Heat Transfer

Predicting Emissivities of
Combustion Gases
Alireza Bahadori
Hari B. Vuthaluru
Curtin Univ. of Technology

Use this new correlation, which employs easy-to-solve

algebraic equations to estimate gas emissivities,
to simplify the design and optimization of boilers,
furnaces and other combustion equipment.

t high temperatures, the main mode of heat transfer

is thermal radiation from the participating gases
primarily carbon dioxide and water vapor. Therefore,
information on the emissivities of these substances must be
known when analyzing the thermal performance of boilers,
furnaces, incinerators, and other combustion equipment. This
article presents an easy-to-use correlation for predicting the
emissivities of CO2 and H2O as a function of combustion gas
temperature, the partial pressure of carbon dioxide and water,
and the radiation path length (or beam length).

Combustion basics
The complete combustion of a hydrocarbon can be represented by:
h o
Cc Hh Oo Ss Nn + bc + 4 - 2 + slO2
h
n
$ c CO 2 + 2 H 2 O + s SO 2 + 2 N 2
where c is the number of carbon atoms, h the number of
hydrogen atoms, o the number of oxygen atoms, and s the
number of sulfur atoms in a molecule of the hydrocarbon.
For each mole of oxygen required, 4.77 moles of air
must be supplied. For example, for methane, 9.54 moles of
air are needed for every mole of methane.
The theoretical air requirement (AO) of a hydrocarbon
can be calculated by:
AO = 4.77(c + 0.25h 0.5o + s) (1)
The percentage of excess air, the amount supplied
beyond the stoichiometric amount required, is calculated by:

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June 2009 CEP

X = (Ai AO)/AO 100

(2)

where X is the percent of excess air, and Ai is the inlet air

concentration in moles of air per mole of fuel.
Gases such as air, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen have
a symmetrical molecular structure and do not emit or absorb
radiation at low to moderate temperatures. Hence, for most
engineering applications, such nonparticipating gases can be
ignored. However, polyatomic gases, such as CO2 and H2O,
emit and absorb significant amounts of radiation. This emission and absorption occur in limited spectral ranges known
as spectral bands.
In calculating the emitted or absorbed radiation for a
gas layer, its thickness, shape, surface area, pressure, and
temperature distribution must be considered. The thickness
of the gas layer i.e., the mean beam length, Lb, is the
characteristic length that corresponds to the radius of a hemisphere of gas such that the energy flux radiated to the center
of the base is equal to the average flux radiated to the area
of interest by the actual gas volume. Table 1 lists the mean
beam lengths of several simple shapes. For geometries for
which beam length has not been determined, it is generally
approximated by Lb = 3.6V/A for a gas volume V radiating to
its entire boundary surface area A.
The radiant heat flux between two surfaces at temperatures T1 and T2 is calculated by:
vF^ T 14 - T 24h
Q
=
A
1
1
a f + f - 1k
1
2

^ 3h

where Q = the rate of heat transfer, = Stefan-Boltzmann

constant = 5.67 108 W/m2-K4, F = geometric view factor,

Table 1. Use the equation appropriate for the furnace

geometry to calculate mean beam length.
Rectangular Furnace
Length-Width-Height
(in any order)

Mean Beam Length, Lb

1-1-1 to 1-1-3

(2/3)(Volume)1/3

1-2-1 to 1-2-4

(2/3)(Volume)1/3

1-1-4 to 1-1-

(1)(Smallest Dimension)

1-2-5 to 1-2-

(1.3)(Smallest Dimension)

1-3-3 to 1--

(1.8)(Smallest Dimension)
Cylindrical Furnace

Diameter-Height

Mean Beam Length, Lb

Refs. 46). However, in practice, these models are not easy

to use, since they require a detailed understanding of complex mathematical formulations and spectral information.
In light of this, our efforts have been directed at formulating simple-to-use correlations that can help engineers to
understand the thermal performance of an existing boiler or
to make alterations to the boiler design. They are presented
here along with the step-by-step procedure for using them,
and a typical example illustrates their practical application.
Equations 410 represent a new correlation in which
four coefficients (ad) are used to calculate the gas emissivity (1) as a function of the partial pressure of CO2+H2O (P)
and the optical beam length (Lb):

1-1

(2/3)(Diameter)

f1 = a + b^ PL bh + c^ PL bh2 + d^ PL bh3

1-2 to 1-

(1)(Diameter)

a = A1 + B1 Te + C1 T e2 + D1 T e3
b = A2 + B2 Te + C2 T e2 + D2 T e3
c = A3 + B3 Te + C3 T e2 + D3 T e3
d = A4 + B4 Te + C4 T e2 + D4 T e3

Source: Kern, D. Q., Process Heat Transfer, McGraw-Hill, New York, NY (1950).

and 1 and 2 are the emissivities of the combustion gases

and wall, respectively.
The geometric view factor is the fraction of the surface
area that is exposed to and absorbs radiant heat. It is based
on the relative geometry, position, and shape of the two
surfaces. The equation used to calculate F depends on the
specific geometry (see, for example, Ref. 1). In using Eq. 3,
it is recommended that F not be less than 0.67 (2).

Calculating emissivity
Charts developed by Hottel (3) more than 50 years
ago enable engineers to calculate the total emissivity of the
gas as a function of gas temperature (T) and the product of
partial pressure (P) and path length of the optical beam (Lb).
These charts cover temperatures up to 2,800 K and PLb
values of 0.0011.7 m-atm for CO2 and 0.0026.0 m-atm
for H2O. These charts are mainly based on absorption
measurements.
Over the past 40 years, several approximate models
for calculating the total emissivity and absorptivity of CO2
and H2O mixtures have been developed (see, for example,
Table 2. Use these constants to calculate the temperaturedependent coefficients for predicting emissivity.
A1

1.13263 101

A3

1.492

B1

1.3018

102

B3

7.9223 101

C1

1.0781 102

C3

2.4541 101

D1

103

8.8921

D3

1.6229

101

A2

1.28673

A4

6.0441 101

B2

6.913 102

B4

5.40546 101

C2

5.821 101

C4

1.01909 101

D2

2.05064 101

D4

1.47167 102

T
1, 000
0.2883
P=
1 + 0.009056X

^ 4h
^ 5h
^ 6h
^ 7h
^ 8h

Te =

^ 9h
^ 10h
Article continues on next page

Nomenclature
A
Ao
Ai
c
D
F
h
L
Lb
n
o
P
Q
s
T
Te
V
X

m2

= area,
= theoretical air requirement, mol/mol fuel
= inlet air flowrate, mol/mol fuel
= number of carbon atoms in the hydrocarbon
= diameter of pipe or cylinder, m
= geometric view factor, dimensionless
= number of hydrogen atoms in the hydrocarbon
= length of heat transfer surface, m
= beam length, m
= number of nitrogen atoms in the hydrocarbon
= number of oxygen atoms in the hydrocarbon
= sum of partial pressures of CO2 and H2O, bar (abs)
= heat transfer, heat input, or heat content (rates), Watt
= number of sulfur atoms in the hydrocarbon
= temperature, K
= temperature used to calculate gas emissivity
coefficients in Eq. 59, Te = T/1,000, K
= gas volume, m3
= percent of excess air, %

Greek Letters
= emissivity of the combustion gases
1
= emissivity of the wall
2

= Stefan-Boltzmann constant = 5.67 108 W/m2-K4

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Heat Transfer

Gas Emissivity

0.6
0.5
0.4
T = 500C
T = 700C
T = 900C
T = 1,100C
T = 1,300C
T = 1,500C

0.3
0.2
0.1
0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8
1
PLb, bar-m

1.2

1.4

1.6

S Figure 1. The predicted emissivities of combustion gases compare well

with typical values found in the literature (Refs. 2, 4).

The coefficients in Eqs. 58 are given in Table 2. These

coefficients are based on reported data for temperatures of
5001,600C (7731,873 K), and can easily be adjusted if
more-accurate data or data for a wider temperature range
become available.
Figure 1 compares the emissivities of combustion gases
predicted by Eqs. 410 with some typical literature data
(2, 4), and shows that there is good agreement between the
proposed correlation and the reported data. Figure 2 displays
the partial pressure of CO2+H2O as a function of percent
excess air, as predicted by the new relationship, Eq. 10.
The step-by-step procedure for calculating the combustion gas emissvities as a function of temperature via this
methodology is:
1. Calculate the partial pressure of CO2+H2O using
Eq. 10.
2. Calculate the optical beam length for the furnace
geometry using the appropriate equation in Table 1.
3. Divide T by 1,000 to obtain Te (Eq. 9).
4. Calculate the coefficients ad by Eqs. 58.
5. Calculate the emissivity of the combustion gases
from Eq. 4.

Sum of Partial Pressures

of CO2 and H2O, bar

0.35
0.3
0.25
0.2

vF^ T 14 T 24h
Q
=
A
1
1
f1 + f2 - 1
^ 5.67 # 10 - 8h^0.75h^ 1, 813 4 - 423.15 4h
=
1
1
0.1136 + 0.72 - 1
= 49, 837 W/m 2

Closing thoughts
Unlike complex mathematical approaches for estimating emissivities of combustion gases, the proposed correlation is simple to use, employing basic algebraic equations that can easily and quickly be solved by spreadsheet.
In addition, the estimates are quite accurate, as evidenced
by the comparisons with literature data. This approach
would be useful in the design of boilers and furnaces,
as well as in improving the thermal efficiency of
CEP
combustion equipment.

0.15

Acknowledgement
0.1
0

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

Excess Air

S Figure 2. Equation 10 calculates total partial pressure of CO2+H2O as a

function of the percentage of excess air.

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Example
Calculate the radiant heat flux to a 0.9-m length of a
0.6-m-I.D. firetube when the combustion gases inside
the tube are at 1,540C and the firetube wall is at 150C.
Assume the fuel contains 60% methane, 30% ethane and
10% propane, and inlet-air flowrate is 15.7 mole per mole
of fuel.
Solution. The heat flux, Q/A, is calculated by Eq. 3, with
T1 = 1,540 + 273.15 = 1,813 K, T2 = 150 + 273.15 = 423.15
K, 2 is the emissivity of oxidized steel (at 600C) = 0.72,
and 1 is the emissivity of the combustion gases.
To calculate the geometric view factor, F, divide the
curved surface area by the total surface area (with D = 0.6
and L = 0.9): F = [DL]/[DL + (2D2)/4] = 0.75.
The partial pressure of CO2+H2O is calculated from Eq.
10. The theoretical air requirement is Ao = 13.1 mol air/mol
fuel. From Eq. 1, c = 1.5 and h = 5. From Eq. 2, the amount
of excess air is X = [(15.7 13.1)/13.1] 100 = 19.8%.
Thus, from Eq. 10, P = 0.2883/[1 + 0.009056(19.9)] =
0.245 bar.
For a cylindrical furnace whose length is greater than the
diameter, the beam length (from Table 1) is: Lb = (1)(D) =
0.6. Hence, PLb = 0.243 0.6 = 0.147 bar-m.
From Eqs. 48, the gas emissivity is 1 = 0.1136.
Thus, Eq. 3 gives:

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June 2009 CEP

Author Bahadori acknowledges the Australian Dept. of Education, Science

and Training for providing the Endeavour International Postgraduate
Research Scholarship (EIPRS), the Curtin Univ. of Technology Ofce of
Research and Developments for the Curtin Univ. Postgraduate Scholarship
(CUPS), and the Western Australia State for the scholarship through the
Western Australia Energy Research Alliance (WA:ERA).

Literature Cited
1.

Holman, J. P., Heat Transfer, McGraw-Hill, New York,

NY (1990).

2.

Gas Processors and Suppliers Association, Engineering

Data Book, 12th ed., Section 8: Fired Equipment, p. 87,
GPSA, Tulsa, OK (2004).

3.

Hottel, H. C., Radiation Heat Transfer, Chapter 4 in

McAdams, W. H., ed., Heat Transmission, 3rd ed.,
McGraw-Hill, New York, NY, pp. 8385 (1954).

4.

Lobo, W. E., and Evans, J. F., Heat Transfer in Radiant

Section of Petroleum Heaters, AIChE Transactions, 35,
pp. 743778 (1939).

5.

Farag, I. H., Non Luminous Gas Radiation Approximate Emissivity Models, Proceedings of the Seventh
International Conference, Munich, West Germany
(Sept. 610, 1982).

6.

Edwards, D. K., and A. Balakrishnan, Thermal Radiation by Combustion Gases (Combustion Molecular Gases
Radiative Heat Transfer, Emissivity and Absorptivity
Calculation, Presenting High-Speed Computer Routine),
International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, 16,
pp. 2540 (Jan. 1973).

ALIREZA BAHADORI is a PhD candidate in the Dept. of Chemical Engineering at

the Curtin Univ. of Technology (GPO Box U1987, Perth, Western Australia,
6845 Phone: +61-8-9266-1782; Fax: +61-8-9266-2681; E-mail: alireza.
bahadori@postgrad.curtin.edu.au). Previously, he was a senior process
engineer in the Petroleum Engineering Dept. of National Iranian South Oil
Co. (NISOC), Ahwaz, Iran, working on a variety of oil and gas projects. He
holds a BSc from the Abadan Institute of Technology, Iran, and an MSc from
the Shiraz University, Iran, both in chemical engineering. He is the author
or coauthor of more than 60 refereed journal papers and the recipient
of the Australian Governments Dept. of Education Science and Training
Endeavour International Postgraduate Research Scholarship (EIPRS) and
a scholarship through the Western Australia Energy Research Alliance
(WA:ERA). His research interests include oil and gas processing, improved
oil recovery, numerical and mathematical modeling, multiphase ow in
pipelines, gas reservoir engineering, and greenhouse gas control. He is a
member of Engineers Australia.
HARI BABU VUTHALURU is an associate professor in the Dept. of Chemical
Engineering at Curtin Univ. of Technology (Phone: +61-8-9266-4685;
Fax: +61-8-9266-2681E-mail: H.Vuthaluru@exchange.curtin.edu.au). His
research interests include optimization of power utility equipment and
chemical process units through computational uid dynamics (CFD) modeling, design and commissioning of bench- and pilot-scale facilities for coal
conversion processes, ash-related issues in power utilities, desalination,
and oil- and gas-related technologies. He has been instrumental in solving
coal quality as well as operational issues for several power utilities, and
published more than 100 refereed journal publications, international conference papers, and industrial reports. Vuthaluru holds a PhD from the Univ.
of Newcastle, Australia, and is a member of AIChE and a Fellow of IChemE.

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