Jack Oughton / 07023367

Abstract:
In this article I argue that current research indicates that an
isothermal model of galactic expansion appears to tentatively
confirm empirical evidence. I discuss fundamental cosmological
principles which mass accreting theories of galaxy formation are
derived from. I discuss earlier research which has established the
framework. I also highlight ongoing problems that face us in
developing a working model of galaxy formation and accretion in
the early universe.

Introduction:
Big bang – origin of the universe and the precursor to
galactic origination
Explaining the process of galaxy formation is a tenuous hypothetical
endeavor. We do not know the initial conditions in the primordial
Universe with enough accuracy to reconstruct the process with
scientific accuracy.

The big bang, which is current scientific consensus for the origin of
the universe, confines all matter and energy at the beginning of the
universe within an infinitely small space, homogenously distributed.
After staggeringly short and energetic periods of time in which
subatomic and elementary particles formed, and energetic forces
became distinct from each other, we reach a period where the
universe is beginning to resemble its present self.

This point has been described as the opaque era of the universe,
when light and matter were intertwined. Photons of light collided
with free protons (hydrogen ions), neutrons, electrons and helium
nuclei, trapping the light in a thick particle plasma. After about
300,000 years of expansion, following the big bang, the universe
had cooled enough to allow atoms of hydrogen and helium and
trace elements to form, in an event called recombination. As these
primordial atoms started to combine, photons that were trapped in
the plasma were liberated, and the universe became transparent to
light. The process that produced this blast of free energy is known
as photon decoupling, and this period of time is known as the
decoupling epoch. From this decoupling of matter and energy the
cosmic microwave background as we see it today was created. This
period of time is important as it marks the boundary to the cosmic
dark age. Unfortunately, periods before the decoupling are invisible
to us, and are the reason why scientific experiments which
replicate the conditions of this era are important in our
understanding of these processes.

We are now in the era of galaxies, where the trend in mass

accumulation has increased to the scale of galaxy formation.
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A ripple on a flat surface is an area which has mass that breaks the
uniformity of the background pattern. It is believed that there were
ripples in this primordial superdense plasma, of a few parts per
million. Although tiny, these ripples would have implications as the
Universe expanded, and their scale was magnified exponentially in
tandem with the growth of the matter cloud. These fluctuations in
gas may not have been the only ripples, some propose that at dark
matter may have also began to form clumps at the same time, or
before ordinary matter. Because of it’s gravitational influence, it
may have had effects on the normal matter around it, possibly
disrupting the ripples in conventional matter.(Atwood 2006)

Fig. 1. Spectrum of the Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation as

measured by the COBE satellite. Within the quoted errors, the
spectrum is precisely that of a perfect black-body at radiation
temperature T = 2.728 ± 0.002 K(Fixsen & Mather 2002) Although
we are unable to ‘see’ it, this is the footprint for our primordial
fireball and strong evidence for the hot big bang hypothesis.

Observational evidence from a variety of sources currently points to

a universe which is (at least approximately) spatially flat. We
happen to live in that brief era, cosmologically speaking, when both
matter and vacuum are of comparable magnitude. At early times,
the cosmological constant would have been negligible, while at later
times the density of matter will be essentially zero and the universe
will be empty.(Sean M. Carroll 2001)

Today the visible universe is highly inhomogeneous, with mass

unevenly distributed between denser areas of isolated galaxies,
denser still areas of galactic superclusters and giant voids of
intergalactic space. As we progress to larger and larger scales, the
distribution of galaxies becomes smoother, but still contains
significant non-random features(Longair 2008)
Jack Oughton / 07023367

It is within the context of this big bang hypothesis that most

modern galactic formation theories exist.

Dark Matter – Cosmic Scaffolding for Building Galaxies

Fig 2.This is a 3-D map of dark matter. Clumping of the dark matter
is more pronounced in the more recent times (left) than in the early
universe (right). NASA / ESA / R. Massey

Dark matter (DM) takes its name from the idea that 5/6ths of matter
in the universe is invisible to us; ‘dark’, though it’s gravitational
effects can be measured on luminous matter, such as that
contained in galaxies(Dekel 1995). DM appears not to interact via
the electromagnetic force, and therefore neither emits nor reflects
light. However, interacts via gravity, and has been observed
through the gravitational lensing it creates (Kitching et al. 2010)

Dark matter is essential to fill missing values in astrophysical

models, such as the cosmological constant, in which a figure with a
positive energy density would drive an accelerating expansion of
empty space. DM was originally hypothesized to explain the
abnormally high rotation speeds of galaxies, which would otherwise
be torn apart if they did not contain hidden mass.

We do not yet have a definitive model of how galaxies form. Many

observational barriers have been overcome in the last few years;
and it is now possible to observe galaxies over >90% of the age of
the universe. This is due to technological advancements such as
new telescopes, instruments, and techniques. (Steidel 1999)

Most theories about the early universe make two assumptions; it

was filled with hydrogen and helium, and that some areas were
slightly denser than others. How this larger, more homogenous field
of gas resulted in the formation of galaxies is an area where
astrophysicists differ.

In our region of mass overdensity (an area where localised mass is

accumulating to densities greater than the cosmic mean), eventual
Jack Oughton / 07023367

decoupling from the Hubble flow [the normal speed of universal

expansion] results in a turnaround point. At this point the mass in
our localized region is sufficient to cause gas to fall inwards and join
the growing overdensity(Del Popolo 2002).

Broadly speaking there are two scenarios, which address the

mechanism of mass overdensity.

Top Down [Adiabatic]

In this theory, the first objects to have separated from the
homogonous background, and gravitationally bound to themselves
would have had masses at the level of 1015 M☉. They would be
irregular or flattened, resembling cosmic pancakes.
This scenario supports the classical formation theory of Eggen,
Lyden Bell and Sandage, who hypothesized that the Milky Way
resulted from the dynamic collapse of a large glass cloud. As the
cloud collapsed into a superdense centre of mass, the gas
surrounding it would begin to spin up into a rapidly rotating disk.
(Eggen et al. 1962)

Top down sequences would be expected if long wavelength ripples

in the pregalactic gas cloud carried more power than shorter ones.
Theoretically matter would clump on the largest scales first and this
effect would be compounded, with a gravitational bias towards the
larger wavelengths as they accumulated more and more mass.

Bottom Up [Isothermal]
Contrastingly, if smaller scale fluctuations in the cloud where more
important, then the first systems to become gravitationally
independent would be smaller. This theory was developed by
Searle and Zinn. They hypothesized that the galactic formation
occurs through a process of accretion (Searle & Zinn 1978).These
smaller, denser areas would over time combine together in a
process known as hierarchical galaxy formation. It would not be
unlike gravitational galactic interactions we observe today, in which
galaxies appear to be in the process of merging or distorting their
mutual structure.
It has been suggested that tidal interactions modify galactic
structures, and can contribute to either a deformation of a galaxy
structure, or if interaction is prolonged, a full scale merger between
them (Alladin & Narasimhan 1982). Galactic cannibalism is the
process in which a more massive galaxy assimilates smaller
galaxies on it’s periphery. The redshifts of many galaxies within the
local group show evidence of a virgocentric flow. This speed of this
flow (the actual difference between the Virgo cluster peculiar
velocity and the peculiar velocity of the Local Group (LG) in the
direction of Virgo) is estimated to be 220 km/s (Courteau 2000)
Jack Oughton / 07023367

Fig 3 Velocity vectors from LG and Virgo. The Virgo infall velocity (
Vi
nfall ) is vectorially subtracted from the LG’s MBR (microwave
background radiation) motion.

Signs of similar flow have also been detected in the redshift

distance relation for galaxies proximate to similar massive objects in
clusters outside the local group (Allan Sandage 1999).

This presents strong evidence that gravitational attraction between

galaxies is responsible for changes in universal mass distribution,
and supports an isothermal system of mass accretion.

Conclusion
In my personal opinion, some derivative of the bottom up
hypothesis of galaxy formation is most credible at this time. I say
this as there is ample observational evidence of hierarchical
clustering.

However, our knowledge in this area is built on shaky foundations.

There is ongoing argument about the fundamental mechanics
of gas cloud behavior, regarding the mass problem, with
conflicting explanations coming from the Lambda Cold Dark
Matter hypothesis and modified gravitational theories such as
Modified Newtonian Cosmology, proposed by Milgrom(Milgrom
1983), and Moffatt’s MOG(Moffat 2006). The relation between
peculiar velocities and the correlation function of galaxies
points to the possibility that galaxies do not form uniformly
everywhere(Szalay 1985). None of the present theories of
Jack Oughton / 07023367

galaxy formation can account for all facts in a natural way,

and often conflict. It is probable that there is more than one
mechanism at work in galaxy formation.

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