force F.
Solution.The differential of the work of the force over displaceeE
ment dx IS dA =Fdx=2\"dx.
x
Hence)
---).
IJ
dx
=eE\\ 2=eE
x
(a
I
\037
a)
As
b --+00 the work
I \\
tends to eE .
a)
Calculate the
7.12.7.
work performed in launching a rocket of

from
the
ground vertically upwards to a height h.
weight
Solution.Let us denote the force of attraction of the rocket by
the mass of the rocket by mR' and the mass of
the Earth by
the Earth by mE' According to Newton's law)
F,
k mRmE
2
x
,)
where x is the distance between the rocket and the centre of the
Earth. Putting kmRmE=K, we get F(x)= , R\037x\037h+R,
R being the radius of the Earth. At x == R the force F (R) will be
whence K = P R2
F (R) = P =
the weight of the rocket P,
i.e.
PR 2
\0372
and F (x) = \037

x
Thus, the differential of the work is
PR
dA == F (x) dx ==
X2
dx.)))
'
\037
7.12.Computing
Integrating,we obtain
R+h
371)
Quantities)
Physical
R+h
F (x) dx = PR2 S =
S
R
R
=
The limit !irn A (h) = Iim
P
is
R
equal to the work performed
h_oo :\037hh
h_oo
by the rocket engineto achieve complete
escapeof the rocket from.
the Earth'sgravity field (the Earth'smotion is neglected).
A
\037:
\302\267
\037hh
7.12.8.
Calculatethe work that has to be done to stop an iron
sphere of radius R rotating about its diameter with an angular velocity w.
Solution.The amount of required work is equal to the kinetic

energy of the sphere. To calculatethis energy divide the sphere
into concentrichollow cylinders of thickness dx; the velocity of the
points of such a cylinder of radius x is wx.
The elementof volume of such a cylinder is dV ==4Jtx VR2 x2 dx,
the element of mass dM == dV, where y is the density of iron, and
2 dx.
the differential of kinetic energy dK = 2Jtyw 2x3 VR2
-x
'\\'
Hence,
-x
VR2 2 dx= 43tI'R3

3
S
o
Calculate the kinetic energy of a
7.12.9.
X3
K == 2JtYw 2
S-=
Mw 2R2
\302\267
disk of mass M and raan angular velocity w about an axis passing:

its centre perpendicular to its plane.
Find the amount of heat releasedby an alternatingsi-
dius R rotating
through
w 2R2
\302\267
with
7.12.10.
nusoidal current
I=
sin
t -<p
)
a cycle T in a conductor with resistanceR.
during
Solution. For direct current the amount of heat releasedduring
a unit time is determined by the Joule-Lenzlaw
C;
III
2R.
Q==O.24/
For alternating current the differential of amount
dQ = 0.24 (t) R dt, whence)
of heat
IS
t\037
/2
Q =0.24R 12 dt.
\037
In
t his
case)
Q = 0.24
R/\037
T
2
sin 2;t
S
(
o
(p
dt
1)
[t- ;1I:
=0.12R/\037
23t
.
SIn:'
t-cp
'>
\037
] 0 =0.12RT/\037.)))
II. Applications
Ch. V
372)
of the Definite
Integral)
7.12.11.
Find the pressure of a liquid of specificweight d on a

vertical ellipsewith axes2a and 2b whose centre is submergedin
the liquid to a level h (h b).
Find the pressure of a liquid of specificweight d on the
of a circular cylinder of base radius r and altitude h if the
\\vall
\037
7.12.12.
cylinder is
full
of
liq uid.
7.t 2.13.Calculate the
work performed to overcome the force of

water
the
out of a ronicalvesselwith the vertex
gravity
pumping
downwards;the radius of the cone base is R and its altitude is
Compute the work required to stretch a spring by 6 cm,
if a force of one kilogram is required to stretch it by 1 en1.)
in
H.
7.12.14.
* 7.13.ComputingStaticMomentsand Momentsof
Inertia.Determining
Coordinates
of the
Centreof Gravity
In all problems of this paragraph we will assume that the mass
is distributed uniformly in a body (linear,two- and three-dimensional)
and that its density is equal to unity.
1.For a plane curve L the static moments Mx and My about
the x- and y-axis are expressed
by the formulas
Mx
= ydl,
\037
My=
\037
xdl.
L)
The moment of inertia about the origin of coordinates

10
=--=
\037
(x2 + y2) dl.
L)
If the curve L is given by the explicit equation y== y(x) (a\037 x\037 b),
then dl has to be replacedby VI y'2 dx in the above formulas.
If the curve L is given by the parametric equations x ==x (t),
==
t
t 2), then dl should be replaced by V X'2
y'2 dt in
Y (t) (t 1
Y
\037
\037
these formulas.
2. For the plane figure bounded by the curves y ==Yl (x),Y == Y2 (x),
== a, x ==b (a
x<:b) the
Yl (x) <:Y2 (x) and the straight lines x
the
formulas)
static moments are expressed
by
\037
Mx
=+ S (Y\037-yDdx;
l'
3. l'he centre of
dinates: Xc =
My= S X(Y2-Yl)dx.
a)
plane curve has the following COOfwhere l is the length of the curve
gravity of a
Mv
Yc
T'
Mx
L.)))
7.13.Conzputing
\037
Static Moments
and Moments of Inertia
The centre of gravity of a plane figure has the

= , where S is the area of the figure.
Yc
373)
==
coordinates:
,
Xc
sY
\037
\037
7.t 3.I. Find
the stat ic moment of the upper portion of the

x2
+ 7fi =
a'\037
x-axis.
about the
ellipse
y'l
1)
Solution.For the ellipse
since y2
b2
-==
dl
dl ==y V 1
+ y'2 dx ==Vy2 + (yy')2dx;
-di
b2
b2
2
(i2 x and yy'
===
x, we
have
... b2 _!?:.-.
2
2 -e2x2 dx
2
==
'
a2 x + a4 x dx a V a
\037
\037
where e is the eccentricity of the

to a, we
Integrating from
-a
ellipse,e == V
a\"J-b2
a
find)
a' Va2-e2x2dx==S
M x ==\037 r
v
-Q
2b
Va2-\342\202\2542X2dx==
-8
2
2a 2
+ :2arcsin 8) = b (b + arc sin f).
(a Va
In the case of a circle,i. e. at a = b, we shall have Mx== 2a2,
. arcsine 1.
. e==0 an d I 1m
since
--=
e 0
Find the moment of inertia of a rectanglewith base band
altitude h about its base.
Solution. Let us consideran elementary strip of width dy cut
out from the rectangleand parallel to the base and situated at
The mass of the strip is equal to its area
a distance y from
dS==b dy, the distances from all its points to the base being equal
to y accurate to dYe Therefore, x == by2 dy and
e)
\037
7.13.2.
it.
dl
Ix == S by2 dy ==
o
7.13.3.
Find
3
bh:l
\302\267
the moment of inertia of an arc of the circle + y'!- == R2

quadrant about the y-axis.
lying
7.t 3.4.Calculate the moment of inert ia about the y-axis of the
4ax and the straight line x::figure bounded by the parabola y2
==
Solution.We have dlx
dS, where dS is the area of a verticaJ
strip situated at a distance X from the y-axis (Fig. 110):
dS=-:; 21yldx =-= 2 V' 4ax dx.)))
in
the
x\037
first
-=--:
x\"J
a.
Ch.
374)
Hence,)
II. Applications
Ix = 5
of the Definitp
4x2
Integral)
Vaxdx = 4 Va S xT dx =
a4
\037
In designingwooden girder bridges we often have

7.13.5.
logs flattened on two opposite
with
to deal
sides.Figure III shows the
cross-section
of such a log.Determinethe
moment of inertia of this cross-section
about the horizontal centre line.)
!I
v.\037\037
\037q
\037)
x=a)
:c)
a)
o)
x)
Fig. 110)
Fig. III)
Solution. Arrange the system of coordinates as
is shown
in
the
accompanyingdrawing. Then
dlx = y2 dS, where dS==MN dy == 2xdy ==2 V R2-y2 dye
Whence)
h
Ix=2-h y2VR2_y dy=4 0 y2VR2_.tldy.

\037
Substituting
\\V\037
('et
\"\"
1x = 4
5 y2
VR2
= R sin t;
arc sin (h/ R)
dy ==R
arc sin (h/
y2 dy
()
=4R4
\037
=4
cost dt;
R)
R2 sin2
5
0
t1
= 0;
t 2 ==arc sin (h/R),
t.R castR cast dt =
arc sin (hi R)
sin2tcos2tdt= 5
0
(1-cos4t)dt=
R2) V
\0374
= R4 arc sin Rh + Rh (2h2

When
h == R,
about one of its
we obta in the moment of
diameters:Ix =
.)))
:rr\0374
inert
R2-h2.
ia of the
circle
\037
7.13.Computing
7.13.6.
Find
Static
Moments and Moments
the moment of inertia about the
of
Inertia
x-axisof
375)
the figure
bounded by two parabolas with dimensionsindicated in Fig.112.

Solution.Arrange the system of coordinatesas shown in Fig. 112
and write the equations of the para-
bolas.
The equation of the left parabola is:

the equation of the
x+
y2 =
).
parabola. =
\037:
right
\037
y2
dlx ==y2 dS
MN = x2
I
===
y2
=2
Xl
\037
x) ,
:c
strip the moment
For the hatched

of inert ia is
where
\037:
=a-
:\037
Hence,)
W2
Ix = S y2 (a
-W2
\037
M N dy,
\037\037
y2
=
Fig. 112)
y2,
\037\037
\0372
y2
dy = 2
7.13.7.
7.13.8.
y2 a
S
(
0
\037\037
y2
) dy
=
a:\037
Find the static moments about the x- and y-axis of the

arc of the parabola y2 ==2x between x = and x == 2 (y > 0).
Find the static moments about the axesof coordinates
of the line segment + t = 1 whose end-points lie on the coordinate axes.
Find the static moment about the x-axisof the arc of
j'[
the curve y ==cosx between Xl =
and x2 = 11:
\302\260
\037
7.13.9.
7.13.10.
Find
bounded by the
7.13.11.
Find
-\"2
the static monlent about the
lines y = x 2;
2.
x-axisof
the
figure
==V\"X.
the moments of inertia about the x- and y-axis of

the triangle bounded by the lines x ==0, y == 0 and + t = 1 (a>0,
\037
> 0).
its
Find
7.13.12.
base AD
if
the moment of inertia of the trapezoid ABCDabout

AD ==a, BC== b and the altitude of the trapezoid
is equaI to h.
Find the centre of gravity of the sen1icircle
x2 + =-=a2
7.13.13.
situated above the x-axis.
Solution.Sincethe arc of the sen1icircle
is symmetrical about the
the
centre
the y-axis, i.e.Xc ==
of
of
the
arc
on
lies
y-axis,
gravity
V\"!.
O.)))
376)
Ch.
..
II. Applications
of the Definite
Integral)
- -.
To find the ordinate Yc' take advantage of the result of Problem

2aJ = 2a
2a
2. th eref ore
Th us, Xc ==0 , Yc ==
IVJ X -== 2
7 t 3 t .)lff
Yc
na
n
n
a,
Find
7.13.14.
-.
the coordinatesof the centre of gravity of the ca-
= + (eX + e- ) = coshx between A (0, 1) and B (a, cosha).

y
X
tenary
Solution.We have
dl == V-I
we
\\\\'hence
+ y'2 dx == V I + sinh 2 x dx ==coshxdx
find)
a
I=
\037
dl = coshx dx = sinh a.
\037
Then)
= X dl =
My
\037
Hence,)
Xc
Ana
0)
X coshX dx = X sinh X
\037
I\037
sinh
\037
dx =
==a sinh
--
a-I)_ a _ cosh. a- _ a
_ asinh a-(cosh
.
logously
sIn h
a)
t an h
\037
,)
Xdx=
Mx=Sydl=Scosh
2
sIn h
a-cosha + 1.)
\037
S(l+cosh2x)dx=
0)
=2
\037
a
\"2
Yc
7.t 3.15.Find
x ==a (t sin t),
sinh
===
sinh
4
a
2a
sinh
= sinh 2a .
+
2 ) l0 2 + 4
(
2X
a
2 sinh a
\037
')
+ cosha
2')
the centre of gravity of the first arc of the cycloid:

cast) (0 t 2n).
y ==a
Solution. The first arc of the cycloid is symmetrical about the
straight line x = na, therefore the centre of gravity of the arc of
the cycloid lies on this straight line and Xc ==na. Sincethe length
of the first arc of the cycloid l ==8a, we have)
- S --Yc-,
I
dl
(1-
\037
\037
2n
'
a C .3t
4
t
SIn
dt _
1 -cast) Sll1\"2dt
(
-3\"a.
2
-2J
S
2n
Sa
2a 2
222
0)
7.t\037.t6. Determine the coordinatesof

portion of the arc of the astroid x
quadrant.)))
\037
the centreof gravity of the
+y = a
\037
\037
situated in the
first
7.13.Computing
\037
Static
Moments and Moments
of
Inertia
377)
7.13.17.
Find the Cartesian coordinatesof the centreof gravity of

between cp==Oand cp==Jt.
the arc of the cardioid p==a(l+coscp)
Solution. Let us represent the equation of the cardioid in parametric form:)
x ==p cos ==a (1+ coscp) coscp;
==a (1+ coscp) sin
n
y ==psi
cp
cp.)
cp
As the parameter varies between0 and Jt the running point describes

the upper portion of the curve.Since the length of the entire cardioid equals 8a and
dl V (x' + (y' dcp == 2a cas dcp (see Problem 7.9.3),we have)
cp
===
\037)2
\037)2
\037)
JT
=T
Xc
1
\037
Y dl
= 4aI r a S
J
11
qJ
(l+ casqJ) 2a cas
dcr
\037
0)
.
2 SIn\"2d
1t
==2a () cos4 cp
(j)
<p
==
4
a cos5 \"2
5
\"'(
cp
0 ==\"5
a.
o)
Analogously,)
j{
YC=4a
C xdl =
j
L
4a 5
acosqJ(1+cosqJ)2acos
dqJ =
\037
0)
\037
= a cosqJ cos3
S
\037
dqJ = a
Putting
===
5 ( 2cos
5
\037
('OS3
\037
dqJ.
0)
we get (see Problem 6.6.9))
\037
= 2a
Yc
5 (2 cosot -cost) dt
3
= 4Ct
::\037
-2a
= a.
\037
\037
o)
And
4a
so,xc==Yc==5'
It is interesting to note that the centre of gravity of the above.

considered half of the arc of the cardioid lies on the bisector of
the first coordinate angle, though the arc itself is not symrrletrical
about this
bisector.
7.t 3.18.
Find the centre of gravity of the
ellipse4x2 + 9y2 ==36 and the circlex2 + y2
first quadrant (Fig. 113).)))
===
figure
bounded by the
9 and situated
in
the
Ck. V II. Applications
378)
Solution.Let
us
calculatethe static
first
'.
of the Definite
Integral)
moments:)
,.
My=j X(Y2-Yl)dx=
j x lV9-X2- V9-x] dx=
2
\037
0)
=+JX V9-x dx=3;

2
Mx = +
-;(9-
dx =
(Y\037-yD
\037
j\037
X2
[(9-X2)
.\\'
0)
o)
)]
dx =
= ;J
3)
2)
40<
,,\037
2'
_
_
S -4-2-4')
- - _-S-_
c-S-n')
x)
9n
Fig. 113)
Thus,)
\037
The area of a quarter of a circleof

91t
radius 3 is equal to 4 , and the area of a
a ==3
quarter of an ellipsewith semi-axes
3n
therefore the area
and b == 2 equals
of the figure under consideration is
.?
\037\037Jo)
(5- x )dx=5.
My
3n
3n
\302\267
Yc
20
Mx
3n
\302\267)
7.1 t 9. Find the centre of gravity of the figure bounded by

parabola x2 + Y = a2\" and the axesof coordinates.
\037.
the
2\"
7.t 3.20.Find
the
Cartesian coordinatesof the centre of gravity

3
figure enclosedby
Solution.Since p 0
of the
>
the curve p ==a cos (a 0).

all cases, the given curve is traced
to
By virtue of evennessof the funcp
in
\037
.
changes from
ction cos it is symmetricalabout the polar axisand passesthrough
when
cp
\037
\037
;.
cp
the origin of coordinatesat == +

Compute the area S of the figure obtained:)
cp
:rr
1[
2
S == 2 X 2\" S p2 dcp = a 2 cos6

S
o
1
0)))
cp
dcp == a
2I
x3x5
2x 4 X 6 X
2==32Jta .
n
\037
7.13.Computing
Static Moments
379)
and Moments of Inertia
Now arrange the axes of coordinatesas shown

the parametric equations of the curve are)
in
Then
Fig. 114.
x==:p cas ==a cos4 <p;

3
p sin ==a sin cos
y
<p
===
<p
<p
<p.)
i.e.
== 0
The centre of gravity of the figure lies on the x-axis,
Yc
virtue
about
the
determine
x-axis.
of
by
Finally,
symmetry
xc:)
Xc===
2\037XYdX;
8a3
o
1
S
=8
\037
S cos
\302\260<psin
Ba3
<pd<p=s
S
(cos1\302\260<p-COS
12
<p)d<p=
0)
8a3
x3x5x7x9 lX3X5X7X9Xli n = 21a.)

2 40
lOX 12)
-(5/32)na2 ( 2x4x6x8xl0) 2x4x6x8x
!I
1
0
0
Fig.
1[;
114
1[,
Fig. 115)
7.13.21.
Find
the coordinatesof the centre of gravity of the

bounded by the straight line y = x and the sinusoid
figure
==
y sin x (x 0) (Fig. 115).
Solution.The straight line y = Y:...
x and the sine line y == sin x intern
sect at the points (0,0) and
The area of the figure
bounded by these lines is)
\037
\037
(-i-,1).
Jt
.
2
n
S= S ( slnx-nx) dx= 44
2
o)))
\302\267
380)
Ch. V
II. A pplications
x2
of the Definite
Integral)
Hence,)
J[
2
\037
Xe =
50 ( sin2 x
4
n2
\037
J[
dx
- 5(
2
===
0)
sin2 x -\037 x2
1[2 )
dx =
J[)
4- [2 x2
===
\037
4)
3n 2
n
2'
Yc==
5o x ( sin
x-
\037
4-n
dx
:.2
sin 2x
x3
==
1[
o)
(4-n) ,
.
4-1[5 XSlnxdx\037
===
0)
- (4-1[
3t
)5
rc
.J
x.-dx
===
4-
3'(2
3 (4-n)
===
12
'
12-3n
Prove the following theorems (Guldin'stheorems).

7.13.22.
Theorem 1.The area of a surface obtained by revolving an
1[2
arc
of a plane curve about some axis lying in the plane of the curve and
not intersectingit is equal to the product of the length of the curve
by the circumference of the circledescribedby the centre of gravity
of the arc of the curve.
Theorem 2. The volume of a solid obtained by revolving a plane
figure about some axis lying in the plane of the figure and not
intersectingit is equal to the product of the areaof this figure by
the circumference of the circledescribedby the centre of gravity of
the
figure.
Proof. (1) Compare the formula for the area of the surface of
revolution of the curve L about the x-axis(see 7.10)
\037
P = 2n
\037
y dl
with
that for the
ordinate of the centre of gravity of this curve

Yc
Hencewe concludethat
=
\037x
=+ 5 ydl.
L
P = 2Jt lYe = l.2'JtYe'

arc, and
where 1 is the length of the revolving

of a
circleof radius Ye'
the centre of gravity
2JtYe is the length

length of the circledescribedby
revolving about the x-axis.)))
i.e.the
when
\037
7.13.Computing
Static
381)
Moments and Moments of Inertia
(2) Compare the formula for the volume of a solid generated

by revolving a plane figure about the x-axis(see 7.6)
\037
:rt
\037
dx
(y\037-yD
a)
with
that for the
ordinate of the centre of gravity of this
figure)
Yc
Hence
\\\\\"e
= 2'S (y\037-yD dx.

5a
\037;t
conclude that
V
==
n.2SYc S.2nyc
===
where S is the area of the revolving figure, and 2nyc is the length
of the circumference described by the centre of gravity when revolving about the x-axis.
Using the first Guldin theorem, find the centre of gra-
7.13.23.
vity
of a
of radius a.
semicircle
Solution.Arrange
virtue of symmetry
coordinateaxesas shown
the
Xc
== O. Now it
circlerevolves about the x-axis,then

the surface P of the solid of revo-
remains to
find
in
By
Fig. 116.
Yc'
If
the
semi-
lution is equal to 4J[a\037, and the

arc length l ==na. Therefore, according to the first Guldin theorem,
4na2 ==na.2Jtyc;
Yc
7.13.24.
Using the
-.
=2 a
3t)
second Gul-
-a
o)
a)
x)
din theorem, find the coordinates

Fig. 116)
of the centre of gravity of the
bounded by the x-axis and one arc of the cycloid:x =
figure
==a(t
cast).
t); y ==a
Solution.By virtue of the symmetry of the figure about the
straight line x = na its centre of gravity lies on this straight line;
(1-
-sin
hence,Xc ==na.
The volume V obtained by revolving

is equal to 5n2a 3 (see ProbleIT1
being equal to 3na2 (see Problem
theorem, we
this
about the
figure
S of the
the
area
7.6.14),
7.4.3).Using the
get)
Yc
x-axis
figure
secondGuldin
2a3
5a
V
= 23t.5n3na
= 23tS
2 = 6.
7.13.25.
An equilateral triangle
with
side a revolves about an
axisparallel to the base and situated a t a distanceb > a from the base.
Find the volume of the
solid of
revolution.)))
Ch. VII.
382)
Applications
of the Definite
Integral)
Solution.There are
two possible ways of arranging the triangle

respect to the axis of revolution which are shown in Fig.117,
a and b.
a
The altitude of the equilateral triangle is h = \0373 , the area
with
S=
a2
\0373
The centre of gravity
0' is situated at
intersecti-on of the medians and at a distance of

a
and b + \0373
axis of revolut ion in the first
cas:,
b-a
in
the point of
\0373
from the
the second.
!I)
If)
b)
b)
x)
A)
x)
o)
c)
c)
fa))
(IJ))
Fig.
By the
second Guldin theorem

V3
= 21ta:
a2
=
n
(b- ) ( 2b{3_ ) ,
a
V2 =
21ta:V3
(b+ a\0373) = n ( b{3+
VI
Find
7.13.26.
R
117
a\0373
\0373
\0373
subtending a central angle 2a.
Find
7.13.27.
the centre of gravity of the

the arc of the cosineline y = casx betweenx =
the straight line
).
the centre of gravity of the arc of a circleof radius
figure
bounded by
and x =
\037
and
\037
y=-}.
7.13.28.
Find the coordinatesof the centre of gravity of the
3
4
figure enclosedby line y2 = ax -x .
7.13.29.
Find the Cartesian coordinatesof the centre of gravity
from cp] = to
of the arc of the logarithmic spiral p =
;: ==n.
A regular hexagonwith
side a revolves about one of
7.13.30.
its sides.Find the volume of the solid of revolution thus generated.
7.13.31.
Using Guldin's theorem,find the centre of gravity of
ae\037
of radius
semicircle
R.)))
CP2
\037
\037
7.14.Additional
Problems)
383)
7.14.AdditionalProblems
7.14.1.
Find the area of the portion of the figure bounded by

the curves ym = xn and yn = xm (m and n positive integers)situated
in the first quadrant. Consider the area of the entire figure depending on whether the numbers m and n are even or
(a) Prove that the area of the curvilinear trapezoid
bounded by the x-axis,straight lines x = a, x = b and parabola
= Ax 3 BX2 Cx D can be computedusing Chebyshev'sformula
y
b a
b
S b3a
y
y
2
2
[y
)
)
odd.
7.14.2.
+
+ +
-;2
+ (a;b + (a;b+ ;2 a)].
(a;b
(b) Prove that an analogousarea for a parabola of the

y=f (x) = Ax 5 + Bx4 +Cx3 + Dx2 + Ex+F
can be computed using the Gauss formula
_v
S=b 9a[5f(atb
\037b
/ )+8f(a;b)+
b
+5f(at +
order
fifth
}/;
a)]
.)
7.14.3.
Show that the area of a figure bounded by any two radius vectors of the logarithmic spiral p = aem 1' and its arc is proportional to the difference of the squares of these radii.
7.14.4.
Prove that if two solids contained between parallel planes P and Q possess the property that on being cut by any plane
R parallel to these planes equivalent figures are obtained in
their section,then the volumes of these solids are equal (Cava..
lieri'sprinciple).
7.14.5.
Prove that if the function S(x) (O\037x\037h) expressing

the area of the sectionof a solid by a plane perpendicular to the
x-axisis a polynomial of a degreenot higher than three, then the
S
volume of this solid is equal to V
(0) 4S
\037
[S +
( ) + (h)]
\037
Using this formula, deduce formulas for computing the volume of

a sphere,spherical segments of two and one bases,cone,frustrum
and paraboloid of revolution.
of a cone,ellipsoid,
Prove that the volume of a solid generatedby revolving
7.14.6.
about the y-axis the figure a x b, 0 y y (x), where y (x) is
a single-valuedcontinuous function, is equal to
\037
\037
\037
xy
(x)dx.
V = 2n
\037
a)))
\037
Ch.
384)
II. Applications
7.14.7.
Prove that the volume of the solid formed by revolving,
about the polar aXIS, a figure O\037(X\037cp\037p\037Jt, O\037p\037p(cp),
is equal to)
B
= S p3 (cp) sin
\0371t
dcp.
cp
a)
7.14.8.
Prove
that the arc length of the curve given by the pa-
rametricequat ions
x =={\"
y ==
is
(t) cost + f' (t) sin t,)
f\"
(t 1
sin t + {'(t) cost
(t)
\037
\037
t2
))
equal to [f(t)+f\"(t)]\037\037.
Find the arc length of the curve represented parametri.14.9.
ca11 y)
- -
x-- S cos
I
dz,
z
== sin
t.,\\
dz
t)
1)
between the origin and the nearest point from the vert ical tangent
line.
Deduce the formula for the arc length in polar coor7.14.10.

dinates proceedingfrom the definition without passing over from
Cartesian coordinates to polar ones.
7.14.11.
Prove
== coshx
that
the arc length l (x) of the catenary
measured from the point (0, 1) is expressed

by the formula 1 (x) ==sinh x and find parametric equations of this line,
using the arc length as the parameter.
A flexible thread is suspended at the points A and B
7.14.12.
located at one and the same height. The distance between the
points is AB ==2b,the deflection of the thread is f. Assuming the suspended thread to be a parabola, show that the length of the thread
2
2t
+
3\"
)
(
l ==2b 1
b\037
at a sufficiently small
\037
Find
7.14.13.
the ratio of the area enclosedby the loop of the

curve y
V:X to the area of the circle,whose circum(
ference is equal in length to the contour of the curve.
Compute the length of the arc formed by the intersection
of the paraboliccylinder)
=+
i-x)
7.14.14.
(y+ Z)2 = 4ax)))
\037
and the
ellipticcone)
7.14.Additional
4
3 +
'}
x'\"
,)
Y\"
385)
Problems)
0)
Z'\"
==0 ,
between the orIgIn and the point M (x, y, z).

Prove that the area of the ellipse
7.14.15.
AX2+
is equal
2Bxy+Cy2 + 2Dx+2Ey + F ==0
to)
s=
JT\037
where
')
(AC
ABD
.
DEF)
-= B C E
\037
(AC\037B\037);Jj2
7.14.16.
-8 > 0)
Find: (a) the area S of the figure bounded by the hythe positive part of the x-axisand the radius
perbola X\"!._y2 =
vector connectingthe origin of coordinatesand the point M (x, y)
lying on t his hyperbola.
(b) The area of the circularsectorQ bounded by the x-axisand
the radius drawn fronl the centre to the point N (x, y) lying on
the circlex2 + y'J ==
Prove that the coordinatesof the points M
and N are expressed
respectively through the areas Sand Q by
the formulas
1,
1.
XM
2S,
==cosh
YA1
==sinh
2S, xN ==cos2Q,y N ==sin 2Q.
7.14.17.
Using Guldin's theorem,
prove that the centre of graangle is one third of t he a 1 t itude distant from its base.
Let be the abscissa of the centre of gravity of a curvilinear trapezoid bounded by the continuous curve y ==f (x), the
x-axisand the straight I ines x a and x b. Prove t he val idit y
of the following equality:)
vi t y of a tri
7.14.18.
\302\243
\037
=--=
\037
(ax + b) l(x)dx = (as + b)
\037
(x)dx
a)
(Vereshchagin'srule).
7.14.19.
Let a curvil inear sectorbe bounded by two radi us vectors and a continuous curve p ==f ((p). Prove that the coordinates
of the centreof gravity of this sectorare expressed
by the following
fornlu
las:)
(P2
<J)2
p3
CDS
p3 sin !p dip
!p dip
\037
x ==
C
\037
(f)1
Yc
<J)2
p\037
== 2
3\"
\037
<[) I
<f2
dip
p\037dcp
\037
\037
<PI)
(f)1)))
Ch. VII.
386)
Applications
of the Definite
Integral)
7.14.20.
Prove that the Cartesian coordinatesof the centreof

by the folgravity of an arc of the curve p ==f (<p) are expressed
lowing formulas:)
fP2
fP2
r cos'P V p2
\037
x ==
C)
+p'2
p sin1)
+p'2
d(jl
Chapter8)
INTEGRALS)
IMPROPER
8.1.ImproperIntegralswith InfiniteLimits
\037
Let the
interval
any
ion f (x)
funet
be defined for all x
Then !im
[a, A].
by
the symbol
\037
f (x)dx is
interval
f (x)dx. We
called the improper

[a, + 00] and is de-
similarly define the integrals
a)
+00
f (x) dx a nd
f (x) dx.
-00
-00
\037
A_+oo a
(x) in the
\037
integral of the function+00 f

noted
a and integrab Ie on
\037
\037
Thus,)
+00
f (x) dx =
\037
f (x)dx= !im
-00
f (X) dx = !im
A--oo A
-00
A--.-ooA
+00
\037
f (x) dx;
\037
B
\037
!im
A-+oo a
\037
\037
(X) dx;
!illl\\ f (X) dx.

(x)dx+ B-+(7;
C)
If the above limits exist and are finite, the appropriate integrals are calledconvergent; otherwise, they are calleddivergent.
Comparison test. Let f (x) and g (x) be defined for all x a and
integrable on each interval
all
x a,
\037
then from
[a, A],
convergenceof
\037
a. If
\037
\037
f (x)
('
\037
00
the integral
\037
g (x)
g (x)dx
it
for
fol-
a
00
00
lows
that
the integral
\037
f(x)dx
is
also convergent,and
\037
a)))
f (x) dx
\037
Ch.
388)
III.Improper
Integrals)
00
\037
\037
\037
g (X) dx; from divergenceof the integral
\037
f (x) dx
follows that
it
00
the integral
a
\037
g (x) dx
is
also divergent.
as x---+00the funct ion f (x) 0 is an

infinitesimal of order A > 0 as compared with \037,
then the integral
x
Specialcomparison test.
If
\037
+\037
dx
for
S f (x) converges
> 1 and
A.
diverges for
A.\037
Absolute and conditional convergence. Let the
1.
ion f (x) be
funct
00
defined for all
\037
a. If
the integral
\037
f (x)! dx converges.then the
00
integral
t his
In
\037
f (x) dx
also converges and is calledabsolutely convergent.
case)
00
\037
\037
f (x) dx
\037
\037
f (x) I dx.
00
If the integral
\037
00
f (x) dx converges,and
\037
f (x)
dx diverges. then
if:;
the integral
\037
f (x) dx is
calledconditionally
convergent.
The changeof the variable in an improper integral is based on

the following theorem.
Theorem.Let the function f (x) be defined and continuous for
x
If the function x == (t), defined on the interval a < t <
and (0), is monotoand
may also be improper numbers
(a
nic, has a continuous derivative cp'(t) =1= 0 and lirn
(t) == a,
a.
\037
-00
cp
\037
\037
cp
lirn
t ....{i
(t) ==
cp
t-..ex+O)
+ 00,then
0)
00
Ii
f (x) dx =
\037
\037
f (q>
qJ' (t)
(t\302\273
dt.
ex
Integrationby parts involves no difficulties.
8.t.t.
Evaluate the following improper integrals with infinite

divergencetaking advantage of their defini-
limits or prove their
tion.)
Jj
(a)
2)
00
00
Xl\037\037X
dx
2x
(b) 5 x 2 +
-00)
+5 ' (c) 5 x sin x dx.

o)))
\037
Solution.(a)
\037
t.
e
\037
dx
xln 3 x
5 xln 3. x
e
dx
I 1m
A\037+oo
==
I In1
A\037+\037
with
Integrals
By definition,)
00
8.1.Improper
Infinite
21n2 x e
=
1
2 ) =8')
( g-21n
A
=A\037\037\037
(b) By
389)
Limits)
definition,)
0
00
= I' x2+ dx2x+5+ r

x 2 +2x+5
j
5
-00
B
dx
B:\037oo
dx
5 x2+2x+5
A\037\037oo
0)
(instead of the point x ==0 any other finite point of the x-axismay
be taken as an intermediate limit of integration).
Compute each of the limits standing in the right side of the
above equality:
o
.
hm
dx
B\037-oo
\0371\037
00
r
J
o
x2
x+ 0
Jt
2arctan\037B =2arctan\"2+T'
dx
=
+2x+5 A
B\037-oo
:1\037
.
A
== 11m
5B x2+2x+5
00
\"2
I
+I A=
arctanx\037
4-2\"arc tan\"2'
11
Hence,)
00
dx
x2-\0372x+5
j'[
='2')
-\037)
(c) By
definit
ion,)
A
00
x sin x dx =
\037
\037
A\037+ooo)
u==x, dv==sinxdxand integrating by parts, we
Putting
A
HIn
x sin xdx.
lim
xsinxdx== Hrn
A\037+\037
A\037+\037\037
-xcosx0 + r COSXdX =
A
\037
lim
A\037+oo)
But
the last limit
00
\037
o)))
get)
x sin xdx diverges.
(-AcosA+sinA).
does not exist. Consequently, the integral
Ch.
390)
III.Improper
Integrals)
8.1.2.Evaluate the following improper integrals

limits on the basis of their definition:)
00
00
xdx
(a) 5 y(x2
3)3
(b)
(c)
5 X\037\\3
2)
x dx
dx
(e) 5 x2-::+
10 ;
-00
1)
00
00
(d) 5 x t (l +x) ;
Y!4x2 + 1)3
o)
I)
00
infinite
00
\037
with
5 e- sin xdx.
X
(f)
0)
Solution.(a) By definit ion

A
\037
xdx
52
V(X\037-3)3
Hm
A
-+
00
xdx
Y(x 2
(x2_3)-1/2A =
= Hin
-3)3 A + [ 2 -1/2 2 ]
\037
-+
00
8.1.3.Prove that
=-Iim
-I =I.
_
[ ylA2-3 J
2)
the integrals of the

+00
00
form)
e-PX dx and ePX dx

-00)
constant p > 0 and diverge for p < O.
\037
\037
converge for any

Test the integral)
8.1.4.
00
dx
S I +2x2 +3x4
o)
convergence.
for
f (x)=
+2x2+3x4
is positive and is an infinitesimal of order A = 4 as comparedwith
\037 00.Since 4 > 1,the
integral convergesaccording to the
x as x
I comparison test.
specia
I
\037
8.1.5.Test
the integral)
00
dx
5 x+ sin 2 x
1)
convergence.
Solution. The inte g rand
tive for x\037l.
for
As x --+ 00
f (x ) == x+sin 2 x is cont inuous and POSt-
the function f (x) is an

as compared with
accordingto the
x;
integral diverges.)))
nitesimal of order A = 1
specialcomparisontest the
infi
8./.Improper
\037
Test the
8.1.6.
In
(a)
I)
(x:+ dx; (b)
\037:n
\037
391)
Limits)
;x dx;
r
(e) J
J2 l+xVx
Vx
Test
8.1.7.
Infinite
3+arcsin +
r
dx;
(d)
r
x
(c) 2+cosdx;
1
with
following integrals for convergence:
\037
Integrals
'
the integral
arc t an x
x)
x.
<JJ
(x+V\037+])dx
x2
\\
to-
+2 V x4 +
1)
for
convergence.
Solution. The integrand
1.
is continuous and positive for x

Determine its order of smallnessA with respect to J-. as x ---+00;
since)
+ Vx+
x 2 + 2 V x4 +
x
\037
=-x
I
the order of smallness A ==
X)
1.According to
the
00
test the integral r X+

t
x4 + I
J x +2\037X+f
I'
1+-..V J..+\037
xt
.
1+2V 6\"\"\"+10
x
x
specialcomparison
dx diverges.
8.1.8.
Test the integral
00
S YX(X_d\037(X_2)
3)
for
convergence.
Solution.Sincethe function
f (x) =
VX (
1- ) (1\037
=-x
1
))
2)
V(I- )(I\037
))
is an infinitesimal of order 'A = with respect to

as x -> + 00.
accordingto the specialcomparisontest the integral converges.
\037
Test the
8.1.9.
\037
integral)
00
)
2)
for convergence.)))
+2xt
3
V x3
\037/
-1dx
Ch. V
392)
III.Improper
Integrals)
Solution. The integrand is continuous and positive for

Determine its order of smallness with
/
2x.a
as x ---++ 00:
x2
I
x 35
11
x3)
{/2as x ---.+ 00,we
the limit
= 35< 1.Consequently,the
Test
8.1.10.
2.
\302\267
\037
Sincethe second multiplier has

have
x)
\037
V +2=-x
3--1
1--
;/3+
f1
respect to
given integral diverges.
the integral)
00
5 ( I-cas ) dx
1)
or convergence.
f(x)= I-cos\037=2sin2\037
x
x
=x ,
is positive and continuous for x 1.Since2 sin2 x \"'-12 ..!..
( x ) \037
the given integral converges(by the specialcomparisontest).
2
\037
\037
Test
8.1.11.
the integral
00
J In
eX+(n-I)
dx.
n)
>0
convergence.
Solution.Transform the integrand:
for
f{x)=ln 3-+\037n-l)=In[I+
1
Since the function

1
f (x)\"\",
the
eX
\"'\"
eX
-.
I
nx
-1 is
other words,
Test
8.1.12.
t he
the integral)
00
S
1)
for convergence.)))
Hm
X-+OO
specialcomparisontest
].
'
I
(X)
/x
=n
\037.
x-+oo,)then)
According to
given integral diverges.)
4 sin
X3
an infinitesimal as)
n)
In
3--l
2x
+ V -;
dx
8.1.Improper
\037
the change
x
+ P=-x
changesits sign together
sign of the numerator. Test the
in
11-4 -2x
00
f
.]
x3
+v
dX
+V
00
intrgral)
00
sin
,
11-4sin 2x- <

x3
x
convergence. Since
for
x3
393)
Limits)
Infinite
1-4
Solution.The function f (x)=

with
with
Integrals
4 sin
\037
X3
, and
the
inte gral
dx convergesas well (acx converges,the mtegral S x 3 +

SI -a
x
cordingto the comparison test). Thus, the given integral converges
5dx
2x
v-
absolutely.
8.t.13.Prove
that the
Dirichlet
integral)
00
sin
I=
tJ\\
dx
o)
convergesconditionally.
Solution.Let us represent the given integral as the sum of two
integra Is:)
J()
00
1=
r Sinx
J x
o
00
dx= S
0
dx.
dx+ S Sinx
x
sinx
x
n
2
= 1 . Applying the
lim
proper integral since x0 x
)
(
method of integration by parts to the second integral,we have
The
\302\253>
\037
t.
11
sinx
is a
first
- .
SIn x
X
dx = 1 1m
A .
n SIn x
dx =
A-oo :rtj x
'\"2
\"2)
==
!im
A_oo
x2
-_ j COSXdx
A
COSX
Jt
oo
\037
:rt
2\"'
l.J
==_
x2
cO\037X
dx.
1t
'2)
00
COS
the improper integral \\

J
But
x2
dx
converges absolutely, since
2)
I cosx
x2
00
I
\037
\037
\037
X2
r
, and the inte gral J
:rt
2)))
dX
x2
converges.
Ch.
394)
Ill.Improper
00
sin-x
5o -Xdx converges.
Therefore, the Integral

00
Reasoning in a similar way
r cosx
IS easy to prove
it
dx a Iso converges.N ow 1et us prove
Integrals)
the integral
that
t he
t h at
in t egraI
:rr
2
oc
xI
Si\037
dx di verges. Indeed,
1t
2)
sin x
\037
\037
cos2x
2x)
the integral)
but
5
oc
x-- . - 5 ---5
n:rr
A
cos2xd
sin 2 x _
x
2x
1m
-+
00
00
dx
x
x--
cos2x d
x
2\"\"2)
=-2
I.
--In---5
00
hm In A
A-+oo
cos2x
x
dx
J1
\037)
00
diverges,since
lim In A
= 00,and the
000
A-+<X:'
8.1.14.
Prove
that the following
(a) sin (x2) dx;

\037
\037
dx
converges.
00
cas(x2) dx; (b)
Solution.(a) Putting
x ==
2x cas(x4) dx.
\037
Vi, we
find)
00
00
sin (x
)dx=-}J
0
Let us represent the integral on the

integra Is:)
J1.
2
rr:
dt
\037\037
dt.
So
cos2x
5
1[
integrals converge)
00
OC
integral
J0
\037n/
side as the
right
sunl
of two
00
dt
\037\037
+S
dt.
\037\037
:rr)
2)
=.
sin t
The rst summan d is a proper In t egra 1 ,since 1 1m -==0 Let
fi
t-++O
t)))
\037
8.1.Improper
with
Integrals
395)
Limits)
Infinite
apply to the second summand the method of integration by

parts, put t ing)
u == l/Vt, sin t dt ==dv,)
-\037 costdt =_\037 cost dt.
si\037 dt==us
00
00
00
00
CO\037
tf
1(/2
13t/
t 3/ 2
1(/2
t 3/2
'It/2
t
2
'
and)
can prove analogously that
the
The last integral converges absolutely, since
\037\037;
\037
t3\0372
00
the integral
I ::/2 converges.We
1t
2)
00
cos(x2) dx is convergent.The integra Is considered areca1Fresnel'sintegrals.They are used in explainingthe phenonle-
integra 1
led
\037
diffraction.
the
substitution x 2 == t this integral is reduced to the
(b) By
non of
light
00
integral
\037
cas(t2) dt. The
latter integral convergesas has
just
been
proved.
Note. Fresnel'sintegrals show that an improper integral can converge even when the integrand does not vanish as x \037 00.The last
convergent integral consideredin item (b) shows that an improper
integral can converge even if the integrand is not bounded.Indeed,
the integrand attains the values
at x == V nn (n == 0, 1,2,
+ V nJt , i.e.it is unbounded.
8.1.t 5. Evaluate the improper integral)
...)
00
dx
n natural
S
(l +x2)n'
o
number.
Solution.Make the substit ut ion x == tan t, where 0
x= 0
at
= 0, x \037 + 00 as t --+ 3t2
-0and
\037
xi = cos2 t
quently, by the theorem on changing a variable

integra
1t
in
< . Then
O. Conse-
an improper
1)
1t)
00
dX
I
2n
(l +x2)n S sec
S
o
0
sec2 t dt = 5 COS2n -2 t dt.

o
On changing the variable we obtain the proper integral)

in Problem 6.6.9.)
was t'onlputed
which)))
Ch.
396)
III.Improper
Therefore,)
==
:rt
== f
5o (I +x\037)n
12,n.. 1,
.3.5.
(2n 3)
2.4.6..
.(2n-2)2\"' n > 1.)
00
dx
Integrals)
\\
j'[
\302\267
00
8.t.t 6. Compute the
integral
1= 5 +x x4 dx.)
o
1
-(1It
Solution.Apply the substitution

x=
lit;
dx ==
t 2 == 0;)
t 1 ==00,)
) dt;)
00
00
() dt
('\302\243
4) dt
1=5 l+x4 dx= (I/t
4 = f4+I '
1+1//
J
o
0
'\"'
X2
\037
0)
If another integral
added to the
is
get)
00
and
right
00
=f
5 Z2\0372
-00
-lit,
-++ 00,
o
ion z == t
Make the substitut

Z ---+ 00 and as
-++ 0,
=f
Bl\037\037\",,\037
t\037+
(1+ Ilt2) dt
z \037
Z2d\0372
o)
Z2d\0372
==
. arc an
..r-+ 2 1rr 2 -.+00
1
I 1m
Then, as
2;2( ;+
-=
\037
)=2;2.
\037
the following improper integrals:)

00
00
50
}\037\037'\"
B
1
I 1m arc t an
1/\"2
2r
B-.-oo
r 2
Evaluate
8.1.17.
==dz.
+ 00.Hence,
+
=
(a ) C
\\\\\037e
+t 24 dt = 1//2+ 2 dt .
21== 5 l+t
5 1!t
I
sides then
left
(b) 5 e-x'x2m +1dx.
In x
1
+x2 dx;
o)
8.1.18.
Compute the
integral)
oc:
\"
V x3
I ==j
xC>
+_
-x2 2-t-l dx
x
+]
1)
accurateto two decimal places.

Solution.Represent the given integral
two integra Is
11
\037
+
+ +
3
r Vx
J
xC>
1)
x\037
x\037
in
the form of a sum
00
dx,
I2 ==j
N)))
+
+x2 + dx.
V X 3 _X2
xl)
of)
\037
8.2.Improper
397)
of Unbounded Functions)
Integrals
Compute the former with the required accuracy, using Simpson's

1 we have
formula, and estimateth e latter. Since for x
..rx3 -x2 +
\037
X3/2
0< x +x2+ <

\"
then)
00
0<12 = 5 X- /2 dx=
7
At
we get the estimate/2

Computation of the integral
N == 7
===X- 7 / 2 ,)
< 52 X
N-&/2.
49
r
7
< 0.0031.
/1==.
\\
YX3_X2+1 dx
x5
for a
Simpson'sformula
by
.
and for a step
h
\"2
+x2 +
step
===
gives
81== 0.2155,)
== 0.5)
80.5 0.2079.
===
Sincethe difference between the values is 0.0076,

the integral 11
0.2079with an errorof the order
gives a more accuratevalue SO.5==
O.
\"'-'
\03776
0.0005.
Consequently,the sought-for integral is approximately equal to
I 0.208
with
0.004,or 1==0.21
exceeding
\037
with
mal
\037
an
errornot
places.)
all true
deci-
8.2.ImproperIntegralsof [JnboundedFunctions
If the function f (x) is defined for a x < b, integrable on any

0<8<
and unbounded to the left of the
interval [0,b
point b, then, by definition, we put
b-a
-8],
\037
\037
b-\302\243
f (x)dx =!im
c\037+o
f (x) dx.
\037
If this limit is existent and finite, then (he improper integral is

said to be convergent. Otherwise it is calleddivergent.
Analogously, if the function f (x) is unbounded to the right from
the point
a,
then)
b
\037
f (x)dx =!im
B--t0 a +
f (x)dx.
\037
B)))
Ch. V
398)
III. Improper
Integrals)
if the function is unbounded in the neighbourhood of an

interior point c of the interval [a, b], then, by definition,)
Finally,
h
\037
f (x)dx =
f (x)dx
\037
\037
f (x)dx.
r)
Let the funct ion f (x) be cont inuous on the interva I [a, b] except
at a finite number of points. If there existsa funct ion F (x) continuous on [a, b] for which
(x) f (x) exceptat a finite number
of points, then the Newton-Leibnizformula
F' ::::::
\037
f (x)dx=F
(b)-F(a)
a)
holds good.
Sometimesthe function F (x) is calleda generalized

antiderivative
for the function f (x) on the interval [a, b].
For the functions defined and positive on the interval a x b
convergencetests (comparison tests) analogous to the comparison
tests for improper integrals with infinite limits are valid.
Comparisontest. Let the functions f (x) and g (x) be defined on
the interval a \037x < b and integrable on each interval [a,
If O<:f(x)
<:g(x),then from the convergence of the
<
\037
b-B],
O<B<b-a.
b
integral
\037
g (x)dx follows the convergenceof
the integral
\037
f (x)dx,
/}
and
\037
f (x) dx
\037
\037
a)
g (x) dx;
from
the divergence of the
integral)
a)
S f (x) dx follows the divergenceof the integral a g (x)dx.

Specialcomparisontest. If the function f (x) 0 is defined and
continuous on the interval a <:x < b and is an infinitely
large
as compared with b\037X as x-+-b-O,then
quantity of the order')..
\037
\037
the integral 5 f (x)dx convergesfor ')..< I and diverges for ')..

a
In particular,the integral)
\037
1.
dx
5 (b-x)'\\
a)
1.
'A < 1 and

diverges for 'A
Absolute and conditional convergence. Let the function f (x) be
defined on the interval a x < b and integrable on each interval)))
convergesfor
\037
\037
\037
8.2.Improper
Integrals
399)
I)
[a,b-8];
the convergenceof the integral
then from
If (x)I dx)
\037
a)
b
follows the convergence of the integral
\037
(x)dx.
a)
b
casethe
In this
integral
f (x)dx
a
\037
is calledabsolutely convergent,
But
the integra I
if
\037
f (x) dx converges,and the integra I
\037
f (x) dx
I
Q
b
diverges, then the integral
\037
f(x)dxis calledconditionally convergent.

b
Analogous tests are also valid for improper integrals

where f (x) is unbounded to the
from the
right
8.2.1.
point
a.
\037
f (x)dx,)
a)
Proceedingfrom the definition, evaluate the following

improper integrals (or prove their divergence):
(a)
1t
e
r
2
dx
dx
(c) .
V 4x x 2
\\
l
X3
dx
r
(d) J V , I
x2 I
+ VX-2dx;
l-x3'
dx
(f)
Vxa
dx
CDS
\037
--
10
(e) .f
(b)
x inX
,) V
3
50
Solution, (a) The integrand f (x)=
1.
vlnx
is unbounded
in
the
neighbourhood of the point x == It is integrable on any interval

+ E, e],since it is a continuous function.
Therefore)
[1
e
SI V
x
dx
3 In
--
dx
== I 1m
e +0
\037
S
I +e
tim
e\037+O
Vln
[
_
\037
.
= 1m
[ V
3
e +0 2
1
\037
\037
In
te
= '
Vln2(1+8)
J
\037is unbounded
(b) The integrand f (>c)== cos
x
of the point x =
.e
2x
the neighbourhood
and integrable on any interval
[0, 8J
in
\037
as)))
Ch.
400)
Ill.Improper
Integrals)
a continuous function. Therefore)
1[
--E;:
2
:rr
So
\037==
lim
x
\037=
\\
e-++O J cosx
COS
0)
Iim In tan
+ )
\037
== Iim In tan
-\342\202\254
\037
P,-++O)
323
\342\202\254-++O
\037
-; - 00.
)
Hence,the given integral diverges.

(c) The integrand is unboundedin the neighbourhoodof the points
x == 1 and x == 3. Therefore, by definition,)
dx
dx
St V4x-x:!-3St Y4x-x2
(instead of the
the interva I
2
dx
\\
t.I
\302\243-++0
=
.S Y4x-x2-3
2
dx
dx
== I 1m
VI-(x-2)2
e)
= ;:;
[O-arcsin (B-1)]
\342\202\254-++o)
'
3-f
I 1In
.
hm
=
(x-2)\037
dx
\\
\302\243-++O\037,
. (x-2) 2 ==
l+f
arc Sin
\302\243-++0
1-
\342\202\254-++O
2)
lirn
\342\202\254-++o
.Hence,)
2)
== lim
point x == 2 we can take any other interior point of

us now compute each summand separately:
[1,3)). Let
. 2'
== 1m
.S Y4x-x -3
1
2
dx
-3+ S Y4x-x -3
3
dx
j'[
. (x-2)3-1:
=
.
[arcsin( 1-8) 0]
arc SIn
- =2-)
2)
n.
j'[
S Y4X\037-X2_3 =2'+2=
t)
is unbounded in the neigh(d) The integrand f (x)= V\037-2

-x
II
'bourhood of the point x == 1, which is an interior point of the
1
int\037rval
of
integration.Therefore,
definition,)
by
-S JI/I-x +S YIIS Yll- 12
_dx
dx
dx
x2 1
x2
I)))
\302\267
8.2.Improper
\037
Evaluate each summand separately.

1
1-1;;
dx
5o Y
!I-x
2
dx
r
J
Y I_x
dx
YI-x2
< 1, then
0 \037X
If
0)
=
If
Ii In
2 =8-++0
401)
Integrals
arcsinx 0l-\"=lirn
liIn
8-++0
8-++0)
.
[arcsil1(l-e)-O]=
\037
< x 2, then
\037
dx
5I V II
x2 I
dx
Yx 2
tf
1
.
= In1
I
+0
-+
E'
-=
dx
5+e)
V x2
In(x+Vx2-1)
8-++0
== lim
I+\037)
== In
(I+ c + V(I + E)2_1)]
[In (2-t-- JI/\"3)-ln
lim
8
...+0)
Hence,)
5 11 \\
11
x2
\\
(e) Represent the given integral as

ing
+ V3).
= 2 + In (2+ V3).
dx
\0372
each term of the numera tor
by
a sum of three
V x 3,
1
items, divid-
dx
I xa+.V\037-2dx=rX12/5dx+1
4/15_21 3/5 .
3
dx
The
first
L\037ibniz
J0
J0
Vx
0)
sumn,and is a proper integral evaluated
by
the Newton-
formula:)
X
S
o
5 17/o
12/ 5 dX=-X
17
1
1
=-5
17
\302\267
The second and third summands are unbounded to the

point x = O. Therefore,)
1
dx
'j\\ X 4/15
o
ana logously,)
-.
I 1m
_+0
'. dx
1
xAI 1 5
8)
1
r>
jo
--I'8-+0 X-II'
- 8
dx
X3/5
==
dx
I lIn
e -+ + 0 5
8)))
x 3/
I)
1m
\037
II
11/151_\037.
1
. _5
2
I 1m
8 -+ + 0
right
X2 I 5
8)
=-25 .
of the
Ch.
402)
Hence,)
1
r
J
x3
+ Vx-
V?
o)
(f)
III.Improper
Integrals)
- dx=T7+n-'2=2
15
Represent the integrand f (x)=
of part ia I fract ions:
000_
625
187\"
11
x3
in
the form
of a sum
I
x+2
f(x)= 1-x3 = (I-X)(I+X+x
2 =3\"
[ x+ l+x+x2]
Then
= S
\037
I\037X
++S
. 1=
x 8-+0S
S
o
1
\302\267)
1 1111
0)
dx. Since
1\037\037\037x2
.
- =-8-+0
dx
dx
l\037xX3
l-
I 1m
-x) - =00,
.
nt 1
the given integral diverges.There is no need to compute the second

representing a proper integra 1.
Note. Evaluation of the improper integrals from Problem
(a to f) can be considerablysimplified by using a generalizedantiderivative and applying the Newton-Leibnizformula. For instance,
t (a) the function F (x) =
in Problem
V ln 2 x is continuous on
the interval
e] and differentiable at each point of the interval
1 < x e, and F' (x) ==f (x) on this interval. Therefore)
summand
8.2.1
8.2.
[1,
\037
\037
_ 3 V nx e _ 23 ,
-T
J xV lnx
e
r
dx
Il
I)
the definition, compute the

their divergence):)
(or
prove
improper integrals
da
(a)
J0
2/1t
2xdx
;
2 _a2
)2/3
(x
(b)
(c) J cos
-2
.
sIn
-.-'
dx
x2
\302\267
S
0
dx
dx
l-x'(I-x)2; (d) S V (411:
dx
(e) J' x V x2
-1
X)2
2
2
(f)
dx
5
1)))
x In P
\302\267
follo\\\\Ting
32_
8.2.I mproper
\037
8.2.3.
Evaluate
'\"
(a )
X2
t V9
-3
\\
dx
the following improper integrals:
../ + dx.
.r
2 x
2
x
JI
J
(b )
;
x2
0)
Solution.(a)
S
403)
Functions
of Unbounded
Integrals
Find the indefinite integral
(9 arc sin
\037
\0372\037Xxt
\037
x V9-X2) + C.
a generalizedantiThefllnctionF(x)=+(9arcsin
-xV9-x2)iS
2
x
\037
[-3,3],
since it is
derivative for f (x) =
.2 on the interval
V
continuous on this interval and F'(x) ==f (x) at each point of the
interval
3). Therefore, applying the Newton-Leibnizformula,
we get)
9-x
(-3,
3
-- =X2
dx
2 (9
x2
-3t\\ V 9
. x Vg -x2 3 =,Jt.
9
arCSln--x
3
) -3 2
1
(b) Transform the integ rand

/-
I 2+x
- = 2+x- = -
f (x) == J
V4
x\037
2
V 4 x2
-.
+ V 4x
x2
The indefinite inte gral is equal to
../2-x
2+\037
4-x
2
dx==2arcsin...:.-V
+C.
2
-x
2 is a
The function F (x) = 2 arc sin
V4
generalizedant iderivative for f (x) on the interva 1 [0,2], since it is continuous on
this interval and F'(x) ==f (x) on the interval [0,2).
Therefore, applying the Ne\\vton-Leibniz formula, we get
\037
2
\\
t.,
V ;+;dx=(2arcsin-V4-x )1:=n+2.
8.2.4.Test th e integral)
dx
Sx
-1)
fi\037x
for cOFlvergence.
Solution.At the point x == the integrand goes to infinity. Both

I
o
and
since = > 1.Consequentintegrals S x
x Vi diverge,
j'
Vi
-1
\302\260
'A.
\037
0)))
Ch.
404)
III.Improper
Integrals)
ly, the given integral diverges.If this were ignored,and the Newton-Leibniz formula formally applied to this integral, we would
obtain the wrong result:
=
-S x Vi ( V x )
=
\037
-6.
I)
this is because the integrand is positive.

the following improper integrals for convergence:
And
8.2.5.Test
1
y-
eX
(a) r
J
cosx
b) r
J
dx;
VI
Solution.(a) The integrand
.I-cosx=
is
V 2 sin
si?x+cosx dx.
x:i
large as x \037
infinitely
x
2
1\"'0..'
+ O. Since
Y2 x as x ---+
+ 0,
the integrand has the order A = I as compared with

According
to the specialcomparison test the given integral diverges.
(b) Rewrite the integrand in the following way:
\037
t (x) == ,:;in x+cos\0372

x
x
V +
\037.
Vtl\"
This function is -infinitely large as x \037 1, its order is equal

to A= as compared with l\037X ' since the first multiplier tends
to 1 as x\037 O. Therefore, by the specialcomparisontest, the given
\037
integral converges.
Test the following improper integrals for convergtnce:
8.2.6.
2
In
(a)
.o
esin
\\
.o
\\
x2 +
dx;
dx; (b) \\ Y16x4
1
:1
\037
1
r-
(c)
(I + VX\"3)
C\037
d\037
SIn x
I'
SoLution. (a) The integrand f (x) =

interval (0, 2) and is not defined at
In
f (x) ==
liIn
\037....
00.Indeed,since
is
(:st
==
x
\037\037)
positive in the
O. Let us show
0)
sin x
esinx_l,-....\".
1\"'0..'
x,
In
(I+ V- X3)
I\"'o..'V
xJ
as
x\037O,)))
that
8.2.Improper
\037
Functions)
of Unbounded
Integrals
405)
we have)
Jim
S1I1
\037
At
(I + VX3) = Jim
x
In
x 0
\037
V.iI= Jim
V.= 00.
x_ 0
that
f (x) \"'-'
the same time we have shown
X\"\"
\037-
V
order A =
as x \037 0,
i.e.
x\037
that t (x) is an
infinitely
large quantity
of
\037
<I
as com-
pared with \037.

x Consequently, by the specialcomparison test, the
given integra I converges.
(b) Determine the order of the
.;
x2
16
-x
to 2
in
large function t (x)==

the neighbourhoodof the point x = 2 with respect
infinitely
ssion for t (x):

x' To this en d 2tran sform the expre
2
Vx +
y x -tt(x)= ,) 16-x.4- = 4+ x2 3 r
2-x
V
V
V 2+x V-I
\302\267
Hence it
is obvious that the function f (x) is an infinitely

large
I as x
quantity of order A
According to the special
comparisontest the given integral converges.
x. is unbounded 111 the neigh(c) The integrand t (x)
x SIll X
-..2.
=+ <
bourhood of the point

cosx
==
f (x)
Since
V\037os
x ==O.
casx
t1x-sinx-V x (I-
---
Vx
V )
x-++,
0)
as x ---++ 0 the function f (x) is an infinitely large quantity of order

A=
< I as comparedwith and, by the specialcomparis0ntest,
\037
the integra I converges.

8.2.7.Investigate the following improper integrals for conver-
gence:
--
eX dx
(a).o YI-x'!
(b)
\\
(c)
I-\\
1-x dx;
X
\"
dx
\\
t.o)
dx
..o V (I x2)0 ;
. dx
1
(e)
x\037
\\
x-sinx '
(d)
Jo I _ x3 + x6
(f),.rln(V;+I)
e
-1 d
tan x
o)))
X.
Ch.
406)
8.2.8.Prove
Ill.Improper
Integrals)
the integral
that
.
Slnx
dx
Vi)
-converges.
Solution.For 0 < x
.
X
yi
1)
\037
sIn
\037
I
\037
\302\267)
Yx
the integral
But
.f
o
:x converges,therefore,
by the
comparison
test,
sin
the integral r,
u
o
(Ijx) dx
also converges,and consequently
Vx
the given integra I convergesabsolutely.

of the integral
Prove the convergence
8.2.9.
JT
I = Insinxdx
\037
o)
.and eva]ua te it.

Solution.Integra te
;r
2
\037
r
,
- 2
ns\037nxdx=xlnsinx
l
lim
K_
+ 0 t an x
x- --0
2
Now make the

x=O at t 1
T'f
\037
\037
= In (sinx), dx
JT
dx=_
x C?SX
sIn x
= 0, the
S
0
t an
==
dv:)
x dx.
last integral
IS
proper
initial integral converges.

in integral
Then dx ==2dt;
On substituting we get:
at t 2 =
/.
substItution x = 2t
=0; x=
t an x
JT
f
0
1, Iim
one.Consequently,the
n/2
-'
1(
Since
parts, putting
by
\037
1[/4
1(/4
Insinxdx=2 Insin2tdt=2 (ln2+lnsint+lncost)dt=

\037
\037
n/4
1[/4
Incostdt=
=2tln21\037/4+2 o Insintdt+2
\037
\037
0)
n/4
JT/4
In
\037
2+ 2
S
o)
In
sin t dt + 2
S
o)
In
cost
dt.)))
8.2.Improper Intel!rals
\037
In the last integra
make the substitution
407)
Funct ions)
of Unbounded
t ==nj2
-z. Then
dt==-dz;t=O at zl='Jtj2;t-=n/4 at z2=='Jtj4. Hence,

n/4
/2
25 Incostdt2c=-2
5 Incos( -z)dz=25 Insinzdz.
JT/4
\0372
.'T\"f
\0374
Thus,)
n/2
n/2
.1t/4
1=5lnsitlxdx= In2+2 5 Insintdt+25 lnsinzdz=

o
n/4
.1t/2
In2 + 2
Whence)
JT/2
I= 5
o
8.2.10.
Compute the
sin xdx =
In
In
sin t dt =
o)
-;
In
2 + 2/
2.
In
integral
r xndx (n a natural number )

J V I _ x2
').\"
large quantity of order

x\037l-O.
Therefore,the integral conx as
respect to
with
\037
is an
)1
verges.
Make the substitution x ==sin t
x ==0
at
t ==
infinitely
in
the integral. Then dx == cost dt,
0, x == 1 at t ==nj2.On substituting we get

1
dx
t cos t dt
= sinn t d t .
= sinn cos
t
_
x
.o ..r
r
.\\
j0
\0372
\0372
\037
\037
Xn
\\
\302\267
\037
-.
-_
The last integral is evaluated

JT
\0372
sinn t
jo
0)
Problem 6.6.9:
in
n-l n-3
' even,
_2. .
dt ==
n-l n-3 _2 ' odd.
{
n-2 3
I
\302\267
\302\267
\302\267
\302\267
2\" \"2
\302\267
Consequently,the given integral is also computed by the same
formu
la.
Eva luate
8.2.11.
divergence)
the following improper integrals (or prove their
:)
(a)
j xlnx;
o)
2
dx
dx
\037
(b)
j
1)
V lnx
(c)
J
o)))
+ dx.
3x2 2
x\037
Ch.
408)
8.2.12.
Compute the
11/.Improper
improper
Integrals)
integral)
m>-I).
(n natural,
/n=\037xmlnnxdx
o)
Solution.At
n == 0
the integral is evaluated directly:)

1
10 =
+1
I
xm dx=xm
m+10=m+l '
1
o)
For
>0
1n
integrate
by
= Inn
parts,
putt ing
-'
dv ==xm dx;
xm
n-l X dx ..=:
x;
+
du=nlnn-lx dxx' v= xm+1)
.
\\V
\037
get)
= Inm +
X
fl
+1
-+.
- + I -1
nn X
In
\\
\302\267
o)
This gives a formula

any natural
In ==
And
means of which one can reduce In to 10 for
by
- + 1 -1 + n(n-l)
+ 1n:
==
finally,)
1)2
(m
(_1)nn!
1n = (m+
l)n+l
8.2.13.
Compute the
2 ==
\302\267
\302\267
\302\267
== (-l)nn!
(m -t- 1 )n
(J
\302\267
integral)
- S V2+x-x
12.0
e-Xdx
0.3)
accurateto 0.03.
Solution.The integral has a singularity at the point x = 2, since
2 + X-X2 == (2
(1+ x). Let us represent it as the sum of two in-
-x)
tegrals:)
2-\342\202\254
11
e-Xdx
===
0.3)
2
2,
t!2+x-x
1'1.==\\
,_
2-\302\243)
x dx
V 2+x
X2
\302\267
Now compute the first integral to the required accuracy,and estimate

the second one. For E
we have)
o < /2
\037
0.1
3:\037
1.
4
dx
= O.115X 3
= 0.153
-=
84
< e-2.9
2-x
SV
V 2-e)))
9
4\"
\302\267
8.3.Geometric and Physical Applic's of Improp. Integr's

Evaluation
E=O.l,we get the estimate 12 < 0.028.
\037
Putting
integral)
e-Xdx
0.3)
Simpson'sformula
by
and
And
error
is
a step h/2
with
with
0.4,)
so,integral 11gives
not
step
x2
===
80.8 = 0.519,
===
0.8gives
80.4 ==0.513.
the more
accuratevalue,
with
0.513,
that
0.001.
Taking into consideration
exceeding
positive, we round
the obtained value to
off
of the
- SV + 1.9
J1
409)
an
integral
12
I 0.52
\037
an error not exceeding0.03.

we get the estimate12 < 0.005,
but the
Note. By putting E=O.OI,
computation of the integral) 1.99
e-Xdx
with
I1
- S V2
0.3
+X-X2
cumbersomecalculations.
8.2.14.
Investigate the following integrals for convergence:
would involve much more

1
(a) r
.J
o
1
(c)
;
SIn x
:\037
cas2 x dx
S (I
X)2
.'
(b)
S ex\037\037osx
0)
1
(d )
tan
SVI
x dx
x2
.'
o)
o)
6
5
(e)
dx
sin
S1 YII -x2 1.
\037
2)
of Improper
* 8.3.Geometricand PhysicalApplications
Integrals
bounded by the curve y = I

(the witch of Agnesi) and its asymptote.
Solution. The fund ion y = I x2 is cont inuous throughout the en1ire number scale,and Iim y = O.Consequently,the x-axisis the asympx-oo
It is required
tote of the given curve which is shown in Fig.118.
8.3.1.
Find the
to
find
the area
area of the
S of the
figure
figure
that
\037X2
extendswithout
bound along the)))
Ch.
410)
x-axis.In
ra S =
III. Improper
Integrals)
other words, it is required to evaluate the improper integ-)
00
dx
S)
I +x\037
. By
virtue of the symmetry of the
-00
y-axis we have)
00
00
S= r
dx
-00
about the)
figure
. arc tan x A J(
=2
0 =2'\"2=n.
I+X2
1:rr;,
dx
I+X2 =2.J
0)
8.3.2.Find the
surface area generatedby revolving about the

arc of the curve y ==e-X between x ==0 and x == + 00.
Solution.The area of the sury
face is equal to the improper in1)
tegra I
x-axisthe
+00
-1)
S=2n5
.:c
=. 1,x == 00 at
)
S = 2n
\"
tJ
dt===-e-x dx,
0; hence
t ==
[t
\037
Vl+e-
2X
we get
x\037O at)
VI + t 2 + In (t + VI + t 2)] =
\037
o)
[V-2+In (1+ V 2)].
==J1
8.3.3.
Compute the area enclosedby the
cartes
x3
Solution.The
loop of the folium of Des-
+ y3-3axy==O.
Descartesis
folium of
dx.
substitution e-X == t,
Making the
+ t 2 dt = 2n.
Fig. 118)
t
shown
in
Fig.86.Let
us
re-
present the curve in polar coordinates:

x==pcoscp;y==psincp.
3
3
3a p2 cos sin ==0,whence,cancelling p2,.
Then p3 cos + sin
cp
we
cp
p:\037
get)
cp
3acos
cp
sin
P ==cos3cp+sin 3 cp')
cp
cp
Since the loop of the curve correspondsto the variation

o and
the sought-for area is equal

3t)
3'1)
s ==_21 S
2
to)
p2
d ==
cp
2
9a2
TS
0)))
sin2
3
(sin
cp
cos2
+cosa
cp
cp
cp)2
dcp.
of
cp
between
8.3.Geometric and
\037
Integr's
Applic's of Improp.
Physical
411)
To evaluate the obtained proper integral make the substitution

n
tan<p==t;cas'\".) ===dt; cp==Oat t==O, CP===2 at t===oo.Thus we get
d\037
cp
00
9a2 r [2dt
9a2
S==TJo (I+[3)2==T
l\037noo
=-T .
3a2
t 2 dt
S (l+t3r\037
0)
[ 1+/3
]0
1\037\037
3?
=='ia ....
the volume of the solid generatedby revolving the cis8.3.4.Find

x3
==
==
2a-x about its asymptote x 2a.
Solution.The cissoid is shown in Fig. 119.
Transfer the origin of
coordinatesto the point 0' (2a, 0) without changing the directionof
the axes. In the new system of coordinates
X ==x-2a,Y == the equation of the cissoid !I
soid
y2
has the following form:

Y 2 ==
(X
+ 2a)3
-X
\302\267
The volume of the solid of revolut ion about

the axis X == 0, e. about the asymptote, is
by the integral)
,expressed
i.
00
=:n;
:c)
o)
00
X 2 dY
= 2:n;
X2
dY.
-00
Let us pass over to t he variable X. For this
purposewe find dY == Y' dX. Differentiating the
equation of the cissoid in the new coordinates
.as an identity with respect to X, we get
\037
\037
0)
' _ 3 (X +2a)2
2YY ==
whence for
Y
Y
> 0 we
(X
X2
+ 2a)3 _ __ 2 (X
' _ _ (X +2a)22 (X -a)_ _

X Y
Hence,)
2a)2 (X
-a)
+ 2a) (X -a)
(X + 2a)jX
(X
X2 V
\302\267)
(X+2a)(X-a) dX.
(X+2a)/X
,f V
2a)
Makethe substitution (X + 2a)/X ==

t
--1-
X2)
have
V=-2n
Fig.
t 2;
X ==
-2aat
t ==
= 00.Then:
2at 2
4at
X ==- 2a
dX=
dt;
X+2a-==
1+12)
(l+t2)2
X-a==- l+t .
3a+at2
2
')))
l+t\037
0,X ==0 at
;
Ch.
412)
III.I mproper
Integrals)
whence)
00
== 2n
r
J
2at 2 (3a+ at 2) 4al dt

t 2)2
(l +(2) (l t 2) (1-1-
o)
'
00
== 481ta3
00
, (1
\\
Putting
z ==
t == tan
z,
n/2.Hence,
dt == sec2 z dz,
14
. (I
\\
II)
t == 0
get
Wl'
r-
16Jta3
at z ==
+t 2)4 dt.
0, t == 00 at
N2
\0372
/2
dt
t 2)4
= 48na3 sin2 z cos4 z dz + 16na3 cos2 z sin4 z dz =

\037
\037
rr!2
n/2
= 48na3 cos4 z dz 48na3 cos6 z dz +

\037
\037
'!II 2
+ 16na
3
sin4 z
\037
31/
dz-16na
\037
sin6z dz.
31/2
Using the
formulas for
known
the
integrals
sin\"
\037
xdx,
o)
1\302\243/2
\037
cos\"xdx (see Problem
o)
nIx3
\302\267
8.3.5.
I X 3 x5
3
3
= 2a
64nQ\"2
2 X 4 64J1a
2 X 4 X 6 2n a
Prove that the area of the region bounded by the curve
1
axis of abscissas,the axis of ordinates and the
2
we get
6.6.9),
T'
y l-x ,the
asymptote x== 1 is
8.3.6.Prove
finite
and equals
\302\267
;.
that the are,a of the region bounded by the curve

the
axis
of abscissas and the straight lines x == + 1 is
y
3 x'\".) ,
V
finite and equals 6, and the area of the region contained between
the curve y =
the axisof abscissasand the straight lines x= + I
is infinite.
Find the volumes of the solids
enclosedby the surfaces
==
==
the
X
lines
(;
x,
0, y ==0 (0 x < 00):
b.y
generated revolvihg
y
(a) about the x-axis,
(b) about the y-axis.)))
l
===
\0372
'
8.3.7.
\037
-\037
\037
8.3.Geometric
Comp ute
8.3.8.
Applic's
and Physical
the area containedbetween the
and its asymptote.

Compute the area bounded by the curve
and the axesof coordinates.
8.3.9.
413)
Integr's
of Improp.
--
cissoidY ?\"'-2ax
-:=::
Find
8.3.10.
e-2x
(at
x > 0)
the volume of the solid generatedby revolving, about

for x\037
the x-axis,the infinite branch of the curve y = 2
8.3.11.
\037
\037:J
1.
Let a mass m be located at the origin 0 and attract a

material point M found on the x-axisat a distance x from 0 and
with
a force F ==
(accordingto Newton's
having a mass of
law). Find the work performed by the force F as the point M moves
along the x-axisfrom x-:=::r to infinity.
Solution.The work will be negative, since the direction of the
force is opposite to the direction of motion, hence)
1,
.-
00
A ==
f
r
\037
dx =
lim
N
-+
00
- =x
\037
dx
.E:.
r .
,)
During the reverse displacementof the point M from infinity to

the point x==r the force of Newtonian attraction will perform posiThis quantity is called the potential of the force
tive work r
under considerationat the point x == r and serves as the measureof
potential energy accumulated at a point.
In studying a decaying current resulting from a discharge
instruments are sometimes used whose readings are pro\"ballistic\"
!!!.-.
8.3.12.
00
portional to the
\"integral
current
intensity\"
g = I dt
or the
\"inte-
\037
00
S == /2 dt and not to the instano

taneous value of the current intensity / or to its square /2. Heret
is time measuredfrom the beginning of the discharge;I is alterna-
gral square of current intensit y\"
\037
ting-current intensity depending on tirne. Theoretically, the process

continues indefinitely, though, practically, the current intensity becomesimperceptiblealready after a finite time interval. To simplify
the formulas we usually assume the tinle interval to be infinite in
all calculations involved.
Compute g ktand S for the following processes:
(a) I == loe- (a simple aperiodic
proces3);k is a constant coeffi.
cient,which is greaterthan
zero.)))
Ch.
414)
Ill.Improper
Integrals)
coefficients k and
(b) I == Ioe-kt sin wt (simpleoscillatingprocess);
are constant.
U)'
Solution.)
\037
kl
(a) g ==S J oe- dt
!im r oe-kl dt
A\037oo.J
= 10 !im
A\037oo
_\037_kt
= lo/k;
0)
00
/2
\037
S== 12e-2ktd
t ==\037.'
o
2k
J
00
(b)
g= o J lIe-kl sin
\037
dt = !im \\ Ioe-kl sin ffit
ffit
L\\
sin2 wt dt = !im r
A\037ooJ
:\037
}\037\037
I Inl
A
1\037e-2kl
/
'
w cas(I) t + k sIn wt) e k t J A _
0
+k2 A\037oo [(
W\037+k2
.
I0
w2
00
S=
dt
A\037oo(\037
[1-
W2\037k2
o(f)
n e-2kl 1-2 2 wi dt =
CDS
(k
cos2ffit + ffik sin

2ffit)]
e-2kt /:=)
/2W
4k
8.3.13.
Let an
.
\302\267
(k'l.
+ 2)
\302\267)
extended(in both directions)beam lying
infinitely
concentratedforce P. If thethe initial positionof the axis

of the beam (before the latter is bent) and the y-axis is drawn\\
the point 0 (at which the force is applied) and directed
through
downwards,then, on bending, the beam axiswill have the fo11o-
elasticfoundation be bent by
with
x-axisis brought to coincidence
on an
\\ving
equation)
y
e-Cl.Ixl (CDSax+sin a xl>.)

I
\037;
a and k are certainconstants.Compute

elasticdeformation by the formula)
where
of
the
potential energy
00
= Ee
\037
dx)
(y\2")
(E, e const).)
())
Solution.Find
y\"
y\":
- (-
= P;\"e-ax[(CDSax+sin ax)
sin ax+cosax)+
;
J
p
+ (-sill ax-cas
ax)]== e-ax (sin ax-cosax).)))
8.4.Additional
\037
415)
Problems)
Hence,)
00
==
5o e-
2ax
p2a,6\302\243e
k2
(1-2 sin axcosa.x)dx

=
==
p2a,6\302\243e
k2
[
I
2a,
4a,2
2a,
1 p2a 5
+4a2 J == 4k2
\302\243e
\302\267
8.3.14. work has to be performed to move a body of massm

Earth'ssurface to infinity?
Determine the work which has to be done to bring an
8.3.15.
==
\\Vhat
from the
electric charge
chargeel
e2
1 from
to a
infinity
unit
distance
from
.)
* 8.4.AdditionalProblems
8.4.1.Prove
that the integral)

00
dx
5 xP
1n
qx
1)
convergesfor p > 1 and
8.4.2.Prove
< 1.
that the integral)

00
.x;P
\037
sin xq dx,
q =1= 0
o)
--1
1.
< (p + 1)/q< 0 and converges conditionally for 0 (p + 1)/q <

Prove that the Euler integra 1 of the first kind (beta func-
convergesabsolutely for
\037
8.4.3.
tion))
- (1-t)q-l dx
B (p, q) = xp 1
\037
o)
p > 0 and q > O.

8.4.4.Prove that)
converges for
T-..oo+-j
lim
if
a,
*
I
'Sinax'sin\037xdx=o.
o)
\037
I.
8.4.5.Prove
that)
00
1=5 e-x'.x2n +1dx =

o)))
\037t
(n
natural).
Ch. V
416)
Ill.Improper
Integrals)
00
8.4.6.Prove
tive a and
that
tends to
f (x)
if
the integra I
if
5a ;X) dx convergesfor any posi-
as x -?-0, then the
integral)
00
'1
f(ax)-f(\037x)
dx
\\
t..'
(ex,
> 0, > 0)
\037
convergesand equaIs
8.4.7.Prove
00
A In
e- '1.X_ ex
'
\037
\037x
5o
(\037/a).
that)
dx == cosax x casBx dx == In 1.a .

J
II)
.rT
8.4.8.At
va lues of m
what
does the
integral)
'.
/2)
C OS
xm
dx
con-)
o)
verge?)
31
8.4.9.Prove
-5 (SIn x)k converges if
that the integral
\037x
< 1, and
o)
diverges if
1.)
\037
00
8.4.10.
Prove
that
the integral
sin
5o
o < s < 4, and convergesabsolutely if

Suppose the integral)
x (l
xs
8.4.11.
cos x) dx
converges
if)
< s < 4.
+00
\037
f(x)dx)
(1))
a)
convergesand the function

Does the integral)
(x)
<p
is bounded.
+00
\037
f (x) (j)
(x)dx
(2)
a)
necessarilyconverge?
What can be said about the convergence
of integral (2), if integral (1) convergesabsolutely?
8.4.12.
Prove
the validity of the relation
f (x) == 2f (n/4
where f (x)=
\037
o)))
+ xj2)-2f (n/4-x/2)-xIn 2,)
In cosy dy.
\037
Compute
with
8.4. Additional
417)
Problems)
the aid of the relation obtained)
-J
JT
( )
\037
In
casy dy.
o)
8.4.13.
Deduce the
reduction formula for the
integral)
JT
In= Incosx.cos2nxdx(n
\037
())
and evaluate this
integral.)))
natural))
ANSWERS
AND
HINTS)
Chapter
I)
1.1.5.
(b) Hint.
Prove by
the rule of contraries,
putting
p2
,
2=--:;-
\\\\There
q\"
integers without common multipliers.

Hint. You may take
are positive
p and
k=s2-2
.
1.1.8.
2s
1.1.9.
(c) -4\037x\0372.
(b) x\0374,
I. Hint. The equality is valid for those values
1.1.11.
(a) x < -I or
true for those
3. Hint. The equality
2.;;;;
:;;,.
x';;;;
of x for
0;
(b)
:
:+
values of x for
x2-5x+6\0370.
or
x
1.1.13.
<
(a)
; x > 8; (b) x < 0 or 0 < x < 5. Hint. The
x\037O;
x\037
which
hold\037
which
a
a
inequality
> a I-I b
<
holds
good
when
b I.
and b
are opposite
in sign
or
when
I.2.3. ., [a (a2a++3a2+3)]., (a3+a) (a3 ).

Y2+ .' 2 VIO-5.)))
?
2., (a+ h)3
1.2.6.
4 ..r1.2.4.
r 2+I,.
b-+ab+a
8
2
x.
1.2.11.
(x)=10+5X2
6
2
5x + .
r _ 45x + .
1.2.13.(3x
) 2-3x' (x3) _ 2--x
3 '
15x2+3
125x6 +75x4 + 15x2 + .
31(x)= 2-x ; [I (x)]3== 8-12x-t-6x2 -x3
; 1(3)=8.
1.2.14./(2)=5;/(0)=4;/(0.5)=4;/(-0.5)=
it
follows
that
Hint.
Frornx
1.2.15.
Yn+l=aXn+l=aXn+d=axnad.
n +l=xn +d
2 -5x+6.
1.2.16.
x=:f:2;:f:3.1.2.17./(x)=x
1.2.18./(x)=--=23;cp(x)=527
1or x:;;\" 2. 1.2.20.
1.2.19.
x; S=b 1- x.
x.;;;;-I
P=2b+2
(
(
)
)
1t
1.2.21.
(b) (2,3); (c) (-00,-I) and (2,00); (d) x==2\"+2k1t(k==O, :f:1,
Hin!.Since sin x J, the function is defined only when sin x I;
:I:2,
+2kn<x<
(g) (-00,2) and (3, 00); (h) [I,4); (i) (-2,0) and (0, 1); (j)
-1.
-
\0373
\037
...).
\037
< 2+2k1t (k=O, :1:1,

:f:2, ...).)
1t
\037
-;
==
Answers and Hints
Ch.
to
419)
I)
1.2.22.
(d) The function is defined over the entire number scale, exceptthe
x :I:
2.
1.2.24.
3];
(a) (-00,00); (b) (3-2n,3-n) and (3, 4); (c) [-1,
(b) 5 x 6.
(d) (-I,0) and (0, 00). 1.2.25.
...);(b) [ ,
1.2.26.
(2k+1)n (k=O. :I:1,:1:2.
(a) 2kno;;;;;;xo;;;;;;
poin ts
==
\037
- -1].
\037
\037
1.3.3.
(b) Hint.
1.3.4.
(b) It
and
increasesfor
decreaseson
x2
Consider the difference
-5;
X2
+kn < x <
xt
xi
.
+
(k = 0,
+ kn
\037
1.3.7.
The function
decreaseson
the interval
<x
+ 00 to 2 and
from
\037
\037
increaseson
...)
:I:I, :I:2,
the other intervals.
the interval
\037
1.3.9.
(c) The function
x<
from
\037
to
\037
is
+ 00.
even.
neither even,
ode!,(d)
1.3.10.
(a) Even; (b) odd; (c) odd; (d) neither even, nor odd; (e) even.
1.3.12.
'
(a) A 1=5, ro=4, cp=O, T== ; (b) A 1=4,ro=3,
T=2;; (c) IA =5.ro={.ljJ=arctan ' T=4:rt.Hint. 3 sin +4cos =
nor
= 5 sin
cos1jJ=
( The ). value
1.3.16.
greatest
where the
where
+1jJ
\037
value at the point
value.
, sin
IjJ
: :. 1.3.13.
\037
\037
\037
(b) T = 2n; (c)T =
(1)=2. Hint.
\037
<p==
1.
reachesthe greatest
The
trinomial 2x2-4x+3
reachesthe least
quadratic
function
1.3.17.
(b) even;
(a) Even;
(c) odd; (d) even.
1.3.18.
(a) T==n; (b) T==6n.
Then
1.3.19.
Hint. (a) Assume the contrary.
whence
since
cos
the
x+T+sin (x+T)=x+ sin
=- 2 sIn.T T ' which

(x+ )
side is
left
cos V x+T=cosY x,
not
T,
constant
:I: :I: ...),

_ +arcsiny .' (b) x=3sin y;
1.4.6.
(a) x-
Then
contrary.
Yx+T+vX=2nk, or y---':
x+T+ Y_x
for any
which is impossible, since the left-hand mem bers

(k = 0, I, 2,
these equalities are functions of a continuous argument x.
= 2nk
of
is impossible
(b) suppose the
constant;
whence either
x,)
IOg2 Y
log2
y-I
log y
(0 < y
1.6.9.
Hint.
The
(y
> 0),.
(d) x =
...; -2'4' -8\"' ' ...;

-
Y3
JI3 V3
1.6.3.
(a) -y-' -y-'O,--y-,
10
113
'
(c) 2; 2.25;2 ; 2
256
\302\243)
< 2 or 2 < y < 00).
10gL
2
27
g
(c) x=y 10]
...
\302\267
inequalit y
(b)
3
I \037n:
21
< e is
16
satisfied
lor
>N
=)))
Answers and flints)
420)
- ).
e = 0.1the inequality is fulfilled beginning with n = 10, at

8=0.01
beginning with n= 100,at
beginning \\vith n= 1000.
Hint. Verify
that the sequence{X2n-l} tends to I as n\037 00,
1.6.10.
and the sequence{x2n } tends to 0 as n \037 00.
1.6.12.
(a) It has; (b) it doesnot have; (c) it has; (d) it does not have.
=E
At
\037
\302\243=0.001
1.6.14.
Hint.
Hint.
1.6.19.
(b)
(a)lxnl\037\037;
n
IXnl\037\037.
> 1 put Va= l-t-an (an>0) and, with the aid of the
a= (1+an)n > nan, prove
that an is an infinitesimal. For a 0) and make use of the inequality \037=(l
+ all)n > nan'
V
a
For a
2'
5
1.7.1.
(b)
1.7.4.(b)
and then
1.7.2.
(b)
(c) 0; (e)
(f) O. Hint. Multiply
4\"
I;
divide
by n
(e) I;
3; (g) + ;
I. Hint.
(h)
l.
(f)
and divide by imperfect of
16;
sum, square
each
Represent
summand
of Xn in t he form of the difference

I
IX2==1-2 ,
which
1.7.5.
(a) +;
2x3
bring Xn to the
will
2-3;
form Xn
(c) 0,
(b) I;
1-n+
'
-+.
cosn 3 is a bounded quantity;

1.8.6.
(b) Hint. The sequenceis bounded
X3x '\" Xn 2n-l and therefore
\037
+ + + ( ) + ...+ ( +)
-1= 3 _
\037
1.8.7.
(b) O. Hint.
1.8.9.
Hint. For
< a < n are
( +)
-1<
is an
2n
in-
n! = 1 X 2X)
3.
1.
of the fact that Xn+l

<
xn
n+3
a
certain
with
the
value,
beginning
inequalities
therefore
n =)
< a < n, and lirn
Take advantage
all
The quantity
4
(e) 0; (f) 3\"
due to the fact that
\037
Xn
Hint.)
(d)
and
tinitesirnal,
n-n+I'
n(n+l)
n,
fulfilled;
1/\\1
\037
= lim nr- = l.
f/
il
n)
1.8.10.
flint.
\302\245
Yn (Yn
The
> I).
The sequence Yn }
boundedness
of the
t
d ecreases,since Yn-tl=a211+1
sequence from
lim Yn by b and from the relat ion Yn + 1
1.8.11.
Hint. Ascertain
the
fl\037OO
ness from
that
the
inequalities
find
follows from
b
= l.
sequence increases.Establish
=---
-:)
n- < (n-1) n-1
1
below
= YYn
=a2n X2
> 1.Denote
the bounded-
(n\0372);
- )=2Xn<I+(I-+)+(+-+)+...+
C\037I
\037
\037
.)))
A nSWl'rs and flints
1.8.12.
Hint.
xn
Transform
tage of the inequalities)
Y +I
=I
and
ascertain
that
t
lirn
1.9.3.
(e) Hint.
2 xn
arc tan x <
= + 00,)
arc tan
; (e)
; (f)
\037
trinomial
by i\037perfect
X-3
Y-
x-3[loga x+6-3]
hrn
(j) 1 2'
and
1.10.3.
(b) 32.
> 0).
(x
\"6)
11
Hint.
. Hint.
\037
a I.
the
Multiply
numerator
(h)
\037\037
x=ZID;
Put
to the denomini1tor
irrationality
(f)
x=2-z:z--+Oas x--).2\";(g) -3.Hint.

n
00. Hint.
Put
sinx=y.
Put
t)
3
1.10.5.
(b) e ; (c) e- ; (d) elnk;
1.10.7.
(b) 1; (c)
(b) 4' 1.10.8.
i.
1.10.11.
(a)
1.IO.12 (a) 20;)
(b))
\302\267
(b)
3
4
-2;
loga
6.
(c) 2\";
(c)
(d)
\037;
I
cot
e
2
(d) \"5;
11
2;)
(g)
(d)
I
;)
\037
a;
z;
(h) 2.)
a.
(e) 0;)
(f)
(e) -24.)))
divide
;-x=
(f) 4;
de-
11m
\037
and
. (X-3)(Y
. 2
X+6+3)
[x-3 x-3 ] ==loga 6; (1)_3 ;
On removing the
denominator by x.
(c)
a!
(VlO-x+ 2): (g)
square
= loga
sin
1.10.2.
(e) {-.Hint.
the numerator
X =\037
.
2=srn. x-sin
. x-
\037
Hlnt.
\037
(2
product nnd apply the inequality
nominator
=0.)
of the inpquality
tan
sIn
1.10.1.
(d)
lirn
Xn
the difference
(f) Hint. Transform
into
have
1
,
Take advantnge
.::-
values of the function
appropriate
xn
comparing
...)
n)
sequencesof
the
limits:)
different
sequenceby
the
,
Xn=-(n=l, 2,
and
n)
advan-)
and take
n\037
1.8.13.
Hint. See Problem 1.8.7
(a).
1.8.14.
Hint. Establish the boundedness of
with the sum of some geometric progression.
1.9.2.
(b) Hint. Choosethe sequences)
X'l
2n
..r
J' n 2 + 1+ n
<1.
+
2n
<
421)
1)
xn =
into the form
2n
2n +
Ch.
to
1.)
Answers and Hints)
422)
-a-B.
I.IO.13.(a) e4;
(h) 1;
(b)
(j) I; (k)
(i) 9;
11m
x-o
(e) e
e('1-\037)X_I
fj
order
.
11m
a_
are of
is an
tan
()
--
smallness. Hint.
of
a
a-sin
3
a
same order;
the
I;)
X)
Replacearc cos(I-x)by arc sin
third
It
(f) e J; (g)
2)
a-\037.)
el\037X
1.10.14.
(a) Y2.Hint.
is of the
1.11.5.
(b)
1.11.6.
(b) They
1.11.8.
(a) 100x
an
sirna
Hint.
e'1.X-e\037X'
ltm
x-o
1
(d ) e3;
(c) 2 1n a;
Y2x-x2; (b) I; (c)a.
.)
(c) they are
equivalent.
sarne order as x;
(b) x2 is an
order
I of
infinite
x; (c) 6 sin x is an infinitesimal of the
of an order higher than x;
sarne order as x;
(d) sin 3 x is an infinitesimal
l
of
of
an
order
tesimal
tan
IS
an
infini
x
smallne\037s
lower than x.
(e)
(a) It is of the fourt-h order of smallness;
(b) of the first order of
smallness;
(c) of the third order of smallness; (d) of the third order of
smallness;
(e) of the first order of smallness; (f) of the order of smalJness
of the
infinitesimat
higher than
V
1.11.9.
2;of the(g)
(i)
of
the
-t;/
1.11.
cosx
order of smallness; (h) of

of smallness. Hint. Multiply
first
order
\037econd
the first order of smallness;

and divide the difference
cosx by
im perfect trinomial square;

(j) of the first order of smallness.
t O. The diagonal d is of the first order of sma llness; the area
is of
the second order of smallness; the volume V is of the third order of smallness.
1.12.3.
(b) 4;
(f)
1.12.7.
(a) I;
(f)
3;
(g)
(b)
(g) -2;
4;
1.13.1.(b)
\"3'
(h)
f (1
-l.
\037;
(i)
1.12.6.
(a) I;
2.
1.12.8.
(a) '5;
4
(b) 5\";
(b)
2.
(c)-i;(d) 2\"; (e)g;
1.12.9.
Hint. 1042=103 X (I +0.042).
10.14.
-2, (1+0) = 2; (f) 1(2 0) = 00;)
( +0) ==0; (b) 1 (-0) 0,) f(+O)==+oo;)
0) ==
- -
(2+0)=+ co.
.
1.13.3.
(a) (-0)= 2t
1 ( +0) = l.
(c) 1 (-0)= -1,
of the first kind at the point
1.14.2.
(b) The function has a discontinuity
x = 3. The jump is equal to 27.
1.14.3.
has
(e) the function
(c) The function is continuous everywhere;
a discontinuity of the first kind at the point x=O; the jump equals 1t. Hint.
1t
1t
arc tan (-00) = 2\"'arc tan ( + 00) = +2 .
1.14.6.
(b) At the point xo=5 there is a discontinuity of the first kind:
= 0, discontinuity of the
=
, (5+0) = ; (c) at the point
(5 0)
f
first
- -;
kind:
continuity
f(+O)==O; (d) at
1(-0)=1,
of the
1.14.7.
(a) At
the discontinuity
==
second kind:)
Xo
the point
xo =
;'
1( -0)=+00'1( +0)=-00.
an
infinite
the point x=O there is a removable discontinuity.

it is sufficient to redefine the function, putting f (0) ==
dis-
To remove
1;
(b)
at)))
Ch.
to
Answers and flints
423)
I)
To remove the discontinuity

the point x=--=O there is a removable discontinuity.
it is sufficient to extend the function putting f (0) I;
(c) at the point x=O
there is a discontinuity of the second kind: f
1
+ 00; (d) at
(-0)=0, (+0)=
x=(2kr-1) ;: (k=O,
the points
::f:
I, ::f:2,
.
. .)
1 (x)= 11m (slnx)-n =
(e) at
if
{I
removable discontinuities,
sin x
.
sin x
..
'-I
...
n\037oc
1f
(x) =
Sn x
i.
SIn x
i f sin
x=n==O,::f: I, ::f:2,
(f) at the points
(x) =
1.14.8.
-Io
x=
sin
if
since
< I,
= I .,
x=kn(k=--O.:f:I, :f:2, .), discontinuities
the points
si nce)
.),
\"
of the 1st kind,
x > 0,
x < 0;
removable discontinuities,
since
x n,
x 1=, n.
\037f
1f
I there is an infinite
of the second
(a) At the point
discontinuity
a discontinuity of the first kind (the jump
kind;
(b) at the point
of the second
being equal to 2); (c) at the point x=O, an infinite discontinuity
I, a discontinuity of the first kind (the jurnp being equal
kind, at the point
to
I, an infinite discontinuity of the second kind.
(d) at the point
x=-2,
x=
-4);
x=
3
1.14.9.
(a) f(O)=I; (b) 1(0)=-2\";(c) 1(0)=\"2;
(d) 1(0)=2.
1.15.2.
is
function
on
the
The
continuous
interval
(b)
(0, + 00).
1.15.3.
(b) The function is continuous everywhere. At the only possible point
of discontinuity x = 0 we have
lim
y==-limu'!.=I;
y= limu 2 =1; ylx=o=ylu==-t=L
u-+l
.t'-++O
there are removab Ie d is1, 2,
(c) at the points x = ;:+ nn (n = 0, :I:
I
Urn
\037\037-o
U\037-l)
...)
::f:
continuities,
since
liIn
'1=-1.
y= U lim:!::
31
X--+2
00
No. For instance,

1.16.2.
Yes. 1.16.12.
1.53. 1.16.13.
l-I,
I].
1.17.1.
(a) Hint. 1\\\\ultiply the obvious inequalities:
n
r I.n< +
2 ;
on the interval
.r-
the function
y=x'J
............
rr
\"1
1rr
(b) Hint.
Let)))
-2
I
B
Then A
< B since
X
---=
..)
\037\037)
-I-I
(n-I).2< \037;
1rn.1< n+
\037.
I
r
5
6\"
2
3
2n-1<
2n
2(n-l)< n 4-
-4 X
X
2n
2n+ 1
...
2n
...
\302\267
\037n
\"\"7
and
A'2
2n
< AB =--
2n
-j-
I
I
2n+
')
424)
and
Answers and Hints)
1.17.2.
(a) Hint.
Extract
IOlst
the
reduce both sides by 1012
(b)
the obvious
Multiply
from both
root
sidesof
the inequality
inequalities:
99 X 101',)
2 X 198< 1002,
100X 199X 200 < 1004
5
1.17.3.
(a) -3< < -lor < x < 3; (b) x < -3\"or x > \"3 ; (c) the
sol u tions, since it is equi va]en t to the con tr ad ictory system
ineq ua it has no
Yes. 1.17.5.
x-2
> 0, x(4x2 -x+4)< O. 1.17.4.
(a) No; (b) Yes.
Hint.
the method of mathematical
1.17.7.
induction.
At n = the
I
relation
\"
... -
Apply
Supposing
is obvious.
(1
+Xl) (1+x2)
that
the inequality
(1+ xn d
\037
+ Xl + x2 + ... +xn -}
...,
both its sides by +xn and take into consideration the

0, xi,xn > 0 (i= I, 2,
n-l). (n=O, 1,2,
+x
1.17.8.
(a) [I, +00);
(b) (2nj[):'>'\037x\037(2n+l)\037j(\037
:1:2, (d) (-00,0)for f(x); g(x) is nowhere defined;
(c) x=O,:1:1,
holds true, multiply

conditions 1
n >
(e)
...;
:1:2,
...).
[-4,-2]or [2, 4J; (f) x=(2n+I)T(n=O, :1:1,
1.17.9.
(a) No:
...);
j[
I, and t (0) is not defined;

(b) No: t (x) is defined
cp (0)
for all x
0, and cp (x) only for x > 0; (c) No: t (x) is defined for all x, and
(e) No: t (x) is defined only for x > 2, and cp (x)
(J) (x) on I y for x \037 0; (d) Yes;
for x > 2 and for x <
V=8Jt
3 < x < 6.
00).
(a) (0, (0); (b)
(a) x 5. Hint. The domai n of defin it ion is specified by the inequ a\\vhich are fulfilled
lities x-+- 2 \037 0,
\037 0,
0,
only at the point
that the number
satisfies the given inequality. (b) Hint.
Verify
The domain of definition is specified by the contradictory inequalities
> 0;
i=-
I.
1.17.10. =
1.17.12.
[1,
x-5;.?:5-xx=5
x=5.
1.17.11. (x-3)(6-x),
2-x> O.
2
1.17.17.
(a) (x)=
+x2 + + x 2 ;
blem
(b) aX =
1.17.16).
An even extension
1.17.18.
<p(x)=
x-3
aX
(seePro+ aX -a->':
2
-1-aX
defines the function)

2
t (x) ==x
+x for
\037
x \037
3,
{ f(-x)=x2-xfor-3\037x<0.
defines the function
An odd extension
f(X)=X2+Xfor
0\037x\0373,
2
+x for -3\037x<0.
{ -f(-x)=-x
If
.21.
functi
on
has
a period T1, and the function
1.17 flint. the
t (x)
(x)
has a period T2' and T] = nld, T2 n 2d (nl, n'!, positive integers), then the period of the sum and the product of these functions will be T = nd, where n is
(X)=
'\\(J
cp
==
the
least common
1.17.22.
Hint.
nntltiple
For
But there
is
no
least
any
ot the numbers
rational number
(x) ==
(x + r) ==
number
in the
n} and n2'
for rational x,
irrational x.
{ 0 for
set
of positive
rational
numbers.)))
.23. Hint.
1.17
f (0)= f
\037
whence sin
425)
I)
denote the perioc1 of the function

we get
sin
sin + cosaT I
T) cos
(-T)T
(T)
Ch.
to
Answers and Hints

If
\\\\lC
(-
= =
T = 0, cosaT= I,
(x)
+ (-aT),
2;
of two increasing
tonic function. For example, the functions
x \037 0, but their difference f (x)
(x)
-g
and
[0,+]
1.17.26.
Example:)
==
+y
1.17.27.
(a) x=2ln
I-y
(b)
for
(y _
Yy
x= {
co < Y
\037
00).
\037
<
I);)
!J)
< I,
qCY
\037
\037
for
Hin!.
1.17.28.
+
(x \037-I)andY=- I+YX\"
+2x+1
inverse, but the
0) are mutually
\037
e.x2+2x+=x
1
has
equation y==x, i.
no real roots (seeProblem
If E is the dornain
t7
(c) H
of the function t (x),
of definition
then the function y== f [f (x)] is defined only for those xEE for \\vhich
f (x) E E. How the points of the desired
graph are plotted is sho\\\\rn in Fig. 120.
Hint. The quantity
and f
symmetry f (a-t-x)==t
1.4.4).
I. .30. in!.
1.17.32.
\037/
16,
Y
16 < Y < co.
Thefunctions y=x2
for
( log2 Y
(x
x'\037
x is rational,
if x is irrational.
X if
(-1<
x-x
decreaseson
y
then from
hence T = kn, aT= 2nn, a = is rational.

functions is not necessari
ly a monoincreasefor
f (x) = x and g (x) =
= 2 is not monotonic for x 0: it
and
The difference
1.17.25.
increaseson
T,
by
/)
/
/
/
o)
/)
x)
x)
f(x))
Fig.
T=2
120)
(b-a) period:
(a-x) (b+x)=f
(b-x) it follows that
==
[x+2(b.-a)] [b+ (b+x-2a)] (2a-x)= [a+(a-x)]= (x).
1.17.33.
(a) It diverges; (b) it may either converge or diverge. Examples:
'. = [ + (-I)n]: lirn
0,
n
==
=1
Xfl
Yn
Yn ==
n 2;
lirn
n
Example: xn==n;
(xnYn)
==
.....
(xnYn)
==
00.
00)
..Yn==-n+l;
(b) No.
an = n (n-2)
1.17.35.
Hint. Take
(n=3, 4, .). 1.17.36.
n
The
converseis
x
a
that
incorrect. Example:
xn-aI.
II n I-I II
Hint.
1.17.38.
0, I,
...,
number
\037
The sequencean
of
n.....oo)
n)
1.17.34.
(a) No.
from the conditions
==
is
rnto
Xn
==
account
(-I)n+1.
attain
only the following values:
9. If this sequenceturned out to be monotonic, then the irrational
would be represented by a periodic decimal fraction.
Ifin!.
1.17.39.
at'
bi
-'
If
the
< ban +1
n+l)))
sequence
\037n
may
increases,then
i.e b 1a,.<a I)i(i=1,2, ...,n),

ll +
n+1
Answers and Hints)
426)
+...
whence it follows that

bn +1(a1
and hence
Ul
U
+a2+ ...+an + I
+b2-t- ...+ bn +
+a2 +an ) < an+l (bl +b2

al +a2 + .+an
b 1+b2 +...+b
n
1.17.40.
(a)
nx-
\037
Hint.
1.17.42.
nx
follows
n)
n +l )
(bI
x--iE
From the
Hint.
x-
<
(nx)
<
n)
\037
> O.
inequalities
x.
From the inequalities)

n
(kx-1)
\037
\037
k=l
it follows
n ),)
+...+b+bn)-bn+1(al
+a +...
+a
+b +...
+...
+b
1.17.41.
an + 1 (b1 +b 2
(bl +b 2
0;
(c) O.
(b)
.It
that
2\037
< E (nx)
.. -
1)
+...+b
\037
k=1
E (kx)
n+
2n
kx,
\037
k=l)
x---\0372L
that)
\037
n+
E (kx)\037x2n
I
\302\267
k=1)
1)
Hint.
1.17.43.
Take advantage
of the fact that
an
lim
n
-jo
V;=
lim
00
fl
-\037
;x;)
(see
1)
lim a
1.6.19),
n
Problem
oc
-jo
1)
qualities
the
fI-a
lim
-jo
00)
= I,
-1< ah-l< an -1
take
expression by
1.17.47.
(a))
place.
for
:j:=
\037
Hint.
1.17.48.
-jo
for
In
2)))
(n=O, :I:1,
\037
the me-
-jo
of the identity
x2
x2n
)=
To find
the coefficient
..
:i:2, .).
1-x .
2n
one can't. For example,
(1
m
by x
x=2\"+nn
In
x-x=0.
x
+nn,
speaking,
+x)+
(I-x)=
2
replaceIn (I +x)
0
<
\037
(1-x) (I +x) (1+ ). ..(I +
lim
Take advantage
1.17.49.
Generally
lim
f(x)=
result:
pass over to the limit.

x 1,
I for 0
(x) = x for x > 1.)
(b))
we
and
\037
if
> I,
I)
Hint. Divide the numerator and denominator

1.17.45.
1.17.46.
(a) a= I; b=-I; (b) a= I; b=i-.Hint.
divide
and
and for
by
and In
In
lim
-jo
(1-x)
by
2)
(l-x
=_
x2
I ')
we will
get the wrong
1.17.50.
-}.Hint.
then
sideration,
R
(1-cosa) -
su btended
angle
by the
-- Ra,
to 2R sin
equal
427)
I)
and
arc
under
con-
the
sagitta
to
\037
R\"2')
The difference
is equal to)
perimeters of a circumscribed and
of the
regular n-gons
2R n
where
is
the cr.ord
a2
1.17.51.
2. flint.
inscribed
a is a central
If
Ch.
to
Answers and Hints
j[
and
a==-,
. j( = j[
2
an--Sln(
)
J1
the
side of
tan
an inscribed
1.17.52.
On the
sin
equivalence of
-j[ a,
R 2
is
2Ra.
f\"OoJ
and
(l+a)3-1
x
In(l+x)
1.17.53.
No, 10g(l+x)= InlO
1.17.54.
=
sin
n-gon
!!:...
==2R si
n)
a)
n)
2R
3a as a-+O.
- lnlO asx\037O.
is continuous at
(a) Yes. Hint. If the function cp(x)==f(x)+g(x)
the point x xo, then the function g (x) ==cp (x) f (x) is also continuous at this
both
(see Problem
point; (b) No. Example:
functions are discontinuous
at the point
0, and their sum is identically
equa 1 to zero, and is, hence, continuous.
1.5.11
f(x)==-g(x)=signx
x=
(p\302\273;
1.17.55.
(a) No. Example: f (x)=xis continuous everywhere, and g(x)=sin\037
x
for x:j::
0, g (0)=0being discontinuous at the point x=O.The product of these
functions
is
pie: f(x)=-g(x) == J
point
x=0,
\\
their
for
x\037O
'
since lim x sin

X-'O
both
-1
=
or x < o;
(x) g (x) ==
functions
(x)
2A
where
of the first kind;
(1 0) ==1; (c)
cp
(x) is
(a)
lim
x...n-O
I,
lim
x-..n+O y
...)
I, :1:2,
(n=:I:
are
li m
The function
-I
(x)
is even;
== 0; (b) No. Exam-
discontinuous
(x) is the Dirichlet function

1
of the
a
kind,
discontinuity
of the first kind:
I is a discontinuity
(b)
discontinuous at all points exceptx ==O.
of the first
are discontinuities
1,
O.The function has a period of (b) x
y Ix=n
y==2n-l;
li\037
at the
wnte
. 1.14.4
Problem
(see
x= is discontisecond
(b\302\273.
=0,
{(I-O)
I;
kind:
= :I:yli
of the first kind:)
points of discontinuity
x_Vn-o
discontinuity
value I to
x=O is a
(a)
Example:
are
Jt
being continuous everywhere.

I if x is rational,
We may
. . .
.
I 1f X 1S 1rra t lona 1
{= (x)-I,
1.17.57.
x=
+
1.17.58.x=n=O, :I: :l:2,..,
=
=
=
nuity
f
product
1.17.56.
No.
at x==0
continuous
function
Y=Y'x=Vn=2n.
x-.Vn+o)
(c)
...)
x=:l:Yn (n=:I:
I, :1:2, are the points of
passesover from the
of the first kind; at these points the function

and returns to
TMe function is even;)))
1.
428)
Answers and Hints)
-},i.e.- +:nn< <

= -},i.e.x=:!: +nn.
(d))
(x
if
sin x
<
\037
if
\037
\037
sin
. sIn. x
If
\037
+nn,
\037
5n
> \"2' I.e.\"'6 + nn < x < (3+nn.
.
J[
x=:I: +nn are discontinuities of the first kind.

The function
1.17.59.
[g (x) has d iscon tinui ties of the first kind at the
0; + I. The function g [I (x)] is continuous everywhere. Hint.
points x = -1;
The function 1 (u) is discontinuous at u = 0, and the function g (x) changes sign
1.The function g [I (x) ==0, since (x) attains only the
at the points x = 0, :I:
I.
val u es 0, :i:
Hint. W rite the function in the form
1.17.61.
\037.
x+ I
(x) =
and from
the
\037
for
20
{ (x + 1)2
Make sure that
-2
for
x=O:f (-0)=I, f (+0)=0.

e
1.17.62.
Hint.
consider that)
Suppose
e\037 min
Choosethe
points Xl and
> is given
I (X 2)
(x)-x.
Hint. Apply
1.17.64.
xn ],
...,
1.17.65.
the in terva
[I (Xl)'
min
=2
[Xl'
is
r-2,0)
value theorem
discontinuous
at the point
is chosen.We
that
= f (xo) +e,
g (x)
on the intrrval
(b)-I(xo)].
[f (xo)-f(a), f
x2, Xl < Xo < x2 so
f (Xl) = f (Xo) -e,
6 = min
and the point '\\oEla, b]
\302\260
(XO-Xl' 2-xo).
Hint.
1.17.63.
Apply the intermediate
=
and put
to
the intermediate
The function
[-2,-I]and [0,21.
\037
2.
\037
-I
on the interval
to
to the intervals
may
0<x
tor
increasesfrom
[0, 2].Apply
function
< 0,
x=O,
the intermediate
noting that
(xn )] \037 \037

n [f (Xl)
Hint.
Hint.
1.17.66.
\037
theorem
value theorem
f (X 2)
+ '\" +f (xn )]
\037
value theorem
Apply the intermediate
on the interval
value
to
the
to the function
max
function
f
(x) on
..., )].=
If (Xl),
to the function
(X n
(x)
[-{-,I].
At sufficiently
large values of the independent variable the
va ues of the polynom ial of an even degreehave the same sign as the coefficient
at the superior po\\ver of x; therefore the polynomial changes sign at least twice.
Hint. The inverse function
I
1.17.67.
-\302\245-y-l
x:...=
{
is
continuous
y=O.)))
in the intervals
\302\245
y-
y<-I,
=
for
for y
for y
0,
>
I)
(-00,-1)and (1, 00) and
has
one isolated
point
Answers and Hints
C}Iapte r I
to
Ch. II)
429)
I)
20
2.1.2.(b) y'=IOx-2. 2.1.5. =25 m/sec.
2.1.1.(b) -21'
The function is non-differentiable at
2.1.6.
(a) y' 3x2; (b) y' == x23 ' 2.1.7.
v av
==
t he in d i cated poi n t
2.2.1.
(b) y' ==
s.
-5
4
ax 3 + bx
3\"
--3.
7
2.2.2.
(c) y' =
= 2x arc tan x + 1. 2.2.3.

(a) y' = 6x2 +3; (b) y' =
(b) -9000.2.2.4.
2 x
2 +2x+2
3
-3x
vT7X .,
Vi-+8Vx+2
.
9. ()
c Y'= 2
(d) Y'=_
+x,
(x -x+l)2'
2x Vx
6(x-2Vx)
cosq' sin
x cosx;
x
,
;
y'=2e
y'=2e
(h) y'=
(g)
(f)
(e) y'== (1x
cos
\037_
- - - -
x (cosx
+-;
1
cp
<pr\"
sin x
sin x)
eX
x 2eX
1
3
.
(f) 30In 4 (tan x) SIn
6x ;
2.2.5.
-3(3-
2.2.6.) (b) y' ==

(d)
y
1
1r+
_ sec2 r
- 2Yx+
x;
YI
(f)
X)2
cos
(c)
x;)
'
b
2.2.8.()
tj
--
.
SInh 2
.
-_ v 2 -
2.
sec2 x+ cosh 2 1cot x cosecx,

(t a n x)
(
)
.13.(a) f' (x) =}(COSh
= V cosh x+ 1;
(cash bx +sin h
2.2.14.
(a) y'
y
(c) Y
, ==
==
\037
+sinh
\037
--
,.
3X)4
\302\267
3(x-l)2lx-t- 2)3 (x +3)'2)
e (acosh ax+b).
- l-x-
);= 4(b) l'
x-
(cosx)sin x (COSx In cos

cos3x
--
+)))
\037
tan
'9+x2'
\037
(d)
3x X
bx
( 3x
\037
; (e) f' (x)
(0) f' (x)==cos
hx
a+
b)x
==
bx) (a b) e(
v sin 2 5x3x2(1+x sin24

;j
esi nh ax
+ x+ ) .
2.2
(b)
sin
\037
\037
(
!I'= 3cos3x
sin x
+ 2cos
3X;
a
a
(h) y'=
tj'==(2x-5)cos(x2-5x+l)-2sec2-;
x
x
2
2
3
X (x si nh 2x + coshx sinh 2x ); (e) y'
1
x
.
, 3 X
sIn 3xcos2 x
(c) Y
1 +X2
(x + t )
1
1
,
1n tan x
(d) y == (t an x)
sin 2x
2\"
. x
3 SIn
V sin 2 x)
(e)
.,
\302\267
2(I-x)
2 cosx
y')
5 ln 4 x
ln 2 x
2.2.9.
3
2
x
+arc-Ian x + 1+x2; (1)11= 21narctan\"3'
arc tan
I-x)
y-=--
+.x'
sin
2ex 2X In 2
3 V/ (2eX 2x 1 )2
(g) sin
sinh
2x
3cot
1+X2
x-2
(x) = tanh x; (c)
4x; (f)
x sin x);
t anx
),
I'(x) =
I' (x) = (a+b)e
aX X
=.
Answers and Hints)
430)
'
2.2.17.
(a) y
y' = _
(b)
In
-1
V81x
Varc sin 3 2x
;
Varc sin 2x
SIn I n 3 x.I n 2 x
tan
. 3-
+ V cos2 1n3 x)V(arc tan V cosIn 3 X)2

2n -1sin
sin
(2x+n ) ; (f) + (x+n ) +
5x V eos4 1n3 x (1
2.3.1.(b)
knekx ;
(e)
;
...]
\037
+ 3; (3x+n ) + 5; (5x+n ).
n
I)
ax sin
2
aP
2.3.4.
(b) eX (x + 48x+551); (c) e
+
an-2\0372+
[
{
n
.
+
IJ \037;-2)an-3\0373+...]
}
[
2
2x2 +3x
x2
2.3.6.
3x..
; (b) (1+2x)arcsinx
(a)
2)2 ; (c) 2e- x
2. + (l-x
sin
sin
\037
CDS
nan-l\037
\037x
\037x
(2x
(sin
1
(l-x2)
2)
x-60x eosx-1140
x
x+8640eosx;
(b) 2e(n-l)4]; (d) (-I)n [(4n2+2n+
(a) x3 sin
x); (c)
x2) eos
(7\037
(\037\037
(1+X2) VI +X2
x - ).
2.3.8.
x+eos
x+ 2
\037
eX
[3x2 +6nx+3n
x].
4nx sin
sin
2.3.9.
(a) 100!
[(x-2)101 (X-l)l0lJ ;
1
(b)
IX3X5X...XI97X(399-x)
'
201
(I-x)
2100
2)
y=2 (I-x)-T-(I _x)2.

4 cosx
'
2.4.1.
(b) Xyy=(6+sin x)3
Hint.
\"
..
2.4.3.(b)
y\037==
2 4 4 (b ) y xx ==
3
\302\267
2.4.5.(b)
\"
y'\"
xxx
cot
k-l
\037t;
(d) y\037=-
4t
- --
\"
; (C) Yxx
I)3
+
= 3 sin t sec2 t.
(t 2
y
2.4.6.
(b) y'x =-+e x;
X
==
a t cos3 t
_2-x
y-
(c) y'x ==
x +Y)
Y)
(1+eY)3
-e (l-e
2e-2ct .
5;
.
(d) y'x ==-
V -.
'
,,4e-+
-; ...
== 4 (x+y)
1)3 (x+y+ 1)3
'
2a-2x-y; (b) x+y (c) _eXsiny+e-Ysinx.' ()
2.4.9.
d -\037 .
(a) x 2
xcosy+e- cosx
e
+ y- 2-a
2.
c
sin t
+
.
t.
!!J.
2 4 0. (a)
b
'
yo' (b) 256 2 4 II (a) a (b +cost) , ()\"2
2.4.7.(b)
..
+3
(c) 4/
(f)
Yxx=
Yxx= (eX-Y
Y
\302\267
2-t
(a CDS /
et2
2/(2/2+2/+1);(e)
(d)
.../1-4/
2 ;
V
(c)
eX
2y2
/2
(eX
\"
(g)
-YI-t .
2
2.5.1.
(b) 6x+2y-9=O;
2x-6y+37=0.)))
-b
sin /) cos3
\037
4'
SIn
2\
Answers and Hints
Ch. II)
to
431)
2
10
2
2.5.2.
'
5+ 3 10 ' M 2 ( yf ' 5-3 Y3
(c) M 1
y3\" )
,
)
( Y3
2.5.8.(b) x +y 2 = 0; y = x. \\
2.5.3.(b) = arc tan 2 y2 .
2
39
n
5
2.5.15.
(a) 4; (b) y=:.:I, x+2y-2=0; (c) Y+T6==-3\" x+ 4
);
(
cp
(d)
4' 2.5.16.11.
\302\267
t2
;
g2
s=at
2.5.17.
26,450. 2.5.19.
= '
v=a-gt;) Smax = S t=.!:..
;g
j
M
28
:::;: =
2.5.20.
v = r; =
2n;8 sin (I + cosM). 2.6.3. dy 0.05.
fJ.y
0.9942.
2.6.5.
log 10.21 1.009; (d) cot
= (I +tan 2 x)
2.6.7.(b)
(d)
(c) = cosx
3x
4Inx-4-ln
2.6.9.
dx'1;
(b) d2y== 2
(a) d2y=4-x22In4(2x2In4-I)dx2;
x
45\302\26010'
\037
\037y
...
\037x;
-4
x=
at
x4)
tan t, d2y=
Y(ln:.'.X-4)3
(b ) d2Y == _
x,2.
two
:
\037
nM3 is the volume contained
dV = 41tr 2
between
\037r;
\037r
\037r.
++
1/;
time
a velocity
\037t
v=gt
2.7.1.
(a) It
2.7.2.
the entire
during
interval
doesnot exist; (b)
Hint.
90\302\260.
(0) =
-I,
Since)
(0)=
2.7.3.f'- (a) = -f\037
1.
(a);
For x 0
::j::.
f\037
derivative
\037
(a) = cp (a).
the derivative
f' (x) =
x=O the
y= e x, X <
0,)
{
cp
2.7.4.Hint.
of time.
exists and equals zero.
it
eX,
At
x,
is the vol urne of a thin layer

spheres of radi i rand r
a base area equal to the sphere'ssurface area 4nr 2 and a height
fJ.s = gt M
g M2 is the distance covered by a body within the
=
=
ds gt
v dt is the distance covered by a body which would move at
2.6.
12.
f\037
4 (I 3x 4) 2 _ 4x
dX
d 2.
I _ x4
(I _ x4):.'.
dt 2
cos 2t
2.6.11.
fJ.v=4nr2M+4nrM2+
with
\037x'
\037y
sin 2x dx:i.
(c) d 3y =
4
3x4
2 6 I0 (a) d 2y = _ (I_ 2)
1
in particular
\037
cos
( ) +2x
sin
\037
( )
\037
equals zero:)
fJ.x
f'
(0) ==
2 sin
fJ.\037
HIn
Lx
f' (x) exists
x = O.
-+
==O.
\037x
0
for all x,
but has a discontinuity

of the
Thus, the derivative
point
b
Hint. The formula for the sum of a geometric progression represents an identity with respect to
Equating the derivatives of both sides of the identity, we get
nx n +1 (n
I) xn I
1 2x 3x:.'.
-1-nx n 1==
second kind at the

2.7.5.a = 2xo,
x\037.
2.7.7.
+ + + ...
- _+
(1 x)
x.
2)))
432)
and Hints)
An.,>wers
both
multiplying
sidesof
+ + ...+
1.2 22x
this
-1=
.
n 2x n
+-
by x and differentiating
2 ll (2n'.! 217 1)x ll
-f- I ) x
equality
x (n
+.
(l--X)'s
-+
again,
nx +
get
\\\\'e
ll
\037
2.7.8.sin x+3sin 3x+...+ (217 -1)sin (217-1)

x
\037
(217+1) sin
Hint. To prove
the identity
2.7.9.(a) sin
[I'(sin 2 x)
(x)
(c)
'I'(x)
x- (217-1)sin (217+I) x
(217-1)
2
4 sin
side by 2 sin
its left
x and
the
apply
To deduce the desired formula
2sinasinp=cos(a-p)-cos(a+B).
and
both sides of the
the derivatives.
formula
differentiate
2x
multiply
(b) ef
f' (cos2 x)];

I
'1\"
2.7.10.
(a)
equate
identity
<p'
\302\267
In
cp
(x)
cp
(x)
(x)
In
\302\267
ln\037
[ext' (eX)
(X)
'I'(x) .
+f'(x)
(eX)];
(x)
<p
No;
(c) Y es; (d ) No.
Hint. Differentiate the identity
or f
(x).
This fact is easily illustrated geometrically if \\ve take into consideration that
the graph of the even function is symmetrical about the y-axis, and the graph
of the odd function about the origin.
Hint. Differentiate the identity
f (x).
f (X-1-T)
x I.
The composite function
(x)==6x2
f [cp (x)] may be non-differentiable
only at points where <p' (x) does not exist
of
and where
(x) u at which f' (u) doesnot exist.
(x) attains such values
X 2 has a derivative
But the function y u 2
y' 0 at the point x==0,
x has no derivative.
though at this point the function u
2.7.11.
(b)
No;
2.7.12.
F'
2.7.13.
I(-x)=f(x) (-x)==-f
=
2.7.15.
. 2.7.14.
y'=21
= =
<p
<p
2.7.16.
(a) y\"=6Ixl;
xx'\"
at
(b) Y\"=2sin\037-\037cos\037--!,sin\037
x x
x
discontinuous at x == O.
that t lk ) =C\037 (k=O,
,.\" n) and lake
y\" (0) doesnot exist, since y' (x) is
2.7.17,
Hint.
(a)
Verify
I,
\037!
tage of the
show that
induction.
property
u\037
= (n-1)
2.7.18.
Hint.
-1- -
of the
Un
binonlial coefficients.
U n 2 and
use the
Apply the Leibniz
formula
x)
duct of the functions
==e
and v
= x2.
advan-
(b) Designate: t (x) ==
method
for the nth
at
x;tO,
of
un;
mathematical
derivative
of the pro-
= 2k
2.7.19. (0)= [IX3X...X(2k-I)]2

at n 2k+1
_
y(n)
Hint.
2.7.21.
Hint.
and
the
Differentiate
Leibniz
y(n)
the
identity
...).
n-2 times(k-I,2,
and, putting x==O, obtain
(0)=(n-2)2y(n-2) (0)
\037
2).
advantage of the definition

x2 H n +1(x)
X2
+ 1)
)(Tl
e-
= (e-
formula
for the
nth
= (-2xe-)(n)
\037=
of the product
\037
\302\245
4=:f:VI-Y
4xj
X2
derivative
2.7.22.y 3
.
(y2
I)
2.7.23.Xl .2=:f:VI+ l-y (-00< y\037
=
xj
(n
Take
v= -2x,
x3
17
I-
(/-xn
(O\037y\037
I),
I),
(i = I, 2, 3, 4) for
Xj
;i: 0,
:!:
I.)))
==
e-x2 and
AnstQ'ers and Hints
to
Ch. III)
-2x2 +y=0
x=:i:I.
flint. Solve the biquCldratic equation x 4

of dcfini t ion of the obtained funct ions xi (y).
x2 1; (b)
(a) Xl
Hint. Note that the function
=-3;
2.7.25.
2.7.26.
433)
and
find
the domains
X=2t- ={3::
t
has no derix 0,
f
X
therefore we can express y = t 2 t It 1=
vative at t = O. But t
x < 0,
_ 2t 2, t\037O, th roug h x. y _ 2X 2, x\037O, Th IS f unc t Ion IS d I ff erent la bi e eve.
{ 0, t < 0
{I0, x < O.
I
2.7.28.
2.7.27.
Hint. The curves intersect at the
rywhere.
a=c=4\";
=
Sinceat these points cosax = 0,
points \\vhere sin ax
l
\037\037\037.
x,
\037
=) :3'
\\
'
. . '
b=2'
I.
Y;=f' (x) sin ax+f (x)acosax=f'

(x)=y;,
the curves are tangent.

i.e.
2.7.30.
Hint. For t
reduced to the form:
the equations
. :j::. :rrn
of the tangent
and the
are
normal
t
y=-tan2l (x-at),
y=cot\"2(x-at)+2a;
t = n (2k I) (k = I, 2,
the tangent line (y = 2a)
...)
= ...)
touches
respect ively. For
the circleat the highest point, and the normal (x==at) passesthrough the highthe tangent line
est and lowest points; for t=2kn (k=O, 1,
passes through both points, and the normal (y 0) touches the circle at the lowest
2
/
2d q>
The relDtIve error
2.7.34.dd t Y2 +y.
The most
.
pOInt.
/
sIn 2cp
the result with the least relative error, corresponds to the
re1iable result,
value
2.7.35.
i.e.
(x=at)
6==\037
\037
(p=45\302\260.)
Chapter III)
3.1.2.
(b) Yes; (c) No, since the
3.1.7.
3.1.5.
\037=e-l.
the
functions)
(x) = arc si 11
g(x) =arcsin
7
3.1.15.
(a) \037=2;
(b)
derivative
since g
No,
is
2x
non-existent
(-3)=g (3). 3.1.9.

(d)
+x2 +2 arc tan x
for
2x
+X2
for
2
\037==
ln3
2 arc tan x
;
(c)
10
x
x
> 1,
<
I.
:i:Y52'. (d)
24
\037=
at the point O.
Hint. Consider
it
is
not
appli-
cable,since the function has no derivative at the point x=O.

3.1.16.
1.26< In (l +e) < 1.37.Hint. Write the Lagrange formula for the
function
f (x) == In x on the interval
[e, e+ 1] and estimate the right-hand side
in the obtained
relation:
In
(I + e) = 1
+i- (e <
\037
< e+ I).
3.1.17.
flint. Apply the
interval
[1, +x],x > 0,
Lagrange formula to the function f (x) == In x 011 the

Clnd estimate the right-hand
side in the obtained re-
lation
< < 1 +x).
In
(I +x)=
(I
\037
3.2.3.
(b) O. flint.
Represent
cot
3.2.1.(c) 2;
x-tCln
X--=--=---'
(c) _
2
1
x
x t8n x
')))
(d)
0;
(f)
-; .
3.2.5.
(b) e1=e.
434)
Answers and Hints)
3.2.6.
(a)
(f) 0;
4
I. 3.2.9.
(a) \"7 ;
1; (b)
(g) 1 ,
(n) 2\"; (0)
3.3.6.
V 83
(i)
-1
a2
2'
\037
a;
In
(h)
(p)
30
\037;
(c) 2;)
(k)
(q) I ;
(r)
11
(d)
-I;
\0373
(I)
e;
3.3.5.(b)
-2')
1
; (e)
;
\037
(m)
3
2
;)
0.34201.)
1)
2
V 83 = V 81+2 = 3 ( +Sf
)
.
terms.
1
the
Apply
and retain four

Hints. (b) Write the Maclaurin formula for the function
the remainder R4 (x);
(c) write the MClclaurin formula for the
3.3.7.
with
, (j)
a-I;
j()
nomial formula
In
_ m 2!!:....
2
,)
3.018350.Hint.
(b)
bi-
f(x)=tanx
function
+x) 2 with remainders R 2 (x) and R3 (x).

x2 x:
3.4.2.
(a) f(x)=2x2_3\"X3_5\"X5+0(X5);
(b) f(x)=x-2+6\"-12+
x5
+ 24
+0(x5).
3.4.3.
(b) -\"2; (c)
12; (d) 3\"; (e) 1.
2
5
x
x6
3.4.4.(a) 1+2x+x2-3\"x3-6\"x4-T5x5;
45 ; (c) 1-\"2+
(b)-\"2--T2+
4
x2
f
(x) ==(I
Xci
x\037
x-l
+ 12-720'
3.5.1.
(d) The function
(0. (0); (e) the
function
decreaseson
(
scaIe.)
and
\037
decreaseson
increaseson
. 3);
3.5.2.
(b) The function
(f) the
the interval
the intervals
the
intervals
(0.
\037
and
decreaseson
(
3.5.8.
(a) The function
\037
5:
).
increases
and
increaseson
(-00.+) and
increasesover
function
increaseson
(-00,0)
the entire
and
(3.+ (0)
number)
( 5:. 2:rt)
throughout the number scale; (b) the funcinterval

0) and decreaseson (0, 1); (c) the function
the number scale; (d) the function increaseson both
where it is defined;
intervals
0) and
(e) the function decreases
on the intervals (0, 1) and
e) and increaseson (e, (0); (f) the function
decreases on the intervals
1) and
(0), increases on
is f (I)=--=f
the
b\037
a\037O.
(b) The minimum
increaseson the
decreasesthroughout
tion
(-00,
(-I,
(0,00)
(I,
+
'(I,
(-00,
(-I, 1).
3.5.11.
3.6.1.
l.
3.5.10.
(3)=3,
=-;4 ' 3.6.2.
maximum
(b) The
(2)= 4; (d) the
( )
minimum
minima
\037
are f (:f:1)=Y3; the maximum f (0)= 2.

= 160;the minimum f (0)= 2.
(b) The maximum is f
3.6.7.
(b) The minimum is f(O)=O.
is f
the maxi(b) On the interval [0. 2:rt): the minimum
( )
3:rt
mum f
(a) The minimum is f (0)= 0, the maxi mum f (2) = 4e
2)
(
the max i mum f (2)= 1 ; (c) t he ma x imum
2) =
( b) t he ill in irn u m is f
3.6.3.
3.6.8.
(-2)
=4.3.6.10.
(- -1,
; =-4;
-\037;
i\037)))
Answers and Hints
I (0) = 0,
the minimum
r3.6.11.
7;
(O):=:
V 44.
the minimum
f (2)=
ximum
is
is
the maximum
(-3)==3 V3, the
(a) There is no extremum; (b) there is no extremum;

(c) the ma(0)==0; (d) the minimum is f (0)= O.
(c) The greatest value is f (1)=\037,
e the least value f (0)==0; (d) the
value
is
- :8'
(:I:; )
(:I:I) = O.
the least value t
The greatest val ue is y (0)= , the least value y

the
greatest value is y (4) = 6, the least value y (0)== O.
(c)
16
3.7.6.(a) The greatest value IS.
the least value
=
= 0; (c)
value
the
least
the
is
value
f (0) 2,
1 (:1:2)
greatest
(b)
=
=
In 3, the least value t (V3)
value is
t( ;3)
.
( )
is f (1)= 1, the least value
the least value is f (0)= 1.
value
value
value,
is
3.8.3.
H = R Y2, where
=
37
1(3)=-4;
the
greatest
the
3:rt
least value t
2)
(
f (2)= 2 (1
2); (f)
=-2;(e) the
-In
is
there
no
greatgreat-
H is the height of the cylinder, R is the radius of

0.5 arc tan 2.
sin ex, y a cosex, where ex
reduced to finding the greatest val ue of the function
2
S=4xy+4x(y-x)==4a2 (sin
ex)
in the
interval
=2 V
;:.
0<
P
3.8.8.
< \"4 .
==
at
4W.I
\302\2432
max
The radius
3.8.10.
is the radi us of the
. .X
IS\"2
2ex-sin
ex
x a
sphere. 3.8.7.
Hint. The problem is
the
;3
=3
\037
-0.25In 3;(d) the
+0.25
\037
(:I:
f(-2)=3'
est
est
minimum
3.7.2.(b)
greatest
-1,
==
(:1:2)
(d) the maximum is f
9\"
:1
3.7.1.
greatest
=-925 V T;
)
435)
fi
\"3
(e)
Ch. III)
to
expensesare expressedby
appropriate
3.8.14.
cp=
At
Hint.
t1;}e
+cos
trough
equal to a2 (1
walls to the bottom.
3.8.15.. Hint.
cp)
the tank
locnted,
the expression)
cpo
where
desired
straight
hours
to
\037
the formula
width
where
cp
T=
cover one
a+b.v3
v
knot.
The
\037+bV2.
a the cross-sectionalarea of
is the angle of inclination of
v
the
the
from
point of fall of the jet is at a distance of
is the height at which the orifice should be
therefore the length of the jet is determined
f10\\V;
by
The
base, where H
v is the rate of
\037
board
sin
'
\037
of the
a\037p.
\037
is
h ==2R=
3.8.9.
==Wi'
base is r =
of the cylinder
3.8.11.
The equation
conebase.
y
+\"4='
3.8.12.
x=a-pfor a>p and x=O for
3.8.13.
v=
V ;b . Hint. It will take
1Ille
=-==
'
\037
h-x
V- igx
J/I
(h-x)
g)))
Vx
(h-x).
436)
Answers and Hints)
3.8.16.
After
hours the least distance
2v
3.9.1.
(b) The intervals
xity
; , I);
ale (
(0, V3); the
);(e)
\037
(0, Xl)
points
Y3, 0)
and
3.9.5.
(a) The point
concavefor x > 3; (b)
is concavein
and
- -
( V3,
00,
(f) the intervals
3-JlS
xI=e
3+Y5
Y2 =
2
(0, 0),
),
\03703
(-
(V3:
3+V5
x2 =e
< 3 and
Y5-3
2
,)
arc sin
x=O;
(c) y=O; (d)
are
is (3, 3); the curve is convex for x

abscissaof the point of inflection x=arc sin
(Xl' X2), where

(X 2, Y2)' where)
- ;.
)3.10.1.
Y3)
of concavity
3+Y5\"
.)
of inflection
in-
the
the
conve-
of
\037
00,
(Y3,00), of convexity
are
km.
2\"
(I, 00),
)
(+, 12 ) , (I, 13); (c) the
(
is concaveeverywhere;
3-Y5
to
equal
\037\037
and (x2, 00), of convexity

of inflection are (Xl' YI),
the curve
are
of inflection
points
the curve
YI =
\037
the points of inflection
tervals of concavity
and
are
of concavity
be
will
\037-I;
r11
(i)
\037-I
) ,and
convex
in
(arc sin
x--++00JtX and
y=2x as
-1
5
\037
Y=
-2xas
x-+-oo. 3.10.3.
(a)x==3,y=x-3; (b)Y=:l:T-1;(c)y=x;
.
(d) = :I:2; (e) = 2x
X
3.11.2.
Jt
\"2
(a) The function is defined everywhere, it is even. The graph is symis Y (0) --= I,
metrical about the y-axis and has no asymptotes. The minimum
maxima
(-I)= . The points
(:I:
>
+
-1 -(- -I) (-I,y=x-3.
.
(-4)
(-6,(+
):
function
asymptote
maximum
.'
(2,
\037\037
has
3
are
,
(b) the
in
and
has
The
a
vertical
00,
00).
graph
The minimum is y (0)=0,
x= and an inclined asymptote
3 6
=
The points of inflection are
and
y
12;5 )
00, 0) and (0, 00). The graph
(c) the function is defined in
(I) = y
is defined
asymptote
V2
(1,
inflection
_I
is
is defined
the function
and
00); it
vertical aSYlnptotes
\037\037
( )
=3.The point
\037
2'
.s ( '1rY3
r 3) = -r3
x=O.The minimum
(----y'0); is(d)odd. The
(-1,1)
t\\VO
\037
22\0376
vertical
lion IS
of inflection
\037
is (0, 0);
is
in the intervals
of inflec.
(-00. -1),
about the
has
origin,
symmetrical
all inclined (1:-;ymptote y=x. The mil1illlllJn
x=:i: and graph
1
th e
111 Xl 111tI n1
(e) the
functio\037l
3V 3
r
( 1 3) =
2
is defined every\\vhere,
_,1
'
Tl1 e po
it
11t
is evcn.
Tile)))
graph is
\037yrnrnetrica
minimum
is
Answers and Hints
to
y-axis and
has
abou t the
Ch. III)
a
horizontal
y\"2) = 2
(0) = V.\"4, the maxima y
2, V4); (f) the function is defined in
(:I:
437)
asymptote y O.The
The points of inflec-
V2.
(-2, + 00).The vertical

(:I:
asymptote is x= -2.The minimum is y (0)=0,the maximum y (-0.73)\0370.12.
The point of inflection is (-0.37;
0.075);(g) the function is defined every\\vhere.
=
The horizontal asymptote is y= 0 as x -++ 00.The maximum is
( ) ( :e
are
tion
4' (
The points of inflection
3-y3 3-4
y= 1.The
,
eV3-3 ,
4'
\302\267
3+V3 3+Y3 3 e-3-V3.,

4
is defined and continuous everywhere. The horizontal asymptote

minimum
is y (0) ==0, the point (0, 0) being a corner point on the
(h) the function
is
are (0, 0),
Y\"3
11, +2'j[
-2)
-
==
y- (0) ==
y+ (0)
==
3.12.6.
4.4934. 3.12.8.
0.6705.
2.330;x2 = 0.202;x3 = 2.128.
Xl
3.12.12.
1.325.
(a) 0.27;2.25; (b) 0.21. 3.12.13.
(a) 1.17;
(b) 3.07. 3.12.14.
0.5896and 2.2805.Hint. To approximate the smaller root more precisely
3.12.15.
graph:
3.12.11.
1, to find a more accurate value of the

8X
write the equation in the form x=eO.
larger root represent it in the form
(I In x).
No. Hint.
Show that at the point x== I the derivative is non-exis,
,
tent:
(1)== I; 1+(1)
a b
Hint. Check the equality t (b) t (a) (b
f'
3.13.1.
x= 1.25 +
= 1.
1= -a)
3.13.2.
).
(
3.13.3.
Hint. Apply the Rolle theorem to the function I (x) =aoXn
on the interval [0, xo].
...+an-l(x)
3.13.4.
Hint. Make sure that the derivative I' (x) ==4 (x3 -1)has only one
real root, x= I, and apply the Rolle theorem.
3.13.5.
Hint. The derivative I' (x) nx n -1+ p has only one real root at an
even n and not more than two real roots at an odd n.
is a polynomial of the third degreeand has
3.13.6.
flint. The derivative
+...
==
roots. Take advantage of the fact that between

lies the root of its derivative.
3.13.7.
Hint. From the correct equality lim cos
three
the
roots
of the polyno-
mial
determined
the mean value theorem, it
frorn
-i-=o(0 <
< x), where
\037
doesnot
follow that
lim
enceof values E
for which
is
\037
\037
-=0,
cos x1
x_ 0
since it cannot be asserted that the variable attains all intermediate
in the neighbourhood
of zero as x
O. Moreover, takes on onl y such
-+
\037
\037
values
a sequ-
(1;EE).
!im
cost=o
3.13.8.
The mist ake is that in the Lagrange form ula one and the saine
H in!.
and
is
for
taken
I (x)
(x).
point
3.13.9.
Hint. Apply the Lagrange formula to the function In x on the interval
[b, a]; (b) apply the Lagrange fornlula to the function zP on the interval [y, x].
3.13.10.
Hint. With
the aid of the Leibniz formula ascertain that tile
cp
\037
coefficients
powers of
x < O.
of
the Chebyshev-Laguerrc
polynomial
negative coefficients. \\Vhcnce
having
alternate
deduce
in sign, the odd

Lll (x) > 0 for
that
3.13.11.
liint. Us.ing the Rolle theorem, show
inside the interval
o, x !
least rcots of the
derivative, n-l roots of the second derion.
that
there are at
vative, and
3.13.12.
Hint.
tive\037
I.x
ll
first
\037;o
of both the
The L'I-Iospitalrule
llutnCf(}tor
81)(.1
is 110t C1pplicablc here, since the derivavall ish at all points \\vhcre the)))
dCl10ntil1<ltor
Answers and Hints)
438)
factor sin
(which we
tives) vanishes.
Hint.
3.13.13.
the Taylor
Write
the limit
computing
formula
h2
the remainder R 2
h3
f\"' (a -r.-81h
with
f\"
- -
the expansion
with
it
(a)
+
(a+81h)
31'\"
h
Hint. Prove by using
3.13.14.
f\"
are
where p and q
get for n > p
natural
).
given in the problem,

and pass over to the limit
rule of
the
numbers,
get
the
as
h ----+
equality
O.
e=!!...,
contraries. Suppose that
q
using the Taylor formula,
1,and,
>q >
of deriva-
ot the ratio
(a+h)==f(a)+hf'(a) +21 (a)+3f
Comparing
f\" (a
8h)
cancelledin
P
q=I+IJ+2f+'.'+ + (n+l)! ( q) (0<8<1).
p
n!
sides of
both
Multiply
this
equality
and
nt,
by
are positive integers

(I+\037+...+) n!result.
obtain a contradictory
and
n\0371
\037!
Hint.
3.13.15.
f
(x) = J
'\\
x'
sin
Ascertain
< x';;;;
' is continuous
2\"
in!.
3.13.17.
13..
3
2
x ==
points
origin.
2nn
')
' then
i.e.the
Ascertain
the function
is
\037
derivative
that
retains
sin
cos x
\037
(n
(2n \037 I):n;
< I,
].
changes
all
its sign
constant.
sign
function
...),
in any
and to
vicinity
oppo-
at
\037
of
the)
IPl'p(x)==f(x)-cp(x)
points of the dornain of definition of the

if ad-be==O,
1= O. But
ad-be
3.13.21.
p=-6,q= 14.
if
has
(x i= 0)
= 0, :!:
I, :!:
2,
the auxiliary
Make sure that at
A minimum
3.13.22.
\037
=-2 + 2x
at the poin ts x
the derivative
function
\037
\\V
increases.
2 increasesand
xeX
I).
f' (x)
3.13.19.
flint.
Hint.
3.13.20.
creases.
\302\267
and
t'
and take advantage of the fact that the function

Show that the function f (x) ==
H
site signs at the end-points of the interval (0,
3. 18 Hint. Sh 0 t hat t he der iva t i ve)
the
\037
that the derivative f' (x) < 0 is inside the interval.

Hint. Show that
(x) \037 o. Ascertain that
0 for a < I,
a >
f (0) ==I
< 0 for a > 1,
equal to
l0,
on the interval
x==O
3.13.16.
is
r < nll
j(
\302\260
1,
\\
\037
that the function
Verify
E n!
that
noting,
i.e.
f (xo) == 0 if cp (xo) > 0 and n is even; a maximum

and n is even; the point Xo is not an extremum if n
is odo. Hint. At an even n, in a certain neighbourhood of the point Xo the function retains its sign and is either rigorously greater than zero or rigorously less
tIian zero, depending on the sign of cp (xo
At an odd n the function changes
sign in a certain neighbourhood of the point
(xo) == 0
if
cp
(xo)
<0
)'
xo.)))
Answers and Hints
3.13.23.
Hint.
to
Ch.
I.
439)
IV)
For x:l= 0 (x) > 0, hence

>
(0) is minImum.
. S
. ' at
.
.
.
'
t
x=IS
e
t Ive
e denvat Ive (x)=2 -sln-+-cosx x
x
2
The case x < 0 is investigated anaand negative at the points x=
'
I)
f
tll
3.13.24.
(a) and
11
(2n\037
I
0; (b)
For x
th
pOSI
pOln
-2.
:rtn
and
the greatest value equals
(b)
(a) The least value is non-existent,
the function has neither the greatest, nor the lcast value.
Yes. Hint. SinceI\" (x) changes sign \\\\Then passing through the point Xo,
the latter is a point of extremum for the function f' (x).
The graph passesthrough the point M
2) and has a tangent
line
1); M is a point of inflection, the curve being concavedo\\vnward to the left of the point M, and upward to the right of it. Hint. The funcx
tion
increases and changes sign when
t\" (x)
through
passing
logously.
3.J3.25.
3.13.30.
3.13.31.
y-2= (x+
I;
(-1,
3.13.32.
h=
.
(J y_2
3.13.33.
Hint. According
I
-I.
to the Rolle theorem, between the roots of the first

derivative
there is at least one root of the second derivative. When passing
through one of these roots the second derivative must change sign.
2
Hint. The polynomial has the form
n tx
n.
Polynomials of this form with positive coefficients have no real roots.
Hint. Take advantage of the fact that a polynomial of an odd degree
(and, hence, also its second derivative) has at least one real root and changes
sign at least once.
2x4 x:J I
lim
Hint. Find
x _ 00 x:J _x --)I
3.13.35.
3.13.36.
+a - +a
aox2n+alx2n-2+...
3.13.37.
C hap t e r
-+
C)
+ .
)
IV
1=x3 +x2 +O.51n12x-11

4.1.2.
+C.
..!.
2..!.
2
4.1.7.1=3
(x-I-I)2 +3x 2 +C.Hint.
..
Eliminate
the irrationality
denominator.
from the)
+ .
+ +C.
4.1.15.
2
4.1.18.
1=lnlx+3+Yx
+6x+I/+C.
V-TOx-yr
4.1.20.
1=
n
+C.
2 Y 70
VTOx+yf
- C., (c)) 3 tan x +)
3
4.I.21.(a) 2\" arc tan \037+c, (b) 4
(x 4) V x -!2
tan x-I-C.
+2 cot x+C; (d) --I-arc
x
4.1.
22. (a)
sin x--cosx+C;)))
(x -t- V +x 2) +arc sin x +C;
(b))
2
x+
x +C; (d) -0.2
52cos
sin
,5x-x 5a+C.
(c) -\\ii5
5 In 2
37
5
1-12 Jr(2x 5):1+\"2 Y2x 5 4 J1r2x-5)+C.
4.2.3.
4 I 14 1=
2x
arc t an
C
5\"
2
2x I
I== ..r_arctan
y_3
r 3
TO
I.In
x-3.
--
<
\037
440)
Answers and Hints)
4.2.8.I =-2V cosx+C. 4.2.10.

1=2(x3 +3x+1)3 +C.
4.2.13.
(a) 0.75 V (I + In
+C; (b) In Iin x 1+C; (c) 2\" arc sin
\037
;3+C;
X)4
-+C; (e) -2cos ..rrx-+C;
_ x+
xn
a
(d) na arc tan
4.2.14.
(a)
\037
(In
In2
In
( In x
+C.
+C;
x-5)V + Inx+C;
2. 2.
1
1/
r sin 3 x C;
sIn
sIn x
)
( 3\"-7 x+rr
(c)
(f) 2
3
14x2
140(35-40x+ ) (I-x)
32
(b)
-T5(8+4x + 3x 4) V I-x+C.
4.3.2.
x arc sin x+ Y l-x2 +C.
4.3.14. X In t an x+ In ta n (4-) +C.
4.3.17.x In (x+YI + x2)-YI +x:>'+C.
4.3.18.x Vx [(In X)2- n x+ n +C.
4.3.19.
2 Y +x arc sin x+4 Y l-x+C.
x
4.3.20.-0.5SIn
x \\
.
( 2 x+cot ) +C.
43213X(sinx+cosxln3)
C
I+(ln3)\037
4.3.22.
x+ I:) e3X +C.
(fX3_X2+
4
2
4.3.23.(x -IOx+21)
cosx+C.
sin x+x(4x2 -20)
I8x
-11
2x + 2 .
+
4 3 24
cos3x + 9 sIn 3x +C
27
4.3.25. _ x2+3x In x _ + -3x+C.
(
)
1
(d)
CDS
\037
...
...I
+.
\037
9X2
\302\267
\037I
\0373
\0372
9-
x
x
4.3.26.x 4 1 arc tan x-T2+4\"+C.
x3
2+x2 ...r
2
4.3.27.\"3arccosx
r
+C.
4.3.28.(a)
18x2
+-:fx-x+C; (b)
'27
+ 320(2x+1) 3 +C.
1
l-x
6;-13sin(6x+2)-72t
6x l
+
CDS(6x+2)+-}x
3
4'(x -7x+l)(2x+I)340(2X-7)(2x+l)3+
3
\037
\037
4.4.2.(d)
expressI n
Hint. Apply the generalized

formula
from the relation thus obtained
I n --
n -1
a-:)sin
e'1.X
w
(a sin
by parts
for integration
I n _.)X-fl cosX ) +n (n-I)

- --;-In.
a
n
\037
a-)))
.}
w
and
Answers and
flints
- -(n-I)sin- +n-l
('osX
4.4.3. In =
Ck. \
to
Jn 2
(n
\037
441)
2);
_x2 +C.
=- 2cos. .) -/-=- 2cos. .) +-2
2 /1
4.4.4.(a) I n- tann-lx-ln_2; 11=-lnlcosxl+C;10=x+C;
1 =ln sinxl+C; 10=x+C; (c) In=
(b) I
n- cotn-tx-ln_2;
n-l
/ 1= ..r
=_x - ..r
r +a+C;lo=ln x+ ..r
r x +a +C.
r x\037+a--aln-2;
x
13
==-
SIn\"'
Sln--
tan
In
x2
n)
Chapter
x2
5.1.2.
2-2x -1-6 In
- +3 x+ +C.
5.1.5. x-I -ln -(x_l)2+C.
+ --arc (x+2)+C.
5.1.8.V- +
5.1. +
V)
16
(x+ 1)3
..--
21
x
21n
2x I
1
2
arctan
3 7
V 7 3
to. 5x 1n x 2 (x -+. 2) x 2 3
1
In
-1
. 4 (x +2) (x -1-3) + 8
5111
tan
C.
(X+I)(X+2)16
+3)11 1+c
5.1.12.x-2-arctan (x-2)+C.
9x\037+50x+68
\037I n
\302\267
(x
\037
13.)
5.1.
1n
6 (I +x)+\"6
(l
I-x +22xarc tan x-
+ X)2
-3 +C.
.rr
+x\037
3 V--3
arc tan
--
x+2
arc tan x + In VX+1 +C.
5.1.14.
2 (x2 + I) +2
V x2 +
x-II+C.
5.2.2.
4 VX+6 V/ x -1-24 l\037x+24In
V (t +
arc tan 2t -I- +In
5.2.4.)))
+
..r
3
3
r {2 +t+l
VyVt-I .X-l
+C, where t =
I
3.\037
5.2.7.-./x+1+C,
V
l_x
V X-.
3 -
5.2.
8. 2\"
2)\"
I+X
V l_x+ C,
5.2.9.
rcSinx+C.
(I--}X)V1 -X2-%a
5.3.3.-2arc tan ( VI +X;X2 + + I)+C.
5.3.5.:2 V Xl -j-2x -r- --x 1- . 2 3
I
In
<1
\037
(Vx
+2x+4-x-l)
-:T
In
1/
r
.)'
X\"
-1-2x-t-4
-x-1
+C
\302\267)
442)
5.3.6.+ V x
and Hints)
An\037we's
x'\"
+2arctan
+
V -+C.
1-x
x
(x+ VI
5.3.7. x-I
+C.
+C. 5.3.8.
15
V 2x
5.4.2.5 JI2 +2x +- 5-1n(x+I + V +2x+5)+C.
5.4.5.3X
V3x 2 2x+I+C.
5.4.6.2xtl y'x2 +x+1+ InI2x+I+2YX2-t-x+I/+C.
+X\037)15
x\037
x\037
+t-
x\037
}+4x+3-
661n x+2+Yx\" -t-4x+31+c.

5.4.8.
f(x -14X+Ill)Yx 2
5.4.9.
Y\037xl+5x+7+
InI4x+5+
\037(32x2_20x-373)
128 2
64
2
+ 2 Y34x + lOx
. + 14 +CC..
3x+5 ../.) 2
5.4.10.
r x-+
x-1farcsln(x+I)+
\037(x+l)2
x2 4x + 3 2 arc .
V
sIn \037+C.
5.4.11. x_ 15 -.V x +2 8x2 + 12x+7 C
5.4.12.
Ip
x+ 4 (x+
2
x2
+1
+3x
In
5.4.13.
+C.Hint. First make the substitution
2
32\037_
- -
\037
x2
x-\037
+.
+1+\302\245x
x)
=
5.5.2.3 arc tan V x+C. 5.5.4.3\"2 ( 2+x ) +
t.)
\037
11
!)
-5( 2+x ) + +C.

12
\037
3
') -;- C.
? :;- 3 ( I +x2) + 3 (l +x5.5.5.22
) +
( I -r-X-)
5.5.7.I: V(I+V--Xf-3
l/(I+V xt+ c.
3
C,
5.5.8.3 In Vx -+
x
1+v x l+V3/-+
-8
TO
;j
\037)
5.5.9.(I +X2)
5 .0.
D..
J::
VI
(3X2
15
-2)+C.
I) C.
+
(2x'\"
x\037
3x3
21
3/-) + C.
5.5.11.
32 V ( +
4
1
x-l
5.5.12.(I++)5---
ii -1-C.
(I +
tan x +
c. 5.6.6.
,I
3
5 SIn0 x +
\037
\037
\037
x -I-C.
5.6.2.
,I
3 SIn3 x
5.6.10.
(a) -cotx+fCOt3x-+cotDx-x+C;
tan 2 x -I-In cas x +C.)))
(b) tan 2 x- In (I + tan 2 x) +C
1
\037C,
\037
\037
tC1n:J
\037
Answers and Hints
Ch.
to
443)
V I)
x
5.6.12.sin x -\"3Sin 3 X+2 n + sin
C.
sin x +
1+2tan)
5.6.14.2 arc tan (
) +c.
I
1I
\037
Vl5
VI5
-8+
x
,
5.6.22.
(a)
sinh 4x
32
5.7.3.-{In(x+Yx
+C;
;+ )+C.
2 tanh
(b)
Y3
arc t an
Y3
-1)+{X(2x -1) -1+C.

2
Yx 2
+ 1)-V xx2+ +C.

+C.
x-I
5.7.8.I
+c.
4 V x2-2x+5
5.8.2.1=4V I-x+ 21n (2-x-2V I-x)-2(I + V
a
nt
5.8.5.I
+ c, where t = arc tan
co\037;:t
I
5.7.4.In (x+
5.7.7.I =arcsin
Vx\037
x\037
==
I-
x+C.
x) In
x.)
\037\037e.t
C hap t e r VI
19= 44 the
6.1.9.
1=4.3+
as
2
bases 4X
and
I ==
6.1.12.
Sn== 164
1
6.2.2.
(a)
(d)
(J)
and
3
I; (b)
j[
; (e)
4\"
(c)
\037;
3;
tan
(k)
= t (2) =
In
2n
+ 4n2 '
(g) arc tan
(f) I;
. 6.3.1.
(c) 3 < I
175 125
7
j(
(a) 72 ;
(3' 6.2.10.
2;
sin 2x
. 6.3.11.
(a) x ; (b)
e-4 ;
1t
1t.
2 2;
I
(b)
1n
n;
14
16; (1) 15;
(h)
= f (0)
(c)
5
2''
=
Y I +x4. 6.3.14.
(b) .63.15.
(b) =
< 5.
3.
5-1==4
is
whose height
trapezoid
4+
4-arc V-3-Y2
j(
area of a
4 X 5 1 = 19.
1
175 125
16
;
4n2 Sn=
2n
Htnt.
==
rn
,
' t
t
=-e-Ysinx.6.3.23.
(a)
(a) x; (b) x' 6.3.24.
lnt ;(b)Yx=T'
at x == 1; (b) the
6.3.25.
(a) The maximum is at x ==I, the
are at x==-2; 0; 2, the maxima at x==:i:l.
\037
In
minima
\037\0374
:.1
In
6.4.15.
2; (b)
(a) 2-21n
-t- Y
0.2
In
2)
(b)
Y-3 Y2 bstitution
(su
--;
- I);
../0
. j[
SIn
(b) 2 (r 3
112; (c)) .
SIn
24
11
\"8
. J[
sIn
12)
tan
Y\\==
minimum
6.4.3.
(substitution x = a sin t);
(a)
2
..r- .r6.4.6.
(a) r
+ 2+V 3- ;
3
:\037
\0372
(c) 8
(d) Y
x=tan I).
n.
+3 Y3
'2
3-0.5
In (2+)))
Answers and Hints)
444)
+ Jf 3);
(e) 0.25In 3
(substitution
x = a cost);
6.4.16.
(a)
x-cosx=t);
sin
(substitution
(f) a3
;+{
x = 2a sin 2 t); (h)

(g) n;2 (substitution
; (c) {-In (su bstitution x4 = t); (d)
\037
\037
; (b)
(substix2 = a2 cos2 t b2 sin 2 t).
will not do, since this function is disconti6.4.17.
The substitution x =
=
nuous at t O.
will not do, since this function is disconThe substitution t = tan
=
tinuous at x n.
Hint. The inverse function
yi5 is double-valued. To obtain
the correct result it is necessary to divide the initial interval of integration into
\037
tution
\037\037
\037
6.4.18.
6.4.19.
x=:I:
two parts:)
-2
\037
x2 dx =
x=-
-2
\037
and apply the substitutions

< x < 2.
6.4.20.I t is im possjb Ie,
+ V x2 dx
V x2 dx
\037
V15 in
since sec t
-2< x < 0
and the interva
\037
I].
It is possible;see Problem 6.4.12.
6.4.21.
a
0
[0,
6.4.22.Hint. On writing
-a
f (x) dx
x=-t
stitution
in the first
-1
f (n
\037
o
Represent
Hint.
\037
6.5.3.
(l)
3t
-n
as the
-1
(2n
\037
+ arcsin t) dt.
sum of three integrals
and
substitute
3t
(x) cosnx
dx=2
J[
(x) cosnx dx. and
\037
-n
(x) sin x dx ==0.
\037
\037
If
for the in-
variable: x =
the
an even function,
(x)
\037
(2)
is
. 3;), ( 3;,
\037
of in tegr at ion
(x) dx, make the sub-
2n)sin t
), (
= arc sin (0,
t, x=n-arcsin t, x=2n+arc
respectively.
then
If
is
\037
0<
\037
arc sin t) dt +
the given integral
in
Vt5
tervals:
x=+
(x) dx
\037
integral.
6.4.23.(arcsin t) dt +
-u
\037
and
(x) is an odd function, then
\037
(x) cosnx dx
=\037
0, and
\037
(x) sin nx dx=
\037
-rr
-.11)
J1
=2
t (x) sin n
dx.
\037
6-2e.6.6.5.V-2-4.6.6.6.
6.5.4.O. 6.6.3.
Jf-2. 6.6.13.
(a)
Jf
(b )
(g)
2j[
---nlr-+ -In-'
2\037'
j[
(c) 4
(h)
V-3
9
3-2
16J1
3.)))
--I;
2
---\"
In2--'
4 2' ( )
2' ( ) ln-'
8'
\037
(d )
JI
<:
flint.
6.6.14.
Integrate
by parts twice,
(arccos -1the second time.
Hint.
6.6.15.
ntegrate by parts, putting
6.7.4.(a) 0.601.
Hint. Estimate flv (x)
ti Ine and u
==
0.96
2n = 6; (b) 0.7462.6.7.5.
6.8.1.)
x2
2
F (x) =
(x-2)3
\037
1-
take advantage
x
-1
x\037
the derivative
(x) is continuous
both
In\037lde
reo
the
dx
= f' (b) 1'(0).
(x) dx+
\037
> 0 and
< n + I,
of the integral
2
\302\243
\302\243
\037
(x) dx+
... +
The antideri
6.8.6.
[0, I].
on the interval
for definiteness x
E (x) n \037 x
the wrong
rational,
irrational
r (x)
\037
\037
n
\302\243
n-l
(x) dx+
\302\243
(x) dx.
\037
\037
vative F 1 (x) wi 11 lead to the correctresu It and F 2 (x) to

in the interval [0, :rr].
function is discontinuous
x
one, since this
6.8.7.F (x) = Yo +
the
form
(t) dt. Hint.
Any
antiderivative
F (x) can be represen-
\037
xo
in
if
of the additivity
ted
x is
x is
I if
Putting
(x) dx
2,
\037
Consider the function
{
6.8.4. V3. Hint.
6.8.5.
Hint.
<x
\037
lim
f(x)=f(1).
f{x)=f(O) and x-+l-0
x-..+O
(x) ==
cp
1,
+2)for 2 < 3.
The assertion
x= 1,x=2. concerning
Continuity is checked directly.

quires checking only at the points
Hint. Make sure that the function
and at the end-points (lim
interval
6.8.2.
(0,1)
No. Hint.
6.8.3.
O\037x\037
first
[ . ] and put
on the interval
for
2\"
u=(arccosx)nthe
x.
==
for
\\
445)
V I)
putting
X)n
\302\243
Ch.
to
Answers and Hints
Puttingx=x
o. find C=Yo'
F(x)=\037f(t)dt+C.
e2b-e:!.a
6.8.8.
6 = 2\" In 2b-2a .
The function is defined
6.8.9.
the
xo
[-I,
on the interval
1], it is nod,
interval
0] and concave on the interval
is a point of inflection.
the point
O. Hint. The fllnct ion
at 0 < x \037 1
XX
creasing; convex
on
[0,0]
6.8.1
is
continuous
x:=::-and
I
e)))
(x) -=
on the interval,
the greatest
[-1,
vC1lue
it
IVl
at
=--.:
Clnd
In-
[0, 1];
0)
reaches the least

-= 1 at x == 0 and
valuc
at x
fll
=-=
==
1.
e e
\037
0.692
at
446)
..
Answers and Hints)
.
. H lnt.
'
6.8.12.
Hint.
Integrate
th e Inequa l 1t y
t
te
negra
6 8 11
oro
and write Schwarz-Bunyakovsky
5 Jlxsinxdx\037
th
[
_
\037
x2
j[
O\037x\0376
inequality
1//-5\037:
5 sinxdx=y
\037
Apply
sin x
\037
x
\037
/ -6==X... I-Tat
...
1t
the inequ ality

x4
x2
V
V
\302\245XSJnx>
6.8.14.
Hint.
xdx
Schwar z-Bunyakovsky
b
2
'y (x).
;x)
dx
Hint.
6.8.15.
6.8.16.
Hint.
If f
\037
\0372
'
2Y2
n_,__
in the form
inequality
b
(x) dx
f ;X)
dx.
\037
\037
arc tan x=--}.)

x
(x) is an even
F (x) =
funct ion, then
(t) dt
IS an
odd
\037
o)
since)
function,
-x
F(-x)=
f(t)dt=-\037 f
\037
()
(-z)dz=-F
(x) (t=-z).
I')
And
if f
(x) is an odd function,
then F (x)
f (t) dt is
an
even function,
\037
o)
since)
-x
F (-x)=
(t) dt
\037
the remaining
Iso even
\037
o)
all
(-z)dz = F (x) (t = -z);)
1\\)
the
have
antiderivatives
ions.
6.8.17.
Hint. The derivative
dl
da =f(a+T)-f(a)=O.)
F (x)
fOftn
funct
of the integral
with
+C and,
are
therefore,
respectto a equals zero:
Chapter VII)
7.1.4.
(a)
In
1.2 2. (a) 2\"'.

1
\302\267
2;
(b )
5
7.2.13.
(a) =3\";
(b)
I
; (2 Y2-1);
2
2+ 2
1
e -i-I
= In 2;
0 283.
\037.
(c)
3
4\"')
(d) 1;
7.2.5._j[4 ' 7.2.10. 2i
.
n.
V d:?+h2
2/0
7.2.16.
It
8
(c) == In 3
2'
(e)
+2. 7.2.15.
3\"'
2 5
35
8
. 3
7.3.11.
7.3.16.
7.3.13.9.
7.3.6.
'
1.3,4.\"'6' 3+2\"arcsln
S
15
m+
l-!
(b)
l-!
2/z
l-!
_
1
')
.)))
Answers and Hints
to
Ch. V II)
447)
7.3.21.
211(2 J/ 3) In (2+ Y3).
7.3.20'\"3'
4
8
64
7.3.19.
3'
128
7.3.22.
0.7511.
91
7.3.23.
. 7.3.24'\"3
. 7.3.25.3\" . 7.3.26.15' 7.3.27.12' 7.3.28.
IS
30
Hint. The curve is symmetrical about the coordinate
7.4.6.8 7.4.8.0.7511ab.
1
.)
5'
axes and
x= :i:a,y= :i:b.
them at the points
intersects
' Hint.
7.4.9.(a)
The curve is symmetrical about the x-axis,intersecting

The loop is situated in the second and th ird
it twice at the origin at t
'
ot the curve are found
Hint.
The
(b)
quadrants;
points of self-intersection
in the following way: y=tx(t), therefore y(tl)=t 1X(t 1)=t 2X(t2) at t 1 1= t 2 and
8
t1
t2
(c)
X(tl)=X(t2), only if X(tl)=X(t2
\0373
7.4.10.
Hint. The curve is symmetrical \\\\lith respect to both axesof
0.2511ab.
coordinates and passestwice through the origin forming two loops.Therefore, it
is sufficient to compute a quarter of the desiredarea corresponding to the variation
the obtained result by 4.
and multiply
of t from 0 to
=:i:l.
\0375
\0375
)=0,i.e. =0; =2;
3c4
7.4.11.
8ab
JT
The curve resembles an
Hint.
direct ion.
7.5.2.(a)
the
through
. Hint.
3;
:rr:
pole and
symmetrical
; (b)
.
87.5.10. .
2
7.5.6.2a
(
511
.)
The
curve
extended
astroid
is a circle of
about the polar axis,

11a2
11a2
7.5.8.(a)
8'. 8'
(b)
in the vertical)))
radius
-;
passing
\037
\037<p\037
7.5.9.a2
3 .
12-..r)
\037
711
Hint. The curve passesthrough the pole forming t\\VO loops located
about the y-axis in the first and fourth quadrants. It is sufficient
symmetrically
to calculate the area cnclosedby one loop corresponding to variation of cp from 0
\037\037\037
to
:; and
dou b Ie the resu lt th
7.5.11. 2. Hint.
LIS
obta
nen.
The curve passes through
:rra
\037\037
the
IS symmetrica
quadrants. It is sufficient
about the polar axis and situated in the first and fourth
to calculate the area of the upper portion of the figure
variation
of
cp
from
and double the result thus
to
pole. it
which corrcsponds to
obtained.
\037
7.5.12. (1+
7.5.13.
. Hint.
:rr;2
a2
\037
intersects
them only
(a four-leaved
_
\0373
The curve
at the origin, forming

it is sufficient
rose).Therefore,
coordinate axes and

four loops-onein each quadrant
to find the 2irea of one loop corres-
is symmetrical
about the
and multiply
the result by 4.
ponding to the variation of cp from 0 to
Y2 na 2 Hint. The curvc is sYl1lInetrical about the axes of coordinates and the bisectorsof the coordinate angles; it cuts ofT equal intercepts on
the axes. The origin is an isolated point. It is sufficient to compute the area of)
7.5.14.
Answers and Hints)
448)
of the figure
one-eighth
7.6.2.9 2 31. Hint.
A plane
centre
the
of the
2n 2a2b.
7.6.10.
7.6.16.(a) 2nab
from
cp
of
triang
le situated
circle is equal to h Ya\037-x2.

7.6.11. (see Problem
31
to
+ );
(b)
6
13
a; (c)
at
ann mul.
the point
the
distance
7.6.17.
abk 2n.
will
cross-sectio-
7.3.9). 7.6.14.
\037
x-axis at
2, therefore
r= Jl16-x
radius
2
).
S(x)=n(16-x
2h. Hint. The area
7.6.5.
0.531a
arca
to the
perpendicular
a circle of
cut the sphere along

nal
of
8.
the result by
tiply
to variation
corresponding
from
5Jt2a3
a.
a3 tan
4
16. 64. d 31,
2. (e) 64.
7.6.18. (a) 231,. ()
b
31, (f) 3 3.
15n, (c) 5 , ()
3 :C_ e
7.6.19. . 7.6.20.7;. 7.6.21.
) +na2c= n;3 sinh +
-{-na (e
3\0372
\037
\037
31
31a
3\"
\037C
\037
\037\0373
7.6.22. (631+5Y\"3).
na 2c.
Hint. The abscissasof the points of intersec+

6
Jt
J(
127
16.T1c
19
7.6.23.
x2
n
31
7.6.25.
tion are:
48
=3\"
2
Hint. Represent the evolute of the ellipseparametrically
as follows: x=\037 cos:Jt;
a
4 3
C2 . 3
:rr-a3
h
7 6 26
c V a 2 b2
7 6 27
sIn t were
y
3\"
4
Hint.
Pass over to polar coordinates.
V2 In (I V2)
l
4 3
e
e
7.6.28.
7.7.2.27 7.7.4.In
In (Y2+y'3);
(a)
a 7.7.8.
\037:rra.
n
2
J(
_ . (c) Y3 7 7 9 a (a-t-2)
(b) 2ln (2 r 3). Hl nt. Xl =
X2
\037
. 7.6.24'7.
xI=-3;
--b
\"
nt
- r\"I
-.
112
'
\037
'
.. ..
3' ...2'
. Y2'.
. na.
]. ea-e--'
b
-2; - 3'
105ab\037
-)
Y6+
7.7.10.
10
7.8.2.8a. 7.8.5.I:. Hint. The curve intersects the
G;+ V5). ,.-16a. 7.8.9.
axes at t 1=0 and t 2 =1/8. 7.8.7.4 V3. 7.8.8.
831a. Hint.
3
3
3
- . 7.8.11.3' 7.8.12. t=3

e;- ),= 3;]. 7.9.5.cp- 7.9.9. . 7.9.10.
.J
SC'e Fig. 79.

M a
Hint.
4 (a
7.8.10.
ab
b )
31
5
2+
1.5:n:a.
The curve p
2 V a cos
\037
\037
the point
2 V 2 :rta.
In
\037
2Jt
At
\037
is a circle.
-3'
-
14:.1
62n
7.9.11. p [Y'i+In (I + y'2)]. 7.10.3.
3 ; (b)
7.10.5.
2JT
.
7.10.8.; 7.IO. 4. (3.1yT7 2) .
(I +3 \0373 )
56 2
2 Jl2
7.10.7. --;::-7.10.15.[V2+In(i + V 2)]. 7.10.16.
na .
(er. 2).
3
16a2 where a
7.10.18.
29.6Jt. 7.10.19.
4;t 2a2. 7.10.20. na2. 7.11.7.
(a))))
\037
2:n:
IT
t))
IS)
1\0378
Answers and Hints

the
radius
7
-4arc
I
(b) 50
(c)
the
of
tan
+6 J
{(511
211
7.11.17.
449)
VII)
8
7.11.8.1.5n. 7.11.10.
(a) 15;
2
2
base.
cylinders
Ch.
to
na
7.11.11.
(a) T;
2\"'
(b)
\037
(3+4V2);
7.11.13.
(2 In 3 -I). 7.11.14. (5 V5-2V 2).
-I+ ) .
7.11.19.
11a2 V pq .
. 7.11.18.
6
4
2a. 7.11.23.
7.11.21.
12:n:. 7.11.22.
:111a3.
)
(
3).
\0372
\037
11ab
\\\0371-
\037
C\0372
7.11.20.
:rra;h
7.11.24.
(b)
(a)
V\037-I
(2IVT3+
f(V5-V-2)+(V2+1)
M
2
.3+ VT3 .
+ 2ln 2 ) ' (c) 2JTrh. 7.12.2.
31'R. 7.12.4. 7.12.9.4 .
7.12.13.11R2H. 7.13.3.0.2511R3.
l1rdh 2.
7.12.12.
7.12.11.
11abhd.
7.13.7.
Mx =
Mx= (5 V5-1);
My=; V5+ 116In (2+V5). 7.13.8.
= Va 2+b2; My= Va 2 +b 2. 7.13.9.
V2+ln(l+V2). 7.13.10.0.15.
3
3
(a + 3b) . 7.13.
16.Xc = c = O.4a.
11.Ix = ab12; Iy = a b . 7.13.12.
7.13.
12
5a
sin a
a
7.13.19.
xc=R----a-;Yc=O. 7.13.28.
xc=S;Yc=O.
xc=Yc=S' 7.13.26.
l1b
V\037--
];
11
4'
R\037(U\037
1\037
\037
\037
Ii
1z3
0.2(2e -e)
7.13.29.
x c =1[
-e
e
7.13.31.
xc=O; Yc=
0.2a(e
21t
TI
2TI
Yc=
\037
1t
\037\037
even;
if
21
:\037\037
evenness. Hint.
and
42:\0372
:rr.Ri
(1, 1) in
quadrant
both
Tt
the first
\037
;-x:'
(x
if
4\\
:\037\037
if
:\037\037
Tn
m and n
are of
different
have two common points (0, 0)

of the figure situated
in the first
. Depending
) dx
bothmand narc
=x
I
and yn
The area
quadrant.
1
is equal to
n
ym = x
are odd;
m and n
7.13.30.4.5:rr.a:.
TI
1[
-e
' 7.14.1.1
:.;\037!
1;
The curves
_ 2e ) '
on evenness and
oddness
either about the coordinate

of m and n this figure is mapped symmetrically
axes (m, n even) or about the origin (m, n odd). If m and n are of different
evenness, then the curves encloseonly the area lying in the first quadrant.
Hint. Take advantage of the formula for computing the area in
polar coord inates.
Hint. Sincethe figures are of equal area, the function
appear-
7.14.3.
7.14.4.
S(x)
ing in the formula
for the volume V
= S (x) dx
is
the same and, consequently,
\037
a
are also equal.
the values of the integrals

Hint. The formula
7.14.5.
5 J (x)
o)))
follows oircctly
dx=
\037
from
Simpson's formula
II(O)-HI( ) +1(h) J
\037
\302\267
450)
Answers and Hints)
a sphere
for
S (x) = n (r 2
S (x) = 2npx
-x );
2
nr 2x2
h2
a cone S (x) ==
for
for
of
paraboloid
and so on.
Hint. Divide the curvilinear trapezoid into strips \037x wide and write
an expression for the element of volume \037v
2n xy \037x.
Hint. Use the formula for calculating the length of a curve represented parametrically.
H
The point (t I) nearest to the origin with a vertical)
In
revolution
7.14.6.
7.14.8.
;. in!.t==-,
V3
7.14.13.15'
-0.5
7.14.9.
tangent
correspondsto)
2)
(b)
7.14.16.) (a)) 0.5In (x+y);)
7.14.14.) Y2.z.)
2n
arc sinx.
\037
C hapt e r
VI I I
8.1.2.
(f) 2'
(b) 21n2; (c) I; (d) 1-ln2;(e) n;
In (x2 + I)
8.1.6.
> x for x > Y e-I; (b) converges;
(a) It diverges. Hint.
x
. t 2+ cos > ' (d) con verges; (e) d .verges.
.
(c) d verges. H tn.
x
I
xl.
001
I
8.1.17.
(a)
in
S 1+x2
O.
00
dx==
Yx
Hint.
Represent
\037
the
in
in
dx
dx. Make the
S 1+x2 + S 1+x2
00
r
J
th at
sh ow
con d surnrnan d an d
8.2.2.
(a)
9a
as
integral
oc
3;
..
I
the
substItutIon
2d
m!
(b) 2
diverges;
(d) 6
(c) diverges;
(f) converges for p < 1 and diverges for p \037
(c) converges;
(a) It converges;
(b) diverges;
(b)
it
I.
8.2.7.
x==t in
x
x= 5 I In+x
2 dx;
I +x
0
In
of two items:
sum
se-
the
'
V 2;)
(e)
\"3')))
1r- 7'
(d) converges;
51
2; (c)
diverges;
(e) diverges; (f) converges.
(a) It converges;
(b) diverges;
(c) diverges; (d) converges;
2.
3:rra
8.3.7.
211.
(e) converges.
(a) ; (a)
mgR. Hint. The law of attraction of a body by the Earth is determ{? R2
where In is the rnass of the body, r is the
mined by the formula f == 2
r
distance between the body and the centre of the Earth, R is the radius of
8.2.11.
(a) It
8.2.14.
8.3.14.
(b) 2 r
In
8.3.9.
+. 8.3.10..
8.3.8.
\03711
'
tl\037e
Earth.
8.3.15.
el' Hint.
are
the
magnitudes
8.4.1.
Hint. Represent
+00
51
where e1 and
r ,
the distance between them.
in the form of the sum
+00
Electric charges interact

of the charges and r is
xP
\037\037q
the integral
-5
a
xP
\037\037qX
+5
a)
with
xP
a force
\037\037q
el\0372
(a > I)
e2
A nswers and Hints
Ch. V III)
to
451)
that in the
and apply special tests for convergence, taking into consideration
as
I, and in the second integral
integral
function increasesslower for q < 0 than any power function.
the logarithmic
Hint. Making the substitution
reduce the given integral to the
lnx=ln[l+(x-l)]-x-Ix-+
first
8.4.2.
:!:+
form
}'\"
5
o
dt
xq=t,
5I
ges absolutely
1
==0 the
for
a=I
<a <2
and
is
integral
integral
and at
Si7 dt.
-+
P
5\"'
\037
I
I
and show that the inte g ra
to
the
0<a
for
conditionally
conditionally
the sum
conver-
\037
I. Note
converging
that
at
integral)
+\037
to the diverging
t
integral
5
0
dt.
s\037\037
1/2
the given integral
Represent
as the
-x)q-1dx+
xP-l(1
sum
\037
as
sin t dt
\037:
q)
reduced
P; = -
+\037
8.4.3.
Hint.
' where
dt
t\037
q)
5o
the
Represent
0)
sin t
dt.
sin t
II
o
+00
s\037\037
p+
t :\037
Xp-l (I -X)q-ldx
1/2
and apply the
\037
8.4.4.Hint.
If
aI
:f-
specialcomparison test.
T
I
\037
I.
then
sin
ax.sin
\037x
dx
is
bounded.
is
reduced
\037
8.4.5.
Hint. By
gam ma -funct ion.)
t=x2
substituting
00
8.4.6.)
Hint.)
the
integral
00
(\037x)
(ax)\037
00
dx= f
5
aa
\037)
dx-5
a(3
dx= f
5
aa)
f
\037X)
a(3
dx=
\037X)
(3a
A
= A In a + f (x)dx. Applying
x
5
aa
the generalized
the last integral
8.4.7.Hint.
8.4.8.
mean value theorem, show
-+
tends to zero as a
O.
Take the function f (x)=e-x for the
of the
f (x) = cosx for the second and take advantage
It converges for m < 3 and diverges for m
2
x
of the equ iva lence of 1 cosx and
as x --+
that
to the Euler
integral, the function

results of Problem
Take advantage
\037 3. Hint.
first
8.4.6.
O.)
31
31
8.4.9.
Hint.
dx
Represent
5o (sin x)k
as the
SUlll of two integrals
50 (sin.dxx)k +
31
+5
dx
j[ (sin x)k
2
tution
; reduce the second integral
x=n-tand
take advantage
to the first
one by
of the equivalence of sin
making
and
the substi-
x as x --+
O.)))
452)
Answers and Hints)
J[
2
cosx)
sin x (1'
sin x (1cosx) dx
8.4.10.
Ht nt.
dx ==
+
S
S
S
xS
o
00
00
sin x
-I-
0)
(I. cosx) dx. The
of the first summand
integrand
X S)
sideis
on the right
-y)
s-3 x-+s-3 i.e.
of order
as
O. By the specialcomparrson
large quantity
infinitely
s < 4, and diverges
test the first integral converges absolutely for
< I,
for
4. The second integral in the right side convergesabsolutely for 5 > I,
since the function sin x
x) is bounded. But if 0 < s\037 I, the second inas the difference of two conditionally converging)
tegra) converges conditionally
an
s;;:::
00
sin
Integra Is
S
iT
(I-cos
00
dx and
xS
S
J[
sin x.cosx dx
X
(see Problem
8.1.13).
8.4.11.
Hint.
(2) can diverge.
Integral
(x) =
cp
I,
{ -I,)
2nn
(2n
\037
For
\037
example,
let)
(2n -t-- 1)1t,
+ I) n < x < (2n+2)
n.)
00
00
The
Integral
sin x
dx
S --X
(see Problem
converges
sin x
But
8.1.13).
S ----x-
cp
0)
00
00
S
o
(x) dx =
dx diverges
Si\037
(see the same problem).
But
if
the integral
S f (x)
dx
con-
a)
00
then the integral
verges absolutely,
S f (x)
cp
(x) dx also converges absolutely:
if)
a)
cP
(x)
< C, then
t (x) cP (x)
< elf(x) I,
and it retnains
theorem.)
to
use
the comparison
J[
8.4.12
Hint.
Transform
the
mtegral
(x) into
(x) =
2-.k
In sin
z dz
by the
\037
y=
substitution
the
above to
j[
;-
z. Taking
--
that sin
T'I)
-S .
2
1 ity)
I,z
sin 2nx
2n
()
sin '2nx
= sin
(2n
sin
cos x dx,
\302\267
2) x. cos
2,,\\
dx=dv,
Integrate
by
.
# O. SIr.ce
+ sin 2x.cos(2n-2)
cos
,reduce
\037
\037
the sum ot three integrals.

In cos x, cos 2nx
Hint. Putting u
8.4.13.
the equa
into account
z= 2 sin
x,)))
part\037
and
get)
Answers and Hints
r
In
I
==2n
453)
-5 . (2n-2)x-dx+
2
sin
SIn
cosx
0)
.\"1
+
equal
Ch. V //1)
.1t
Check
to
by direct
5o sin
n
for
2) x.sin 2x dx
+ 2 5 sin 2x,cos(2n
2) x dx
for n
that
calculation
zero. Therefore,
(2n
:n:
T
\037
the
\037
second and
the third summands
\037 2)
;TT
n-I '
.
1=--5 sIn(2n-2)x-dx=--1
- 4;'3
I, 2 S
2
11
sin x
2n
cosx
n _1
o)
,n
Since
sin 2x
\037-
sin
J(
cosux dX===4
dave
\\ve
\037
o)
and
by
InductIon,
j(
In=(-l)n-,
4n
')))
I'},=
Jt
\302\267
\037
=-=
' '2
'J
\302\267
2\"
j[
. 4j[ 3.4
===

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- .

ATEJ1 beTB0 HAY K A)

First published 1973

3.2.Evaluation of Indeterminate Forms. L'Hospital'sRule

5.4.Other Methods of Integrating Irrational Expressions

of Certain Irrational Function\037 with the

of Other Transcendental Functions

the Limits of Sums with

7.4.Computing Areas with Parametrically Represented

tely attacks the unsolved problemswithout

referring to the text

The Absolute Value of a Real Number

decimal fraction, terminating or nonterminating,

are called rational numbers. Every

The set of real numbers x M is calledthe M-neighbourhood

satisfies the conditions

The properties of absolute values are:

Solution. To prove this, it is necessary to ascertain that the

and an irrational number

all rat iona 1 val u es 0f x at

bers.Then the difference y-x

V x2 -t- x 3 are rational llum== q is also a rat ional number. Let

check it is easy to ascertain that

Prove the reverse, namely, y==Vx2

The latter expressionis rational at any rational q not

also rational, since it is the quotient of two rational

Whence the number

[(V3+V2 )-(V3 -V2\])

contradicts the irrational nature of the number

positive rational number s satisfying

2 < 2x < 4 and 1 < x

(d) The given inequality is valid for those values of x at

x2-7x+12< 0, whence 3 < x < 4.

whether the following equations have any

Solution. (a) At x 0 we have x ==x + 5. Hence,there are no

5/2, which contradicts

our supposition (x < 0). Thus, the equation has no solution.

at any values of x, the equality is satisfied at those values of x

Solve the inequalities:

Solution. (a) This equation \\vill hold true

sin x < 0, that is

Substituting y for I x \\, we obtain

(2x)= ;;\037 :; 2f (x)= 2 ;+: ;

(-1,1) the following identity holds true:

f(x1)+f(x2)=f( t+\037:;2 )')))

l-x == og (I- l)(l-X) '

coincideswith the right-hand member of expression(1).

the function t (x)==(x+l)j(x:1

belong to the interval

Find: f (Jlr2),t (V8),f (Vlog2 1024).

In the square ABCD with side AB== 2 a straight line

> V2, then

-x +4xV2-4, V2< x\0372J/2.

the number an, which is equal to the nth decimal

points for which 7jx+ x==3.

f (0) ==5 ==a 02

Determinethe coefficientsa, b, c from the above system. We have:

Find f (3x); f (x3); 3f (x); [f (x)]3.

Find f (2), f (0), f (0.5),f (-0.5),

that if for an exponentialfunction y ==aX (a > 0;

(x) ==5x.Solve the

points at which l/x+ x ==5.

2; solve the equation

definition of the following functions: