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Personality
A complex set of unique psychological qualities that influence an
individual's characteristic pattern of behavior across different
situations and over time
Personality Psychology
The scientific study of the psychological forces that make people uniquely
themselves.
Questions Asked:
How are we unique individuals?
What is the nature of self?
"What makes a person tick?"
Personality psychology is scientific due to the use of methods of scientific
inference to test theories.
Examples: correlational analysis, case studies, cross-cultural
comparisons, and research into biological structures.
Personality psychology focuses on 8 key aspects that help us to understand
the complex nature of the individual.
1) Unconscious forces
2) Ego forces
3) Cognitive forces
4) Biological forces
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Psychodynamic Theory
"The psychoanalytical definition of the mind is that it
comprises processes of the nature of feelings, thinking, and
wishing, and it maintains that there are such things as
unconscious thinking and unconscious wishing" (Freud, 1943,
p.23)
(Intrapsychic).
These intrapsychic events motivate our behavior.
Operate consciously and unconsciously
Erogenous
Zone
Oral (birth to
12-18 months)
Mouth
Weaning
Oral gratification from
sucking, eating, biting
Anal (12-18
months to
3 years)
Anus
Toilet training
Phallic(3to
5-6 years)
Genitals
Oepidal conflict
Sexual curiosity
Masturbation
Latency
(5-6 years to
puberty)
None
Genital
(puberty
onward)
Genitals
Conflicts/
Experiences
Gratification from
expelling and
withholding feces
Copyright 2001 by
Allyn and Bacon
Conscious
Level
Preconscious
Level
Unconscious
Level
Aspect of
Personality
Level of
Consciousness
Ego
Mostly conscious
Superego
ld
Unconscious
Description/Function
Copyright
2001 by Allyn
and Bacon
Defense mechanisms help a person to maintain a favorable selfimage and to sustain an acceptable social image.
When overused, they create more problems than they solve.
Unhealthy to spend too much time and psychic energy in defense
mechanisms. Leaves little energy for productive living or satisfying human
relationships.
Criticisms
1) Concepts are too vague and cannot be evaluated
scientifically.
2) Cannot predict what will occur because it is applied after
events have occurred.
3) Never studied on children.
4) Very male-centered.
Modification
Greater emphasis on ego functions, development of self,
conscious thought process, and personal mastery.
Focus on role of social variables.
Less emphasis on sexual urges.
Extended personality development beyond childhood to
include the entire lifespan.
Humanistic Theory
The motivation for behavior comes from a person's unique
tendency to develop and change in positive directions toward the
goal of self-actualization (striving for inherent potential).
Sometimes conflicts with the need for approval from the self and
others, especially when the individual feels certain obligations or
conditions must be met to gain approval.
Humanistic Theory
(Carl Rogers)
Unconditional Positive Regard: complete love and acceptance of
an individual by another person, such as parents for a child, with
no conditions attached.
Is stressed because worrying about seeking approval interferes with
self-actualization.
Needs to be given and received to those you are close to.
Also need to feel it for yourself.
Humanistic Theory
(Carl Rogers)
The "real-self" requires favorable environmental
circumstances to be self-actualized (parental love, warmth,
friendship)
Anxiety develops in the absence of these, that stifles
spontaneity of expression of real feelings and prevents
effective relations with others.
To cope with basic anxiety people resort to interpersonal and
intrapsychic defenses.
Humanistic Theory
(Abraham Maslow)
Hierarchy ofNeeds
These needs activate and direct human behavior.
We are not driven by all needs at the same time.
Only one need dominates our personality, depending on which others
have been satisfied.
Humanistic Theory
(Characteristics)
Holistic: explain individual's acts in terms of their whole
personality.
Social-Learning Theory
Combines principles of learning with an emphasis on human
interactions in social settings.
Humans are not driven by inner forces, nor are they helpless to
environmental influences.
Personality is based on a complex interaction of individual
factors, behavior, and environmental influences.
Social-Learning Theory
Reciprocal Determinism: Your behavior can be
influenced by your attitudes, beliefs, or prior history of
reinforcement as well as by environmental influences.
Observational Learning is a critical component.
Models
The basis of observational learning.
Learning can occur through observation or example rather than only
by direct reinforcement.
We learn by observing other people and modeling our behavior after
theirs.
By observing the behavior of a model and repeating that behavior, it is
possible to acquire responses that we have not performed previously
and/ or to strengthen or weaken existing responses.
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Social-Learning Theory
Self-Efficacy: the belief that one can perform adequately in a particular
situation. Self-efficacy judgments include:
Vicarious experience: your observations of the performance of others
Persuasions: others convincing you that you can do something, you convincing
yourself.
Influences how much effort you expand and how long you persist when faced
with difficulty.
Behavioral outcomes depend both on people's perceptions of their own abilities
and their perceptions of the environment.
Psychopathology
Disruption in the emotional, behavioral or thought processes
that lead to personal distress or that block one's ability to
achieve important goals.
What is Abnormal?
1) Distress or Disability: experiencing personal distress or disabled
functioning.
What is Abnormal?
More confident in judging behavior as abnormal when more
than one indicator is present.
Psychological disorders are best thought of on a continuum
that varies between mental health and mental illness.
The goal in making judgments regarding if an individual has a
disorder is to be as objective as possible.
Diagnosis
Psychological Diagnosis: the label given to an
abnormality by classifying and categorizing the observed
behavior pattern into an approved diagnostic system.
DSM
Main guide for mental health professionals listing over 200
disorders.
Emphasizes description of patterns of symptoms and courses
of disorders.
Etiology of Psychopathology
Casual or Contributory factors in the development of
psychological problems. 2 general categories:
1) Biological approaches: disturbances are directly attributable
to underlying biological factors.
Abnormalities in the brain, genetic influences, etc.
Anxiety Disorders
Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD)
Feeling anxious or worried most of the time, when not faced with any
specific danger.
Often focused on life circumstances.
Symptoms: muscle tension, fatigue, restlessness, poor concentration,
irritability, and sleep difficulties.
Anxiety Disorders
Phobias: a persistent and irrational fear of a specific object or
situation that is excessive and unreasonable given the reality of
the threat.
Social Phobia: arising in anticipation of a public situation in which an
individual can be observed by others.
Specific phobia: occurs in response to several different types of objects
or situations.
Anxiety Disorders
PostTraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD):
Characterized by the persistent re-experiencing of a traumatic
event through distressing recollections, dreams, hallucinations,
or flashbacks.
As a response to a traumatic event such as war, rape, severe injury, or a
life-threatening situation.
Mood Disorders
Major Depressive Disorder: characterized by the
presence of a major depressive episode.
Depressed mood, loss of interest, weight fluctuations, sleep
difficulties, fatigue, worthlessness, difficulty concentrating, thoughts
of death.
Personality Disorders
A chronic, inflexible, maladaptive pattern or perceiving,
thinking, or behaving that can seriously impair the
individual's ability to function and can cause significant
distress.
Been with an individual for a number of years
Has to do with personality rather than a specific problem
area.
Dissociative Disorders
A disturbance in the integration of identity, memory, or
consciousness.
Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID): previously called
Multiple Personality Disorder
Schizophrenic Disorder
NOT SPLIT PERSONALITY
Severe form of psychopathology in which personality seems to disintegrate,
thought and perception are distorted, and emotions are blunted.
Involves illogical thinking, associations among ideas that are remote or without
apparent patterns, and bizarre sensory experiences.
Hallucinations: hearing voices is the most common(+)
Delusions: false or irrational beliefs ( +)
Language: illogical, incongruent, word salad (-)
Blunted or inappropriate emotions (-)
Psychomotor retardation or agitation. (+)or (-)
Social withdrawal
( +)
Goals of Therapy
1) Reaching a diagnosis
2) Proposing a probable etiology (cause)
3) Prognosis: the course of the problem
4) Treatment for the Presenting Problem
5) Decreasing problematic behavior
6) Increasing functioning in all areas
7) Gaining insight so that the client can help themselves.
Divisions of Treatment
Biological Therapies: focus on the biological aspects of a
disorder.
Psychodynamic Therapy
An individuals difficulties are caused by the psychological
tension between unconscious impulses and wishes and inner
conflicts that are repressed.
Psychodynamic Techniques
Free Association: allowing the mind to wander and giving
running account of thoughts and wishes while relaxing
comfortably, thus not allowing for defense mechanisms to censor
what is said.
Psychodynamic Techniques
Transference: the development by the client of emotional
feelings toward the therapist formerly held toward some
significant person in a past emotional conflict.
Behavior Therapy
Utilizes the principles of learning to increase the frequency
of desired behavior and/ or decrease the frequency of
problem behaviors.
Range of treated problems includes anxiety, mood, aggression,
and conduct problems.
Cognitive Therapies
Change problem feelings and behaviors by changing the way
clients think about significant life experiences.
Aaron Beck
Beck's Cognitive
Triad Model
suggests that
depressed individuals
have the following:
( 1 ) a negative view of
themselves;
Aaron Beck
Changing cognitive distortions involves:
1) Challenging basic assumptions about functioning
2) Evaluate evidence the client has for and against
accuracy of thoughts
3) Reattribute blame to situational factors rather than
the client's incompetence.
4) Discuss alternative solutions to complex tasks that
could otherwise lead to experiences of failure.
Humanistic Therapy
Attempts to help clients define their own freedom, value their
experiencing selves and the richness of the present moment,
cultivate their individuality, and discover ways to realize their
fullest potential (self-actualization).
Helps "average" (w I o diagnosis) individuals achieve greater levels
of performance and richness of experience.
OtherTypes ofTherapies:
Group Therapy
Family Therapy
Couples Therapy
PlayTherapy
Art Therapy
Social Psychology
The study of how individuals' feelings, thoughts, and
behaviors are influenced by social stimuli.
Individuals: this distinguishes social psychology from other
social sciences.
Such as sociology and anthropology
Attribution Theory
The theory of how people explain the behavior of others.
People tend to attribute someone's behavior to internal causes
Actor-Observer Effect
In explaining our own behavior, we are more likely to make
situational attributions.
The exception is when we make attributions for our own
success.
The tendency to make dispositional attributions for our successes and
situational attributions for our failures in called the Self-Serving Bias.
Self-Fulfilling Prophecy
A belief that leads to its own fulfillment.
Our ideas lead us to act in ways to produce their
apparent confirmation.
Examples:
Pygmalion in the classroom
Subjects in a learning experiment who expected to be taught by
an excellent teacher, perceived their teacher as more competent
and interesting than students with low expectations and thus
worked harder.
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Conformity
A change in behavior or belief to accord with others. Types
include:
Compliance: conformity that involves publicly acting in
accord with an implied or explicit request while privately
disagreeing.
- - Asch's Line
Judgement Task
S t andard line
Comparison lines
people's behavior.
Altruism
A concern for the welfare of others that is expressed through
such prosocial acts as sharing, cooperating, and helping.
Behavior that benefits another person, regardless of the actor's
motives.
Selfishness in reverse
A motive to increase another's welfare without conscious regard
for one's self-interests.
Theories of Altruism
Social Exchange Theory
Human interactions are transactions that aim to maximize one's
rewards and minimize costs.
Rewards that motivate helping can be internal or external.
Most eager to help someone we fmd attractive and thus gain their
approval.
Helping increases our sense of self-worth.
More likely to help after our self-image has been damaged.
Theories of Altruism
Biological/EvolutionaryTheory
Individuals are more likely to receive protection from natural
enemies and to satisfy their basic needs if they live together in
cooperative social units.
Improving Atruism
Reverse the factors that inhibit helping.
Having a personal connection makes one feel less
anonymous and more responsible.
Helpfulness increases when one expects to meet the
victim and other witnesses again.
Concern about your public image will increase helping.
Socializing Altruism:
Model Altruism
Attribute helpful behaviors to altruistic motives.
Learn about altruism.