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Cambridge University Press
0521651492 - An Introduction to Nuclear Physics, Second Edition

W. N. Cottingham and D. A. Greenwood
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An Introduction to Nuclear Physics

This clear and concise introduction to nuclear physics provides an excellent basis for a `core' undergraduate course in this area.
The book opens by setting nuclear physics in the context of elementary particle physics and then shows how simple models can provide an
understanding of the properties of nuclei, both in their ground states and
excited states, and also of the nature of nuclear reactions. The book
includes chapters on nuclear ssion, its application in nuclear power
reactors, and the role of nuclear physics in energy production and nucleosynthesis in stars.
This new edition contains several additional topics: muon-catalysed
fusion, the nuclear and neutrino physics of supernovae, neutrino mass
and neutrino oscillations, and the biological effects of radiation.
A knowledge of basic quantum mechanics and special relativity is
assumed. Appendices deal with other more specialised topics. Each chapter ends with a set of problems for which outline solutions are provided.
NOEL COTTINGHAM and DEREK GREENWOOD are theoreticians working in
the H. H. Wills Physics Laboratory at the University of Bristol. Noel
Cottingham is also a visiting professor at the Universite Pierre et Marie
Curie, Paris.
They have also collaborated in an undergraduate text, Electricity and
Magnetism, and a graduate text, An Introduction to the Standard Model of
Particle Physics. Both books are published by the Cambridge University
Press.
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An Introduction to
Nuclear Physics
Second edition
W. N. COTTINGHAM
University of Bristol
D. A. GREENWOOD
University of Bristol
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P U B L I S H E D B Y T H E P R E S S S Y N D I C A T E O F T H E U N I VE R SI T Y O F CA M B R I D G E
The Pitt Building, Trumpington Street, Cambridge, United Kingdom

C A M B R I D GE U N I VE R S I T Y PR E S S
The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 2RU, UK

40 West 20th Street, New York, NY 10011-4211, USA
10 Stamford Road, Oakleigh, VIC 3166, Australia
Ruiz de Alarcon 13, 28014 Madrid, Spain
Dock House, The Waterfront, Cape Town 8001, South Africa
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# Cambridge University Press 1986, 2001
This book is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception
and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,
no reproduction of any part may take place without
the written permission of Cambridge University Press.
First published 1986
Reprinted 1987 (with corrections and additions), 1988, 1990, 1992, 1998
Second edition 2001
Typeface Times 10/13pt 3B2 [KB]
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication data
Cottingham, W. N.
An introduction to nuclear physics / W.N. Cottingham and
D.A. Greenwood 2nd ed.
p.
cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0 521 65149 2 (hardback) ISBN 0 521 65733 4 (paperback)
1. Nuclear physics. I. Greenwood, D. A. II. Title.
QC776.C63 2001
539.7dc21 00-059885
ISBN 0 521 65149 2 hardback
ISBN 0 521 65733 4 paperback
Transferred to digital printing 2002
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Contents
1
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
2
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
3
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
Preface to the second edition

Preface to the rst edition
Constants of nature, conversion factors and notation
Glossary of some important symbols
Prologue
Fermions and bosons
The particle physicist's picture of nature
Conservation laws and symmetries: parity
Units
Problems
Leptons and the electromagnetic and weak interactions
The electromagnetic interaction
The weak interaction
Mean life and half life
Leptons
The instability of the heavy leptons: muon decay
Parity violation in muon decay
Problems
Nucleons and the strong interaction
Properties of the proton and the neutron
The quark model of nucleons
The nucleonnucleon interaction: the phenomenological
description
Mesons and the nucleonnucleon interaction
The weak interaction: -decay
More quarks
The Standard Model of particle physics
Problems
ix
x
xii
xiii
1
2
2
3
4
5
7
7
9
12
13
15
16
17
19
19
21
22
26
28
29
31
31
v
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vi
Contents
4
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8
4.9
5
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
5.7
6
6.1
6.2
6.3
7
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
8
8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
9
9.1
Nuclear sizes and nuclear masses

Electron scattering by the nuclear charge distribution
Muon interactions
The distribution of nuclear matter in nuclei
The masses and binding energies of nuclei in their ground
states
The semi-empirical mass formula
The -stability valley
The masses of the -stable nuclei
The energetics of -decay and ssion
Nuclear binding and the nucleonnucleon potential
Problems
Ground-state properties of nuclei: the shell model
Nuclear potential wells
Estimates of nucleon energies
Energy shells and angular momentum
Magic numbers
The magnetic dipole moment of the nucleus
Calculation of the magnetic dipole moment
The electric quadrupole moment of the nucleus
Problems
Alpha decay and spontaneous ssion
Energy release in -decay
The theory of -decay
Spontaneous ssion
Problems
Excited states of nuclei
The experimental determination of excited states
Some general features of excited states
The decay of excited states: -decay and internal conversion
Partial decay rates and partial widths
Excited states arising from -decay
Problems
Nuclear reactions
The BreitWigner formula
Neutron reactions at low energies
Coulomb effects in nuclear reactions
Doppler broadening of resonance peaks
Problems
Power from nuclear ssion
Induced ssion
33
33
36
37
39
41
44
48
50
52
52
56
56
58
60
65
66
67
68
72
74
74
75
83
87
89
89
93
97
99
100
101
103
103
107
109
111
113
115
115
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Contents
9.2
9.3
9.4
9.5
9.6
9.7
9.8
9.9
10
10.1
10.2
10.3
10.4
10.5
10.6
10.7
11
11.1
11.2
11.3
11.4
11.5
12
12.1
12.2
12.3
12.4
12.5
12.6
12.7
12.8
12.9
13
13.1
13.2
13.3
Neutron cross-sections for 235U and 238U

The ssion process
The chain reaction
Nuclear ssion reactors
Reactor control and delayed neutrons
Production and use of plutonium
Radioactive waste
The future of nuclear power
Problems
Nuclear fusion
The Sun
Cross-sections for hydrogen burning
Nuclear reaction rates in a plasma
Other solar reactions
Solar neutrinos
Fusion reactors
Muon-catalysed fusion
Problems
Nucleosynthesis in stars
Stellar evolution
From helium to silicon
Silicon burning
Supernovae
Nucleosynthesis of heavy elements
Problems
Beta decay and gamma decay
What must a theory of -decay explain?
The Fermi theory of -decay
Electron and positron energy spectra
Electron capture
The Fermi and GamowTeller interactions
The constants Vud and gA
Electron polarisation
Theory of -decay
Internal conversion
Problems
Neutrinos
Neutrino cross-sections
The mass of the electron neutrino
Neutrino mixing and neutrino oscillations
vii
116
118
119
121
122
124
125
126
127
130
130
132
135
139
140
143
146
148
151
151
155
156
157
160
161
163
163
166
168
171
173
177
178
179
184
185
186
186
188
189
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viii
13.4
13.5
14
14.1
14.2
14.3
14.4
15
15.1
15.2
15.3
15.4
15.5
15.6
A.1
A.2
A.3
A.4
C.1
C.2
C.3
C.4
D.1
D.2
Contents
Solar neutrinos
Atmospheric neutrinos
Problems
The passage of energetic particles through matter
Charged particles
Multiple scattering of charged particles
Energetic photons
The relative penetrating power of energetic particles
Problems
Radiation and life
Ionising radiation and biological damage
Becquerels (and curies)
Grays and sieverts (and rads and rems)
Natural levels of radiation
Man-made sources of radiation
Risk assessment
Problems
Appendix A: Cross-sections
Neutron and photon cross-sections
Differential cross-sections
Reaction rates
Charged particle cross-sections: Rutherford scattering
Appendix B: Density of states
Problems
Appendix C: Angular momentum
Orbital angular momentum
Intrinsic angular momentum
Addition of angular momenta
The deuteron
Problems
Appendix D: Unstable states and resonances
Time development of a quantum system
The formation of excited states in scattering: resonances
and the BreitWigner formula
Problems
Further reading
Answers to problems
Index
193
195
196
199
199
206
207
211
212
214
214
215
216
217
218
219
220
222
222
224
225
226
227
230
230
230
232
233
234
235
235
236
241
244
245
246
267
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Preface to the second edition
The main structure of the rst edition has been retained, but we have
taken the opportunity in this second edition to update the text and clarify
an occasional obscurity. The text has in places been expanded, and also
additional topics have been added. The growing interest of physics students in astrophysics has encouraged us to extend our discussions of the
nuclear and neutrino physics of supernovae, and of solar neutrinos. There
is a new chapter devoted to neutrino masses and neutrino oscillations. In
other directions, a description of muon-catalysed fusion has been
included, and a chapter on radiation physics introduces an important
applied eld.
We should like to thank Dr John Andrews and Professor Denis
Henshaw for their useful comments on parts of the text, Mrs Victoria
Parry for her secretarial assistance, and Cambridge University Press for
their continuing support.
W. N. Cottingham
D. A. Greenwood
Bristol, March 2000
ix
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Preface to the rst edition
In writing this text we were concerned to assert the continuing importance

of nuclear physics in an undergraduate physics course. We set the subject
in the context of current notions of particle physics. Our treatment of
these ideas, in Chapters 1 to 3, is descriptive, but it provides a unifying
foundation for the rest of the book. Chapter 12, on -decay, returns to
the basic theory. It also seems to us important that a core course should
include some account of the applications of nuclear physics in controlled
ssion and fusion, and should exemplify the role of nuclear physics in
astrophysics. Three chapters are devoted to these subjects.
Experimental techniques are not described in detail. It is impossible in
a short text to do justice to the ingenuity of the experimental scientist,
from the early discoveries in radioactivity to the sophisticated experiments of today. However, experimental data are stressed throughout:
we hope that the interdependence of advances in experiment and theory
is apparent to the reader.
We have by and large restricted the discussion of processes involving
nuclear excitation and nuclear reactions to energies less than about
10 MeV. Even with this restriction there is such a richness and diversity
of phenomena that it can be difcult for a beginner to grasp the underlying principles. We have therefore placed great emphasis on a few simple
theoretical models that provide a successful description and understanding of the properties of nuclei at low energies. The way in which simple
models can elucidate the properties of a complex system is one of the
surprises of the subject, and part of its general educational value.
We have tried to keep the mathematics as simple as possible. We
assume a knowledge of the basic formulae of special relativity, and
x
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Preface to the first edition
xi
some basic quantum mechanics: wave-equations, energy levels and the

quantisation of angular momentum. A few topics which may not be
covered in elementary courses in quantum mechanics are treated in
appendices. We consider the technicalities of angular momentum algebra,
phase shift analysis and isotopic spin to be inappropriate to a rst course
in nuclear physics. Equations are written to be valid in SI units; results are
usually expressed in MeV and fm. Each chapter ends with a set of problems intended to amplify and extend the text; some refer to further
applications of nuclear physics. We have covered the bulk of the material
in this book in 35 lectures of the core undergraduate curriculum at
Bristol; these are given in the second and third years of the honours
physics course.
We thank colleagues and students who read drafts of the text and
drew our attention to errors and obscurities, which we have tried to
eliminate. We are grateful to Margaret James and Mrs Lilian Murphy
for their work on the typescript.
There is a less obvious debt: to the sometime Department of
Mathematical Physics of the University of Birmingham where, under
Professor Peierls, we rst learned about physics.
W. N. Cottingham
D. A. Greenwood
Bristol, August 1985
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Constants of nature, conversion factors

and notation
Velocity of light
Planck's constant
Proton charge
Boltzmann's constant
c
h=2
e
kB
Gravitational constant
Fermi coupling
constant
Electron mass
G
GF
Proton mass
Neutron mass
Atomic mass unit
Bohr magneton
Nuclear magneton
Bohr radius
Fine-structure
constant
2:997 92 108 m s 1
1:054 57 10 34 J s
1:602 18 10 19 C
1:380 7 10 23 J K 1
8:617 10 5 eV K 1
6:67 10 11 m3 kg 1 s 2
1:166 10 11 c3 MeV 2
9:109 4 10 31 kg
0:511 00 MeV=c2
mp
1:007 276 amu
938:27 MeV=c2
mn
1:008 66 amu
939:57 MeV=c2
(mass 12C atom)/12 1:660 54 10 27 kg
931:49 MeV=c2
B e =2me
5:788 38 10 11 MeV T
N e =2mp
3:152 45 10 14 MeV T
a0 4"0 2 =me e2 0:529 177 10 10 m
1/137.036
e2 =4"0 c
me
1
1
c 197:327 MeV fm; e2 =4"0 1:439 96 MeV fm

1 MeV 1:602 18 10 13 J
1 fm 10 15 m; 1 barn 10 28 m2 102 fm2
(Source: Review of Particle Physics (1998), Eur. Phys. J. C3, 1794.)
Notation
r, k, etc., denote vectors x; y; z; kx ; ky ; kz , and r jrj, k jkj,
d3 r dx dy dz; d3 k dkx dky dkz .
r2
@2
@2
@2
1 @2
1
@
@
1
@2
sin

,
@ r2 sin2 @2
@x2 @y2 @z2 r @r2
r2 sin @
d
sin d d denotes an innitesimal element of solid angle.
xii
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A
Ar; t
a
BZ; N
Br; t
b
Er; t
E
FZ; Ee
f Z; E0
G
Gw
g
g L ; gs
gA
Grs =rc
J
j
jz
k
kF
L
l
nuclear mass number N Z

electromagnetic vector potential
}4.1 nuclear surface width; }4.5 bulk binding coefcient
binding energy of nucleus
magnetic eld
}4.5 surface tension coefcient; }14.1 impact parameter
electric eld
energy; En , Ep neutron energy, proton energy; EnF , EpF
neutron, proton Fermi energy, measured from the bottom of the shell-model neutron potential well; EG }8.3
}12.3 Coulomb correction factor in -decay
}12.3 kinematic factor in total -decay rate
}6.2 exponent in the tunnelling formula
}12.2 weak interaction coupling constant GF Vud
}8.1 statistical factor in BreitWigner formula
}5.6 orbital and intrinsic magnetic moment coefcients
}12.5 axial coupling constant
}6.2 tunnelling integral
}C.3 total angular momentum operator
quantum number associated with J2
quantum number of Jz
wave vector
value of k jkj at the Fermi energy
}C.1 orbital angular momentum operator
quantum number associated with L2 ; Chapter 9,
Chapter 14 mean free path
xiii
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xiv
m
ms
m
N
nE
N E
p
Q
q
R
rs ; rc
Sn N; Z
SE
S0 E; Sc E
s
s
T
T1=2
tnuc
tp
U
ul r
V
Vud
v
Z
; i

"0
"F

w
l
quantum number of Lz ; reduced mass

quantum number of sz
mass of -particle; ma , mnuc mass of atom, nucleus
number of neutrons in nucleus
density of states
integrated density of states
momentum
}5.7 nuclear electric quadrupole moment; }6.1 kinetic
energy release in nuclear reaction
}9.4 ssion probability
}4.3 nuclear radius; }12.3 reaction rate
}6.2 potential barrier parameters
}5.2 neutron separation energy
}8.3 parameter of nuclear reaction cross-section for
energies below the Coulomb barrier
}12.3 electron (positron) energy spectrum without and
with Coulomb correction
}C.2 intrinsic angular momentum operator
quantum number associated with s; }4.5 symmetry
energy coefcient
kinetic energy
decay half life
}5.2 nuclear time scale
}9.4 prompt neutron life
potential energy; U mean protonneutron potential
energy difference in nucleus
radial wave-function
normalisation volume; }3.3 Vr nucleonnucleon
potential
}12.5 element of KobayashiMaskawa matrix
velocity
atomic number (number of protons in nucleus)
width, partial width, of an excited state
1
}14.1 relativistic factor 1 v2 =c2 2
}4.4 coefcient of pairing energy
permittivity of free space
}11.1 Fermi energy of electron gas
}13.3 neutrino mixing angle
}13.1 Weinberg angle
}5.5 magnetic dipole operator
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n ; p

0
,d

ch
0
nuc ; n ; p
r

r
m
S0 ;
T
!
xv
neutron, proton magnetic moment

}5.5 magnetic dipole moment; }11.1 stellar mass per
electron; }14.3 photon linear attenuation coefcient
permeability of free space
}9.3 mean number of prompt neutrons, delayed
neutrons, per ssion
}2.1 electric charge density; }14.1 mass density
}4.1 electric charge density in units of e
}4.3 nucleon number density in nuclear matter
number density of nuclei, neutrons, protons
}C.2 Pauli spin matrices
cross-section; tot , e , f total, elastic, ssion crosssection
mean life; E1 , M1 electric, magnetic, dipole transition
mean life; }7.4 i 1 partial decay rate
}3.4 meson eld
electromagnetic scalar potential
single particle wave-function
}D.1 general wave-function
}3.3 angular terms in the nucleonnucleon potential
angular frequency
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Cambridge University Press

0521651492 - An Introduction to Nuclear Physics, Second Edition

An Introduction to Nuclear Physics

Cambridge University Press

Cambridge University Press

Cambridge University Press

Cambridge University Press

The Pitt Building, Trumpington Street, Cambridge, United Kingdom

The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 2RU, UK

Transferred to digital printing 2002

Cambridge University Press

Cambridge University Press

Preface to the second edition

Cambridge University Press

Cambridge University Press

Nuclear sizes and nuclear masses

Cambridge University Press

Cambridge University Press

Neutron cross-sections for 235U and 238U

Cambridge University Press

Cambridge University Press

Cambridge University Press

Cambridge University Press

Preface to the second edition

Cambridge University Press

Cambridge University Press

Preface to the rst edition

In writing this text we were concerned to assert the continuing importance

Cambridge University Press

Cambridge University Press

some basic quantum mechanics: wave-equations, energy levels and the

Cambridge University Press

Cambridge University Press

Constants of nature, conversion factors

c 197:327 MeV fm; e2 =4"0 1:439 96 MeV fm

Cambridge University Press

Cambridge University Press

Glossary of some important symbols

nuclear mass number N Z

Cambridge University Press

Cambridge University Press

Glossary of some important symbols

Cambridge University Press

quantum number of Lz ; reduced mass

Cambridge University Press

Cambridge University Press

neutron, proton magnetic moment

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c 197:327 MeV fm; e2 =4"0 1:439 96 MeV fm