Philosophy of the Constitution

Q&A
Q1. What is the meaning of political philosophy of our constitution?

A1.political philosophy of our constitution means that :

a. It explains the conceptual structure of the constitution. it helps us to understand the
meanings of terms like 'rights', 'citizenship', or democracy.
b. It explains the values on which our constitution is build.
c. it also helps to explain the reasons behind the formulation of law. when Indian
Constitution is read in conjunction with constituent assembly debates, we are to justify
values embedded in our constitution. Therefore, political philosophy not only helps in
finding the moral value of the law but also it helps to arbitrate between varying
interpretations of the values in our polity.
Q2. How our constitution is able to arbitrate among different ideals?
A2. any ideal has different interpretations by different institutions. but the interpretation
which has considerable authority from constitution is valued. thus, our constitution helps in
arbitrating among different ideals.

constitution as ameans of democratic transformation

as we have just read that constitution sets the rules and regulations for the country and this
helps in limiting the power of government and preventing it from turning it into tyrannical
form of government.
Constitution is an instrument to bring socio- economic and political transformation in the
country. it provide peaceful and democratic means to bring about transformation. it was
designed to bring about a change and shed away traditional and conservative ideologies and
bring freedom, equality and justice.
therefore, constitution exists not only to limit people in power but to empower those who
have been traditionally deprived of it.
Q&A
Q1. How our constitution is able to bring democratic transformation?
A1. Constitution sets the rules and regulations for the country and this helps in limiting the
power of government and preventing it from turning it into tyrannical form of government.
It is also an instrument to bring socio- economic and political transformation of the country.
It provides peaceful and democratic means to bring about transformation.
also, our constitution has been designed to bring about a change and shed away traditional
and conservative ideologies and bring freedom, equality and justice.
Q2. Why do we need to read our constituent assembly debates?
A2. we need to read our constituent assembly debates for following reasons:

a. It helps in justifying the values embedded in our constitution.

b. our history of constitution is still very much history of the present. its just 62 years back
when we have framed our constitution. and we have not separated ourselves from the values,
ideals and conception of the world of constituent assembly.
c. to know the current constitutional practice, their value and their meaning ,we need to go
back to constituent assembly debates from time to time.

WHAT IS THE POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY OF OUR CONSTITUTION?

Our constitution is build on the principles of liberty, democracy, egalitarian, secular and
federal, open to community values, sensitive to the needs of religious and linguistic
minorities and commitment towards building common national identity. These principles
will be dealt in little detail.
Individual Freedom
It didnot happen that our constitution makers post independence demanded liberty as the
principle to govern the constitution. Rather liberty has been debated and discussed for long
and our national leaders have fought hard for it.
Raja Ram Mohun Roy demanded freedom of press and freedom of publications. Rowlatt Act
was also opposed. the act ordered police to imprison people without trial and this harmed the
rights of an individual.
Therefore, when our national leaders fought really hard for preserving individual freedom, it
was natural that freedom would be one of the principle of our constitution.
Social Justice
our indian constitution did not adopt liberalism in the classical sense. it means that there wa
not complete liberalism. Rather liberalism with social equality was established. our national
leaders thought that complete freedom will not have any value for the weak and
marginalised community. therefore, they introduced reservations for scheduled castes and
scheduled tribes to overcome ageold injustices in the system.
Respect for diversity and minority rights
This was an important principle to be incorporated in the constitution. respect for diversity
was important because Indian society is a hierarchical society. for example caste has divided
people into higher and lower caste groups. and also when there is inequality in society, the
communities tend to become rivals. this was a challenge before our constitution makers.
to overcome this problem, our constitution recognised community based rights. one such
right is right to religious communities to establish and run their own educational
institutions.
Secularism
India did not adopt western meaning of secularism. West has defined secularism as the
complete separation of religion and politics. here, both religion and politics stay away from
another. politics donot talk about religion. and religion also donot talk about the politics of

state. It was to protect the individual rights and their freedom. because the state might favor
people belonging to one group of religion.
But conditions in india has been different. they gave rights to religious groups and our
constitution gave power to state to intervene in the religious affairs of community.
a. rights to religious community:
indian constitution granted rights to all religious communities such as the right to establish
and maintain their own educational institutions. so our constitution equally granted rights to
all religious communities. because a person's freedom and sense of respect is dependent on
the status of his community.
b. state's power of intervention
our indian constitution adopted principled distance. it means that state will intervene in
religious affairs only to eliminate evils in the religious system. otherwise , our state will
maintain a distance from religion. for example: eliminating sati system, removing
untouchability.
universal franchise
as india got independence, everybody above a certain age got the right to vote. this was
surprising because in western countries, women recently got the right to vote after lot of
struggle.
india gave right to vote to every adult who has attained the age of 21, because they wanted
democratic self government.
Federalism
india adopted federalism with a strong central government. it adopted assymetric
federalism. it gave special provisions to certain states like jammu and kashmir, north eastern
states like nagaland, assam, manipur etc.
National Identity
our constitution constantly reinforced a common national political identity. although, india
strove to maintain its religious identities along with national identity. the indian constitution
tried to balance these identities. as sardar patel puts it , that the main objective was to evolve
"one community".
Q&A
Q1.What is the political philosophy of our constitution?
A1. the political philosophy of our constitution is based on:
a. Individual Freedom
b. Social Justice
c. Respect for diversity and minority rights
d. Secularism
e. universal franchise

f. Federalism
g. National Identity
Q2. what type of secularism has been adopted by indian constitution?
A2. India adopted secular principles for a religiously diverse country. it followed certain
measures:
a. rights to religious community:
indian constitution granted rights to all religious communities such as the right to establish
and maintain their own educational institutions. so our constitution equally granted rights to
all religious communities. because a person's freedom and sense of respect is dependent on
the status of his community.
b. state's power of intervention
our indian constitution adopted principled distance. it means that state will intervene in
religious affairs only to eliminate evils in the religious system. otherwise , our state will
maintain a distance from religion. for example: eliminating sati system, removing
untouchability.
Q3. what is principled distance?
A3. Principled Distance concept was adopted in indian secularism. it allowed state to be
distant from all religions so that it can intervene or abstain from interference, depending
upon which of these two would better promote liberty, equality and social justice.
Q4. How is Indian secularism different from western concept of secularism?
A4. western concept of secularism: there is a mutual exclusion of state and religion in
order toprotect values such as individual freedom and rights. mutual exclusion means that
religion and politics are strictly separated. this is to safeguard freedom of inividuals.
indian concept of secularism: indian constitution departed from western model of
secularism in two ways. it gave rights to religious groups such as right to establish and
maintain their own educational institutions. equal right was granted to allreligious groups.
this was because person's freedom and self respect was directly dependent on the status of
the community.
and second it gave state's power to intervene in the religious affairs ofthe community. they
followed principled distance. it maens that state will intervene till the time evil practices
harmthe rights and liberty of an individual. for example: untouchability or sati system.
Q5. what are substantive achievements of indian constitution?
A5. our constitution was able to achieve Individual Freedom , Social Justice and Respect for
diversity and minority rights. it was also able to keep people from differnt religions united.
and was able to sustain federal system of the country. our constitution helped in carving out
a common national political identity.
PROCEDURAL ACHIEVEMENTS
besides making substantial achievemnts, our constitution was able to make some procedural
achievements as well.

a. our constitution recognised difference and disagreement. it was inclusive and represented
varied sections of population. our constitution makers deliberated, discussed and debated to
include every section's interest. although during making of constitution, not every group's
representative was present, but makers included interest of every section.
b. our constitution reflects spirit of accomodation and compromise. there was open
discussion and deliberation, to arrive at important decisions.
Q&A
Q1. What are the procedural achievements of our constitution?
A1. The procedural achievements of our constitution are:
a. Our constitution recognised difference and disagreement. it was inclusive and represented
varied sections of population.
b. our constitution reflects spirit of accomodation and compromise. there was open
discussion and deliberation, to arrive at important decisions

criticisms and limitations

non serious
chap 10
non serious
Introduction
since last 62 years, our country has been governed on the principles and objectives of the
constitution. Why did our national leaders give constitution to us? on what principles was
our constitution build? what are the criticisms levelled against our constitution? all these
questions will be dealt in this chapter.
Philosophy of the Constitution
in the first chapter we studied that, constitution is a set of document that sees how the state is
formed and on what principles and norms the state should run.
these rules and regulations help in limiting the powers of government. modern day
governments can be very powerful because they have authority over force and police.state
can use this instrument to curb the freedom of people. Thus, constitution sets rules and
regulations which define the power of government and limit it.
That means, the constitution is a set of rules and regulations on which the state should run.
But these rules and regulations are formed keeping a norm in mind. for example: every
individual has right to freedom of speech. This law has a principle that every individual's
freedom should be respected.
if there is a law like government will check the information which is passed on from one
individual to other. this means that government does not respect freedom of individual and
want to curb his freedom to speak. this means that state runs on authoritarian principle.

therefore, constitution is not only a set of rules and regulations but it also shows the norms
and principles onwhich the state is run. So, there is a definite link between moral values and
laws.
Q&A
Q1. What is the meaning of political philosophy of our constitution?
A1. political philosophy of our constitution means that :
a. It explains the conceptual structure of the constitution. it helps us to understand the
meanings of terms like 'rights', 'citizenship', or democracy.
b. It explains the values on which our constitution is build.
c. it also helps to explain the reasons behind the formulation of law. when Indian
Constitution is read in conjunction with constituent assembly debates, we are to justify
values embedded in our constitution. Therefore, political philosophy not only helps in
finding the moral value of the law but also it helps to arbitrate between varying
interpretations of the values in our polity.
Q2. How our constitution is able to arbitrate among different ideals?
A2. any ideal has different interpretations by different institutions. but the interpretation
which has considerable authority from constitution is valued. thus, our constitution helps in
arbitrating among different ideals.

constitution as ameans of democratic transformation

as we have just read that constitution sets the rules and regulations for the country and this
helps in limiting the power of government and preventing it from turning it into tyrannical
form of government.
Constitution is an instrument to bring socio- economic and political transformation in the
country. it provide peaceful and democratic means to bring about transformation. it was
designed to bring about a change and shed away traditional and conservative ideologies and
bring freedom, equality and justice.
therefore, constitution exists not only to limit people in power but to empower those who
have been traditionally deprived of it.
Q&A
Q1. How our constitution is able to bring democratic transformation?
A1. Constitution sets the rules and regulations for the country and this helps in limiting the
power of government and preventing it from turning it into tyrannical form of government.
It is also an instrument to bring socio- economic and political transformation of the country.
It provides peaceful and democratic means to bring about transformation.
also, our constitution has been designed to bring about a change and shed away traditional
and conservative ideologies and bring freedom, equality and justice.
Q2. Why do we need to read our constituent assembly debates?

A2. we need to read our constituent assembly debates for following reasons:
a. It helps in justifying the values embedded in our constitution.
b. our history of constitution is still very much history of the present. its just 62 years back
when we have framed our constitution. and we have not separated ourselves from the values,
ideals and conception of the world of constituent assembly.
c. to know the current constitutional practice, their value and their meaning ,we need to go
back to constituent assembly debates from time to time.

WHAT IS THE POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY OF OUR CONSTITUTION?

Our constitution is build on the principles of liberty, democracy, egalitarian, secular and
federal, open to community values, sensitive to the needs of religious and linguistic
minorities and commitment towards building common national identity. these principles
will be dealt in little detail.

mcqs
chap 10
1. what is not included in the political philosophy of the constitution?
a. norms and values
b. justification of the values
c. philosophical character of our constitution framers
d. conceptual structure of the constitution
ans C
2. which constitution is known as "peace constitution"?
a. canada
b. japan
c. india
d. sri lanka
ans B
3. how our constitution is NOT able to bring about democracy?
a. limits powers of government
b. bring about social and economic transformation
c. by holding direct democracy

d. by freeing from old ideas of hierarchy and conservatism

ans C
4. what is principled distance?
a. distance from principles
b. distance between religion and politics
c. distance between two ideals
d. distance by state from religious affairs to the extent of removing only evils
ans D
5.
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chapter 9 constitution as a living document

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chapter 9
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Constitution as a living document
Introduction
our constitution is 62 years old. the rules and regulations that were framed 62 years ago still seem to
be relevant in todays time. the question which arises is that, were our constitution makers so wise
that they had foreseen the changes that will take place? or is our constitution so good that it requires
no changes.
Inspite of 62 years being passed, our constitution is still a living document. The reasons are : firstly,
that our constitution accepts the required changes which is neede by the society. secondly, there have
been enough flexibility in our interpretations. This means that our judiciary has interpreted our
constitution according to changing circumstances. if you remember the keshavannada bharati case.
right to property was a fundamental right but it was later changed to accomodate the public
interests.
So, constitution is an instrument that may require changes from time to time. our constitution is not a
static document and it can be altered. but at the same time it is a sacred document. our constitution is
above ordinary law. It provides the framework to the government for democratic governance. that is
why it is said that our constitution is a living document.

How to amend the constitution?

a constitution is called 'flexible' if it is open to changes. and it is called rigid if it is resistant to
changes. since our constitution nakers were aware of the changes which will come in the course of
time, so they included the process of amendment.
there are 3 processes of amendment:
a. simple majority
b. special majority (Article 368)
c. special majority alongwith ratification by half of state legislatures (Article368)
let me deal with these in little detail:
a. Simple Majority:
To bring a change in law or a new law, it requires a simple majority of members present and voting
in parliament, that is, of more than 50% .
if 120 members are present in parliament , then support of 120/2=60+1=61 members is required to
pass the law.
these are not constitutional amendments. and these include formation of new states, altering the area
of states .
b. special majority (Article 368)
when constitution has to be amended, there is a need of special majority. it is the majority of total
membership of that house and by a majority of not less than two-thirds of members present and
voting in the parliament. both houses must pass the bill in the same manner.
lok sabha has 545 members ,so it requires support of 545/2 = 273 members to support the bill. and if
300 members were present at the time of voting, then it requires 273 members.
so the basic thing behind amendment is that it has to take opposition parties into confidence.
c. special majority + ratification by half of state legislatures(article 368)
In some cases, even special majority by parliament is not sufficient. It requires the assent of half of
the state legislatures. this is when the distribution of powers between state and centre is concerned.
So when, federal issues are concerned assent of state is required. And as we have read in chapter
federalism that states are not completely at the mercy of centre. to amend the fundamental rights we
require special majority plus ratification by half of state legislatures.
in other areas also , third method of amendment is required:
a. to amend election of president
b. to amend supreme court and high court powers
and many others.
in case of constitutional amendment(that is second and third method), all bills go to the president but
here the president cannot send it back for reconsideration. and in this case an important principle has
been underlined that only elected representatives have the authority to bring about amendment to the
constitution. therefore, sovereignty of elected representatives is the basis of amendment procedure.

Q&A
Q1. What are the three procedures of amendment?
A1. the three procedures of amendment are:

a. simple majority
b. special majority (Article 368)
c. special majority alongwith ratification by half of state legislatures (Article368)
Q2. what is simple majority ?
A2. To bring a change in law or a new law, it requires a simple majority of members present
and voting in parliament, that is, of more than 50% .
Q3. How can federal issues be amended?
A3. there is a need of special majority. it is the majority of total membership of that house
and by a majority of not less than two-thirds of members present and voting in the
parliament. alongwith this, it also requires the assent of half of the state legislatures. both
houses must pass the bill in the same manner.
Q4. what is special majority?
A4. it is the majority of total membership of that house and by a majority of not less than
two-thirds of members present and voting in the parliament.

NATURE OF AMENDMENTS IN OUR CONSTITUTION

a. technical amendments:
In the first group, there are amendments which are of technical or administrative nature and
require only clarifications, explanations and minor modifications. they were amendment
only in legal sense. These amendments didnot make much change to the constitution.
for example:
a. age of high court judges were increased from 60 to 62. this amendment did not bring
much change to the constitution,
b. original provisions of constitution had reservations for 10 years only. but since then , by
continuous amendments it is extended every ten years.
c. article 74(1) stated that president has to abide by the advice of council of ministers. and
can send the advice for reconsideration. but this amendment didnot make much changes in
the constitution. president was already a rubber stamp.
b. differing interpretations
many amendments were made because the interpretations of government and judiciary
clashed. for example: in keshavananda case, to cancel the ruling of judiciary that
fundamental rights are unamendable, government passed 24th amendment to overrule this
ruling.

It was a period of 1970-75 and our system was undergoing a political turmoil, so different
interpretations led to many amendments.
c. amendments through political consensus
many amendments came which reflected the political consensus. it means that political
parties wanted certain amendments in the constitution. for example: in the period of post
1984, political members were hopping from one party to another in the greed of which party
will give greater incentives in terms of ministerial poistion or greater role in government.
this also gave expression to common expression aya ram and gaya ram.
so constitution introduced an anti defection amendment, that is, 52nd amendment. 91st
amendment was also introduced to bring down the age of voting from 21 to 18.
d. controversial amendments
Some amendments have not been without controversy. during emergency, 42nd amendment
brought many changes in the constitution. It also overruled the keshavananda ruling. lok
sabha duration was also extended from 5 to 6 years. many MPs also landed in jail when this
amendment was passed.
after emergency was removed, 43rd and 44th amendments were passed to cancel the effects
of 42nd amendment.

Q&A
Q1. What nature of amendments were made by our constitution?
A1. the nature of amendments made by our constitution were:
a. technical amendments:
In the first group, there are amendments which are of technical or administrative nature and
require only clarifications, explanations and minor modifications. they were amendment
only in legal sense. These amendments didnot make much change to the constitution.
for example:
a. article 74(1) stated that president has to abide by the advice of council of ministers. and
can send the advice for reconsideration. but this amendment didnot make much changes in
the constitution. president was already a rubber stamp.
b. differing interpretations
many amendments were made because the interpretations of government and judiciary
clashed. for example: in keshavananda case, to cancel the ruling of judiciary that
fundamental rights are unamendable, government passed 24th amendment to overrule this
ruling.
c. amendments through political consensus
many amendments came which reflected the political consensus. it means that political
parties wanted certain amendments in the constitution. for example: in the period of post
1984, political members were hopping from one party to another in the greed of which party

will give greater incentives in terms of ministerial poistion or greater role in government.
this also gave expression to common expression aya ram and gaya ram.
so constitution introduced an anti defection amendment, that is, 52nd amendment. 91st
amendment was also introduced to bring down the age of voting from 21 to 18.
d. controversial amendments
Some amendments have not been without controversy. during emergency, 42nd amendment
brought many changes in the constitution. It also overruled the keshavananda ruling. lok
sabha duration was also extended from 5 to 6 years. many MPs also landed in jail when this
amendment was passed. after emergency was removed, 43rd and 44th amendments were
passed to cancel the effects of 42nd amendment.

KESHAVANANDA RULING
Keshavananda ruling has set some parameters in our constitution:
a. it has set specific limits to parliament's power to amend the constitution. it says that no
amendment can violate the basic structure of the constitution.
b. it allows the parliament to amend any and all parts of the constitution.
c. it places final authority on the judiciary in deciding whether the amendment violates the
basic principle of the constitution.
Q&A
Q1. what interpretation comesout of keshavananda bharati case?
A1. Keshavananda ruling has set some parameters in our constitution:
a. it has set specific limits to parliament's power to amend the constitution. it says that no
amendment can violate the basic structure of the constitution.
b. it allows the parliament to amend any and all parts of the constitution.
c. it places final authority on the judiciary in deciding whether the amendment violates the
basic principle of the constitution.

constitution as a living document

our constitution is called a living document because it keeps responding to situations and
circumstances arising from time to time. like a living being, constitution responds to
experience. so even after so many decades, constitution continues to work effectively
because of its ability to be dynamic , to be open to interpretations and its ability to respond
to changes. this is vital for democracy of the country.
our constitution has protected the democracy but at the same time allowed it to be open to
new practices. this has allowed our constitution to earn the respect of the people.
our parliament has also worked in such a way to allow the supremacy of constitution.
democratic institutions have developed and worked within the framework of the
constitution.

our judiciary has maintained the letter and spirit of the constitution. it has insisted that all
work has to be within the framework of the constitution. propeople measures should be
taken but it should not bypass the legal procedures. because if the legal procedures are
ignored in the name of public interest , then executive will have arbitrary use of power.
and our political leaders, political parties, government and parliament has accepted its
functioning within the 'basic structure of constitution'.
Q&A
Q1. Why our constitution is called the living document?
A1. Our constitution is called a living document because it keeps responding to situations
and circumstances arising from time to time. like a living being, constitution responds to
experience. so even after so many decades, constitution continues to work effectively
because of its ability to be dynamic , to be open to interpretations and its ability to respond
to changes. this is vital for democracy of the country.

NON SERIOUS
chap 9
non serious
introduction
Inspite of 62 years being passed, our constitution is still a living document. The reasons are :
firstly, that our constitution accepts the required changes which is neede by the society.
secondly, there have been enough flexibility in our interpretations. This means that our
judiciary has interpreted our constitution according to changing circumstances. if you
remember the keshavannada bharati case. right to property was a fundamental right but it
was later changed to accomodate the public interests.
So, constitution is an instrument that may require changes from time to time. our
constitution is not a static document and it can be altered. but at the same time it is a sacred
document. our constitution is above ordinary law. It provides the framework to the
government for democratic governance. that is why it is said that our constitution is a living
document.
How to amend the constitution?
a constitution is called 'flexible' if it is open to changes. and it is called rigid if it is resistant
to changes. since our constitution nakers were aware of the changes which will come in the
course of time, so they included the process of amendment.
there are 3 processes of amendment:
a. simple majority
b. special majority (Article 368)
c. special majority alongwith ratification by half of state legislatures (Article368)
a. Simple Majority:

To bring a change in law or a new law, it requires a simple majority of members present and
voting in parliament, that is, of 50% .
these include formation of new states, altering the area of states .
b. special majority (Article 368)
when constitution has to be amended, there is a need of special majority. it is the majority of
total membership of that house and by a majority of not less than two-thirds of members
present and voting in the parliament. both houses must pass the bill in the same manner.
c. special majority + ratification by half of state legislatures(article 368)
In some cases, even special majority by parliament is not sufficient. It requires the assent of
half of the state legislatures. this is when the distribution of powers between state and centre
is concerned. So when, federal issues are concerned assent of state is required. And as we
have read in chapter federalism that states are not completely at the mercy of centre. to
amend the fundamental rights we require special majority plus ratification by half of state
legislatures.
in other areas also , third method of amendment is required:
a. to amend election of president
b. to amend supreme court and high court powers
and many others.
CONSTITUTION AS A LIVING DOCUMENT
Our constitution is called a living document because it keeps responding to situations and
circumstances arising from time to time. like a living being, constitution responds to
experience. so even after so many decades, constitution continues to work effectively
because of its ability to be dynamic , to be open to interpretations and its ability to respond
to changes. this is vital for democracy of the country.
Q&A
Q1. Why our constitution is called the living document?
A1. Our constitution is called a living document because it keeps responding to situations
and circumstances arising from time to time. like a living being, constitution responds to
experience. so even after so many decades, constitution continues to work effectively
because of its ability to be dynamic , to be open to interpretations and its ability to respond
to changes. this is vital for democracy of the country.

MCQs
mcqs
chap 9
1. why our constitution has been called living document?

a. it can be easily changed

b. it is flexible as well as rigid
c. it is very rigid
d. our constitution is a dead document
ans B
2. which is not the method of amendment in our constitution?
a. 3/4th majority
b. 2/3rd majority
c. simple majority
d. special majority + ratification by half of states
ans A
3. how are fundamental rights amended?
a. 3/4th majority
b. 2/3rd majority
c. simple majority
d. special majority + ratification by half of states
ans D
4. how are federal issues amended?
a. 3/4th majority
b. 2/3rd majority
c. simple majority
d. special majority + ratification by half of states
ans D
5. How are ordinary laws amended?
a. 3/4th majority
b. 2/3rd majority
c. simple majority
d. special majority + ratification by half of states
ans C
6. which article amendds the constitution?
a. 367

b. 368
c. 369
d. 370
ans B
7. How can areas of state be altered?
a. 3/4th majority
b. 2/3rd majority
c. simple majority
d. special majority + ratification by half of states
ans C
8. how can new states be formed?
a. 3/4th majority
b. 2/3rd majority
c. simple majority
d. special majority + ratification by half of states
ans C
9. how can right to freedom of religion be altered?
a. 3/4th majority
b. 2/3rd majority
c. simple majority
d. special majority + ratification by half of states
ans D
10. how many members are there in lok sabha?
a. 544
b. 545
c. 546
d. 547
ans B
11. On what date was constitution adopted?
a. 26 november 1949
b. 26 december 1949

c. 26 february 1949
d. 26 january 1950
ans A
12. when was our constitution implemented?
a. 26 november 1949
b. 26 december 1949
c. 26 february 1949
d. 26 january 1950
ans D
13. age of retirement of high court judges?
a. 61
b. 62
c. 63
d. 64
ans B
14. Salaries of high court and supreme court judges were increased by?
a. 55th amendment
b. 56th amendment
c. 65th amendment
d. 54th amendment
ans A
15. which amendment included fundamental duties in our constitution?
a. 41st
b. 42nd
c. 44th
d. 45th
ansB
16. whose sovereignty has been asserted during constitutional amendment?
a. executive
b. legislature
c. judiciary

d. media
ans B
17. which amendment reduced the agee of voting from 21 to 18?
a. 52nd
b. 42nd
c. 91st
d. 44th
ans B
18. who chaired the constitution review commission?
a. PK Tandon
b. venkataraman
c. venkatachaliah
d. chaliah basu
ans C
19. when was constitution review commission was set up?
a. 2000
b. 2001
c. 2002
d. 2003
ans A
20. What was not the interpretation of keshavananda ruling?
a. parliament is supreme
b. basic structure of constitution.
c. judiciary will interpret what is basic structure of constitution
d. parliament has to work within basic structure of constitution.
ans A

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chapter 7 federalism
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chap 7
Federalism serious
Introduction
USSR broke into 15 countries in 1991. pakistan was also divided in 1971, form which
bangladesh was formed. canada also came close to break up into english speaking and
french speaking regions of the country.
It seems to be great achievement that India, which is so diverse in terms of language,
regions, religions has remained united after Independence. what was our political system
that kept india united despite being such a diverse country? this question will be answered in
this chapter.
Federalism
our constitution adopted a federal structure where states can govern independently yet centre
will maintain its control over the states.
The characteristics of federalism are:
a. It is an institutional mechanism to accomodate two sets of polities - one at the regional
level and other at the national level. so here in india, we are having two types of government
one at the state level and other at the national level. and these governments are independent.
in some countries, like USA there is a system of dual citizenship which means that USA
citizens has two citizenship , one of USA and other of there state. but in india we have only
one citizenship that is of indian nationality.our constitution does not recognise any other
nationality that is of being assamese, bengali etc.
b. but yes, if we are not having two types citizenship but we are surely having two types of
identities. that is we are identified as assamese, bengali, gujarati or kashmiri but at the same
time we are identified as an indian also. Therefore, each level government has their own
powers, responsibilities and a separate system of governance.
c. the powers , responsibilities and their manner of goevrnance are written in the
constitution, which is considered supreme. but issues which concern the entire country like
foreign policy, defence, those powers have been given to union. so our written constitution

has clear demarcation of powers of union and state

d. and if any conflict arises over the demarcation of powers between centre and state , then
the judiciary intervenes to settle the disputes.
Besides these factors; politics, culture, ideology and history determine the actual working of
a federation. if the politics of the country is giving emphasis to only one region and
neglecting the other , then anger will be there in the other region to protest, demand and
finally secede from Indian territory.
culture also keeps the people united as we all share indian culture together. and history has
also kept us united as we share our freedom struggle and independence movement.
and culture of trust, cooperation, mutual respect and restraint has helped in the smooth
functioning of federations.
Q&A
Q1. what are the characteristics of federalism?
A1. The characteristics of federalism are:
a. It is an institutional mechanism to accomodate two sets of polities - one at the regional
level and other at the national level.
b. The people have two sets of identities and loyalties. each level of polity has distinct
powers and responsibilities and has a separate system.
c. the details of the dual system of government are spelt out in the written constitution,
which is considered to be supreme and is also the source of power of both sets of
government.
d. to prevent conflicts between centre and state , there is an independent judiciary to settle
disputes.
Q2. what other factors besides politics keep the federations united?
A2. besides politics, other factors which keep the federations united are culture, ideology
and history. Culture of trust, cooperation, mutual respect and restraint has also helped in the
smooth functioning of federations.
Federalism in west indies
As we all are aware that west indies is not a country. then what is west indies.
West Indies was a colony of British. In 1958, the federation of West Indies came into being.
it had a weak central government and the units(states) in it were independent. a weak
central government is not able to maintain hold over the units. that is why it broke into
several parts(states) in 1962.
(In India, our central government is strong. that is why the units(states) were not able to go
away or break from the country).
In 1973, by treaty of chiguaramas independent islands joined together to form joint
authorities in the form of common legislature, supreme court, common currency and to a
ceration degree common market which is known as carribean community.
therefore, the units didnot live separately also and neither together.
Q&A
Q1. what is treaty of chiguaramas?
A1. In 1973, carribean community was formed. independent islands established joint
authorities in the form of common legislature, supreme court, a common currency and to a
certain degree common market which is known as carribean community.

Federalism in Nigeria
as discussed above, there are other factors that decide the unity of federations. that is culture,
ideology and history. so if there is a distrust or failure of trust between communities, then
also a fedral community will not be able to survive. the example is nigeria.
Till 1914, there were two colonies of british : northern nigeria and southern nigeria. After the
independence, nigerian leaders decided to form a federal constitution at ibadan constitutional
conference. ( federal constitution means where the regions were given independence to
control their own affairs but it also had a central government to look after the affairs of the
entire country. for example: issues like foreign policy does not affect one region but the
entire country as a whole).
so three major ethnic groups of nigeria controlled their own regions- yoruba controlled west,
ibo controlled east and hausa - faulani controlled north.
And when these groups tried to spread their influence in other regions,it failed and it led to
fears and conflicts. it failed because there was lack of trust and faith. so it led to military
regime. in 1979, no state was allowed to have any civil police because if each region would
have their own police, so they would have protected their own region and harassed the other
region. and also the regionhaving police facility would have become powerful and it would
have led to secession from the country.
milatry regime finally gave way to democracy in 1999, religious differences and conflicts
over who will control revenues from oil resources continue to be present.
therefore, nigeria is an example where religious, ethnic and economic differences is leading
to problems in a federation.
Q&A
Q1. Give an example where trust deficit is leading to problems in federalism?
A1. Nigeria .
Q2. Explain the federation problems in nigeria?
A2. Till 1914, there were two colonies of british : northern nigeria and southern nigeria.
After the independence, nigerian leaders decided to form a federal constitution at ibadan
constitutional conference. so three major ethnic groups of nigeria controlled their own
regions- yoruba controlled west, ibo controlled east and hausa - faulani controlled north.
And when these groups tried to spread their influence in other regions,it failed and it led to
fears and conflicts. military regime was established. In 1979, no state was allowed to have
any civil police. military regime finally gave way to democracy in 1999, religious
differences and conflicts over who will control revenues from oil resources continue to be
present. Therefore, nigeria is an example where religious, ethnic and economic differences
is leading to problems in a federation.
Federalism in the indian constitution
if the countries have disintegrated like USSR, pakistan;it does not mean that they didnot
have any federal system. these countries were also having federal system. but then why it
lead to their disintegration?
Because simply having federalism is not enough. it also depends on the type of federalism
you have. whether you have federalism with a weak centre or there is a federalism with a

strong centre.
USSR had a federalism with a weak centre that is why the centre was not able to control its
territories.
but India has federalism with a strong centre and it was able to have a strong control over its
states.
india is a diverse land with many languages, religions and regions. And to give them identity
and recognition, leaders of our national movement thought that these units should govern
themselves. But how much powers should be given to the states to govern themselves ? our
constituent assembly decided to frame the government that would be based on principles of
unity and cooperation between centre and states and separate power to states.
the most important principle of federal system adopted by indian constitution is that
relations between states and centre would be based on cooperation. therefore, our
constitution recognised diversity but at the same time it emphasised unity.
and surprisingly, our constitution does not even mention the word federation. article 1
simply says that india that is bharat shall be a union of states. which means states will live in
unity.
Q&A
Q1. What is the nature of our federal system?
A1. our federal system is based on the principles of unity and cooperation between centre
and states and separate powers to the states. therefore, our constitution recognises diversity
and emphasies unity.
Q2. What does Article 1 says?
A2. Article 1 (1) says that india, that is bharat, shall be a union of states. (2) says that the
states and territories thereof shall be as specified in the first schedule.
Q3. Why did our national leaders thought of centralised federal system?
A3. India is a diverse land with many languages, culture, religions and regions.it was
necessary to give recognition to them. and also india is a large country, so it was important
to divide powers between provinces and central government. that is why our national
leaders thought of federal system. but they wanted unity and cooperation between states. so
they gave us a centralised federal system.
Division of powers
as we have just read that our leaders of national movement divided the powers between
centre and states. so there are two level of government: one which governs the entire country
that is national government and the other which governs the states is called state
government. both of these have been granted status by the constitution and their acreas of
functions are clearly demarcated under union list, state list and concurrent list.
under union list only, centre can legislate and work in these subjects. in state list, only state
can legislate and work in these subjects and under concurrent both union and state can
work.
if there is any conflict in these lists, or if there is a conflict which subject to be done by
whom, then judiciary intervenes and resolves the issues.
one important thing is that economic and financial powers are centralised and are in the
hands of central government . that means though states have been given subjects to be
worked under but they do not have financial resources to carry out their work.

and if any matter is not mentioned in the lists, then it comes under residuary powers. and
union legislature can alone legislate on these matters. state cannot legislate on these matters.
This means that there is a unitary federal structure.
Q&A
Q1. What are the two levels of government in our political system?
A1. our political system has two levels of government:
a. national level.
b. state level.
Q2. What are residuary powers?
A2. subjects which do not come in any of the lists come under residuary powers. union
legislature alone has the power to legislate on such matters.
for example: cyber laws
Q3. list some subjects which come under union list?
A3. currency and coinage, foreign trade, defense , atomic energy
Q4. list some subjects which come under state list?
A4. police, prison, agriculture and state public services
Q5. list some subjects which come under concurrent list?
A5. education , forests
Q6. list some subjects which come under residuary list?
A6. cyber laws
why did we adopt federalism with a strong central government ?
As we have read in introduction that federal countries like USSR disintegrated. so the
important question which comes is the nature of federalism. whether the federalism was with
weak central government who could not control the desire of states to separate from their
country or federalism was with strong central government which would keep a check and
control on states.
India is a diverse country and there was a requirement of federalism which will accomodate
the demands of all diversities. but at the same time it require a strong central government
that will stop disintegration and bring about social and political change. with this idea in
mind our constitution framers drafted the constitution. and also at the time of
independence , india was not only divided into provinces by the british but there were more
than 500 princely states which had to be integrated into existing states or new states had to
be created.
Besides unity as a factor, India needed to tackle socio- economic problems of the country. It
required to eliminate poverty, illiteracy and inequalities of wealth. So it required strong
central government in cooperation with states for development and unity.
Q&A
Q1. Why did India adopt federalism with strong central government?
A1.the reasons for which india adopted federalism with strong central government:
a. India is a diverse country. So, there was a need of federalism which will accomodate the
demands of all diversities. But at the same time it require a strong central government that
will stop disintegration and bring about social and political change.
b. At the time of independence , india was not only divided into provinces by the british but
there were more than 500 princely states which had to be integrated into existing states or

new states had to be created.

c. Besides unity as a factor, India needed to tackle socio- economic problems of the
country. It required to eliminate poverty, illiteracy and inequalities of wealth. So it required
strong central government in cooperation with states for development.
Provisions in the indian constitution of federalism with strong central government
a. Formation of states or merger of states of two or more states into one is in the hands of
Parliament. the parliament has powers to form a new state or merge with old states or
change the name of any state
b. Our centre has important and powerful emergency powers which can turn a federal
system into highly centralised. During emergency, parliament takes the power of states from
state list. That means, in these emergency situations, centre will legislate on state list.
c. under normal conditions, centre has important financial powers. items generating revenue
are under the control of central government. therefore, centre has many financial resources
and states are dependent on grants and financial resources from centre.
d. in terms of planning and development of the entire country, it adopted centralisation.
planning commission was appointed by union government that will control, supervise and
manage the resources of states. and union government uses its discretion to give grants and
loans to states.
e. the position of governor in states is also a signof centralisation. the governor can
recommend dismissal of state government and dissolution of assembly. he also has the
power to keep the bill with himself rather than passing to president for his assent. this leads
to delay in passing the bill by state legislation.
f. there may be situations where the centre needs to legislate in state list. this can happen if
the rajya sabha agrees. the constitution clearly says that executive power of centre is
superior than executive power of states. Article 257(1) says that executive power of states
should be exercised in such a way that it does not disturb the functioning or exercise of
powers of union. and the executive power of the union can give directions to state
government if it appears necessary.
g. the central government may choose to give instructions to the state government.
h. we are also having an all india services.these officers are under control of central
government but serve in the administration of states. states cannot remove these officers nor
can take disciplinary action.
i. Articles 33 and 34 authorise parliament to protect officers of union or states if these
officers have taken any action during the martial law to maintain peace and order. Armed
Forces Special Powers Act has been made on these basis but this act has created tensions.
because a officer will not be penalised or punished if he/she has done any wrong in a state or
part of country where there is martial law.
Q&A
Q1. What provisions in indian constitution make our federalism with a strong central
government?

A1. a. Formation of states or merger of states of two or more states into one is in the hands
of Parliament. the parliament has powers to form a new state or merge with old states or
change the name of any state
b. Our centre has important and powerful emergency powers which can turn a federal
system into highly centralised. During emergency, parliament takes the power of states from
state list.
c. under normal conditions, centre has important financial powers. items generating revenue
are under the control of central government. therefore, centre has many financial resources
and states are dependent on grants and financial resources from centre.
d. in terms of planning and development of the entire country, it adopted centralisation.
planning commission was appointed by union government that will control, supervise and
manage the resources of states. and union government uses its discretion to give grants and
loans to states.
e. the position of governor in states is also a sign of centralisation. the governor can
recommend dismissal of state government and dissolution of assembly. he also has the
power to keep the bill with himself rather than passing to president for his assent.
f. there may be situations where the centre needs to legislate in the state list. this can happen
if the rajya sabha agrees. the constitution clearly says that executive power of centre is
superior than executive power of states. Article 257(1) is a case in point.
g. the central government may choose to give instructions to the state government.
h. we are also having an all india services.these officers are under control of central
government but serve in the administration of states. states cannot remove these officers nor
can take disciplinary action.
i. Articles 33 and 34 authorise parliament to protect officers of union or states if these
officers have taken any action during the martial law to maintain peace and order.
Q2. How has central government controlled financial resources of states?
A2. the central government has effective financial resources. firstly, intems geenrating
revenue are under the control of central government. therefore, central government has many
revenue sources and states are depndent on grants and financial assistance from centre.
Secondly, union also appointed planning commission for the socio economic progress and
development of the country. This led to centralisation where the planning commission
coordinated, controlled and supervised the resources of the states.
Q3. how does position of governor led to centralisation of resources?
A3. governor has powers to recommend the dismissal of state government and dissolution
of state assembly. in normal circumstances also, governor has the power to reserve a bill
passed by state legislature for theassent of the president. this gives the central government an
oppurtunity to delay the state legislation and examine bills and veto them
Q4. How has all india services centralised our federal system?

A4. The all india services are common to the entire territory of india and officers selected
serve in the states. states on the other hand cannot take disciplinary action nor can they
remove these officers from service.
Q5. what is articles 33 and 34?
A5. articles 33 and 34 authorises the parliament to protect the persons in the service of
nation or a state in respect of any action taken by them during martial law to maintain law
and order.
Conflicts in India's federal system
Although the distribution of powers between centre and states is well defined in the Indian
constitution. But still many conflicts has taken place between centre and states for
demnading autonomy, for share in resources, for demanding new states and conflicts
between states have also arisen. This topic will deal with some of these conflicts.
Centre states relations:
Federalism in india has been influenced by political process of the country. In 1950s and
1960s when there was congress dominance in centre as well as states, the relations
between centre and states have been quite peaceful and without tensions. The states
shared the hope that they together will be making development and socio economic
progress. Also because states had the same party which was in centre, that is, congress
ruled both states and centre so there was not much tension.
But in 1960s congress dominance declined and in states large number of opposition
parties came to power. they wanted greater autonomy and independence. They did not
want centre to intervene in their state's affairs everytime. And the congress which was
ruling at centre in 1960s was also not very comfortable in dealing with opposition parties
in states.
And in 1990s coalition government came to power. congress dominance had ended. And
states also had different opposition parties. So there was a different government at centre
and different government at states. So,this resulted in greater say for the states, a respect
for diversity and beginning of more mature federalism. So therefore, in this second
phase, issue of autonomy became very powerful.
Q&A
Q1. What has been centre state relations since the time of independence?
A1. In 1950s and 1960s when there was congress dominance in centre as well as states,
the relations between centre and states have been quite peaceful and without tensions.
The states shared the hope that they together will be making development and socio
economic progress. Also because states had the same party which was in centre, that is,
congress ruled both states and centre so there was not much tension.
But in 1960s congress dominance declined and in states large number of opposition
parties came to power. they wanted greater autonomy and independence. They did not
want centre to intervene in their state's affairs everytime. And the congress which was

ruling at centre in 1960s was also not very comfortable in dealing with different and
opposition parties in states.
And in 1990s, coalition government came to power. Congress dominance had ended.
And states also had different opposition parties. So there was a different government at
centre and different government at states. So,this resulted in greater say for the states, a
respect for diversity and beginning of more mature federalism. So therefore, in this
second phase, issue of autonomy became very powerful.
Q2. How was the centre state relations in 1990s?
A2. in 1990s, coalition government came to power. Congress dominance had ended.
And states also had different opposition parties. So there was a different government at
centre and different government at states. So,this resulted in greater say for the states, a
respect for diversity and beginning of more mature federalism. So therefore, in this
second phase, issue of autonomy became very powerful.
Q3. What kind of federalism did we see in 1990s?
A3. In 1990s we saw more of mature federalism where states had greater say and less
intervention by centre. coalition government came to power. Congress dominance had
ended. And states also had different opposition parties. So there was a different government
at centre and different government at states. So,this resulted in a respect for diversity and
beginning of more mature federalism. And the issue of autonomy became very powerful.

Demand for autonomy

The other nature of conflict which arose in federalism was related to demand of
autonomy. The states had started demnading more independence to govern their state of
affairs. Now the question is what kind of autonomy? Autonomy means different things to
different states and parties.
parties like DMK, akali dal, CPI-M, had demanded division of powers in favor of
states and more important powers to be assigned to states.
They also demanded financial autonomy. States should have independent sources of
revenue and greater controlof resources.if you remember , we learnt that centre has
control over items generating revenue. In 1977, left front government in west bengal
brought out a document demanding restructuring of centre and state relations. Which
means that the states wanted more independence to be given to them. Tamil nadu and
punjab also demanded greater financial powers
They are also angry about greater administrative control through all india services.
States do not want centre to control their administrative machinery.

The autonomy demands are also related to cultural and linguistic issues. For
example: Tamil Nadu was opposed to domination of hindi and the punjabi culture. In
1960, some states were opposed to the imposition of Hindi language. Because these
states thought that they are trying to spread hindi and punjabi culture and this will
destroy their own south indian culture.
Q&A
Q1. What kinds of autonomy demands were made by states?
A1. Autonomy demands made by states were:
parties like DMK, akali dal, CPI-M, had demanded division of powers in favor of
states and more important powers to be assigned to states.
They also demanded financial autonomy. States should have independent sources of
revenue and greater controlof resources.if you remember , we learnt that centre has
control over items generating revenue. In 1977, left front government in west bengal
brought out a document demanding restructuring of centre and state relations. Tamil
nadu and punjab also demanded the same.
They are also angry about greater administrative control through all india services.
States do not want centre to control their administrative machinery.
The autonomy demands are also related to cultural and linguistic issues. For
example: Tamil Nadu was opposed to domination of hindi and the punjabi culture. In
1960, some states were opposed to the imposition of Hindi language. Because these
states thought that they are trying to spread hindi and punjabi culture and this will
destroy their own south indian culture.

Role of governors and president's rule

The position of governor has also become a source of conflict for centre state relations
and tension for federalism. The governor is not an elected office but many governors
have been retired military officers or civil servants or politicians. And also governor is
appointed by central government. So governor is seen as an interference in the affairs of
state. The sarkaria commission which was appointed in 1983 and submitted its report in
1988 to give recommendations of centre-state relations, recommended that appointments
of governor should be strictly non partisan and impartial.
Article 356 is also a source of controversy as this article provides for president's rule in
any state. It means that if the government of the state cannot be carried in accordance of

the provisions of the constitution then the president's rule is declared. And the state
government is taken over by union government.
The president's proclamation has to be ratified by parliament and president's rule can be
extended till three years.
Governor has the power to dismiss the state government which means that governor
can remove the state government in power or suspend it. This power was misused
and in many cases state governments were dismissed even when they had majority
for example: in Kerala in 1959.
Article 356 was used occasionally till 1967. After 1967 many states had non congress
states and the congress was in centre. So centre used this provision of article 356 to
remove elected governments as in Andhra Pradesh and Jammu and Kashmir in
1980s.
Q&A
Q1. How the position of governor has centralised our federalism?
A1. The position of governor has centralised our federalism. The governor is not an
elected office and many governors have been retired military officers or civil servants or
politicians. The appointment of governor has been by central government. So governor is
seen as an interference in the affairs of state.
Article 356 has also been used by centre to assert its control over the state. This article
provides for president's rule in any state. It means that if the government of the state
cannot be carried in accordance of the provisions of the constitution then the president's
rule is declared. And the state government is taken over by union government. And
alongwith this Governor also has the power to dismiss the state government or suspend
it. This power has been misused and in many cases state governments were dismissed
even when they had majority for example: in Kerala in 1959, Andhra Pradesh and
Jammu and Kashmir in 1980s.
Q2. What is sarkaria commission?
A2. Sarkaria commission was the commission which was appointed in 1983 to look into
the centre-state relations.
Q3. What was the recommendation of sarkaria commission?
A3. The recommendation of sarkaria commission was that appointments of governors
should be strictly non partisan.
Q4. Why was Sarkaria commission appointed?
A5. After the decline in the dominance of Congress in the states, states started
demanding autonomy and less interference in their state's affairs. Centre state relations
were leading to constant source of tensions. That is why sarkaria commission was
appointed.
Q6. What is article 356?

A6. Article 356 says that if a situation has arisen in which the government of the state
cannot be carried in accordance with the provisions of the constitution, president's rule
can be declared in that state.

Demand for new states

The other factor which is leading to source of tension in our federal system is demands
for new states. Initially the demand for new states was for conserving their identity and
their culture. So in 1954, the states reorganization commission was set up and it
recommended creation of states on linguistic basis. It means that states will be formed on
the basis of language. Gujarat and maharashtra were created in 1960, punjab and haryana
were separated in 1966. North east region was reorganised and several new states were
formed like meghalaya, manipur and arunachal pradesh.
since 1990s, demand for further states have been made. It is made on the reason that
development have not been able to reach these parts of the country. Three new states
have been formed jharkhand from bihar, chattisgarh from madhya pradesh and
uttaranchal from UP. These areas remained backward and were underdeveloped.
Following states have also been demanding new states on the reason of development.
For example: telangana in andhra pradesh and vidarbha in maharashtra.
Q&A
Q1. Why was states reorganisation commission formed?
A1. States Reorganisation commission was formed in 1954 to recommend creation of states
on the linguistic basis.
Q2. On what basis has the states been formed?
A2. In 1950s , states were formed on the basis of language. For example: haryana and
punjab in 1966, gujarat and maharashtra in 1960. But after 1990s states are being formed on
the need for development. For example: Jharkhand, Uttaranchal and Chattisgarh in 1990s.
Q3. How did demand of new states become the source of conflict for federalism?
A3. Demand of new states became the source of conflict for federalism because in 1950s
many groups rose to demand statehood for preserving their culture and identity. And post
1990s, new states have been demanded on the basis of development.
Q4. When was gujarat and maharashtra formed?
A4. In 1960
Q5. When was haryana separated from punjab?
A5. In 1966

Inter-state conflict
Another source of tension in federalism is inter-state conflicts. Till now we have read
that there have been conflicts between centre and states. But there are conflicts between
two or more states also. The prominent conflicts are over
a. boundary issue
b. river disputes
Boundary issue: states have been formed on the basis of language. But on the border
sides, there is a possibility that people speaking more than 1 language resides. So, states
lay claim over the territories. One of the long standing dispute is between maharashtra
and karnataka over the city of belgaum. Both Punjab and chandigarh has laid claims over
chandigarh and both declare chandigarh as their capital. While border disputes are about
sentiments. Other important source of conflicts is river dispute.
River dispute: this is more important because water is required for agriculture and
drinking purposes. Cauvery water dispute is a very famous dispute where tamil nadu and
karnataka are fighting over the share of cauvery water. Gujarat, madhya pradesh and
maharashtra are fighting over narmada river.

Q&A
Q1. What are the source of inter state conflicts?
A1. Boundary issue: states have been formed on the basis of language. But on the
border sides, there is a possibility that people speaking more than 1 language resides. So,
states lay claim over the territories. One of the long standing dispute is between
maharashtra and karnataka over the city of belgaum. Both Punjab and chandigarh has
laid claims over chandigarh and both declare chandigarh as their capital
River dispute: this is more important because water is required for agriculture and
drinking purposes. Cauvery water dispute is a very famous dispute where tamil nadu and
karnataka are fighting over the share of cauvery water. Gujarat, madhya pradesh and
maharashtra are fighting over narmada river.
Q2. What are the causes of tension in our federalism?
A2.
centre- state relations
demand for autonomy
role of governors and president's rule
demand for new states

inter state conflicts

Special Provisions
The most surprising feature of Indian federalism is that many states are given differential
treatment. We already know that in Rajya Sabha, states have got representation
according to the size of states. UP have got largest number of members while small north
eastern states have got 1 member in rajya sabha. But the division of powers is common
to all states.
But constitution has given special provisions to north eastern states because of large
tribal population, their different history and culture, which they wish to retain (Article
371). Article 370 has given special provisions to jammu and kashmir. Because after
independence, there was a war between india and pakistan over kashmir. And maharaja
of kashmir agreed to join india under certain conditions. That is why jammu and kashmir
has been given special provisions in the constitution. But these provisions have not been
able to arrest the alienation and marginalization they are suffering.
Q&A
Q1. What is article 370?
A1. Article 370 gives special provisions to jammu and kashmir under indian
constitution.
Q2. What is article 371?
A2. Article 371 gives special provisions to north eastern states under indian constitution.

Non serious
non serious federalism
Introduction
USSR broke into 15 countries in 1991. pakistan was also divided in 1971, form which
bangladesh was formed. canada also came close to break up into english speaking and
french speaking regions of the country.
It seems to be great achievement that India, which is so diverse in terms of language,
regions, religions has remained united after Independence. what was our political system
that kept india united despite being such a diverse country? this question will be answered in
this chapter.
Federalism
our constitution adopted a federal structure where states can govern independently yet centre
will maintain its control over the states.
The characteristics of federalism are:

A. There are two types of government one at the state level and other at the national level.
and these governments are independent. In some countries, like USA there is a system of
dual citizenship which means that USA citizens has two citizenship , one of USA and other
of there state. but in india we have only one citizenship that is of indian nationality.our
constitution does not recognise any other nationality that is of being assamese, bengali etc.
b. b. but yes, if we are not having two types citizenship but we are surely having two types
of identities. that is we are identified as assamese, bengali, gujarati or kashmiri but at the
same time we are identified as an indian also. Therefore, each level government has their
own powers, responsibilities and a separate system of governance.
c. the powers , responsibilities and their manner of governance are written in the
constitution, which is considered supreme.
d. and if any conflict arises over the demarcation of powers between centre and state , then
the judiciary intervenes to settle the disputes.
Q2. what other factors besides politics keep the federations united?
A2. besides politics, other factors which keep the federations united are culture, ideology
and history. Culture of trust, cooperation, mutual respect and restraint has also helped in the
smooth functioning of federations.
Federalism in the indian constitution
if the countries have disintegrated like USSR, pakistan;it does not mean that they didnot
have any federal system. these countries were also having federal system. but then why it
lead to their disintegration?
Because simply having federalism is not enough. it also depends on the type of federalism
you have. whether you have federalism with a weak centre or there is a federalism with a
strong centre.
USSR had a federalism with a weak centre that is why the centre was not able to control its
territories.
but India has federalism with a strong centre and it was able to have a strong control over its
states.
india is a diverse land with many languages, religions and regions. And to give them identity
and recognition, leaders of our national movement thought that these units should govern
themselves. But how much powers should be given to the states to govern themselves ? our
constituent assembly decided to frame the government that would be based on principles of
unity and cooperation between centre and states and separate power to states.
the most important principle of federal system adopted by indian constitution is that
relations between states and centre would be based on cooperation. therefore, our
constitution recognised diversity but at the same time it emphasised unity.

and surprisingly, our constitution does not even mention the word federation. article 1
simply says that india that is bharat shall be a union of states. which means states will live in
unity.
Q&A
Q1. What is the nature of our federal system?
A1. our federal system is based on the principles of unity and cooperation between centre
and states and separate powers to the states. therefore, our constitution recognises diversity
and emphasies unity.
Q2. Why did our national leaders thought of centralised federal system?
A2. India is a diverse land with many languages, culture, religions and regions.it was
necessary to give recognition to them. and also india is a large country, so it was important
to divide powers between provinces and central government. that is why our national
leaders thought of federal system. but they wanted unity and cooperation between states. so
they gave us a centralised federal system.
Division of powers
as we have just read that our leaders of national movement divided the powers between
centre and states. so there are two level of government: one which governs the entire country
that is national government and the other which governs the states is called state
government. both of these have been granted status by the constitution and their acreas of
functions are clearly demarcated under union list, state list and concurrent list.
under union list only, centre can legislate and work in these subjects. in state list, only state
can legislate and work in these subjects and under concurrent both union and state can
work.
if there is any conflict in these lists, or if there is a conflict which subject to be done by
whom, then judiciary intervenes and resolves the issues.
one important thing is that economic and financial powers are centralised and are in the
hands of central government . that means though states have been given subjects to be
worked under but they do not have financial resources to carry out their work.
and if any matter is not mentioned in the lists, then it comes under residuary powers. and
union legislature can alone legislate on these matters. state cannot legislate on these matters.
This means that there is a unitary federal structure.
Q&A
Q1. What are the two levels of government in our political system?
A1. our political system has two levels of government:
a. national level.
b. state level.

Q2. What are residuary powers?

A2. subjects which do not come in any of the lists come under residuary powers. union
legislature alone has the power to legislate on such matters.
for example: cyber laws
why did we adopt federalism with a strong central government ?
As we have read in introduction that federal countries like USSR disintegrated. so the
important question which comes is the nature of federalism. whether the federalism was with
weak central government who could not control the desire of states to separate from their
country or federalism was with strong central government which would keep a check and
control on states.
India is a diverse country and there was a requirement of federalism which will accomodate
the demands of all diversities. but at the same time it require a strong central government
that will stop disintegration and bring about social and political change. with this idea in
mind our constitution framers drafted the constitution. and also at the time of
independence , india was not only divided into provinces by the british but there were more
than 500 princely states which had to be integrated into existing states or new states had to
be created.
Besides unity as a factor, India needed to tackle socio- economic problems of the country. It
required to eliminate poverty, illiteracy and inequalities of wealth. So it required strong
central government in cooperation with states for development and unity.
Q&A
Q1. Why did India adopt federalism with strong central government?
A1.the reasons for which india adopted federalism with strong central government:
a. India is a diverse country. So, there was a need of federalism which will accomodate the
demands of all diversities. But at the same time it require a strong central government that
will stop disintegration and bring about social and political change.
b. At the time of independence , india was not only divided into provinces by the british but
there were more than 500 princely states which had to be integrated into existing states or
new states had to be created.
c. Besides unity as a factor, India needed to tackle socio- economic problems of the
country. It required to eliminate poverty, illiteracy and inequalities of wealth. So it required
strong central government in cooperation with states for development.
Conflicts in India's federal system
Although the distribution of powers between centre and states is well defined in the Indian
constitution. But still many conflicts has taken place between centre and states for
demnading autonomy, for share in resources, for demanding new states and conflicts
between states have also arisen. This topic will deal with some of these conflicts.

a. Centre states relations:

Federalism in india has been influenced by political process of the country. In 1950s and
1960s when there was congress dominance in centre as well as states, the relations
between centre and states have been quite peaceful and without tensions. The states
shared the hope that they together will be making development and socio economic
progress. Also because states had the same party which was in centre, that is, congress
ruled both states and centre so there was not much tension.
But in 1960s congress dominance declined and in states large number of opposition
parties came to power. they wanted greater autonomy and independence. They did not
want centre to intervene in their state's affairs everytime. And the congress which was
ruling at centre in 1960s was also not very comfortable in dealing with opposition parties
in states.
And in 1990s coalition government came to power. congress dominance had ended. And
states also had different opposition parties. So there was a different government at centre and
different government at states.
b. Demand for autonomy
The other nature of conflict which arose in federalism was related to demand of
autonomy. The states had started demnading more independence to govern their state of
affairs. Now the question is what kind of autonomy? Autonomy means different things to
different states and parties.
a. parties like DMK, akali dal, CPI-M, had demanded division of powers in favor of
states and more important powers to be assigned to states.
b. They also demanded financial autonomy. States should have independent sources
of revenue and greater controlof resources.if you remember , we learnt that centre
has control over items generating revenue. In 1977, left front government in west
bengal brought out a document demanding restructuring of centre and state relations.
Which means that the states wanted more independence to be given to them. Tamil
nadu and punjab also demanded greater financial powers
c. They are also angry about greater administrative control through all india services.
States do not want centre to control their administrative machinery.
d. The autonomy demands are also related to cultural and linguistic issues. For
example: Tamil Nadu was opposed to domination of hindi and the punjabi culture. In
1960, some states were opposed to the imposition of Hindi language. Because these
states thought that they are trying to spread hindi and punjabi culture and this will
destroy their own south indian culture.
c. Role of governors and president's rule
The position of governor has also become a source of conflict for centre state relations and
tension for federalism. The governor is not an elected office. governor is appointed by
central government. So governor is seen as an interference in the affairs of state.

Article 356 is also a source of controversy as this article provides for president's rule in
any state. It means that if the government of the state cannot be carried in accordance of
the provisions of the constitution then the president's rule is declared. And the state
government is taken over by union government.
Governor has the power to dismiss the state government which means that governor
can remove the state government in power or suspend it. This power was misused
and in many cases state governments were dismissed even when they had majority
for example: in Kerala in 1959, andhra pradesh and jammu and kashmir in 1980s.
c. Demand for new states
The other factor which is leading to source of tension in our federal system is demands
for new states. Initially the demand for new states was for conserving their identity and
their culture. so the states were formed on the basis of language. Gujarat and
maharashtra were created in 1960, punjab and haryana were separated in 1966. North
east region was reorganised and several new states were formed like meghalaya,
manipur and arunachal pradesh.
since 1990s, demand for further states have been made. It is made on the reason that
development have not been able to reach these parts of the country. Three new states
have been formed jharkhand from bihar, chattisgarh from madhya pradesh and
uttaranchal from UP. These areas remained backward and were underdeveloped.
Following states have also been demanding new states on the reason of development.
For example: telangana in andhra pradesh and vidarbha in maharashtra.
d. Inter-state conflict
Another source of tension in federalism is inter-state conflicts. Till now we have read
that there have been conflicts between centre and states. But there are conflicts between
two or more states also. The prominent conflicts are over
a. boundary issue
b. river disputes
Boundary issue: states have been formed on the basis of language. But on the border
sides, there is a possibility that people speaking more than 1 language resides. So, states
onthe border lay claim over the territories. One of the long standing dispute is between
maharashtra and karnataka over the city of belgaum. Both Punjab and chandigarh has
laid claims over chandigarh and both declare chandigarh as their capital. While border
disputes are about sentiments. Other important source of conflicts is river dispute.
River dispute: This is more important because water is required for agriculture and
drinking purposes. Cauvery water dispute is a very famous dispute where tamil nadu and
karnataka are fighting over the share of cauvery water. Gujarat, madhya pradesh and
maharashtra are fighting over narmada river.
Special Provisions

The most surprising feature of Indian federalism is that many states are given differential
treatment. We already know that in Rajya Sabha, states have got representation
according to the size of states. UP have got largest number of members while small north
eastern states have got 1 member in rajya sabha. But the division of powers is common
to all states.
But constitution has given special provisions to north eastern states because of large
tribal population, their different history and culture, which they wish to retain (Article
371). Article 370 has given special provisions to jammu and kashmir. Because after
independence, there was a war between india and pakistan over kashmir. And maharaja
of kashmir agreed to join india under certain conditions. That is why jammu and kashmir
has been given special provisions in the constitution. But these provisions have not been
able to arrest the alienation and marginalization they are suffering.
Q&A
Q1. what are the causes of tension in our federal system?
A1. a. centre state relations
b. demand for autonomy
c. role of governors and president's rule
d. demand for new states
e. inter state conflicts
Q2. which states have been given special provisions in our constitution?
A2. jammu and kashmir, and north eastern states like nagaland, manipur and assam.

Mcqs
mcqs
federalism chap 7
1. into how many countries did USSR disintegrate?
a. 14
b. 15
c. 16
d. 17
ans B
2. in which country treaty of chiguaramas was signed?
a. west indies
b. nigeria

c. uzbekistan
d. pakistan
ans A
3. when was treaty of chiguaramas signed?
a. 1972
b. 1973
c. 1974
d. 1975
Ans B
4. when was federation of west indies came into being?
a. 1956
b. 1957
c. 1958
d. 1985
ans C
5. when was USSR disintegrated?
a. 1991
b. 1989
c. 1992
d. 1993
ans A
6. who settles disputes between centre and states?
a. executive
b. legislature
c. judiciary
d. tribunals
ans C
7. in which conference nigerian federal constitution was formed?
a. ibadan
b. carribean
c. zizac

d. yoruba
ans A
8. when was ibadan constitutional conference held?
a. 1951
b. 1950
c. 1952
d. 1953
ans B
9. which is not the ethnic group of nigeria?
a. yoruba
b. ikoba
c. ibo
d. hausa fulani
ans B
10. when was the democracy restored in nigeria?
a. 1998
b. 1997
c. 1999
d. 2000
ans C
11. which is not the list in our constitution?
a. panchayat list
b. union list
c. concurrent list
d. state list
ans A
12. any matter that is not mentioned in any of the lists come under which list?
a. union list
b. state list
c. concurrent list
d. residuary list

ans D
13. in which list can both state and union can legislate?
a. union list
b. state list
c. concurrent list
d. residuary powers
ans C
14.

in which list does defense comes?

a. union list
b. state list
c. concurrent list
d. residuary powers
ans A
15. in which list does local government comes?
a. union list
b. state list
c. concurrent list
d. residuary powers
ans B
16. in which list does atomic energy comes?
a. union list
b. state list
c. concurrent list
d. residuary powers
ans A
17. in which list does foreign affairs comes?
a. union list
b. state list
c. concurrent list
d. residuary powers
ans A

18. in which list does war and peacemaking comes?

a. union list
b. state list
c. concurrent list
d. residuary powers
ans A
19. in which list does banking comes?
a. union list
b. state list
c. concurrent list
d. residuary powers
ans A
20. in which list does railways comes?
a. union list
b. state list
c. concurrent list
d. residuary powers
ans A
21. in which list does education comes?
a. union list
b. state list
c. concurrent list
d. residuary powers
ans C
22. in which list does cyber laws comes?
a. union list
b. state list
c. concurrent list
d. residuary powers
ans D
23. in which list does state public services comes?

a. union list
b. state list
c. concurrent list
d. residuary powers
ans B
24. in which list does police comes?
a. union list
b. state list
c. concurrent list
d. residuary powers
ans B
25. in which list does airways comes?
a. union list
b. state list
c. concurrent list
d. residuary powers
ans A
26. in which list does currency and coinage comes?
a. union list
b. state list
c. concurrent list
d. residuary powers
ans A
27. Article which protects officers during martial law?
a. 33
b. 35
c. 36
d. 37
ans A
28. Article which shows that executive power of union is superior than states?
a. 281

b. 280
c. 259
d. 257
ans D
29. which factor does not centralise the federal system?
a. financial resources
b. chief minister
c. power for formation of new states
d. all india services
ans B
30. article which declares president's rule in the state?
a. article357
b. article 355
c. article 356
d. article 358
ans C
31. after which period did the imposition of president's rule increased?
a. 1967
b. 1968
c. 1969
d. 1970
ans A
32. which part in andhra pradesh has been demanding a separate statehood?
a. rayalseema
b. vidarbha
c. telangana
d. marijuana
ans C
33. when was the states reorganisation committee set up?
a. 1954
b. 1955

c. 1956
d. 1957
ans A
34. in which year gujarat and maharashtra was created ?
a. 1964
b. 1963
c. 1962
d. 1960
ans D
35. in which year haryana and punjab was separated?
a. 1968
b. 1967
c. 1966
d. 1965
ans C
The best form of federalism suited for countries live India is
(a) Centralised federalism (b) Bargaining federalism
(c) Cooperative federalism (d) Conflicting federalism
Ans. (c)
2. The Finance Commission is constituted to recommend criteria for
(a) Framing a finance bill
(b) Preparing the annual budget of Union Govt.
(c) Distribution of financial resources between union & the state
(d) Auditing the receipts & expenditure of the union govt.
Ans. (c)
3. Sarkaria Commission Report was officially received by the Govt. in
(a) 1969 (b) 1970
(c) 1976 (d) 1988
Ans. (d)
4. Which of the following states has a separate constitution of its own?
(a) Andhra Pradesh (b) Karanataka
(c) Tamil Nadu (d) Jammu & Kashmir

Ans. (d)
5. The members of the Finance Commission are appointed by the President & this
qualifications are determined by
(a) President (b) Parliament
(c) Prime Minister (d) Speakers of Lok Sabha
6. Under which Article, the Governor can reserve the bill for the consideration of the
President?
(a) 198 (b) 200
(c) 201 (d) 202
Ans. (c)
7. Which of the following items has been added in the Union list?
(a) Deployment of armed forces of the Union is any state
(b) Fisheries
(c) Tanes on lands and buildings
(d) None of these
Ans. (a)
8. Which of the following has been added to the Concurrent List?
(a) Social security (b) Electricity
(c) Protection of wild animals & birds
(d) Social Planning
Ans. (c)
9. Match List I with List II
A. Union List 1. Forest
B. State List 2. Police
C. Concurrent 3. Banking
Code A B C
(a) 1 2 3
(b) 3 2 1
(c) 1 3 2
(d) 2 3 1
Ans. (b)
10. Who describes the Indian Federation as a cooperative federation?
(a) Grandville Austin (b) Sir Ivor Jennings
(c) K.C. Wheare (d) Alex and Rowicz

dictionary
dictionary
chap 7
a. secede: to break from the country. for example: bangladesh seceded from pakistan.
b. constituent assembly: group of people who formed our constitution.
c. veto : power to reject
d. martial law: law imposed in an area or country where the civil authority has broken down.
it means that normal functioning of the government is not possible. so military forces take
the control of the area to maintain law and order.
e. autonomy: independence
f.

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chapter 6 judiciary
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the original attachment
judiciary serious chap 6
introduction
we all know judiciary is important for settling the disputes between individuals and private
parties. but besides, sorting out disputes it aso performs a very vital political function. that is
to protect rights of individuals. it interprets the provisions of constitution and protects the
rights of citizens.
(by interpreting it means that it explains the laws in the constitution in such a way that it is
in sync with principles of constitution which is liberty, justice etc. to make it more simple, a
law has different interpretations. a dictator will try to mould law in his favor while a
communist government might try to mould law in favor of a group. so a our judiciary
nterpret law in favor of principles like justice, secularism, rights. i hope now you must have
got the meaning of word interpretation.)
To allow judiciary to carry out its functions effectively and fearlessly, we need an
independent judiciary. and to make our judiciary independent , constitution has made certain
provisions for it.
Q&A
Q1. Why do we need an independence of judiciary?
a1. independence of judiciary is required:
a. to settle disputes according to the rule of law.
b. to protect rule of law
c. ensure supremacy of law
d. safeguards rights of individuals
e. ensure that democracy does not give way to individual or group dictatorship
Q2.what is the meaning of rule of law?
A2. rule of law means that all individuals whether rich or poor, men or women, forward or
backward castes , they all are subjected to the same law.
meaning of independence of judiciary
it means that
a. other organs of government like executive and legislature must not restrain the
functioning of judiciary that it (judiciary) is not able to do justice.
b. other organs should not interfere with decisions of judiciary
c. judge must be able to perform functions without any fear.
but that does not mean that judiciary will do whatever it wants. it does not mean taking
arbitrary decisions.

How can independence of judiciary be provided and protected?

a. legislature is not involved in the process of appointment of judges : so political party will
not be able to appoint judges. they need to have experience of law
b. judges have a fixed tenure. they hold office till the age of retirement. this security ensures
that they are able to function without fear of losing their jobs.
c. removal of judges is very difficult. since their removal from jobs is difficult they have a
security of tenure and can thus function fearlessly.
d. judiciary is not dependent on executive and legislature for their salaries. legislature does
not discuss on the salaries of judges. they also can not discuss about conduct of judges in
parliament, unless the judge is not being impeached. if the judge is discussed it can lead to
contempt of court and the MP can be penalised.
the above points will be discussed in little details here.but before that lets attempt q&a
q1. what does independence of judiciary means?
a1. it means that
a. other organs of government like executive and legislature must not restrain the
functioning of judiciary that it (judiciary) is not able to do justice.
b. other organs should not interfere with decisions of judiciary
c. judge must be able to perform functions without any fear.
but it does not mean that judiciary takes arbitrary decisions. judiciary is a part of democratic
political structure.
q2. How can independence of judiciary be provided and protected?
a2. legislature is not involved in the process of appointment of judges
b. judges have a fixed tenure. they hold office till the age of retirement. this security ensures
that they are able to function without fear of losing their jobs.
c. removal of judges is very difficult.
d. judiciary is not dependent on executive and legislature for their salaries. legislature does
not discuss on the salaries of judges. they also can not discuss about conduct of judges in
parliament, unless the judge is not being impeached. if the judge is discussed it can lead to
contempt of court and the MP can be penalised.
q3. Why is the removal of judge difficult?
a3. It is difficult to that there is security of tenure. and judges can work fearlessly.
Appointment of judges
council of ministers, governors, chief ministers and chief justice of india all decide about the
process of judicial appointment. and as a convention, senior most judge of supreme court is
appointed as chief justice of india. but this convention was broken twice. in 1973, AN Ray
was appointed as CJI superseding three senior judges. and Justice MHBeg was appointed
superseding HR Khanna in 1975.
the other judges of supremecourt and high court are appointed by president after consulting
CJI. This means that council of ministers has greater say in appointing judges. so what does
CJI do? supreme court has adopted principle of collegiality. it means that CJI along with
consultation of four senior most judges should recommend names of persons to be
appointed. therefore, decision of judges of supreme court carries weight. In total, the
supreme court and council of ministers decide the appointment of judges.
q&a

q1. who is appointed as chief justice of india?

a1. senior most judge of supreme court is appointed as chief justice of india.
q2. Name two judges who supreseded the convention to become CJI ?
a2. 1. AN Ray and justice MH Beg
q3. Name the judge who superseded justice HR Khanna to become CJI?
A3. Justice MH beg
Q4. Why MH Beg and AN Ray was able to break the convention in 1970s to become
CJI?
Ans4. Indira Gandhi wanted committed bureaucracy and committed judiciary to sustain her
rule. Moreover in 1975 she imposed emergency. So she needed committed system who will
adhere to her demands.
Q5. How is a Judge appointed?
A5. To appoint a judge, principle of collegiality is adopted. Names of judges are suggested
by CJI in consultation with four senior most judges. And the president appoints them .
Removal of judge
Removing a judge is a very difficult process. A judge of high court or supreme court can
only be removed on proven misbehaviour and incapacity. (Incapacity means that he is not
properlyable to discharge his responsibility). It requires a special majority in both houses of
parliament to remove a judge. (special majority means two thirds of those present and voting
and simple majority of total membership of house). Therefore, while making appointments,
executive is important and while removing legislature is important.
One unsuccessful attempt was made to remove a judge. Though it was passed by two thirds
of members who were present and voting, it could not get one half of total strength of the
house. The name of the Justice was V.Ramaswamy.
Q&A
Q1. How are judges appointed?
A1. They are appointed by special majority.
Q2. On which justice was resolution Against his removal passed?
A2. Justice V. ramaswamy
Q3. On what grounds can judge of supreme court or high court be removed?
A3. Proven misbehaviour or incapacity.

Structure of Judiciary
Ours is a single integrated judicial system. That means we have supreme court at the top,
and high court below it , followed by lower(subordinate) courts.
Supreme court

High court

Lower(subordinate) court
Functions of Supreme Court
The functions and responsibilities of supreme court are defined in our constitution. It has
specific jurisdiction or scope of powers:
Original jurisdiction: it means cases that can be directly considered by supreme
court without going to lower courts before that. And those are federal cases. Disputes
arising between union and states, and amongst states themselves directly go to
supreme court. The supreme court has the sole power to resolve such cases. Neither
high court nor lower court can deal with such cases. The supreme court not just
settles the issue but also interprets the powers of union and state government as laid
down in constitution.
Writ jurisdiction: as we have already studied this, any individual whose
fundamental rights has been violated he/she can directly approach supreme court.
The supreme court and high courts can order Writs. It is on the indiividual, whether
he wants to apprroach high court or supreme court. Through such writs, court can
order executive whether to act or not to act.
Appellate jurisdiction: it means that the supreme court will reconsider the
case and legal issues involved in it. The supreme court is the highest court of
appeal. A person can appeal to supreme court against the decisions of the
High Court. But high court has to certify that the case is fit for appeal. And in
criminal case, if death has been given by lower court, guilty can appeal to
supreme court. Supreme Court has the right to decide whether to admit
appeal even when it is not granted by high court. Because if the supreme
court thinks that the interpretation of law is different than what has been
given by lower court, then it intervenes. High courts also have appellate
jurisdiction over lower courts.
Advisory jurisdiction: supreme court possesses adisory functions. The
president can ask supreme court for advice on any matter that is of public
importance or that which involves interpretation of the constitution. But
supreme court is not bound to give advice and president is not bound to
accept such advice. The advantage of advisory function is that 1) it allows
government to seek legal opinion on important matter so that later it does not
lead to unnecessary legal hassles. 2) when the supreme court gives advice the
government can make changes in its action or legislations.
Special powers: supreme court can grant special leave to an appeal from any
judgment or matter passed by any court in the territory of india.

Besides this, decisions made by supreme court are binding on all other courts within
territory of india. It is enforceable across the country. And supreme court can review its
own decisions any time.
Q&A
Q1. How does advisory jurisdiction help?
A1. Advisory jurisdiction helps in a way that :
it allows government to seek legal opinion on important matter so that later it does
not lead to unnecessary legal hassles.
when the supreme court gives advice the government can make changes in its action
or legislations.
Q2. What are the powers of supreme court?
A2. Original jurisdiction: it means cases that can be directly considered by supreme
court without going to lower courts before that. And those are federal cases. Disputes
arising between union and states, and amongst states themselves directly go to
supreme court. The supreme court has the sole power to resolve such cases. Neither
high court nor lower court can deal with such cases. It also interprets the powers of
union and state government as laid down in constitution.
Writ jurisdiction: any individual whose fundamental rights has been violated
he/she can directly approach supreme court. The supreme court and high courts
can order Writs. It is on the individual, whether he wants to approach high court
or supreme court. Through such writs, court can order executive whether to act or
not to act.
Appellate jurisdiction: it means that the supreme court will reconsider the
case and legal issues involved in it. The supreme court is the highest court of
appeal. A person can appeal to supreme court against the decisions of the
High Court. But high court has to certify that the case is fit for appeal. And in
criminal case, if death has been given by lower court, guilty can appeal to
supreme court. Supreme Court has the right to decide whether to admit
appeal even when it is not granted by high court.
Advisory jurisdiction: supreme court possesses advisory functions. The
president can ask supreme court for advice on any matter that is of public
importance or that which involves interpretation of the constitution. But
supreme court is not bound to give advice and president is not bound to
accept such advice. The advantage of advisory function is that 1) it allows
government to seek legal opinion on important matter so that later it does not
lead to unnecessary legal hassles. 2) when the supreme court gives advice the
government can make changes in its action or legislations.
Special powers: supreme court can grant special leave to an appeal from any
judgment or matter passed by any court in the territory of india.

Besides this, decisions made by supreme court are binding on all other courts within
territory of india. It is enforceable across the country. And supreme court can review its
own decisions any time.
Q3. What is the original jurisdiction of supreme court?
A2. Original jurisdiction: it means cases that can be directly considered by supreme court
without going to lower courts before that. And those are federal cases. Disputes arising
between union and states, and amongst states themselves directly go to supreme court. The
supreme court has the sole power to resolve such cases. Neither high court nor lower court
can deal with such cases. The supreme court not just settles the issue but also interprets the
powers of union and state government as laid down in constitution.
Q4. What is writ jurisdiction?
A4. It means that any individual whose fundamental rights has been violated he/she can
directly approach supreme court. Through such writs, court can order executive whether to
act or not to act. This is called writ jurisdiction.
Q4. What is Appellate jurisdiction?
A4. it means that the supreme court will reconsider the case and legal issues involved in it. A
person can appeal to supreme court against the decisions of the High Court. But high court
has to certify that the case is fit for appeal. And in criminal case, if death has been given by
lower court, guilty can appeal to supreme court. Supreme Court has the right to decide
whether to admit appeal even when it is not granted by high court.
Q5. What is Advisory jurisdiction?
A5. Advisory jurisdiction means that the president can ask supreme court for advice on
any matter that is of public importance or that which involves interpretation of the
constitution. But supreme court is not bound to give advice and president is not bound to
accept such advice.
Judicial Activism
In simple terms it means the activism shown by judiciary in resolving cases. Initially, only
people who have been aggrieved or hurt or cheated can approach the court. But this
restricted entry of people who are not educated or donot have enough finances. So the
judiciary introduced PIL(public interest litigation) where anybody from the public can file
the case of behalf of people who are being cheated or aggrieved.
And also judiciary has started picking up cases on its own from newspaper or media when it
sees that executive is not doing its work. For example: recently supreme court scolded
executive for allowing food being wasted in godowns and ordered to distribute it for free. So
judiciary is also forcing executive accountability.
In simple terms it means judiciary becoming active and picking up cases on its own or with
the help of public, media to bring justice. And this can be achieved through PIL or
SAL(social action litigation). PIL emerged in 1979. And around the same time supreme
court took up the case of rights of prisoners. And with this large number of public spirited

citizens and voluntary organisations sought judicial intervention for the betterment of life
conditions of poor, protection of environment and many other issues.
Through PIL, courts has expanded idea of rights. Clean air, unpolluted water and decent
living are rights of the entire society.
This has impacted the political system. It has democratised the judicial system by giving
groups also access to courts. Before 1980s, only individuals who were aggrieved could
approach court for justice.
It has also made attempts to make elections much more free and fair. The court have asked
candidates contesting elections to file affidavits indicating their assets and income alongwith
educational qualifications so that people could elect their representatives based on accurate
knowledge.
But there is a negative side to PIL.
It has overburdened courts
Judicial activism has blurred the distinction between executive and legislature on one
hand and judiciary on the other hand. It means that judiciary has started taking note
of work of executive. For example: In the case of food being wasted,it was the duty
of executive to prevent food wastage and also allow food storage. But judiciary took
note of food wastage and ordered executive to take action for it. But this is not the
work of judiciary.
Cases in which judicial activism was involved:
Blinding of inmates in bihar jail (to know more about this watch gangajal movie of
ajay devgan
Sexual exploitation of children
Inhuman working in stone quarries
In 1979, a newspaper published a report on bihar prisoners about under trials. They
reported that they have been spending more years in jail as a punishment than it
would have required. An avocated filed a petition and supreme court took up the
case. And this was one of the earliest PILs. This is known as hussainara khatoon v/s
bihar case.
2. In 1980, a prison inmate of tihar jail managed to send a scribbled piece of paper to
justice Krishna Iyer narrating physical torture of prisoners. The judge got it
converted into a petition. It came to be known as sunil batra v/s delhi administration.
Q&A
Q1. What is PIL?
A1. PIL is an instrument by which groups, organisations or individuals can file a case in
court on behalf of the aggrieved person.
Q2. Why was PIL introduced?

A2. PIL was introduced for bringing justice to poor and needy. Initially, poor couldnot
approach the court because of less legal knowledge and less financial resources. But,
after 1980s, supreme court came out with Public interest litigation in which the public
spirited individual or voluntary organisation can file a case on behalf of aggrieved.
For example: in 1979, an advocate filed a petition after reading about Bihar inmates
spending long years in jail than their punishment would have required. Supreme court
took up the matter and it became famous as one of the early PILs.
Q3. How has PIL impacted democratic system?
A3. PIL has made our political system much more democratic. Now even poor and needy
can get justice now. It has made our executive system more accountable. It has also made
attempts to make elections much more free and fair. The court have asked candidates
contesting elections to file affidavits indicating their assets and income alongwith
educational qualifications so that people could elect their representatives based on accurate
knowledge. Also , it has expanded the concept of rights by including clean air, unpolluted
water, and decent living as rights of entire society.
Q4. What are the disadvantages of PIL?
A4. PIL has overburdened courts. It has also blurred the distinction between executive and
legislature on one hand and judiciary on the other.
Q5. Give two example of PIL?
A5. 1. In 1979, a newspaper published a report on bihar prisoners about under trials. They
reported that they have been spending more years in jail as a punishment than it would have
required. An avocated filed a petition and supreme court took up the case. And this was one
of the earliest PILs. This is known as hussainara khatoon v/s bihar case.
2. In 1980, a prison inmate of tihar jail managed to send a scribbled piece of paper to justice
Krishna Iyer narrating physical torture of prisoners. The judge got it converted into a
petition. It came to be known as sunil batra v/s delhi administration.
Q6. In what year PIL was introduced?
A6. 1979.
Judicial review
Supreme court has another important power besides judicial activism and that is of judicial
review. Under judicial review, SC (supreme court) has the power to check whether the law
made by executive is within the provisions of constitution or not. If it is unconstitutional,
then the law is declared invalid.
For example: if executive comes out with law that free exchange of ideas in not allowed in
newspapers and all newspapers should be shut down, then SC will intervene and declare this
law as invalid and non operational.
This power SC checks that executive does not make any authoritarian or dictatorial law
which takes away the rights of people. The term judicial review is not mentioned in the

constitution but SC has the power to interpret the law so judicial review comes under the
power of SC. And also as we saw in original jurisdiction, the SC can declare a law invalid if
it concerns the distribution of powers of states and union. The review powers also extends to
states legislatures.
So, together with writ power which is for protecting the fundamental rights of an individual
and the review power of courts, judiciary is a very powerful body. PILs have further made
judiciary very powerful.
So the SC can protect the violation of rights in two ways:
It can restore fundamental rights by issuing writs (article32). High courts can also
issue writs(Article 226)
SC can declare the law as unconstitutional and non operational (article13)
In this way, SC protects the rights of individual.
Q&A
Q1. How does SC protects the rights of individual?
A1. The SC protects the rights of individual by:
It can restore fundamental rights by issuing writs (article32). High courts can also
issue writs(Article 226).
SC can declare the law as unconstitutional and non operational (Article13). This
power can also be termed as judicial review. Where SC can delare a law
unconstitutional if it goes against the basic principles of constitution.
Judicial activism has also expanded the scope of rights. PIL is an instrument through
which judicial activism is brought into effect.
Q2. What is judicial review?
A2. It means the power of supreme court (or high courts) to examine the
constitutionality of any law if the court arrives at the conclusion that the law is
inconsistent with the provisions of the constitution , such a law is declared
unconstitutional and invalid.
Q3. Where can judicial review be applied?
A3. Judicial review can be applied on:
Fundamental rights
Federal relations: the SC can use judicial review powers if it sees that distribution of
powers is inconsistent with the constitution.
Q4. How is judiciary a powerful organ?
A4. Judiciary is a powerful organ:
Judicial activism

Judicial review
Writ power
JUDICIARY AND PARLIAMENT
Our constitution has provided a system of balance of power. no organ of government can
claim supremacy. Each organ has clear functioning. Parliament is supreme in law making
and amending the constitution. And executive is supreme in implementing them. while
judiciary is supreme in settling disputes and deciding whether laws have been made in
accordance with the principles of constitution.
Since executive has been careless in working for public welfare , so judiciary has played an
active role in working for the public interest. It has made use of judicial review and judicial
activism to protect the rights of citizens.
Also areas which were considered beyond the scope of judicial review have now been
brought under its purview. Like the powers of President and Governor. SC involved itself in
the administration of justice by giving directions to executive agencies. Thus, it gave
directions to CBI to initiate investigations against politicians and bureaucrats in the hawala
case, Narasimha Rao case. Illegal allotment of petrol pumps case etc. many of theseare the
result of judicial activism. But judicial review and judicial activism has led to fights between
executive and judiciary.
One of the most controversial case was over right to property which became famous as
keshavananda bharati case. It will be discussed after the Q&A round.
Q& A
Q1. How has our constitution maintained division of powers?
A1. Our constitution has provided a system of balance of power. no organ of government
can claim supremacy. Each organ has clear functioning. Parliament is supreme in law
making and amending the constitution. And executive is supreme in implementing them.
while judiciary is supreme in settling disputes and deciding whether laws have been made in
accordance with the principles of constitution.
Q2. Give few examples where judiciary has become active in political cases?
A2. Judiciary has given directions to CBI to initiate investigations against politicians and
bureaucrats in the hawala case, Narasimha Rao case, illegal allotment of petrol pumps case
keshavananda bharati case
immediately after the implementation of constitution began, a controversy arose over
parliament's power to limit or restrict the right to property. They wanted to acquire property
for the public use. But court intervened and said that this is unconstitutional and government
cannot restrict right over property. Because right to property is a fundamental right and
fundamental rights cannot be violated or restricted. Parliament then tried amending the
fundamental rights in the constitution but court said that parliament cannot amend
fundamental rights.

During the period of 1967 and 1973, this fight between executive and judiciary became very
popular. in 1973, the court gave decision which became very famous as keshavananda
bharati case. The court said that there is a basic structure of constitution which cannot be
amended or violated by the executive. And it also said that right to property is not the basic
structure of constitution and therefore, right to property can be amended to bring public
welfare. Nad secondly it also said that it is ONLY court that will decide what is the basic
structure of constitution. This is perhaps the best case which shows that how courts uses its
power to interpret the constitution.
Therefore right to property was taken away as fundamental right in 1979 and this also
changed the relation between legislature and judiciary.
This was keshavananda bharati case.
Q&A
Q1. What is keshavananda bharati case? (v.imp)
A1. immediately after the implementation of constitution began, a controversy arose over
parliament's power to limit or restrict the right to property. But court intervened and said that
this is unconstitutional and government cannot restrict right over property. Parliament then
tried amending the fundamental rights in the constitution but court said that parliament
cannot amend fundamental rights.
During the period of 1967 and 1973, this fight between executive and judiciary became very
popular. in 1973, the court gave decision which became very famous as keshavananda
bharati case. The court said that there is a basic structure of constitution which cannot be
amended or violated by the executive. And it also said that right to property is not the basic
structure of constitution and therefore, right to property can be amended to bring public
welfare. Nad secondly it also said that it is ONLY court that will decide what is the basic
structure of constitution.
Q2. What are the problems which our judiciary is currently facing?
A2. The problems which our judiciary is currently facing are:
Corruption
Delay in giving judgements
Witnesses turning hostile: that means witnesses not giving true account of
circumstances
Lack of staff
Overburdening of cases
No transparency among judges
Only wealthy and influential can approach courts

Non serious
Chapter 6
Judiciary
non serious chap6
we all know judiciary is important for settling the disputes between individuals and private
parties. but besides, sorting out disputes it aso performs a very vital political function. that is
to protect rights of individuals. it interprets the provisions of constitution and protects the
rights of citizens.
To allow judiciary to carry out its functions effectively and fearlessly, we need an
independent judiciary. and to make our judiciary independent , constitution has made certain
provisions for it.
Q&A
Q1. Why do we need an independence of judiciary?
a1. independence of judiciary is required:
a. to settle disputes according to the rule of law.
b. to protect rule of law
c. ensure supremacy of law
d. safeguards rights of individuals
e. ensure that democracy does not give way to individual or group dictatorship
Q2.what is the meaning of rule of law?
A2. rule of law means that all individuals whether rich or poor, men or women, forward or
backward castes , they all are subjected to the same law.
appointment of judges
supreme court has adopted principle of collegiality. it means that CJI along with consultation
of four senior most judges should recommend names of persons to be appointed. therefore,
decision of judges of supreme court carries weight. In total, the supreme court and council of
ministers decide the appointment of judges.
Removal of judge
Removing a judge is a very difficult process. A judge of high court or supreme court can
only be removed on proven misbehaviour and incapacity. (Incapacity means that he is not

properlyable to discharge his responsibility). It requires a special majority in both houses of

parliament to remove a judge. (special majority means two thirds of those present and voting
and simple majority of total membership of house). Therefore, while making appointments,
executive is important and while removing legislature is important.
One unsuccessful attempt was made to remove a judge. Though it was passed by two thirds
of members who were present and voting, it could not get one half of total strength of the
house. The name of the Justice was V.Ramaswamy.
Q&A
Q1. How are judges appointed?
A1. They are appointed by special majority.
Q2. On which justice was resolution Against his removal passed?
A2. Justice V. ramaswamy
Q3. On what grounds can judge of supreme court or high court be removed?
A3. Proven misbehaviour or incapacity.
Structure of Judiciary
Ours is a single integrated judicial system. That means we have supreme court at the top,
and high court below it , followed by lower(subordinate) courts.
Original jurisdiction: it means cases that can be directly considered by supreme
court without going to lower courts before that. And those are federal cases. Disputes
arising between union and states, and amongst states themselves directly go to
supreme court. The supreme court has the sole power to resolve such cases. Neither
high court nor lower court can deal with such cases. It also interprets the powers of
union and state government as laid down in constitution.
b. Writ jurisdiction: any individual whose fundamental rights has been violated
he/she can directly approach supreme court. The supreme court and high courts
can order Writs. It is on the individual, whether he wants to approach high court
or supreme court. Through such writs, court can order executive whether to act or
not to act.
c. Appellate jurisdiction: it means that the supreme court will reconsider the
case and legal issues involved in it. The supreme court is the highest court of
appeal. A person can appeal to supreme court against the decisions of the
High Court. But high court has to certify that the case is fit for appeal. And in
criminal case, if death has been given by lower court, guilty can appeal to
supreme court. Supreme Court has the right to decide whether to admit
appeal even when it is not granted by high court.
d. Advisory jurisdiction: supreme court possesses advisory functions. The
president can ask supreme court for advice on any matter that is of public
importance or that which involves interpretation of the constitution. But

supreme court is not bound to give advice and president is not bound to
accept such advice. The advantage of advisory function is that 1) it allows
government to seek legal opinion on important matter so that later it does not
lead to unnecessary legal hassles. 2) when the supreme court gives advice the
government can make changes in its action or legislations.
e. Special powers: supreme court can grant special leave to an appeal from
any judgment or matter passed by any court in the territory of india.
Besides this, decisions made by supreme court are binding on all other courts within
territory of india. It is enforceable across the country. And supreme court can review its
own decisions any time.
Judicial Activism
In simple terms it means the activism shown by judiciary in resolving cases. Initially, only
people who have been aggrieved or hurt or cheated can approach the court. But this
restricted entry of people who are not educated or donot have enough finances. So the
judiciary introduced PIL(public interest litigation) where anybody from the public can file
the case of behalf of people who are being cheated or aggrieved.
And also judiciary has started picking up cases on its own from newspaper or media when it
sees that executive is not doing its work. For example: recently supreme court scolded
executive for allowing food being wasted in godowns and ordered to distribute it for free. So
judiciary is also forcing executive accountability.
Through PIL, courts has expanded idea of rights. Clean air, unpolluted water and decent
living are rights of the entire society.
This has impacted the political system. It has democratised the judicial system by giving
groups also access to courts. Before 1980s, only individuals who were aggrieved could
approach court for justice.
It has also made attempts to make elections much more free and fair. The court have asked
candidates contesting elections to file affidavits indicating their assets and income alongwith
educational qualifications so that people could elect their representatives based on accurate
knowledge.
But there is a negative side to PIL.
1) It has overburdened courts
2) Judicial activism has blurred the distinction between executive and legislature on
one hand and judiciary on the other hand. It means that judiciary has started taking
note of work of executive. For example: In the case of food being wasted,it was the
duty of executive to prevent food wastage and also allow food storage. But judiciary
took note of food wastage and ordered executive to take action for it. But this is not
the work of judiciary.
Q&A

Q1. What is PIL?

A1. PIL is an instrument by which groups, organisations or individuals can file a case in
court on behalf of the aggrieved person.
Q2. Why was PIL introduced?
A2. PIL was introduced for bringing justice to poor and needy. Initially, poor couldnot
approach the court because of less legal knowledge and less financial resources. But,
after 1980s, supreme court came out with Public interest litigation in which the public
spirited individual or voluntary organisation can file a case on behalf of aggrieved.
For example: in 1979, an advocate filed a petition after reading about Bihar inmates
spending long years in jail than their punishment would have required. Supreme court
took up the matter and it became famous as one of the early PILs.
Q3. How has PIL impacted democratic system?
A3. PIL has made our political system much more democratic. Now even poor and needy
can get justice now. It has made our executive system more accountable. It has also made
attempts to make elections much more free and fair. The court have asked candidates
contesting elections to file affidavits indicating their assets and income alongwith
educational qualifications so that people could elect their representatives based on accurate
knowledge. Also , it has expanded the concept of rights by including clean air, unpolluted
water, and decent living as rights of entire society.
Q4. What are the disadvantages of PIL?
A4. PIL has overburdened courts. It has also blurred the distinction between executive and
legislature on one hand and judiciary on the other.
Judicial review
Supreme court has another important power besides judicial activism and that is of judicial
review. Under judicial review, SC (supreme court) has the power to check whether the law
made by executive is within the provisions of constitution or not. If it is unconstitutional,
then the law is declared invalid.
For example: if executive comes out with law that free exchange of ideas in not allowed in
newspapers and all newspapers should be shut down, then SC will intervene and declare this
law as invalid and non operational.
This power SC checks that executive does not make any authoritarian or dictatorial law
which takes away the rights of people.
Q1. How does SC protects the rights of individual?
A1. The SC protects the rights of individual by:
a. It can restore fundamental rights by issuing writs (article32). High courts can also
issue writs(Article 226).

b. SC can declare the law as unconstitutional and non operational (Article13). This
power can also be termed as judicial review. Where SC can delare a law
unconstitutional if it goes against the basic principles of constitution.
c. Judicial activism has also expanded the scope of rights. PIL is an instrument
through which judicial activism is brought into effect.
Q2. What is judicial review?
A2. It means the power of supreme court (or high courts) to examine the
constitutionality of any law if the court arrives at the conclusion that the law is
inconsistent with the provisions of the constitution , such a law is declared
unconstitutional and invalid.
Q4. How is judiciary a powerful organ?
A4. Judiciary is a powerful organ:
a. Judicial activism
b. Judicial review
c. Writ power
FAMOUS CASE OF FIGHT BETWEEN JUDICIARY AND LEGISLATURE
keshavananda bharati case
immediately after the implementation of constitution began, a controversy arose over
parliament's power to limit or restrict the right to property. They wanted to acquire property
for the public use. But court intervened and said that this is unconstitutional and government
cannot restrict right over property. Because right to property is a fundamental right and
fundamental rights cannot be violated or restricted. Parliament then tried amending the
fundamental rights in the constitution but court said that parliament cannot amend
fundamental rights.
During the period of 1967 and 1973, this fight between executive and judiciary became very
popular. in 1973, the court gave decision which became very famous as keshavananda
bharati case. The court said that there is a basic structure of constitution which cannot be
amended or violated by the executive. And it also said that right to property is not the basic
structure of constitution and therefore, right to property can be amended to bring public
welfare. Nad secondly it also said that it is ONLY court that will decide what is the basic
structure of constitution. This is perhaps the best case which shows that how courts uses its
power to interpret the constitution.
Therefore right to property was taken away as fundamental right in 1979 and this also
changed the relation between legislature and judiciary.
This was keshavananda bharati case.
Q&A
Q1. What is keshavananda bharati case? (v.imp)

A1. immediately after the implementation of constitution began, a controversy arose over
parliament's power to limit or restrict the right to property. But court intervened and said that
this is unconstitutional and government cannot restrict right over property. Parliament then
tried amending the fundamental rights in the constitution but court said that parliament
cannot amend fundamental rights.
During the period of 1967 and 1973, this fight between executive and judiciary became very
popular. in 1973, the court gave decision which became very famous as keshavananda
bharati case. The court said that there is a basic structure of constitution which cannot be
amended or violated by the executive. And it also said that right to property is not the basic
structure of constitution and therefore, right to property can be amended to bring public
welfare. Nad secondly it also said that it is ONLY court that will decide what is the basic
structure of constitution.
Q2. What are the problems which our judiciary is currently facing?
A2. The problems which our judiciary is currently facing are:
a. Corruption
b. Delay in giving judgements
c. Witnesses turning hostile: that means witnesses not giving true account of
circumstances
d. Lack of staff
e. Overburdening of cases
f. No transparency among judges
g. Only wealthy and influential can approach courts
MCQs
mcqs chap6
1. why do we require independence of judiciary?
a. to allow it to be moulded by groups.
b. executives should have their own law
c. government should have their own law.
d. safeguards rights of individual
ans D
2. which is not independence of judiciary?
a. safeguards rigts of individual.
b. settle disputes impartially.
c. judiciary to have their own law

d. protect rule of law

ans C
3. what is the meaning of rule of law?
a. rules in a book
b. all subjected to same law
c. law according to judiciary's rules
d. politicians to be safeguarded from law.
ans B
4. which is not one of the criterion of guaranteeing independence to judiciary?
a. appointment not through legislature
b. security of tenure
c. dependent on executive and legislature
d. removal of judges difficult
ans C
5. which criterion does independence of judiciary does not include?
a. organs of government not to restrain functioning of judiciary
b. organs of government to interfere in decision making
c. to be able to perform without fear.
d. to be able to work effectively
ans B
6. Who is appointed as CJI ?
a. high court judge
b. supreme court judge
c. senior judge of supreme court
d. senior judge of high court
ans C
7. how is judge appointed?
a. president
b. prime minister
c. CJI
d. governor

ans C
8. Which principle is adopted to appoint judges?
a. collusion
b. consultation
c. collegiality
d. collateral
ans c
9. On which justice was resolution Against his removal passed?
a. Mh beg
b. An ray
c. V. ramaswamy
d. justice kapadia
ans C
10. if there is a dispute between union and state, which court will be approached?
a. high court
b. lower court
c. trial court
d. supreme court
ans D
11. which one is not the function of supreme court ?
a. advisory jurisdiction to president
b. appellate jurisdiction
c. advisory jurisdiction to prime minister
d. original jurisdiction
ans C
12. what is appellate jurisdiction?
a. admits appeal even when appeal is not allowed by high court
b. considers appeals only when high court asks for it
c. considers appeal when an individual approaches it
d. appeals to president to take supreme court's advice.

ans A
13. under which article supreme court has the power to review any judgmnt
pronounced by it?
a. 136
b. 137
c. 138
d. 139
ans B
14. under which article all the authorties whether civil or judicial shall act in aid of
supreme court?
a. 144
b. 145
c. 146
d. 147
ans A
15. which is the highest court of appeal?
a. high court
b. supreme court
c. lower court
d. trial court
ans B
16. who can seek advisory function of supreme court?
a. governor
b. prime minister
c. president
d. chief minister
ans C
17. judicial activism flourishes through?
a. PIL
b. PAN
c. MAN

D. SAIL
Ans A
18. when was PIL introduced?
a. 1980
b. 1979
c. 1978
d. 1977
ans B
19. what is sunil batra v/s delhi administration case?
a. blinding of bihar prisoners in bhagal pur
b. bihar prisoners spending more years in jail
c. physical torture of tihar inmates.
d. for polluted delhi air
ans C
20. what is hussainara khatoon v/s bihar case?
a. blinding of bihar prisoners in bhagal pur
b. bihar prisoners spending more years in jail
c. physical torture of tihar inmates.
d. for polluted delhi air
ans B
21. what is not the positive point of judicial activism?
a. expanded rights
b. made executive more accountable
c. needy and poor can get justice
d. it has overburdened courts
ans D
22. what is the positive point of judicial activism?
a. expanded rights
b. overburdened courts
c. blurred distinction between executive and judiciary
d. judiciary is not accountable

ans A
23. How has the constitution not maintained balance of power?
a.judiciary
b. executive
c. media
d. legislature
Ans C
24. what is keshavananda bharati case?
a. basic structure of constitution
b. fundamental duties included
c. fundamental rights made the basic structure of constitution
d. distribution of powers between centre and state
ans A
dictionary
dictionary chap6
a. aggrieved: in pain, cheated
b.

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chapter 5 legislature
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chap 5 serious legislature
why do we need a parliament?
we need parliament for law making. it is required to formulate rules an regulations for the
welfare of public. it is a forum where ministers get together, debate, discuss and question the
work done by them. parliament holds the representatives accountable. (detail functions are
iven later in topic)
but nowadays, parliament is losing its importance. one, is that there has been frequent
walkouts, dharna,protests, and no parliamentary work is done on time. also in india, cabinet
initiates policies, sets the agenda for governance and carries them through. but cabinet
requires the majority in parliament to sustain themselves. therefore, it reflects democracy in
our parliament.
because of its composition, it is the most representative of all organs of government. and it is
powerful also , as it can choose or dismiss government if the government loses majority.
also point to note is that our national legisature in india is called parliament. whereas
legislatures in states are called state legislatures.
questions and answers
ques1. why do we need parliament?
ans 1. we need parliament :
a. it is a forum where ministers get together, debate, discuss and question the work done by
them.
b. parliament is required for law making.
c. it is the basis of representative democracy as it represents ministers from all the
constituencies.
ques2. why is the importance of parliament declining?
ans2. parliament is losing its importanc because:
1. there has been frequent walkouts, dharna,protests, and no parliamentary work is done on
time.
2. in india, cabinet initiates policies, sets the agenda for governance and carries them
through.
ques3. how is cabinet responsible to legislature?
ans 3. for the survival of cabinet, it requires majority in lok sabha.
Why do we need two Houses of Parliament?

a bicameral legislature is when there are two houses of legislature. in india, two houses are
called rajya sabha i.e. council of states and lok sabha i.e. house of people.
and states have the option to remain either unicameral or become bicameral. at present there
are 5 states that have bicameral legislatures.
a. j& k
b. bihar
c. karnataka
d. madhya padesh
e. uttar pradesh
advantage of having a bicameral legislature is that
1. countries with large size and diversity gives representation to all sections of society and
all geographical regions.
2. every decision taken by one house is reconsidered by second house. it means every policy
and bill is discussed twice.so there is a double check.
q&a
ques1. what is bicameral legislature?
ans1. a bicameral legislature is when there are two houses of legislature.
q2. does india have a bicameral legislature?
a2. yes
q3. name the two houses of our legislature?
a. rajya sabha : council of states
b. lok sabha: house of people
q4. what are the advantages of having bicameral legislature?
a4. advantage of having a bicameral legislature is that
1. countries with large size and diversity gives representation to all sections of society and
all geographical regions.
2. every decision taken by one house is reconsidered by second house. it means every policy
and bill is discussed twice.so there is a double check.
q6. how many states in india have bicameral legislature. name them?
a6. there are 5 states that have bicameral legislatures.
a. j& k
b. bihar
c. karnataka
d. madhya padesh
e. uttar pradesh
rajya sabha
Rajya sabha represents states of india. Members are elected indirectly by the representatives
of state legislatures. People elect members of state legislatures who then elects members of
rajya sabha.
Our rajya sabha has assymetrical representation. It means the members of states in rajya
sabha are elected on the basis of population in the states. Up is one of the largest state with
large population, so its representation in rajya sabha is 31. North eastern states are small in
size and have small population so they have 1 member from each state of north east india.
RS follows assymetrical representation so as to avoid inequality in representation between

bigger and smaller states. If UP has equal members and sikkim also has same members, then
UP being one of the largest will not be able to put all his concerns. This will lead to unequal
representation.
The number of members to be elected are fixed by fourth schedule of constitution.
There is also a method of symmetrical representation where members of states in rajya sabha
are equally represented. They are not elected on the basis of size and population. This leads
to equality of all states. USA follows symmetrical representation.
Members of rajya sabha are elected for 6 year term. They can get re elected. All members of
R.S. do not retire at same. After every two years, one third of members retire and elections
are held for that one third. Therefore, R.S. is never fully dissolved. It is called permanent
house of parliament.
The reason for being permanent house of parliament is that when lok sabha is dissolved , RS
can be called and urgent business can be conducted.
Apart from elected members, they also have 12 nominated members. President nominates
these 12c members. And people who have made mark in field of social service, literature,
arts and science etc are nominated.
Q& a
Q1. What is rajya sabha?
A1. Rajya sabha is the house of parliament which represents states of india.
Q2. How are the members elected?
A2. Members are elected indirectly by the representatives of state legislatures.
Q3. Which representation does RS follows?
A3. Our rajya sabha has assymetrical representation. It means the members of states in rajya
sabha are elected on the basis of population in the states.
Q4. Why does RS follows assymetrical representation?
A4. RS follows assymetrical representation so as to avoid inequality in representation
between bigger and smaller states.
Q5. Which schedule fixes members of RS?
Ans 5. It is fixed by fourth schedule of constitution.
Q6. What are two types of representation inRS?
A6. Asymmetrical representation: here the members are elected on the basis population and
size of state. For eg: india.
symmetrical representation: here equal number of members are elected whether they belong
to big or small states.
Eg: USA
Q7. Why RS is called permanent house of parliament?
A7. All members of R.S. do not retire at same. After every two years, one third of members
retire and elections are held for that one third. Therefore, R.S. is never fully dissolved. That
is why, It is called permanent house of parliament.
Q8. What was the need for having permanent house of parliament?

A8. The reason for being permanent house of parliament is that when lok sabha is
dissolved , RS can be called and urgent business can be conducted.
LOK SABHA
Lok sabha and state legislative assemblies are directly elected by people. They are elected
for 5 year term. But it can be dissolved before that if it loses majority in the house. These
members are elected from constituencies through universal adult franchise. There are 543
constituencies and this number hasnot changed since 1971.
Majority means that if there are 543 constituencies it requires 543/2= 276+1= 277 members
to stay in power. that means ruling party should have 277 elected constituencies to form
power. these days no one party is coming to power because they are not able to win 277
constituencies. So they forge alliances with other party to form coalition government.
Q&a
Q1. What is lok sabha?
A1. Lok sabha is the house of parliament which is elected directly by the people.
Q2. How are state legislative assemblies formed?
A2. Representatives who directly get elected by people form legislative assemblies.
Q3. How many constituencies are there in india?
A3. 543
Q4. Since when constituencies have not been changed?
A4. 1971
Q5. Why lok sabha is not called permanent house of parliament?
A5. lok sabha is not called permanent house of parliament because the members are elected
after every five years directly by people.
Why do we need parliament?
Apart from law making and discussing and debating matters it is involved in many
functions.
Legislative function: The drafting of legislation is done by bureaucracy. But
approval and enactment is done by parliament. Enactment means to make it into an
act so that it can be implemented. bills are introduced by cabinet ministers or by
members. They require support of majority for the bill to be passed and become an
Act.
Control of executive and accountability: all the ministers are accountable and
answerable in parliament. It cannot ignore the questions asked in parliament and
have to reply.
Financial functions: government spends money and raises money through taxes.
Legislature sees to it that taxes are introduced for the welfare of public.new taxes are

to get approval from legislature. Legislature also give grants of resources to

implement programmes of government.Grants means financial resources, in short, it
means money. Spending of resources also requires parliamentary approval.
Parliamentary approval is given when th ebill is passed by simple majority that is by
277 members.
Representation: parliament represent different views of different regions, religion,
social , eceonomic, groups of country.
Debating function: parliament is the forum where members of parliament discuss
and debate on the provisions of law. And to include or delete which provisions
which is in the best interests of the country.
Constituent function: parliament also has th epower to make changes in the
constitution. But it has to passed by special majority.
Electoral functions: it elects president and vice president of india.
Judicial functions: it includes proposals for removal of judge of supreme court and
high courts, president and vice president.
Q& a
Q1. What are the functions of parliament ?
Legislative function: The drafting of legislation is done by bureaucracy. But
approval and enactment is done by parliament.
Control of executive and accountability: all the ministers are accountable and
answerable in parliament. It cannot ignore the questions asked in parliament and
have to reply.
Financial functions: government spends money and raises money through taxes.
Legislature approves spending of resources and raising of money through taxes.
Without their approval, it Is not possible to spend or impose new taxes.
Representation: parliament represent different views of different regions, religion,
social , eceonomic, groups of country.
Debating function: parliament is the forum where members of parliament discuss
and debate on the provisions of law.
Constituent function: parliament also has th epower to make changes in the
constitution. But it has to passed by special majority.
Electoral functions: it elects president and vice president of india.
Judicial functions: it includes proposals for removal of judge of supreme court and
high courts, president and vice president.
Difference between powers of lok sabha and rajya sabha.
Lok sabha

Rajya sabha

Introduce and enact money

bills.
Apprves proposals for
taxation, budgets and annual
financial statements.
Controls executive by
asking questions ,
supplementary
questions,resolutions, and
motions and through non
confidence motions.
It amends constitution.
Approves proclamation of
emergency
Elects president and vice
president. Andremoves
judges of supreme court and
high court.
Establishes committees and
commissions and give their
reports.

RS cannot introduce or enact

money bills. They can only
give suggestions for any
amendments on money bills.
Since RS can only suggest
on money bills,it has no
powers on taxation or
budget.
It also exercises controil by
asking questions, motions
and resolutions.but cannot
pass non conffidence motion
because it is a permanent
house. It cant be dissolved.
Only lok sabha can be
dissolved.
RS has same powers in
amending constitution.
Has no powers regarding
emergency
Elects president and vice
president. Andremoves
judges of supreme court and
high court.but power to
remove vice president lies
only with RS.
Gives union parliament
power to make laws on
matters included in State list

SPECIAL POWERS OF RAJYA SABHA

Rajya sabha represents states of india. Therefore, any matter regarding states is referred
to rajya sabha. If union parliament wants to remov any matter from state list in the
interest of nation and want to add in union or concurrent list,then it has to take approval
of rajya sabha. But practice has shown that RS members represent views of parties rather
than interests of states.
SPECIAL POWERS OF LOK SABHA
The RS cannot initiate, amend or reject money bills. Article 109 says that money bill
cannot be introduced in council of states. It can criticise and suggest some measures.
Council of ministers is responsible to lok sabha and only they can initiate, amend or
reject money bills. Because lok sabha is directly elected by people. And people have the
final authority in removing government and controlling finances.
In other spheres, such as constitutional amendments, impeaching president and on non
money bills, lok sabha and rajya sabha have same powers.
Q&A

Q1. What are the special powers of rajya sabha?

A1. If union parliament wants to remove any matter from state list in the interest of
nation and want to add in union or concurrent list,then it has to take approval of rajya
sabha.
Q2. What are the special powers of lok sabha?
A2. Money bills can be initiated, amended or rejected only by Lok sabha. Because lok
sabha is directly elected by people. And people have the final authority in removing
government and controlling finances.
Q3. In what spheres do lok sabha nad rajya sabha have equal powers?
A3. constitutional amendments, impeaching president and on non money bills, lok sabha
and rajya sabha have same powers.
How does parliament make laws?
Parliament's basic function is to make laws. Given below is the procedure of how to
make laws.
A bill is the draft of the proposed law. It has not yet become a law but has to undergo
procedure followed by parliament to become a law.
There are many types of bills
On the basis of who introduces it:
Private member's bill : when a non minister proposes
Government bill : when a minister proposes.
On the basis of finances
Money bill
Non money bill
On the nature of bill
Ordinary bill
Constitution amendment bill
Before a bill is introduced in parliament, there is a lot of debate on the need for
introducing the bill. Media, people by voicing their public opinion demands the bill. Best
example is the anna hazare team demanding anti corruption law. And even sometimes,
government has promised during elections to bring a certain law, that is why there is also
a demand.
After demand, cabinet has to approve policy behind legislation. Now the drafting begins.
The drafting of bill is prepared by concerned ministry. After the bill is prepared, it is
introduced either in lok sabha or rajya sabha. But often a minister responsible for the bill

introduces it. A money bill is introduced in lok sabha. And when it is passed it is sent to
rajya sabha(for approval or suggestion. Rajya sabha cannot reject money bill).
Second stage: Discussion takes place . committees also give their suggestions.
Third stage: bill is voted. If it is passed by majority then it moves to other house. Same
process take place. It is discussed and then put to vote in rajya sabha.
If there is a disagreement in the houses, a joint session is called. Mostly in a joint
session, decision alwaysgoes in favor of lok sabha because they are more in numbers
than rajya sabha.
Media, interest group, political parties, public opinion ask for a bill
Cabinet approves the policy behind the bill
Bill now introduced in parliament. It is also known as first stage

Discussion takes place. Committees also give their inputs. It is also known as second
stage.

After discussion it is put to vote and when passed by simple majority, it goes to next
house .

Next house (rajya sabha) discusses the bill.

Then it is put to vote. When passed by simple majority, it is declared passed. And bill
which was proposed law , now becomes the law.

If the other house(rajya sabha) does not agree with the bill. Then, joint session is called.
And mostly, decision is taken in favor of lok sabha because they are more in number
than rajya sabha.

A money can e introduced , amended or rejected only in lok sabha. Rajya sabha can
approve or suggest some amendments. And if rajya sabha does not approve within 14
days it is deemed to have been passed by rajya sabha. Lok sabha may or may not accept
the amendment of Lok Sabha.
Q& A
Q1. What are the three stages of bill becomng a law?

A1. Before a bill is introduced in parliament, there is a lot of debate on the need for
introducing the bill. Political parties, citizen forums, interest groups and media discuss
the bill.
After making demands, cabinet has to first approve policy behind legislation. Now the
drafting begins. The drafting of bill is prepared by concerned ministry. After the bill is
prepared, it is introduced either in lok sabha or rajya sabha. But often a minister
responsible for the bill introduces it. A money bill is introduced in lok sabha. And when
it is passed it is sent to rajya sabha(for approval or suggestion. Rajya sabha cannot reject
money bill).
Second stage: Discussion takes place . committees also give their suggestions.
Third stage: bill is voted. If it is passed by majority then it moves to other house. Same
process take place. It is discussed and then put to vote in rajya sabha.
If there is a disagreement in the houses, a joint session is called. Mostly in a joint
session, decision alwaysgoes in favor of lok sabha because they are more in numbers
than rajya sabha.
Q2. What is a joint session?
A2. When there is a disgreement between two houses of parliament over a bill, then
a joint session is called to resolve the deadlock. mostly, decision goes in favor of lok
sabha because they are more in number than Rajya Sabha.
Q3. What are the types of bills?
A3. There are many types of bills
On the basis of who introduces it:
Private member's bill : when a non minister proposes
Government bill : when a minister proposes.
On the basis of finances
Money bill
Non money bill
On the nature of bill
Ordinary bill
Constitution amendment bill
Q4. What are the powers of rajya sabha regarding money bill?
A4. The powers of rajya sabha regarding money bill is that it can approve or suggest some
amendment but cannot initiate, reject or amend the bill. If therajya sabha does not take any
action for 14 days it is deemed to have been passed by rajya sabha.
Parliament control over executive

Executive is drawn from the party or the coalition of party that have come to power. if the
party is in majority, then there is a possibility that the executive might turn into cabinet
dictatorship. This is because majority will support the decisions of cabinet. But if the
executive is drawn from the coalition of parties, then check by their different parties will
prevail.
But keeping a check on executive does not mean that they do not have any freedom and
power to work effectively and fearlessly. For this there are parliamentary privileges. These
are privileges/freedom which are given to members of parliament for its conduct in
parliament. It is a legal immunity which is enjoyed by members of parliament for its conduct
in parliament. For example: no action can be taken against a member if he/she has said
anything in parliament. These privileges enable members to represent the people fearlessly
and effectively and to exercise control over executive. How do privileges exercise control
over executive? For example: if a member of parliament has said anything against the
executive member, he/she will not be punished for this.
Q&A
Q1. What happens to executive when its party is in majority?
A1. When the party is in majority there is a possibility that executive might turn into cabinet
dictatorship.
Q2. What are parliamentary privileges?
A2. It is a legal immunity enjoyed by members of parliament when they are functioning as
representatives of people in parliament and discharging their parliamentary responsibilities.
Instruments of parliamentary control
Deliberation and discussion: During the process of law making, members in
legislature deliberate on these bills. Apart from discussing , control is exercised
through question hour which is held everyday during the session of parliament where
the ministers have to respond to questions raised by parliament;zero hour where the
members are free to raise any matter that they think is important (though the
ministers are not bound to reply) , half an hour discussion on public matters ,
adjournment motion etc. question hour is the most effective way to keep a check on
ministers. MPs have shown great interest and maximum attendance is recorded
during this time. Questions asked is to know the information from ministers on
issues of price rise, availability of food grains, atrocities on weaker sections, etc. this
leads to criticism of government's policies. The discussions get so heated that
walkouts, protests are common that lead to wastage of time and delay in law making.
Financial control: budget is prepared for asking resources for its demand and for
raising money for the government. Budget cannot be passed unless it is approved by
majority in parliament. This constitutional obligation allows the legislature to
exercise control over purse strings of government. Legislature may refuse to grant
resources but usually this does not happen because government enjoys support of
majority. But it discusses the budget. It keeps a check in other ways that misuse of

funds is brought to notice by CAG comptroller and auditor general ' report. CAG
recently has shown the misuse of funds in 2g spectrum and commonwealth games.
Approval and ratification of laws: legislature keeps a control over executive by
granting approval or refusal to the bills. The government needs to convince the
majority in support of the bill so that it can be passed. Passing of the bill requires
great discussion and debate. But if the govrnment is in majority, then there will be
less difficulty in convincing the members. but it is not that government needs lok
sabha majority to pass the bill. It equally needs the majority of Rajya Sabha to pass
the bill
No Confidence Motion: If the government has a majority or a majority of coalition
partners, then government will not fall. But after 1989, several governments have
been forced to resign because they were not able to have majority in parliament.
Q&A
Q1. What are the instruments of control of parliament over executive?
A1. A. Deliberation and discussion: During the process of law making, members in
legislature deliberate on these bills. Apart from discussing , control is exercised through
question hour which is held everyday during the session of parliament where the
ministers have to respond to questions raised by parliament;zero hour where the
members are free to raise any matter that they think is important (though the ministers
are not bound to reply) , half an hour discussion on public matters , adjournment motion
etc. question hour is the most effective way to keep a check on ministers. Questions are
asked to know the information from ministers on issues of price rise, availability of food
grains, atrocities on weaker sections, etc. this leads to criticism of government's policies.
Financial control: budget is prepared for asking resources for its demand and for
raising money for the government. Budget cannot be passed unless it is approved by
majority in parliament. This constitutional obligation allows the legislature to
exercise control over purse strings of government. There isa check in other ways that
misuse of funds is brought to notice by CAG comptroller and auditor general ' report.
CAG recently has shown the misuse of funds in 2g spectrum and commonwealth
games.
Approval and ratification of laws: legislature keeps a control over executive by
granting approval or refusal to the bills. The government needs to convince the
majority in support of the bill so that it can be passed. Passing of the bill requires
great discussion and debate. It equally needs the majority of Rajya Sabha to pass the
bill
No Confidence Motion: If the government has a majority or a majority of coalition
partners, then government will not fall. But after 1989, several governments have
been forced to resign because they were not able to have majority in parliament.
Parliamentary privileges: It provides legal immunity to members of parliament for
their conduct in parliament. for example: they will not be punished for their speech.

These keep a check on the executive and help in providing an effective system.
Q2. How does deliberation and discussion keep a control on executive?
A2. During the process of law making, members in legislature deliberate on these bills.
Apart from discussing , control is exercised through question hour which is held
everyday during the session of parliament where the ministers have to respond to
questions raised by parliament;zero hour where the members are free to raise any matter
that they think is important (though the ministers are not bound to reply) , half an hour
discussion on public matters , adjournment motion etc. question hour is the most
effective way to keep a check on ministers. Questions are asked to know the information
from ministers on issues of price rise, availability of food grains, atrocities on weaker
sections, etc. this leads to criticism of government's policies.
Q3. How is the parliament able to exercise control by controllong the purse strings
of executive?
A3. budget is prepared for asking grant of resources for its demand and for raising money
for the government. Budget cannot be passed unless it is approved by majority in parliament.
This constitutional obligation allows the legislature to exercise control over purse strings of
government. There isa check in other ways that misuse of funds is brought to notice by CAG
comptroller and auditor general ' report. CAG recently has shown the misuse of funds in 2g
spectrum and commonwealth games.
Q4. How does approval and ratification of laws helps in control of parliament over
executive?
A4. legislature keeps a control over executive by granting approval or refusal to the bills.
The government needs to convince the majority in support of the bill so that it can be passed.
Passing of the bill requires great discussion and debate. It equally needs the majority of
Rajya Sabha to pass the bill
Role of committees
To draft the provisions of the bill, it require expertise and great research. Since, the houses
do not have much time to deliberate on every provision of the bill, so the committees play a
vital role in providing information about the provisions of the bill. Also it has reduced the
burden of parliament. It helps in the day to day business of the house.
But these committees has the only authority to provide suggestions. They do not have power
if the house does not accept their suggestions.
Since 1983, India has developed system of parliamentary committees.
There are two types of committees:
Standing committees who supervises the work of various departments , their budget,
their expenditure,andbills that come up in the house. They are permanent in nature.

Joint committees: they are appointed for a specific purpose of discussing a particular
bill or for investigating financial irregularities. They are temporary in nature. They
are appointed for specific purpose only.
Q &A
Q1. What is the role of committees?
A1. the committees play a vital role in providing in depth information about the provisions
of the bill. it require expertise and great research to draft the provisions of the bill. Since, the
houses do not have much time to deliberate on every provision of the bill, s committees
discuss bill in great length. Also it reduces the burden of parliament. It helps in the day to
day business of the house.
Q2. What are the types of committees?
A2. There are two types of committees:
Standing committees who supervises the work of various departments , their budget,
their expenditure,andbills that come up in the house. They are permanent in nature.
Joint committees: they are appointed for a specific purpose of discussing a particular
bill or for investigating financial irregularities. They are temporary in nature. They
are appointed for specific purpose only.

how does the parliament regulate itself?

There are presiding officers that look into the fnctioning of parliament. They are the final
authority in regulating the business of legislature.
52ND Amendment : this is anti defection amendment. Here the members are
restricted from defecting. It means that if a member remains absent in the house
when asked by the party leadership, or votes against the instructions of the party or
voluntarily leaves the membership of party, he is said to have been defected. If it is
proved that the member has defected then he loses membership of the house and is
disqualified from holding any political office like ministership.
A member intentionally defects so as to prevent his vote/ decision being counted.
This leads to the victory of opposing party in the concerned issue. This also leads to
corruption as the opposing party gives money to that member to restrain from voting.
Before anti defection law, it led to the situation of aya ram and gaya ram, Where a
minister named Ram changed his party thrice. On him became a popular joke that is
aya ram and gaya ram.
91st Amendment : as already discussed, this amendment restricted the council of
ministers to 15% of total membership of house of people.

Q& A

Q1. How does a parliament regulate itself?

A1. The parliament regulate itself by:
52ND Amendment : this is anti defection amendment. Here the members are
restricted from defecting. It means that if a member remains absent in the house
when asked by the party leadership, or votes against the instructions of the party or
voluntarily leaves the membership of party, he is said to have been defected. If it is
proved that the member has defected then he loses membership of the house and is
disqualified from holding any political office like ministership.
91st Amendment : as already discussed, this amendment restricted the council of
ministers to 15% of total membership of house of people.
Q2. What is 52nd amendment?
A2. This is anti defection amendment. Here the members are restricted from defecting. It
means that if a member remains absent in the house when asked by the party leadership, or
votes against the instructions of the party or voluntarily leaves the membership of party, he
is said to have been defected. If it is proved that the member has defected then he loses
membership of the house and is disqualified from holding any political office like
ministership.
Q3. How can parliament be called democartic?
A3. Members who occupy high positions speak different languages.they come from
various castes, religions and sects. Therefore, Parliament represents the wishes of people
from diverse backgrounds.
NON SERIOUS
non serious chap 5
why do we need a parliament?
we need parliament for law making. it is required to formulate rules an regulations for the
welfare of public. it is a forum where ministers get together, debate, discuss and question the
work done by them. parliament holds the representatives accountable.
but nowadays, parliament is losing its importance. one, is that there has been frequent
walkouts, dharna,protests, and no parliamentary work is done on time. also in india, cabinet
initiates policies, sets the agenda for governance and carries them through.
One point to note is that our national legisature in india is called parliament. whereas
legislatures in states are called state legislatures.
questions and answers
ques1. why do we need parliament?
ans 1. we need parliament :

Legislative function: The drafting of legislation is done by bureaucracy. But

approval and enactment is done by parliament.
Control of executive and accountability: all the ministers are accountable and
answerable in parliament. It cannot ignore the questions asked in parliament and
have to reply.
Financial functions: government spends money and raises money through taxes.
Legislature approves spending of resources and raising of money through taxes.
Without their approval, it Is not possible to spend or impose new taxes.
Representation: parliament represent different views of different regions, religion,
social , eceonomic, groups of country.
Debating function: parliament is the forum where members of parliament discuss
and debate on the provisions of law.
Constituent function: parliament also has th epower to make changes in the
constitution. But it has to passed by special majority.
Electoral functions: it elects president and vice president of india.
Judicial functions: it includes proposals for removal of judge of supreme court and
high courts, president and vice president.
ques2. why is the importance of parliament declining?
ans2. parliament is losing its importanc because:
1. there has been frequent walkouts, dharna,protests, and no parliamentary work is done on
time.
2. in india, cabinet initiates policies, sets the agenda for governance and carries them
through.
Why do we need two Houses of Parliament?
a bicameral legislature is when there are two houses of legislature. in india, two houses are
called rajya sabha i.e. council of states and lok sabha i.e. house of people.
and states have the option to remain either unicameral or become bicameral. at present there
are 5 states that have bicameral legislatures.
advantage of having a bicameral legislature is that
1. countries with large size and diversity gives representation to all sections of society and
all geographical regions.
2. every decision taken by one house is reconsidered by second house. it means every policy
and bill is discussed twice.so there is a double check.
q&a
ques1. what is bicameral legislature?

ans1. a bicameral legislature is when there are two houses of legislature.

q2. does india have a bicameral legislature?
a2. yes
q3. name the two houses of our legislature?
a. rajya sabha : council of states
b. lok sabha: house of people
q4. what are the advantages of having bicameral legislature?
a4. advantage of having a bicameral legislature is that
1. countries with large size and diversity gives representation to all sections of society and
all geographical regions.
2. every decision taken by one house is reconsidered by second house. it means every policy
and bill is discussed twice.so there is a double check.
rajya sabha
Rajya sabha represents states of india. Members are elected indirectly by the representatives
of state legislatures. People elect members of state legislatures who then elects members of
rajya sabha.
Our rajya sabha has assymetrical representation. It means the members of states in rajya
sabha are elected on the basis of population in the states. It is called permanent house of
parliament.
The reason for being permanent house of parliament is that when lok sabha is dissolved , RS
can be called and urgent business can be conducted.
Q& a
Q1. What is rajya sabha?
A1. Rajya sabha is the house of parliament which represents states of india.
Q2. Which representation does RS follows?
A2. Our rajya sabha has assymetrical representation. It means the members of states in rajya
sabha are elected on the basis of population in the states.
Q3. Why does RS follows assymetrical representation?
A3. RS follows assymetrical representation so as to avoid inequality in representation
between bigger and smaller states.
Q6. What are two types of representation inRS?
A6. Asymmetrical representation: here the members are elected on the basis population and
size of state. For eg: india.

symmetrical representation: here equal number of members are elected whether they belong
to big or small states.
Eg: USA
Q8. What was the need for having permanent house of parliament?
A8. The reason for being permanent house of parliament is that when lok sabha is
dissolved , RS can be called and urgent business can be conducted.
LOK SABHA
Lok sabha and state legislative assemblies are directly elected by people. They are elected
for 5 year term. But it can be dissolved before that if it loses majority in the house. These
members are elected from constituencies through universal adult franchise. There are 543
constituencies and this number hasnot changed since 1971.
Majority means that if there are 543 constituencies it requires 543/2= 276+1= 277 members
to stay in power. that means ruling party should have 277 elected constituencies to form
power. these days no one party is coming to power because they are not able to win 277
constituencies. So they forge alliances with other party to form coalition government.
Q&a
Q1. What is lok sabha?
A1. Lok sabha is the house of parliament which is elected directly by the people.
Q2. How are state legislative assemblies formed?
A2. Representatives who directly get elected by people form legislative assemblies.
Q3. How many constituencies are there in india?
A3. 543
Q4. What are the instruments of control of parliament over executive?
A4. Deliberation and discussion: During the process of law making, members in
legislature deliberate on these bills. Apart from discussing , control is exercised through
question hour which is held everyday during the session of parliament where the ministers
have to respond to questions raised by parliament;zero hour where the members are free to
raise any matter that they think is important (though the ministers are not bound to reply) ,
half an hour discussion on public matters , adjournment motion etc. question hour is the
most effective way to keep a check on ministers. Questions are asked to know the
information from ministers on issues of price rise, availability of food grains, atrocities on
weaker sections, etc. this leads to criticism of government's policies.
Financial control: budget is prepared for asking resources for its demand and for
raising money for the government. Budget cannot be passed unless it is approved by
majority in parliament. This constitutional obligation allows the legislature to
exercise control over purse strings of government. There isa check in other ways that
misuse of funds is brought to notice by CAG comptroller and auditor general ' report.

CAG recently has shown the misuse of funds in 2g spectrum and commonwealth
games.
Approval and ratification of laws: legislature keeps a control over executive by
granting approval or refusal to the bills. The government needs to convince the
majority in support of the bill so that it can be passed. Passing of the bill requires
great discussion and debate. It equally needs the majority of Rajya Sabha to pass the
bill
No Confidence Motion: If the government has a majority or a majority of coalition
partners, then government will not fall. But after 1989, several governments have
been forced to resign because they were not able to have majority in parliament.
Parliamentary privileges: It provides legal immunity to members of parliament for
their conduct in parliament. for example: they will not be punished for their speech.
These keep a check on the executive and help in providing an effective system.
Role of committees
To draft the provisions of the bill, it require expertise and great research. Since, the houses
do not have much time to deliberate on every provision of the bill, so the committees play a
vital role in providing information about the provisions of the bill. Also it has reduced the
burden of parliament. It helps in the day to day business of the house.
But these committees has the only authority to provide suggestions. They do not have power
if the house does not accept their suggestions.
Q&A
Q1. What is the role of committees?
A1. the committees play a vital role in providing in depth information about the provisions
of the bill. it require expertise and great research to draft the provisions of the bill. Since, the
houses do not have much time to deliberate on every provision of the bill, s committees
discuss bill in great length. Also it reduces the burden of parliament. It helps in the day to
day business of the house.
Q2. How can parliament be called democartic?
A2. Members who occupy high positions speak different languages.they come from
various castes, religions and sects. Therefore, Parliament represents the wishes of people
from diverse backgrounds.

MCQs
mcqs chap5
1. our national legislature is called?
a. Duma

b. parliament
c. national assembly
d. state legislature
ans B
2. Our legislatures in state are called?
a. Duma
b. parliament
c. national assembly
d. state legislature
ans D
3. a bicameral legislature has how many houses?
a. 1
b. 2
c. 3
d. 4
ans 2
4. which state does not have a bicameral legislature?
a. j& k
b. bihar
c. karnataka
d. andhra pradesh
ans D
5. which state does not have a bicameral legislature?
A. karnataka
B . madhya padesh
C. uttar pradesh
D. rajasthan
ans D
6. how many states have bicameral legislature?
a. 5
b. 4

c. 3
d. 2
ansA
7. which house is called permanent house of parliament?
a. lok sabha
b. rajya sabha
c. national assembly
d. duma
ans B
8. rajya sabha members retire after how many years?
a. 4
b. 3
c. 2
d. 1
ans C
9. how many members are nominated by president in RS
a. 12
b. 13
c. 14
d. 15
ans a
10. how many members in RS retire after every two years?
a.
b. 1/3
c.
d. 1/5
ans B
11. how is RS members elected?
a. by state legislatures
b. by people.
c. by prime minister

d. by judges of high court

ans A
12. which schedule fixes members of RS?
a. 1
b. 2
c. 3
d. 4
ans D
13. which country follows symmetrical representation?
a. england
b. italy
c. india
d. usa
ANS d
14. how many constituencies are there in india?
a. 545
b. 544
c. 543
d. 542
ans C
15. judicial functions of parliament does not include, removal of ?
a. judge of high court
b. judge of supreme court
c. prime minister
d. president
ans C
16. parliament elects?
a. prime minister
b. president
c. chief minister
d. chief justice

ans B
17. who introduces money bills?
a. lok sabha
b. rajya sabha
c. vice president
d. governor
ans A
18. who has power to remove vice president?
a. lok sabha
b. rajya sabha
c. vice president
d. governor
ans B
19. who introduces taxation?
a. lok sabha
b. rajya sabha
c. vice president
d. governor
ans A
20. who passes no confidence motion?
a. lok sabha
b. rajya sabha
c. vice president
d. governor
ans A
21. which one is not the type of bill in parliament?
a. money bill
b. private member's bill
c. ordinary bill
d. electricity bill
ans D

22. within how many days RS has to take action on money bill?
a. 16
b. 15
c. 14
d. 13
ans C
23. Which article says that money bill cannot be introduced in RS?
a. 109
b.110
c. 111
d.112
ans A
24. who check the misuse of funds of executive?
a. comptroller general
b. auditor general
c. accountant general
d. comptroller and auditor general
ansD
25. what are parliamentary privileges?
a. legal immunity provided to MPs
b. privileges for smooth functioning of parliament
c. privileges to prevent misbehaviour of members of parliament.
d. privileges given to family members of MPs
ans A
26. which one of these doesnot keep a check on executive?
a. financial control
b. by having attendance in parrliament
c. parliamentary privileges
d. approval and ratification of laws
ans B
27. what is no confidence motion?

a. when MPs do not have confidence in them

b. when rajya sabha does not agree with policy
c. when government loses support of majority
d. motion which criticises policies
ans C
28. which one of these is not leading to decline in parliament?
a. absence of quorum
b. walkouts
c. heated debate and discussion
d. boycott of sessions
ans C
29. which period marked the beginning of coalition governments?
a. 1990
b. 1989
c. 1988
d. 1987
and B
30. 52nd amendment is :
a. council of ministers to be 15% from total membership of house of people
b. Anti defection law
c. fundamental rights to be increased
d. fundamental duties to be added
ans B
31. when was 52nd amendment introduced?
a. 1985
b. 1986
c. 1987
d. 1988
Ans. A

Dictionary chap5
Constituencies: they are the geographical areas marked by delimitation commission
in which elections will be held.

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chapter 4 executive
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chapter 4
serious students
executive
what is an executive?
legislature, executive and judiciary are the most important organs of the government. any
organisation whether it is private or public requires a group or body of people that will take
everyday decisions and look after the working and functioning of the organisation. they
coordinate with different departments and carry out proper functioning of its organisation.
for example: your school. it has principal which looks after day to day functioning. she looks
after whether the teacher takes the class everyday. she sees to it that which teacher needs to
be given the responsibility for preparing the students for a competition. she sees that best
teaching should be provided to students. therefore, she takes everyday decisions and
implements it.
The same happens in the government too. executive takes decisions and sees that it is

implemented well. there are two types of executive, that is, political executive which
changes after every election and second is permanent executive which includes civil
servants.
Political Executive which includes heads of government and their ministers frames policy
while permanent executive is responsible for day to day administration.
questions and answers
ques1. what are the three organs of government?
ans 1 executive, legislature and judiciary are the three organs of government.
ques2. what is an executive?
ans 2. The organ of government that looks after the implementation and administrationof
government.
ques3. what are the functions of executive?
ans 3. the functions of executive are:
a. responsible for implementation of laws and policie adopted by legislature.
b. political executive is involved in framing the policy
c. responsible for day to day administration
ques4. what are the types of executive?
ans 4. there are two types of bureaucracy:
a. permanent executive : civil servants who are responsible for day to day administration
b. political executive: presidents, prime ministers and ministers who are responsible with
framing of policy.
ques 5. what is political executive?
ANS 5. executive which looks after framing of policy and implementation of laws and
policies is called political executive. they change after every eletion and is not permanent
like the civil servants.
ques6. what is permanent executive?
ans 6. executive which takes decisons and looks affter day to day administration is called
permanent executive. and they do not change with every election.
DIFFERENT TYPES OF EXECUTIVE
Different countries have different types of executives(political). in india. president is a
ceremonial head and prime ministers is the head of government taking major decisions.
whereas in USA , president is the head of government and he takes major decisions. he is not
a mere ceremonial head.
so there are different types of executive:
a. parliamentary form of executive
b. semi presidential formof executive
c. presidential form of executive
these types are discussed below in next topics.
questions and answers
ques1. what are the different types of executive?
ans 1. There are different types of executive:
a. parliamentary form of executive
b. semi presidential formof executive
c. presidential form of executive

ques 2. do all the countries have same type of executive?

ans 2. no different countries have different type of executive. in india. president is a
ceremonial head and prime ministers is the head of government taking major decisions.
whereas in USA , president is the head of government and he takes major decisions. he is not
a mere ceremonial head.
presidential system of executive
USA has presidential system in india. executive powers are in the hands of president.
president is the head of government and head of country. his office is powerfu in theory as
well as in practice because he takes major decisions. unlike our indian president who simply
signs on the decisions taken by the ministers. He is directly elected by the people. and is not
accountable to legislature. it is the system which is based on individual leadership.
questions and answers
ques1. give some features of presidential system of executive?
ans 1. features of presidential system of india are:
a. president is the head of government and head of country.
b. his office is powerfu in theory as well as in practice
c. president is directly elected by the people.
d. president is not accountable to legislature.
ques2. give an example of presidential system of executive?
ans 2. USA
semi presidential system of executive
In this system, president is the head of state and prime minister is the head of government.
PM and council of ministers are responsible to legislature. example: france. in france,
president appoints the prime minister but cannot dismiss them as they are responsible to
parliament. here president may possess day to day powers. and sometimes, the president
and prime minister may belong to the same party or they may belong to different parties.
Russia is another example.
questions and answers
ques1. what is semi presidential system of executive?
Ans 1. In this system, president is the head of state and prime minister is the head of
government.
ques 2. give examples of semi presidential system of executive?
ans 2. france, sri lanka and russia
ques 3. give some features of semi presidential system of executive?
ans 3. features of semi presidential system of executive are:
a. president is the head of state and prime minister is the head of government.
b. PM and council of ministers are responsible to legislature.
parliamentary system of executive
prime minister is the head of government. there is a president or a monarch who is the head
of State. please note that here State is used interchangeably with country. State means
country only. here, the role of president is ceremonial. and prime minister alongwith cabinet
weilds power. prime minister is accountable to the legislature.
example: india. here prime minister takes all the decisions and president is a rubber stamp ,
having the only power of signing the decisions.

questions and answers

ques1. what is the parliamentary system of executive ?
ans 1. parliamentary system of executive means the system where prime minister is the head
of government and president or a monarch is the head of State.
ques2. give some features of parliamentary system of executive ?
ans 2. features of parliamentary system of executive ?
a. prime minister is the head of government.
b. president or a monarch is the head of State.
c. prime minister alongwith cabinet weilds power.
d. prime minister is accountable to the legislature.
ques3. give an example of parliamentary system of executive ?
ans 3. india, canada and italy.
PARLIAMENTARY EXECUTIVE IN INDIA
This topic will deal with the parliamentary system of executive in india. india adopted the
parliamentary system of executive . The reason was that in parliamentary system, executives
are controlled by the representatives of people. the constitution makers wanted the system
which would be sensitive to the needs of public and would be accountable and responsible.
but in presidential system, the president would be head of State and head of government. this
would have allowed president to become the sole authority. it would have led to personality
cult. moreover president is not accountable to legislature. so thats why parliamentary system
of executive was adopted at both national and at state levels.
in this system, president is the head of State and prime minister and council of ministers run
the government at national level. at state level, executive is governor, ministers and chief
minister.
questions and answers
ques1. Why did India adopt parliamentary system of executive?
ans1. The reason was that in parliamentary system, executives are controlled by the
representatives of people. The constitution makers wanted the system which would be
sensitive to the needs of public and would be accountable and responsible to them.
ques2. why india didnot adopt presidential system of executive?
ans 2. in presidential system, the president would be head of State and head of government.
this would have allowed president to become the sole authority. it would have led to
personality cult. moreover, president is not accountable to legislature, so he/she might not
have been responsible to needs of public.
ques3. who is the executive at the state level?
ans 3. At the state level, the executive comprises of governor, chief minister and council of
ministers.
ques 4. who is the executive at the national level?
ans 4. at the national level, executive comprises of president, prime minister and council of
ministers.
Powers of President
constitution has formally given the executive power of the union to the president of india. in
reality, president exercises the powers through council of ministers which is headed by
prime minister. that means, the president cannot act without the advice of council of

ministers. Article74(1) says that there shall be a council of ministers with PM at head to aid
and advice the president who will then act according to the advice given. but if the president
wants that council of ministers should reconsider their advice, then president will act
according to the advice given after such reconsideration. this means even if the council of
ministers does not change that advice which president has told them, the president still has to
act according to the advice given by council of ministers. the reason the president has to act
according to council of ministers is that prime minister and council of ministers are the real
executive. they are chosen directly by people. whereas, president is indirectly elected.
president is elected for five years. he is not elected by people. but indirectly elected by
elected MPs and MLAs. this election takes place according to proprtional representation
with single transferrable vote as discussed in chapter 3.
question and answers
ques1. who are the real executive?
ans 1. prime minister and council of ministers are the real executive .
ques2. why is prime minister and council of ministers called the real executive?
ans 2. they are called the real executive because they are directly elected by people and are
responsible and accountable to them.
ques3. why is president not the real executive?
ans3. president is not the real executive because he/she is indirectly elected by the elected
MP and MLA .
ques4. wit whom the executive power formally vests?
ans 4. president
ques5. how does president exercises his power?
ans5. president exercises his power through the council of ministers.
ques6. what does article 74(1) says ?
ans 6. article 74(1) says that president has to act according to the advice given by council of
ministers . and if president sends it for reconsideration, then the president will act in
accordance iiwth the advice tendered after such reconsideration.
ques7. How is the president of india elected?
ans 7. president of india is elected by proprtional representation with single transferrable
vote.
discretionary powers of the president
after reading about article 74(1) , we may be of this opinion that if the president hasto act on
the advice of council of ministers, then why to have a president at first place. there are
discretionary powers of president available in which h/she(president) can act without taking
the advice of council of ministers.
the powers of president are:
a. he/se has the right to be informed on all matters of council of ministers
b. prime minister should bring all information that president has asked for.
c. president writes to the prime minister and expresses his opinion on matters of the country.
besides these powers , president also has discretionary powers. discretionary powers are
those powers where president does not require council of miniters to give him advice.
president can act on his own self without being dependent on council of ministers for advice.
the discretionary powers of president are:

first: we have already read that in article 74(1) president can send back the advice given by
council of ministers and ask them to reconsider it. although , the council can send back the
same advice and president would be bound by the same advice. but still, president has the
discretion to send back the advice.
second: president has veto power by which he can refuse or withhold the assent of the bill
passed by the parliament. but if the parliament passes the same bill again and sends it to
president, then the president has to give assent to that bill. but the power wiith president here
is that he/she can keep the bill pending with him for unlimited time. this called"pocket veto".
why does a bill requires the assent of president? every bill which is passed by parliment
requires the assent(sign) of the president before the bill becomes a law.
third : the president has the power to appoint a prime minister. when the party has won by
clear majority, then the president has no problem. he simply calls the leader who has
majority support. but in situations where there is no clear majority, and two or three leaders
claim that they have majority , so the president uses his discretion to call the leader and
appoint him as the prime minister. he uses his discretion to see which leader can actually
form and run the government.
fourth: in parliamentary system as in india, the council of ministers are dependent on
support of majority of legislature. and if at any time, the council of ministers lose the support
of majority , then the president who has a fixed term appoints the new prime minister and in
the mean time president symbolically represents the country.
questions and answers
ques1. what are the discretionary powers of presidentt?
ans1. the discretionary powers of president are:
a. under Article 74(1), President can send back the advice given by council of ministers and
ask them to reconsider it.
b. president has veto power by which he can refuse or withhold the assent of the bill passed
by the parliament.
c. the president has the power to appoint a prime minister. in situations where there is no
clear majority, and two or three leaders claim that they have majority , so the president uses
his discretion to call the leader and appoint him as the prime minister.
d. in parliamentary system as in india, the council of ministers are dependent on support of
majority of legislature. and if at any time, the council of ministers lose the support of
majority , then the president who has a fixed term appoints the new prime minister and in
the mean time president symbolically represents the country.
ques2. what is pocket veto?
ans 2. to withhold the assent to the bill, president has the power to keep the bill pending with
him for unlimited time. this is called"pocket veto".
Ques3. Why does the bill requires the assent of the presidentt?
Ans3. It is within the constitution provision that any bill can become the law only if it has
the assent of the president.
Ques4. How does president withhold the ssent of the bill?
Ans 4. President with hold the assent of the bill by refusing to sign on it and keep the bill
with himself for unlimited period of time.

Ques 5. What are the powers of president?

Ans 5. The powers of president are:
the powers of president are:
a. he/se has the right to be informed on all matters of council of ministers
b. prime minister should bring all information that president has asked for.
c. president writes to the prime minister and expresses his opinion on matters of the country.
d. under Article 74(1), President can send back the advice given by council of ministers and
ask them to reconsider it.
e. president has veto power by which he can refuse or withhold the assent of the bill passed
by the parliament.
f. the president has the power to appoint a prime minister. in situations where there is no
clear majority, and two or three leaders claim that they have majority , so the president uses
his discretion to call the leader and appoint him as the prime minister.
g. in parliamentary system as in india, the council of ministers are dependent on support of
majority of legislature. and if at any time, the council of ministers lose the support of
majority , then the president who has a fixed term appoints the new prime minister and in
the mean time president symbolically represents the country.
Vice president of india
He is elected for five years. His election is same as that of president. He is elected by
proportional representation with single transferrable vote. The only difference between his
election and that of president's election is that state legislatures are not included in election
of vice president.
Vice president is removed from his office by a resolution of rajya sabha passed by majority
and accepted by lok sabha. The vice president acts as ex officio chairman of rajya sabha and
takes over as president when there is a vacancy by reasons oof death, resignation , removal
by impeachment or otherwise. The vice president acts as the president only until a new
president is elected. BD Jatti acted as president on the death of fakruddin ali ahmed until a
new president was elected.
Questions and answers
Ques1. How is the vice president elected?
Ans 1. Vice president is elected by proportional representation with single transferrable vote.
Ques2. What is the difference between presidents' election and vice president' s election?
Ans2. State legislatures are not part of electoral college
Ques3. How can vice president of india be removed?

Ans 3. He may be removed by a resolution of rajya sabha passed by majority and accepted
by lok sabha.
Ques4. When can vice president act as president ofindia?
Ans 4. vice president act as president of India when there is a vacancy due to death,
resignation or removal by impeachment.
PRIME MINISTER AND COUNCIL OF MINISTERS
Prime minister is an important functionary of government in our country because he/she is
the head of government. It is important for the PM to have the majority in lok sabha. If
majority is lost, then PM loses his office. For many years after independence, the congress
party had majority in lok sabha and its leader became PM. Since 1989, there have been
occasions that there have been no majority in lok sabha. So in this case, coalition
government is coming to power.a leader who is acceptable to most partners forms a coalition
government.
Functions of PM:
He decides who will be ministers in council of minister
Allocates ranks and portfolios to ministers
Depending upon seniority and political importance, ministers are given ranks of
cabinet minister of state or deputy minister
Council of ministers come into existence when PM is appointed
When PM dies, council of ministers are dissolved.
Act as a link between council of ministers on one hand and president and parliament
on other hand.
PM should communicate to president all decisions of council of ministers.
Involved in all crucial decisions of government and decides policies
In short, PM is leader of lok sabha, has control over council of ministers, command over
bureaucratic machine, access to media, projection as national leader during international
summits and foreign visits.
The power of PM depends on the prevailing political conditions. With the coming of
coalition government, office of PM has undergone a drastic change. The government is
formed after gaining support from many parties. The changes which have come are:
It resulted in increasing discretionary role of president in selection of prime minister
Led to more consultation between political parties, leading to erosion of prime
ministerial authority
Brought restrictions on various prerogatives of PM like choosing the ministers and
deciding their ranks and portfolios.

Even policies and programmes cannot be decided by PM: political parties come
together to form coaltition government. So lot of negotiations take place to form
policies. Therefore, PM act as a negotiator than leader ofgovernment

Size of counncil of ministers

91st amendment was introduced which said that the council of ministers will not exceed
15percent of total number of members of house of people(or assembly in case of states).
Before this there was no restriction on the number of council of ministers. And also when no
party had clear majority, then ministerial positions were given as temptation to win over the
support of members of parliament.
Questions and answers
Ques1. What is 91st amendment?
Ans 1. 91st amendment put a limit on the size of council of ministers. This amendment gave
that the council of ministers will not exceed 15percent of total number of members of house
of people(or assembly in case of states).
Ques 2. Why was 91st amendment introduced?
Ans 2. 91st amendment was introduced which said that the council of ministers will not
exceed 15percent of total number of members of house of people(or assembly in case of
states). Before this there was no restriction on the number of council of ministers. And when
no party had clear majority, then ministerial positions were given as temptation to win over
the support of members of parliament.
Ques3. What are the functions of PM?
Ans 3. Functions of PM:
He decides who will be ministers in council of minister
Allocates ranks and portfolios to ministers
Depending upon seniority and political importance, ministers are given ranks of
cabinet minister of state or deputy minister
Council of ministers come into existence when PM is appointed
When PM dies, council of ministers are dissolved.
Act as a link between council of ministers on one hand and president and parliament
on other hand.
PM should communicate to president all decisions of council of ministers.
Involved in all crucial decisions of government and decides policies

In short, PM is leader of lok sabha, has control over council of ministers, command over
bureaucratic machine, access to media, projection as national leader during international
summits and foreign visits.
Ques 4. What changes have come in the office of PM with coming of coalition politics?
Ans 4. With the coming of coalition government, office of PM has undergone a drastic
change. The government is formed after gaining support from many parties. The changes
which have come are:
It resulted in increasing discretionary role of president in selection of prime minister
Led to more consultation between political parties, leading to erosion of prime
ministerial authority
Brought restrictions on various prerogatives of PM like choosing the ministers and
deciding their ranks and portfolios.
Even policies and programmes cannot be decided by PM: political parties come
together to form coaltition government. So lot of negotiations take place to form
policies. Therefore, PM act as a negotiator than leader ofgovernment

COUNCIL OF MINISTERS
They are collectively responsible to lok sabha. If it loses the confidence of lok sabha, it has
to resign. They collectively govern on behalf of parliament. Collective responsibility is
based on solidarity of cabinet. It implies that vote of no confidence even against a single
minister leads to resignation of entire council of ministers. If a minister does not agree with
policy or decision of cabinet, then he must either accept the decisionor resign. Council of
ministers cannot exist without PM. PM holds a very important place. Council comes into
existence after PM has takn oath. Death or resignation of PM brings dissolution of council
of ministers.
PERMANENT EXECUTIVE : BUREAUCRACY
Executive organ of government includes PM, the ministers and bureaucracy. Bureaucracyis
described as civil service. Service which is rendered for the civilians is called civil service.
They are trained and skilled officers who work as permanent employees of government and
are assigned the task of assisting ministers in formulating policies and implementing them.
For eaxmple: a bureaucrat knows what is required in his district. He will inform his
ministers and will formulate accordingly. And after formulation will implement it so as to
achieve desired results.
In a democracy, elected representatives and ministers are in charge of government and
administration is under the control of ministers. This is because representatives have been
elecetd directly by people and these representatives know the needs of people. So the civil
servants/administrators have to work under ministers. Since we have parliamentary system,
legislature also exercises control. Administrative officers cannot act against legislature

because legislature is elected directly by people. But this does not mean that they have to
take sides of political parties. They are made politicaly neutral by giving them permanency
in their jobs so that no minister can cancel their job. In a democracy, there are situations
when new partiescome to power and there is a change in policies and programmes. At this
time, bureaucracy has to draft policies efficiently and faithfully.
Bureaucracy was introduced because our constitution makers wanted an impartial and
professional service that will help in the development of the country. Therefore, they wanted
bureaucracy to be selected on the basis of merit. Union Public Service Commission is
entrusted with the task of conducting the process of recrutiment of civil servants. Public
service commissions have alos been provided for states. Members of public service
commission are appointed for fixed term and their removal is through an enquiry conducted
by a judge of Supreme Court.
Our constitution has also ensured that weaker sections are made part of this bureaucracy.
They have provided reservation in services for dalits, adivasis and other backward classes.
This ensures that bureaucracy will be more representative and social inequalities in osciety
will be removed when these bureaucrats will frame policies for them.
Question and answers
Ques1. What is bureaucracy?
Ans 1. Bureaucracy is a service which has trained and skilled officers who work as
permanent employees of government and are assigned the task of assisting ministers in
formulating policies and implementing them.
Ques2. What does executive organ of government comprises of ?
Ans 2. executive organ of government comprises of PM, ministers and bureaucracy.
Ques3. Who controls bureaucracy?
Ans 3. Bureaucracy is controlled by legislature, elected representatives and ministers.
Ques4. How is bureaucracy's political neutrality established?
Ans 4. They are given permanency in their jobs. And are recruited on the basis of merit
Ques5. Who recruits bureaucracy?
Ans5. Union public service commission recruits bureaucracy and in states there are separate
public service commissions.
Ques6. How are the members of public service commission removed?
Ans6. They are removed by an inquiry made by judge of supreme court.
Ques7. What has constitution done to remove inequalities in bureaucracy?
Ans 7. Constitution has introduced reservation in jobs for dalits, adivasis and other
backward classes.
Ques8. What does bureaucracy consists of?

Ans 8. Bureaucracy consists of all india services, state services, employees of the local
governments, and technical and managerial staff running public sector undertakings.
Classification of civil services
They are classified as:
All india services which includes indian administrative services and indian police
services
Central services: which includes indian foreign service and indian revenue service
State services: which includes sales tax officers
IAS and IPS are the backbone of higher level of bureaucracy in states. A district collector is
an IAS officer. IAS/IPS is given a particular state where he works under the supervision of
state government. It is the central government that take disciplinary action against them.
Apart from IAS/IPS states also appoint officers through state public service commission.
Bureaucracy strengthens the control of central government over administration of states.

Role of bureaucracy
It is through Bureaucracy that welfare policies reach public.
Criticism of bureaucracy
People are afraid of approaching bureaucracy. There is too much of political interference in
bureaucracy.
Solution suggested for improving bureaucracy.
Bureaucracy needs to be protected from political interference. Right to information will
make bureaucracy more strong.
Questions and answers
Ques1. Give the classification of bureaucracy?
Ans1. They are classified as:
All india services which includes indian administrative services and indian police
services
Central services: which includes indian foreign service and indian revenue service
State services: which includes sales tax officers
Ques2. What is the Criticism offered to bureaucracy?
Ans 2. People are afraid of approaching bureaucracy. There is too much of political
interference in bureaucracy.

NON SERIOUS STUDENTS CHAP 4 EXECUTIVE

what is an executive?

legislature, executive and judiciary are the most important organs of the government. any
organisation whether it is private or public requires a group or body of people that will take
everyday decisions and look after the working and functioning of the organisation. they
coordinate with different departments and carry out proper functioning of its organisation.
for example: your school. it has principal which looks after day to day functioning. she looks
after whether the teacher takes the class everyday. she sees to it that which teacher needs to
be given the responsibility for preparing the students for a competition. she sees that best
teaching should be provided to students. therefore, she takes everyday decisions and
implements it.
The same happens in the government too. executive takes decisions and sees that it is
implemented well. there are two types of executive, that is, political executive which
changes after every election and second is permanent executive which includes civil
servants.
Political Executive which includes heads of government and their ministers frames policy
while permanent executive is responsible for day to day administration.
questions and answers
ques1. what are the three organs of government?
ans 1 executive, legislature and judiciary are the three organs of government.
ques2. what is an executive?
ans 2. The organ of government that looks after the implementation and administrationof
government.
types of executive
Different countries have different types of executives(political).
so there are different types of executive:
a. parliamentary form of executive
b. semi presidential formof executive
c. presidential form of executive
these types are discussed below in next topics.
questions and answers
ques1. what are the different types of executive?
ans 1. There are different types of executive:
a. parliamentary form of executive
b. semi presidential formof executive
c. presidential form of executive
ques 2. do all the countries have same type of executive?

ans 2. no different countries have different type of executive. in india. president is a

ceremonial head and prime ministers is the head of government taking major decisions.
whereas in USA , president is the head of government and he takes major decisions. he is not
a mere ceremonial head.
presidential system of executive
USA has presidential system in india. executive powers are in the hands of president.
president is the head of government and head of country. his office is powerfu in theory as
well as in practice because he takes major decisions.
questions and answers
ques1. give some features of presidential system of executive?
ans 1. features of presidential system of india are:
a. president is the head of government and head of country.
b. his office is powerfu in theory as well as in practice
c. president is directly elected by the people.
d. president is not accountable to legislature.
ques2. give an example of presidential system of executive?
ans 2. USA
parliamentary system of executive
prime minister is the head of government. there is a president or a monarch who is the head
of State. please note that here State is used interchangeably with country. State means
country only. here, the role of president is ceremonial. and prime minister alongwith cabinet
weilds power. prime minister is accountable to the legislature.
example: india. here prime minister takes all the decisions and president is a rubber stamp ,
having the only power of signing the decisions.
questions and answers
ques1. what is the parliamentary system of executive ?
ans 1. parliamentary system of executive means the system where prime minister is the head
of government and president or a monarch is the head of State.
ques2. give some features of parliamentary system of executive ?
ans 2. features of parliamentary system of executive ?
a. prime minister is the head of government.
b. president or a monarch is the head of State.
c. prime minister alongwith cabinet weilds power.
d. prime minister is accountable to the legislature.

ques3. give an example of parliamentary system of executive ?

ans 3. india, canada and italy.
PARLIAMENTARY EXECUTIVE IN INDIA
This topic will deal with the parliamentary system of executive in india. india adopted the
parliamentary system of executive . The reason was that in parliamentary system, executives
are controlled by the representatives of people. the constitution makers wanted the system
which would be sensitive to the needs of public and would be accountable and responsible.
questions and answers
ques1. Why did India adopt parliamentary system of executive?
ans1. The reason was that in parliamentary system, executives are controlled by the
representatives of people. The constitution makers wanted the system which would be
sensitive to the needs of public and would be accountable and responsible to them.
ques2. why india didnot adopt presidential system of executive?
ans 2. in presidential system, the president would be head of State and head of government.
this would have allowed president to become the sole authority. it would have led to
personality cult. moreover, president is not accountable to legislature, so he/she might not
have been responsible to needs of public.
Powers of President
a. he/se has the right to be informed on all matters of council of ministers
b. prime minister should bring all information that president has asked for.
c. president writes to the prime minister and expresses his opinion on matters of the country.
besides these powers , president also has discretionary powers. discretionary powers are
those powers where president does not require council of miniters to give him advice.
president can act on his own self without being dependent on council of ministers for
advice.
the discretionary powers of president are:
first: we have already read that in article 74(1) president can send back the advice given by
council of ministers and ask them to reconsider it.
second: the power wiith president here is that he/she can keep the bill pending with him for
unlimited time. this called"pocket veto".
why does a bill requires the assent of president? every bill which is passed by parliment
requires the assent(sign) of the president before the bill becomes a law.
third : the president has the power to appoint a prime minister. when the party has won by
clear majority, then the president has no problem. he simply calls the leader who has
majority support. but in situations where there is no clear majority, and two or three leaders
claim that they have majority , so the president uses his discretion to call the leader and

appoint him as the prime minister. he uses his discretion to see which leader can actually
form and run the government.
fourth: in parliamentary system as in india, the council of ministers are dependent on
support of majority of legislature. and if at any time, the council of ministers lose the support
of majority , then the president who has a fixed term appoints the new prime minister and in
the mean time president symbolically represents the country.
Ques 1. What are the powers of president?
Ans 1. The powers of president are:
the powers of president are:
a. he/se has the right to be informed on all matters of council of ministers
b. prime minister should bring all information that president has asked for.
c. president writes to the prime minister and expresses his opinion on matters of the
country.
d. under Article 74(1), President can send back the advice given by council of ministers and
ask them to reconsider it.
e. president has veto power by which he can refuse or withhold the assent of the bill passed
by the parliament.
f. the president has the power to appoint a prime minister. in situations where there is no
clear majority, and two or three leaders claim that they have majority , so the president uses
his discretion to call the leader and appoint him as the prime minister.
g. in parliamentary system as in india, the council of ministers are dependent on support of
majority of legislature. and if at any time, the council of ministers lose the support of
majority , then the president who has a fixed term appoints the new prime minister and in
the mean time president symbolically represents the country.
functions oF PM
Functions of PM:
A. He decides who will be ministers in council of minister
B. Allocates ranks and portfolios to ministers
C. Depending upon seniority and political importance, ministers are given ranks of
cabinet minister of state or deputy minister
D. Council of ministers come into existence when PM is appointed
E. When PM dies, council of ministers are dissolved.
F. Act as a link between council of ministers on one hand and president and
parliament on other hand.
G. PM should communicate to president all decisions of council of ministers.

H. Involved in all crucial decisions of government and decides policies

In short, PM is leader of lok sabha, has control over council of ministers, command over
bureaucratic machine, access to media, projection as national leader during international
summits and foreign visits.
Ques3. What are the functions of PM?
Ans 3. Functions of PM:
A. He decides who will be ministers in council of minister
B. Allocates ranks and portfolios to ministers
C. Depending upon seniority and political importance, ministers are given ranks of
cabinet minister of state or deputy minister
D. Council of ministers come into existence when PM is appointed
E. When PM dies, council of ministers are dissolved.
F. Act as a link between council of ministers on one hand and president and
parliament on other hand.
G. PM should communicate to president all decisions of council of ministers.
H. Involved in all crucial decisions of government and decides policies
In short, PM is leader of lok sabha, has control over council of ministers, command over
bureaucratic machine, access to media, projection as national leader during international
summits and foreign visits.
Ques 4. What changes have come in the office of PM with coming of coalition politics?
Ans 4. With the coming of coalition government, office of PM has undergone a drastic
change. The government is formed after gaining support from many parties. The changes
which have come are:
a. It resulted in increasing discretionary role of president in selection of prime
minister
b. Led to more consultation between political parties, leading to erosion of prime
ministerial authority
c. Brought restrictions on various prerogatives of PM like choosing the ministers and
deciding their ranks and portfolios.
d. Even policies and programmes cannot be decided by PM: political parties come
together to form coaltition government. So lot of negotiations take place to form
policies. Therefore, PM act as a negotiator than leader ofgovernment

Ques1. What is 91st amendment?

Ans 1. 91st amendment put a limit on the size of council of ministers. This amendment gave
that the council of ministers will not exceed 15percent of total number of members of house
of people(or assembly in case of states).
Ques 2. Why was 91st amendment introduced?
Ans 2. 91st amendment was introduced which said that the council of ministers will not
exceed 15percent of total number of members of house of people(or assembly in case of
states). Before this there was no restriction on the number of council of ministers. And when
no party had clear majority, then ministerial positions were given as temptation to win over
the support of members of parliament.
PERMANENT EXECUTIVE : BUREAUCRACY
Executive organ of government includes PM, the ministers and bureaucracy. Bureaucracyis
described as civil service. Service which is rendered for the civilians is called civil service.
They are trained and skilled officers who work as permanent employees of government and
are assigned the task of assisting ministers in formulating policies and implementing them.
For eaxmple: a bureaucrat knows what is required in his district. He will inform his
ministers and will formulate accordingly. And after formulation will implement it so as to
achieve desired results.
Bureaucracy was introduced because our constitution makers wanted an impartial and
professional service that will help in the development of the country. Therefore, they wanted
bureaucracy to be selected on the basis of merit.
Our constitution has also ensured that weaker sections are made part of this bureaucracy.
They have provided reservation in services for dalits, adivasis and other backward classes.
This ensures that bureaucracy will be more representative and social inequalities in osciety
will be removed when these bureaucrats will frame policies for them.
Question and answers
Ques1. What is bureaucracy?
Ans 1. Bureaucracy is a service which has trained and skilled officers who work as
permanent employees of government and are assigned the task of assisting ministers in
formulating policies and implementing them.
Ques2. What does executive organ of government comprises of ?
Ans 2. executive organ of government comprises of PM, ministers and bureaucracy.
Ques3. Who controls bureaucracy?
Ans 3. Bureaucracy is controlled by legislature, elected representatives and ministers.
Ques4. How is bureaucracy's political neutrality established?
Ans 4. They are given permanency in their jobs. And are recruited on the basis of merit
Ques5. Who recruits bureaucracy?

Ans5. Union public service commission recruits bureaucracy and in states there are separate
public service commissions.
Ques6. How are the members of public service commission removed?
Ans6. They are removed by an inquiry made by judge of supreme court.
Ques7. What has constitution done to remove inequalities in bureaucracy?
Ans 7. Constitution has introduced reservation in jobs for dalits, adivasis and other
backward classes.
mcqs chap4 executive
1. which one is not the organ of the government?
a. Constitution
b. executive
c. legislature
d. judiciary
ans A
2. one of them is not the function of executive?
a. day to day administration
b. framing of policy
c. implementation of laws and policies
d. interpretation of laws
ans D. because that is the work of judiciary
3. political executive includes:
a. prime ministers
b. civil servants
c. presidents
d. ministers
ands B
4. what are the types of executive?
a. presidential
b. parliamentary
c. semi presidential
d. constitutional

ans d
5. which country has presidetial system of executive?
a. USA
b. india
c. japan
d. pakistan
ans A
6. which one of these is not a feature of presidential system of executive?
a. he is accountable to legislature
b. head of government
c. head of State
d. pesident is elected by people
ans A
7. which one of these is not a feature of semi presidential system of executive?
a. president is head of State
b. prime minister is head of government
c. PM is accountable to legislature
d. president is directly elected by people.
ans D
8. which one of these does not have a parliamentary system of executive?
a. japan
b. canada
c. italy
d. USA
ans D
9. which system is based on individual laedership?
a. semi presidential
b. presidential
c. parliamentary
d. constitutional
ans B

10. which one of these do not have semi presidential system of executive?
a. russia
b. italy
c. sri lanka
d. france
ans B
11. which one of these is not feature of parliamentary system of executive ?
a. they are not accountable to legislature
b. president appoint prime minister
c. council of ministers take decisions
d. president is the rubber stamp.
ans A
12. which country has a parliamentary system of executive ?
a. germany
b. japan
c. russia
d. India
ans D
13. why did india adopt parliamentary system in india?
a. india wanted prime minister and president
b. wanted ceremonial president
c. wanted executive to be accountable and responsible to public
d. wanted no clash between president and prime minister
ans C.
14. who is not the executive at the state level.
a. governor
b. president
c. ministers
d. chief minister
ans B. because he is the executive at national level not at state level.
15. who is the executive at national level?

a. chief minister
b. president
c.. council of minister
d. governor
ans A
16. for how many years is the president of india elected ?
a. 5
b. 4
c. 3
d.2
ans a
17. how is the president of india elected?
a. direct election
b. proportional representation
c. list system
d. plurality system
ans B
18. who exercises executive powers formally?
a. prime minister
b. governor
c. president
d. council of minister
ans C
19. which one of these i snot a discretionary power of president?
a. keeping the bill for unlimited period of time
b. appointing prime minister when there is no clear majority
c. sending the advice for reconsideration
d. acting on the advice of coouncil of ministers
ans d
20. what is pocket veto?
a. veto in the pocket

b. keeping the bill without assent for unlimited period of time

c. giving back advice for reconsideration
d. carrying powers in th epocket
ans B
21. a bill cannot become a law when?
a. when president does not give assent to it.
b. when council of ministers send it back from reconsideration
c. when passed by parliament
d. when accepted by council of ministers
ans A
22. which is not the power of president?
a. asking information from president
b. asking information from council of ministers
c. refusing to sign the bill even after reconsideration
d. writing on important issues that matter the country
ans C
23. for how many years vice president of india is elected?
a. 5
b. 4
c. 3
d. 6
ans a
24. how is vice president of india elected?
a. proportional representation
b. plurality system
c. list system
d. first past the post system
ans A
25. which vice president acted as president on the death of fakruddin ali ahmed?
a. shankar dayal sharma
b. rajendra prasad

c. BD Jatti
d. abdul kalam
ans C
26. 91ST amendment is:
a. to amend fundamental rights
b. to limit the sizeof council of ministers
c. to stop horse trading
d. to increase size of council of ministers
ans B
27. which one is not the function of PM?
A. decides who will be ministers in council of minister
B. Allocates ranks and portfolios to ministers
C. Depending upon seniority and political importance, ministers are given ranks of
cabinet minister of state or deputy minister
d. signs and give assent to bill to become a law.
ans D
28. changes which have not come in theoffice of PM with coming of coalition
politics?
a. negotiator in policies and programmes
b. president gained importance
c. PM has more say in governance
d. coalitional partners have greater say in matters
ans C
29. executive organ of parliament?
a. bureaucracy
b. council of ministers
c. governor
d. chief ministers
ans B
30. executive organ of government?
a. bureaucracy

b. council of ministers
c. governor
d. chief ministers
ans A
31. who recruits civil servants?
a. constitution
b. UPSC
c. supreme court
d.ministers
ans B
32. What has constitution done to remove inequalities in bureaucracy?
a. selection on basis of purely merit
b. given them higher salaries
c. reservations
d. recruited by ministers
ans C
33. the members of public service commission are removed?
a. judge of supreme court
b. judge of high court
c. judgeof local court
d. retired judge of supreme court
ans A
34. who controls bureaucracy?
a. legislature
b. executive
c. judiciary
d. media
ans A
35. what does bureaucracy does not include?
a. central services
b. all india services

c. state services
d. local government services
ans D
36. what does all india services include?
a. IAS
b. IFS
c. IRS
d. sales tax officers
ans A
37. what doe state services include in bureaucracy?
a. IAS
b. IFS
c. IRS
d. sales tax officers
ans D
38. what does central services include in bureaucracy?
a. IAS
b. IFS
c. IpS
d. sales tax officers
ans IFS
39. what does central services include in bureaucracy?
a. IAS
b. IpS
c. IRS
d. sales tax officers
ans C
40. what does all india services include?
a. IPS
b. IFS
c. IRS

d. sales tax officers

ans A
dictionary
chap 4
a. ceremonial : present in symbol form only. no real work

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6. Oct
21

chapter 3 election and representation

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chapter 3
election and representation
elections and democracy
Elections are the most important for the sustenance of democracy. Elections are the process
by which people of 18 years vote for their representatives. Representatives then take
decisions on behalf of public and formulate welfare policies.
We distinguish between direct and indirect democarcy. Direct democracy is a process where
people donot elect representatives. Here people directly participate in decision making.
People sit together, discuss and make their own decisions which are then implemented by
them. for example: ancient city states in greece. But it is possible only when population is
small. Because in small population everybody can participate in decision making.
But where population is large direct democracy is not possible. Such a large population
cannot take decisions. It will lead to tensions, chaos and delay in decision making. So there
is indirect democracy where people elect their own representatives and these representatives
then take decisions. Like india, USA or any other country. In india direct democracy exists
in village panchayats.

Question and answers

Ques1. What is direct democracy? (imp)
Ans1. Direct democracy is a process where people donot elect representatives and directly
participate in decision making.
Ques 2. Give an example of direct democracy? (imp)
Ans 2. Ancient city states oof greece.
Ques 3. What is indirect democracy? (imp)
Ans3. Indirect Democracy is where people elect their own representatives and these
representatives then take decisions.
Ques 4. Give an example of indirect democracy?
Ans 4. Like India, USA
Ques 5. Does direct democracy exists in india?
Ans 5. Yes, in village panchayats.
Elections
In indirect democracy, people choose their representatives through the process of elections.
Anyone above the age of 18, can participate in elections and the candidate who has got
largest number of votes will wim the elections and will be chosen as their representative.
Therefore, election is a method to choose representatives. Here, citizens have very limited
role to play in taking major decisions and in running administtrations. It's the chosen
representative that take major decisions. So electing a represenative becomes very
important.
But all elections are not democratic. Large number of non democartic countries carry out
elections just to show that their representatives who are running the country are chosen by
them. So it is to gain legitimacy and faith of people that representatives are chosen by
public. And it also keeps a check that people do not protest against representatives. For
example: china.
So to ensure that elections take place in ademocratic way and not for just show purpose,
constitution lays down certain rules to carry out free and fair elections. These basic rules are
like: who is eligible to vote, who can contest, how do voters choose their represenatives?
Etc.
Question and answers
Ques1. Do elections take place only in democratic countries? (less imp)
Ans1. No. elections take place in non democartic countries as well.
Ques2. Why do elections take place in non democratic countries? (lessimp)
Ans 2. Elections take place in non democratic countries so as to win the confidence and faith
of public in the political system. Otherwise, public can protest if representatives are elected
according to the whims and fancies of authorities or dictators.
Types of election system
There are different types of election system. In India, the system is that the candidate who
gets the highest number of votes gets elected and he is chosen as our representative. But in
other countries, there are different methods of electing a candidate. They may not be electing
only the person who has got the highest number of votes but also who has got the second or
the third highest number of votes. But we should not forget , that different types of election
procedures does not mean that there is no democracy in that country. Different democracies

have their own way of electing. We will learn more about this further. We will be talking
about two types of election system a. first past the post system b. proportional representation
FPTP (First Past The Post System)
In this election system, whichever candidate has more votes than all other candidates will
win the election and he will be chosen as the representative. India has adopted the FPTP
system. But there is a problem with this system.
Let me explain you by an example.
In 1984, also the year when Indira Gandhi was shot dead, congress party won 80% of seats
that is 415 seats out of 543 constituencies. By this standard , everybody will think that if
congress has won 80% of seats than large number of people would have voted for the
congress party. But this did not happen. Only 48% of people voted for them. Isn't this in
contrast that when congress has won 80% of seats than why less than 50% have voted for
them?
Let me explain this further.
This happened because in our country, there is a special method of election.
Our country is divided into 543 constituencies
Each constituency elects one representative.
And the candidate who secures the highest number of vote in that constituency is
elected. This means that winning candidate need not secure a majority of votes i.e.
50%. And this is FPTP. And it is also called the plurality system. The candidate who
crosses the post first is the winner.
Now going back to our question. why congress won 80% of seats and less than 50% of
votes? because in many constituencies congress party got less than 50% of votes, Rest of
the votes were divided among oppositional parties. But when the vote got divided
amongst opposition then even they could not win because first they did not get majority
and they got less number of votes because the votes were divided among large
opposition parties. So coongress got the highest number of votes and congress won in
that constituency. This is the reason that even if they got less votes they won majority of
seats.
Questions and answers
Ques1. Which system of election is adopted in india? (imp)
Ans1. First past the post system
Ques 2. What is first past the post system? (imp)
Ans2. FPTP means an election system where a candidate wins more votes than all other
candidates and is declared elected.
Ques 3. What is plurality system? (imp)
Ans 3. Plurality system is also called FPTP. It means an election system where a
candidate wins more votes than all other candidates and is declared elected.
Ques 4. Does this system has any shortcomings? (imp)

Ans 4. Yes, FPTP system has problems in its system.

In this system even if the candidate has not won majority of votes, he will win. This
means even if 50% of people do not like that he/she should be our representative
then also that candidate will win. The reason is that the other votes get divided
among oppositional parties. So this system does not represent the views of all.
Here, the party with highest number of votes will win. So this means any new party
cannot win because they might not be able to win highest number of votes. So this
system discourages new party to enter into politics.
Ques 5. Which election system has been adopted in india? (imp)
Ans 5. FPTP.
Proportional representation
This is the second type of election system. It means that when votes are counted, each
party is allotted the seats according to the votes it has won. This is called proportional
representation. A party gets the same proportion of seats as its proportion of votes. That
means it has got 48% of votes then it will get 48% of seats.
There are two variations in PR system.
Where the country is treated as one constituency. In this only one list is prepared
where candidates get seats according to the votes they have won.
And where the country is divided into many constituencies. In this each constituency
prepares a list of candidates and they are elected according to the votes they have
won
In this system, more than one representative come to power. And views of different
section are given representation. This system is followed in Israel. Here voter votes for
the party and the representative is elected on the basis of party's lists. So here no one
candidate is held responsible. But in FPTP system, there is one candidate for a
constituency who can be held accountable and answerable.
So what is the difference between FPTP and proportional system.

The difference between FPTP and proportional system is

FPTP

Proportional representation
Country is divided into
small units called
constituencies
Every constituency elects
one representative
Voter votes for candidate
A party may get more seats
than votes in elections. For

The country may not be

divided into small
constituencies. The country
may be treated as one large
constituency.
More than one
representative may be
elected for one constituency

example: congress party in

1984.
Example: UK, india

Voter votes for party

Every party gets seats
according to the votes
polled.
Example: Israel

Question and answers

Ques1. What is proportional representation? (imp)
Ans 1. It is an election system where a party gets the same proportion of seats as its
proportion of votes.
Ques 2. Give an example of PR system? (imp)
Ans 2. Israel
Ques3. What is the problem in PR system? (imp)
Ans 3. In PR system, a party is chosen. And the representative is elected on the basis of
party's lists. Because seats are distributed according to the shares of votes gained, so
more than one representative come to power. Since, no one candidate is held responsible
or accountable, therefore PR system poses problem to the public.

Ques4. How FPTP is different from PR system? (imp)

Ans 4. The difference between FPTP and proportional system are:
FPTP

Proportional representation
Country is divided into
small units called
constituencies
Every constituency elects
one representative
Voter votes for candidate
A party may get more seats
than votes in elections. For
example: congress party in
1984.
Example: UK, india

The country may not be

divided into small
constituencies. The country
may be treated as one large
constituency.
More than one
representative may be
elected for one constituency
Voter votes for party
Every party gets seats
according to the votes
polled.
Example: Israel

PR system in india.
India adopted PR sytem on a limited scale for the election of president, vice president
and election of Rajya Sabha and Vidhan Parishads. It is called Single transferrable vote
system(STV). It is a complex system of elections.
Question and answers
Ques1. Does india have a PR system? (imp)
Ans1. Yes, india has a PR system in the form of single transferrable vote. It is used in the
election of president, vice president and election of Rajya Sabha and Vidhan Parishads.
How does STV works? (less imp)
The third variant of PR is single transferrable vote system. Every state has specific
number of seats. For example each of the 7 north eastern states has 1 seat in rajya sabha.
Whereas uttar pradesh has 31 seats, andhra pradesh has 18. Similarly all states have
specific number of seats in rajya sabha. These members are elected by respective state
legislative assemblies. Here the voters are MLAs in that state assemblies. Every voter
marks the candidate according to his /her preference. all MLAs will give their lists of
preferences. All the candidates must secure minimum votes.
And that minimum vote is :
(Total votes polled / total number of candidates to be elected+1) +1
So if 4 rajya sabha members were to be elected then 200 MLAs of rajasthan assembly
will elect (200/4+1)+1 = 41 Votes.
All candidates must secure 41 votes. Now the candidate who has secured the lowest
number of first preference votes are eliminated. And that candidate who gets eliminated,
his votes are tranferred to those who are mentioned as second preference on those ballot
papers. This process continues till the required number of candidates are declared
elected.
FPTP in India
India adopted FPTP system in India. The reasons were:
FPTP is a simple election system to be understood by common voters. unlike
Proportional representation system which is a complicated one. And as india gained
independence many were illiterates and it would have been difficult to understand
the PR election system.
FPTP gives clear choice to the voters to either vote for a candidate or a party. But in
PR system, the voter has to vote for the party and then candidate is elected according
to the party lists.
In FPTP system, the voter knows whom they have voted for. They can hold him/ her
accountable. But in PR, voters vote for the party and candidates are elected on the

basis of party's lists. so the voters don't know who to hold accountable for the
welfare.
Also in FPTP, one representative comes to power so there is no clash of ideas and
interests. but in PR, many representatives come to power and there is a possibility
that conflict of interests might take place leading to constant fights and delay in
decision making. So FPTP was suited for giving a stable form of government.
In FPTP, the candidate works for the entire community not any specific community.
So this leads to the formation of a nation. It has discouraged candidates to get votes
from one community. In FPTP, having support of only one community, a candidate
will not be able to win elections. He/she will need support of various communities.
So it will help in building unity rather than dividing society. But in PR, voters might
vote on the basis of community lines because there is a possibility of each
community coming to power because seats will be shared according to the shares of
votes. And this might lead to division in society.
Question and answers
Ques1. Why did FPTP was introduced in India? (imp)
Ans 1. FPTP was introduced in india because:
FPTP is a simple election system to be understood by common voters. unlike
Proportional representation system which is a complicated one. And as india gained
independence many were illiterates and it would have been difficult to understand
the PR election system.
FPTP gives clear choice to the voters to either vote for a candidate or a party. But in
PR system, the voter has to vote for the party and then candidate is elected according
to the party lists.
In FPTP system, the voter knows whom they have voted for. They can hold him/ her
accountable. But in PR, voters vote for the party and candidates are elected on the
basis of party's lists. so the voters don't know who to hold accountable for the
welfare.
Also in FPTP, one representative comes to power so there is clash of ideas and
interests. but in PR, many representatives come to power and there is a possibility
that conflict of interests might take place leading to constant fights and delay in
decision making. So FPTP was suited for giving a stable form of government.
In FPTP, the candidate works for the entire community not one. So this leads to the
formation of a nation. It has discouraged candidates to get votes from one
community. In FPTP, having support of only one community, a candidate will not be
able to win elections. He/she will need support of various communities. So it will
help in building unity rather than dividing society. But in PR, voters might vote on
the basis of community lines because there is a possibility of each community

coming to power because seats will be shared according to the shares of votes. And
this might lead to division in society.
Reservation of constituencies
In FPTP, there's a problem that only dominant social group or caste will be able to win
everywhere. And the weak and oppressed like lower castes will get under-represented.
But our constitution has introduced the system of reservations to overcome this problem.
It has provided for reservation of seats in Lok Sabha and state legislative assemblies for
scheduled castes and scheduled tribes. This provision was made initially for 10 years but
has been extended by amending constitution.
It was initially thought to introduce separate electorates instead of reservations. But '
concept of 'separate electorate' was strongly opposed by constitution makers as it would
lead to division in society and affect unity of the country. Separate Electorates mean that
for electing a representative for a particular community, only those voters will be eligible
to vote who belongs to that community. Separate electorates already proved too
dangerous that it lead to partition of the country. So concept of 'separate electorates' was
dropped and reservations were introduced.
Reservation means that to choose a person from particular community everybody can
vote irrespective of its caste and community. So, certain constituencies were reserved for
scheduled castes and scheduled tribes. It means in these constituencies, all voters are
eligible to vote but the candidate should belong either to scheduled caste or scheduled
tribe.
There are 543 constituencies in the country in which 79 are reserved for scheduled castes
and 41 for scheduled tribes.
Questions and answers
Ques1. What are reservations? (imp)
Ans1. Reservations means that certain constituencies are kept reserved for a particular
community or social section so as to have their proper representation.
Ques2. Why were reservations introduced? (imp)
Ans 2. Reservations were introduced because the oppressed and weaker community was
under-represented in the political system. So, to have their proper representation and to
make their voice and needs heard, constituencies were reserved for them.
Ques3. How many constituencies are reserved for scheduled castes? (less imp)
Ans 3. 79
Ques4. How many constituencies are reserved for scheduled tribes? (less imp)
Ans 4. 41
Delimitation of reserved areas

There are 543 constituencies in india. But how are these constituencies formed? Who
defines these constituencies? There is a body which decides how constituencies are
formed. And it is called Delimitation Commission. It is appointed by president of india
and works in collaboration with election commission of India. The population of SC/ST
decides whether the area is to be reserved for SC/ST. if it is having a higher proportion
of SC/ST population, then that constituency is reserved. The reserved constituencies are
spread in the entire country. Because the population of SC/ST are spread in the country.
Every ten years, delimitation exercise is carried out and the reserved constituencies are
rotated accordingly. It is carried out after ten years because census happens after evry ten
years. After the census of India gives information of the composition of population,
constituencies are shaped accordingly.
There is no reservation for any other group except SC/ST. Lately, reservation of women
in Lok Sabha has been demanded.
Question and answer
Ques1. How are constituencies decided? (imp)
Ans1. Constituencies are decided by delimitation commission.
Ques2. What is a delimitation commission? (imp)
Ans2. It is a body which draws the boundaries of constituencies all over the country.
Ques3. Who appoints delimitation commission? (less imp)
Ans 3. President
Ques4. For which community have constituencies been reserved?
Ans 4. SC and ST.
Ques5. For which section/group reservation has been demanded recently?
Ans 5. Women.
Ques6. In collaboration of which authority does delimitation commission works?
Ans 6. Election commission of india
Free and fair elections
For conducting free and fair elections, we require an impartial and transparent election
system. Our constitution has listed many provisions to have free and fair elections, but
we will be discussing about two measures:
Universal adult franchise and right to contest
Election commission of india
Universal adult franchise
Universal adult franchise means that all adults are eligible to vote in the elections.
(Universal means everybody, Adult means above 18 years, Franchise means voting)

Till 1989, adults above the age of 21 years had the right to vote. But an amendment in
the constitution reduced the eligibility for voting to the age of 18 years in 1989.
Universal adult franchise ensures that everybody above the age of 18 are able to
participate in elections. This shows the principle of equality and non discrimination.
Question and answers
Ques1. What is universal adult franchise? (imp)
Ans 1. Universal adult franchise means that adults above the age of 18 have the right to
vote in elections
Ques2. On what principles universal adult franchise stand? (less imp)
Ans2. Universal adult franchise stands on the principles of equality and non
discrimination.
Right to contest
All citizens have the right to stand for elections. Different age restrictions are there for
contesting different elections. For example: for contesting lok sabha elections you need
to be above 25 years. And there is also a legal restriction that anybody who have
undergone imprisonment of two or more years cannot contest elections.
Question and answers
Ques1. Who can contest lok sabha elections? (imp)
Ans 1. Anybody who is above the age of 25 and has not undergone imprisonment of two
or more years can stand for lok sabha elections.
Independent Election Commission
To have free and fair elections, our constitution has created an independent body to look
at the functioning of elections in India. It is called election commission. Article 324
provides for an independent election commission. Election commission provides for
'superintendence (supervision), direction and control of electoral roll and conduct of
elections' in India. Many countries do not have an independent mechanism.
There is a chief electoral officer in every state. Election commission does not look after
local body elections like Panchayats or Municipal corporations. State election
commission look after local elections.
Election commission is either a single or multi member body. Till 1989, it was single
member body. Just before, 1989 elections two commissioners were appointed. But after
elections it became single member body again. And again in 1993 , two election
commissioners were added and since then it is a multi member body. There were
differences that it should not be a multi member body. But then after decision taken by
Supreme Court, it was decided that it should be a multi member body.
There is a chief election commissioner and two election commissioners. And alll three
have equal powers. They are appointed by president of india on the advice of council of

ministers. So it is also possible that the ruling party might appoint a partial
commissioner.
CEC and other commissioners are appointed for 6 year term or they continue till the age
of 65. CEC can be removed before the term by the president if both houses of parliament
recommends with a special majority. And election commissioners can be removed by
president of India.
Functions of Election Commission
Updates the voter's list. Adults who have attained the age of 18 are included
Ensures that voter's list is free of errors like non existence of names of registered
voter or existence of non eligible voters
Determines timings of elections and prepares election schedule
Ensures election are free and fair. It can postpone or cancel the election in the entire
country or specific state
Implements a model code of conduct. It sees to it that no hatred speech or speech
which favors a particular community is said
Accords recognition to political parties and election symbols
In recent years, Election commission has started using powers more assertively. It acts in
the unbiased and fair manner. It has held 14 lok sabha elections, and many state and bye
elections. It held electionsin militancy affected areas like assam, punjab, jammu and
kashmir. It postponed elections mid way when rajiv gandhi was assassinated. In 2002,
gujarat assembly was dissolved, and elections postponed when the State was hit by
violence.
Question and answers
Ques1 what is an election commission? (imp)
Ans1. To have free and fair elections, our constitution has created an independent body
to look at the functioning of elections in India. It is called election commission.
Ques2. Which article provides for election commission? (less imp)
Ans 2. Article 324
Ques 3. How is the chief election commissioner removed? ( less imp)
Ans 3. CEC can be removed before the term by the president if both houses of parliament
recommends with a special majority. And election commissioners can be removed by
president of India.
Ques 4. What is special majority? (less imp)
Ans 4. Special majority should fulfil two criterion:
Two thirds majority of those present and voting

Simple majority of total membership of the house

Ques 4. What are the function of election commission? (imp)
Ans 4. Functions of Election Commission
Updates the voter's list. Adults who have attained the age of 18 are included
Ensures that voter's list is free of errors like non existence of names of registered
voter or existence of non eligible voters
Determines timings of elections and prepares election schedule
Ensures election are free and fair. It can postpone or cancel the election in the entire
country or specific state
Implements a model code of conduct. It sees to it that no hatred speech or speech
which favors a particular community is spoken.
Accords recognition to political parties and election symbols
Ques 5. What remarkable work has been done by Election Commission? (imp)
Ans 5. Election commission acts in an unbiased and fair manner. It has held 14 Lok
Sabha elections, and many State and Bye elections. It held elections in militancy affected
areas like Assam, Punjab, Jammu and Kashmir. It postponed elections mid way when
Rajiv Gandhi was assassinated. In 2002, Gujarat assembly was dissolved, and elections
postponed when the State was hit by violence.
Electoral reforms
To make election system perfect, some suggestions have been given:
Election system should be changed from FPTP to PR. Because PR system allows
better representation of communities given the diversity of the country.
Special provision that at least 1/3rd of women are elected to parliament and
assemblies.
Strict measures to control money and muscle power. Election expenses should be
made out of special fund of government.
Criminals should be banned from contesting elections
Ban on the use of caste and religious speech
Regulate functioning of political parties and ensure they function in democratic and
transparent manner.
To have free and fair elections, people should be more vigilant and political parties and
candidates should abide by democratic aspirations.
Questions and answers
Ques1. What is the success of election commission of india? (V imp)

Ans 1. The success of election commission in india is due to:

It allows voters not only to freely choose representatives but also allows toi
peacefully change governments both at state and national level.
Voters and parties have taken keen interest in political system. Ther has been rise in
the voters and parties in india.
Our election system has proved to be inclusive and accomodating. The social
composition is changing. Now our representatives come from different social
sections.
Malpractices and rigging instances have come down drastically.
Elections have become part and parcel of our life. Our governments donot disrespect
the verdict. And no government is formed without holding elections.
Ques 2. Suggest some electoral reforms to make our election system perfect? (V imp)
Ans 2. To make election system perfect, some suggestions have been given:
Election system should be changed from FPTP to PR. Because PR system allows
better representation of communities given the diversity of the country.
Special provision that at least 1/3rd of women are elected to parliament and
assemblies.
Strict measures to control money and muscle power. Election expenses should be
made out of special fund of government.
Criminals should be banned from contesting elections
Ban on the use of caste and religious speech
Regulate functioning of political parties and ensure they function in democratic and
transparent manner.
To have free and fair elections, people should be more vigilant and political parties and
candidates should abide by democratic aspirations.

Mcqs chap 3
Who can vote in india?
Above 18 years
Above 20 years
Above 21 years
Anybody

Ans A
Process in which people participate directly without representatives is called?
Indirect democracy
Straight democracy
Direct democracy
Plain democracy
Ans C
Process in which people elect representatives is called?
Direct democracy
Indirect democracy
Plain democracy
People's democracy
Ans B
Which one is direct democracy?
USA
India
China
Village panchayats in india

Which one is direct democracy?

USA
India
China
Ancient ccity states of greece

Which one is indirect democracy?

USA
Ancient greece city states
Village panchayats of india
Ans A
What does free election means?

One which is free in cost

One in which anybody can parrticipate freely
One which is organised in free time
One where anybody above 18, indian citizen can participate
Ans D
What does fair election means?
In which there is no cheating and looting
In which only fair and white people participate
In which only fairly everybody participate
Where anybody can participate
Ans A.
Which election system has been adopted in india?
FPTP
Proportional representation
Party list system
Single transferrable vote
Ans A
India is divided into constituencies.
545
543
544
546
Ans B
Each constituency elects how many representatives.
4
3
2
1
AnsD
Where does PR system works in india?
Prime minister

Chief ministers
President
MLAs

Where does PR system works in india?

Prime minister
Rajya sabha ministers
Panchayat members
MLAs
Ans B
Where does PR system works in india?
Chief minister
Vice president
MLAs
Member of parliament
Ans B
What is the name of legislature of Israel?
Knesset
Duma
Parliament
National assembly
Ans A
Which is not the variant of PR system?
Single transferrable vote system
PR within states
PR in a country
PR in constituencies
Ans B
Which one of these is not a characteristic of FPTP?
It provides stability
Candidates having highest number of votes win

It allows representation of all sections

It is a simple election system
Ans C
What are reserved constituencies?
Area where reserved train tickets get booked
Area where voters vote for particular community
Area where only a particular community vote for candidate belonging to particular
community
Area which is conflict prone
ansB

Delimitation commission is?

Which limits the speech of ministers
Which draws the boundaries of states
Which draws boundaries of constituencies
Which resolves the disputes of boundaries of our country.
Ans C
Who appoints the delimitation commission in india?
President
Chief minister
Prime minister
Chief justice of india
Ans A
Which group has been given reservations in constituencies?
SC and ST
Only SC
Only ST
Women , SC and ST
Ans A
Delimitation commission works in collaboration with?
President

Prime minister
SC/ST
Election commission of india
Ans D
The proportion of muslims in india is:
14.5%
15.5%
13.5%
12.5%
Ans C
Proportion of Muslim MPs in lok sabha?
Less than 2%
Less than 4%
Less than 6%
Less than 8%
Ans C
What is universal adult franchise?
Anybody above the age of 18 have the right to vote
Anybody above the age of 21 have the right to vote
Anybody above the age of 18 can contest elections
Anybody above the age of 21 can contest elections
Ans A
When was the amendment to change the age f voting from 21 to 18 passed?
1986
1987
1988
1989
Ans D
What is the age requirement for fighting Lok Sabha elections?
21
22

23
25
Ans D
Which Article provides for election commission in our constitution?
Article 324
Article 325
Article 326
Article 327
Ans A
Election commission does not do following?
Superintendence
Direction
Control of elections
Choose candidates
Ans D
Age of retirement of election commissioner?
60
65
70
66
Ans B
Who appoints election commissioner?
President
Chief minister
Chief justice of India
Prime minister
Ans A
How many member body is the election commission?
1
2
3

4
Ans C
When was election commission permanently made multi member body?
1989
1990
1991
1993
Ans D
When was election commission first made multi member body?
1989
1990
1991
1993
Ans A
Election commissioners can be removed by ?
Council of ministers
President
Prime minister
Chief election commissioner
Ans B

not serious chapter 3

Elections are the most important for the survival of democracy.Elections are the process by
which people of 18 years vote for their representatives who then take decisions and
formulatte and implement laws.
We distinguish between direct and indirect democarcy. Direct democracy is a process where
people donot elect representatives. Here people directly participate in decision making. But
it is possible only when population is small so that everybody can participate in decision
making.
But where population is large, direct democracy is not possible. It will lead to tensions,
chaos and delay in decision making. So there is indirect democracy where people elect their
own representatives and these representatives then take decisions. Like india, USA or any
other country. In india direct democracy exists in village panchayats.

Question and answers

Ques1. What is direct democracy?
Ans1. Direct democracy is a process where people donot elect representatives and directly
participate in decision making.
Ques 2. Give an example of direct democracy?
Ans 2. Ancient city states oof greece.
Ques 3. What is indirect democracy?
Ans3. Indirect Democracy is where people elect their own representatives and these
representatives then take decisions.
Ques 4. Give an example of indirect democracy?
Ans 4. Like India, USA
Ques5. Do elections take place only in democratic countries?
Ans5. No. elections take place in non democartic countries as well.
Ques6. Why do elections take place in non democratic countries?
Ans6. Elections take place in non democratic countries so as to win the confidence and faith
of public in the political system. Otherwise, public can protest if representatives are elected
according to the whims and fancies of authorities or dictators.
Types of election system
There are different types of election system.
a. First Past The Post system: the election system in which the candidate gets the highest
number of votes. this system is adopted in india. here the seats are allotted only if you win
the highest number of votes. example: India
b. Proportional represenatation: It means that when votes are counted, each party is allotted
the seats according to the votes it has won. This is called proportional representation.
example: Israel.
The difference between FPTP and proportional system is
FPTP

Proportional representation
a. Country is divided into
small units called
constituencies
b. Every constituency elects
one representative
c. Voter votes for candidate
d. A party may get more
seats than votes in elections.
For example: congress party
in 1984.

a. The country may not be

divided into small
constituencies. The country
may be treated as one large
constituency.
b. More than one
representative may be
elected for one constituency
c. Voter votes for party
d. Every party gets seats

e. Example: UK, india

according to the votes

polled.
e. Example: Israel

FPTP in India
India adopted FPTP system in India. The reasons were:
a. FPTP is a simple election system to be understood by common voters. unlike
Proportional representation system which is a complicated one. And as india gained
independence many were illiterates and it would have been difficult to understand
the PR election system.
b. FPTP gives clear choice to the voters to either vote for a candidate or a party. But
in PR system, the voter has to vote for the party and then candidate is elected
according to the party lists.
c. In FPTP system, the voter knows whom they have voted for. They can hold him/
her accountable. But in PR, voters vote for the party and candidates are elected on
the basis of party's lists. so the voters don't know who to hold accountable for the
welfare.
d. Also in FPTP, one representative comes to power so there is clash of ideas and
interests. but in PR, many representatives come to power and there is a possibility
that conflict of interests might take place leading to constant fights and delay in
decision making. So FPTP was suited for giving a stable form of government.
e. In FPTP, the candidate works for the entire community not one. So this leads to the
formation of a nation. It has discouraged candidates to get votes from one
community. In FPTP, having support of only one community, a candidate will not be
able to win elections. He/she will need support of various communities. So it will
help in building unity rather than dividing society. But in PR, voters might vote on
the basis of community lines because there is a possibility of each community
coming to power because seats will be shared according to the shares of votes. And
this might lead to division in society.
Proportional representation
This is the second type of election system. It means that when votes are counted, each party
is allotted the seats according to the votes it has won. This is called proportional
representation.
PR system in india.

India adopted PR sytem on a limited scale for the election of president, vice president and
election of Rajya Sabha and Vidhan Parishads. It is called Single transferrable vote
system(STV).
Question and answers
Ques1. Does india have a PR system?
Ans1. Yes, india has a PR system in the form of single transferrable vote. It is used in the
election of president, vice president and election of Rajya Sabha and Vidhan Parishads.
FPTP in India
India adopted FPTP system in India. The reasons were:
a. FPTP is a simple election system to be understood by common voters.
b. FPTP gives clear choice to the voters to either vote for a candidate or a party.
c. In FPTP system, the voter knows whom they have voted for. They can hold him/ her
accountable.
d. In FPTP, the candidate works for the entire community not any specific
community.
Reservation of constituencies
Reservation of constituencies
In FPTP, there's a problem that only dominant social group or caste will be able to
win everywhere. And the weak and oppressed like lower castes will get underrepresented. But our constitution has introduced the system of reservations to
overcome this problem. It has provided for reservation of seats in Lok Sabha and
state legislative assemblies for scheduled castes and scheduled tribes.
Questions and answers
Ques1. What are reservations?
Ans1. Reservations means that certain constituencies are kept reserved for a particular
community or social section so as to have their proper representation.
Ques2. Why were reservations introduced?
Ans 2. Reservations were introduced because the oppressed and weaker community was
under-represented in the political system. So, to have their proper representation and to
make their voice and needs heard, constituencies were reserved for them.
Delimitation of reserved areas
There is a body which decides how constituencies are formed. And it is called
Delimitation Commission. It is appointed by president of india and works in
collaboration with election commission of India.
Question and answer

Ques1. How are constituencies decided?

Ans1. Constituencies are decided by delimitation commission.
Ques2. What is a delimitation commission?
Ans2. It is a body which draws the boundaries of constituencies all over the country.
Free and fair elections
For conducting free and fair elections, we require an impartial and transparent election
system. Our constitution has listed many provisions to have free and fair elections, but
we will be discussing about two measures:
a. Universal adult franchise and right to contest
b. Election commission of india
Universal adult franchise
Universal adult franchise means that all adults are eligible to vote in the elections.
Right to contest
All citizens have the right to stand for elections. Different age restrictions are there
for contesting different elections. For example: for contesting lok sabha elections you
need to be above 25 years. And there is also a legal restriction that anybody who
have undergone imprisonment of two or more years cannot contest elections.
Independent Election Commission
To have free and fair elections, our constitution has created an independent body to
look at the functioning of elections in India. It is called election commission. Article
324 provides for an independent election commission.
Functions of Election Commission
a. Updates the voter's list.
b. Ensures that voter's list is free of errors
c. Determines timings of elections and prepares election schedule
d. Ensures election are free and fair.
e. Implements a model code of conduct. It sees to it that no hatred speech or speech
which favors a particular community is spoken.
f. gives recognition to political parties and election symbols.
Question and answers
Ques1 what is an election commission?
Ans1. To have free and fair elections, our constitution has created an independent body
to look at the functioning of elections in India. It is called election commission.
Electoral reforms

To make election system perfect, some suggestions have been given:

a. Election system should be changed from FPTP to PR. Because PR system allows
better representation of communities given the diversity of the country.
b. Special provision that at least 1/3rd of women are elected to parliament and
assemblies.
c. Strict measures to control money and muscle power. Election expenses should be
made out of special fund of government.
d. Criminals should be banned from contesting elections
e. Ban on the use of caste and religious speech
f. Regulate functioning of political parties and ensure they function in democratic
and transparent manner.
To have free and fair elections, people should be more vigilant and political parties
and candidates should abide by democratic aspirations.

dictionary chap 3
a. representatives : people who are chosen by public to work on their behalf.
b. Free elections means that anyone will not be forced to give votes to a particular candidate
and theer will be options to choose our representaives. and fair elections means that no
cheating in form of looting of ballot boxes, counting should be fair will be carried out in
election.
c.

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7. Oct
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chapter 2 rights in indian constitution

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Rights in Indian Constitution

As we have learnt in our previous chapter, that constitution is a document that sees how the
State is formed and on what principles or norms the State should run. Therefore, constitution
sets limits on the powers of government and ensures democratic system in which all citizens
enjoy certain rights.
These rights help in providing dignity to an individual and liberty to do what he wants to do
in his life. If a person has no rights, then he might not be able to fully utilise his capabilities
and talents to the maximum extent.
There is a danger to his rights from the government, other individual or private organisation.
Government may limit his rights by passing unnecessary laws which says that individuals
should not be allowed freedom to speak and not be allowed to move freely in the country.
This will limit his capacity and individual will not be able to work according to his capacity.
An individual also has dangers from other persons because others might try to harm him/her
by killing or looting his wealth. Such activity also violate his rights to live freely in the
country and will prove dangerous to his life.
An individual's rights are also in danger by an private organisation like an industry or
factory. An industry/ factory might be releasing waste elements which might be polluting the
environment of the individuals in which they are living. So the polluted environment will
harm the individuals fundamental right to live.
Therefore, government, other individuals and private organisation can limit the rights of an
individual.
Questions and Answers
What are the dangers to the fundamental rights of an individual? (less
important)
Ans. Danger to the fundamental rights of an individual is from the government, other
individual or private organisation. Government may limit his rights by passing unnecessary
laws which says that individuals should not be allowed freedom to speak and not be allowed
to move freely in the country. This will limit his capacity and individual will not be able to
work according to his capacity. Therefore, there is a danger to his fundamental rights.
An individual also has dangers from other persons because others might try to harm him/her
by killing or looting his wealth. Such activity also violate his rights to live freely in the
country and will prove dangerous to his life.
An individual's rights are also in danger by an private organisation like an industry or
factory. An industry/ factory might be releasing waste elements which might be polluting the
environment of the individuals in which they are living. So the polluted environment will
harm the individuals fundamental right to live.
Therefore, government, other individuals and private organisation can limit the rights of an
individual.
Bill of Rights

A democracy ensures that individuals have certain rights and the government recognises
these rights in its constitution. Therefore, there is a list of rights provided and
protected by our constitution called 'Bill of Rights'. A bill of rights gives the list of
fundamental and very important rights which are important for the life and liberty of an
individual. But why fundamental rights are important only to life and liberty?
Fundamental rights are important to Life because if an individual has no life then there is
no point in having a government and doing work to protect his welfare.
And if an individual has no liberty, then whatever the government does for the welfare,
the individual will not be able to use it because he does not have freedom to have his
goals and aspirations in life. By having freedom; then only individual can move around,
talk, build oppurtunities for himself.
Questions and answers
What is Bill of Rights?(imp)
Ans1. A democracy ensures that individuals have certain rights and the government
recognises these rights in its constitution. Therefore, there is a list of rights provided and
protected by our constitution called 'Bill of Rights'.
Fundamental Rights in the Constitution
During our fredom struggle, our leaders has realised the importance of Rights. Because ,
during colonial period, rights of indians were limited. They were not allowed to speak freely.
And if british government sees any article or book published against them, they would
censure it or ban it and the author of the book would have to face imprisonment. Indians
were not allowed to assemblepeacefully because the britishers thought that any gathering
would result in protest or strikes and their british empire would be in danger. There were
many other limits to our Rights before independence.
Therefore, in 1928, Motilal Nehru committee demanded bill of rights which could guarantee
Rights to indian citizen to develop and prosper and save them from exploitation. But
britishers did not implement it.
So it was obvious that when india will become independent, our constitution will guarantee
fundamental rights to every citizen. So the constitution listed the rights that would be
specially protected and called them fundamental rights. The word fundamental means that
these rights are so important that constitution listed them separately and made special
provisions for their protection. They are so imporatnt that constitution has ensured that they
are not violated by government itself.
Questions and answers
What are fundamental rights?
Ans. Rights which are important for preserving the life and liberty of an individual is called
fundamental rights. Our constitution has listed them separately and made special provisions
for its protection. They are so important that even the government cannot violate it.

Difference between Fundamental Rights and other Rights

Ordinary rights are protected and enforced by ordinary law. legislature makes laws by
ordinary process where the bill is passed by simple majority. And to amend(change any
provisions) it, it requires a simple majority again. For example: senior citizens will get
pension of rupees 5,000 every month. This is not fundamental right. And can be changed
accordingly and by simple majority. An individual has to approach lower courts before
approaching supreme court. Executive and legislative actions can be criticised if the
judiciary does not like it but cannot be declared illegal.
But fundamental rights are very important rights. They are protected and guaranteed by the
contitution. Our constitution lists six Fundamental Rights. And they can be amended only
when constitution is amended. Amendment of constitution is a highly complicated
procedure. It requires a special majority. . Judiciary has the responsibilty to protect
fundamental rights from violations. Supreme court has been granted this special power of
protecting fundamental right. So an individual whose fundamental right has been violated
can directly approach Supreme Court. Executive and legislative actions can be declared
illegal by judiciary if these violate the fundamental rights.
(special majority explanation is beynd the scope of this book but for further clarification).
Special majority means when the bill is passed in each house by a majority (i.e. more than
50%) of total membership of that house and by a majority of not less than two- thirds of
members of that house present and voting.)
Question and answers
What is the difference between ordinary rights and fundamental rights? (less
important)
Ans. Ordinary Rights are protected and enforced by ordinary law. it requires a simple
majority for amending the right. There are various ordinary rights and changes
accordingly with time. Executive and legislative actions cannot be declared illegal.
But Fundamental Rights are very important rights. They are protected and guaranteed
by the contitution. Our constitution lists six Fundamental Rights. And they can be
amended only when constitution is amended. Judiciary has the responsibilty to protect
fundamental rights from violations. Executive and legislative actions can be declared
illegal by judiciary if these violate the fundamental rights.

Fundamental Rights of our Constitution

Our constitution lists down six fundamental rights in Part 3 of Indian constitution:
Right to equality
Right to particular freedoms
Right against exploitation
Right to freedom of religion

Cultural and educational rights

Right to constitutional remedies

Question and answer

Ques 1. List down fundamental rights in our indian constitution?
Right to equality
Right to particular freedoms
Right against exploitation
Right to freedom of religion
Cultural and educational rights
Right to constitutional remedies
Right to Equality
This is the first fundamental right. Our constitution has granted right to equality. It means
that there will be no discrimination on the basis of caste, class , gender or religion.
Everybody is equal in the eyes of law. There will be no discrimination on any basis. Our
constitution has also abolished untouchability. Everybody has equal access to places like
shops, places of worships. There will be no discrimination in public employment. This right
is important because it did not practice equality in past. There was discrimination on the
basis of caste where the lower caste were treated with lower dignity and
untouchables( people who should not be touched).
This right makes India true democracy. Our preamble mentions about equality of status
which I have explained above. And equality of oppurtunity which means that all sections
whether it is women, children or lower caste or belonging to any other religion, they all
enjoy equal oppurtunities. But in our society there exists various inequalities for example:
lower wages to women, no education and nutrition for women. Lower castes should be
barred from education and accessing temples or places of worship. For eliminating these
inequalities, constitution has special schemes and measures for improving conditions. Our
constitution guarantees reservation as a policy to have an equal society. Article 16(4) clearly
states that State can make provisions for reservation of appointments or posts in favor of
backwrd community.
Question and answer
Ques1. What is the meaning of right to equality in our constitution? (imp)
Ans. Right to Equality means that there will be no discrimination on the basis of caste,
class , gender or religion. Everybody is equal in the eyes of law. There will be equality of
oppurtunity and equality of status.
Right to Freedom

This is the second fundamental right. Equality and freedom are important in a democarcy
and one cannot do without the other.Our constitution protects certain rights like freedom to
speech, freedom to move in nay part of the territory and freedom to form associations etc.
But there is a limit on these freedoms. For example: right to freedom of speech and
expression does not mean that anyone can abuse the other. it also include right to life and
liberty and right of the accused. Right to life and liberty and right of accused have been
discussed elaborately below.
Question and answer
Ques1. What is right to freedom? (imp)
Ans1. Our constitution has granted right to freedom.This is a very important right to ensure
democracy in the country. This is not absolute. Our constitution has put limits on it so that it
does not lead to law and order problem.
Right to life and personal liberty
This is a very important right under Right to freedom. No citizen can be denied his/ her life
except under procedure established by law. Procedure established by law means unless the
state has not sentenced him for death. Under this right, no one can be arrested without being
told the reason. If a person is arrested he has a right to approach the lawyer. And it is also
necessary that the police take the person to nearest magistrate within 24 hours. The
magistrate who is not the part of police will decide whether the arrest is justified or not. But
in some cases, a person can be arrested out of fear that he/ she can engage in unlawful
activity and be danger to the law and order of the country. The preventive detention can
extend for three months and after that case has to brought before an advisory committee.
Although preventive detention looks like an effective tool, but it has been misused by the
police.
Supreme court has expanded right to life. They have included right to live with human
dignity, right to be free from exploitation. Supreme court has also included right to shelter
because without this no person can live without the means of livelihood.

Question and answers

Ques1. What is right to life and personal liberty ?
Ans 1. Right to life and personal liberty is a very important right under right to freedom. No
citizen can be denied his/ her life except under procedure established by law. Under this
right, no one can be arrested without being told the reason. If a person is arrested he has a
right to approach the lawyer. And it is also necessary that the police take the person to
nearest magistrate within 24 hours. The magistrate who is not the part of police will decide
whether the arrest is justified or not. Now, Supreme court has expanded right to life and has
included right to livelihood, right to life of human dignity.
Ques 2. Why only Supreme Court has expanded Right to Life? Why not High Court or
any Lower Court?

Ans 2. Supreme court has got the exclusive power to deal with fundamental rights. High
court cannot deal with fundamental rights.
Ques 3. What is Preventive Detention?
Ans 3. A person can be arrested out of fear that he/ she can engage in unlawful activity and
be danger to the law and order of the country. It can be extended for three months only.
Rights of accused
This is included in right to freedom. Our constitution guarantees rights to accused as well. It
does not mean that if a person has been held guilty of a crime he will be not be given any
rights. A person can be debarred from rights only through procedure established by law.
Rights of the accused are also included in right to freedom.
The Rights of the accused have been given three rights:
No person would be punished for the same offence more than once
No law shall declare any action as illegal from backdate. Meaning if a law has been
made today then it cannot be applied to past activities as well.
No person shall b easked to give evidence against himself. It means that the accused
cannot be a witness that he has committed crime. Because the statement can be
forced by police also.
Question and answer
Ques 1. What are the Rights of the accused? (less imp)
Ans 1. The Rights of the accused have been given three rights:
No person would be punished for the same offence more than once
No law shall declare any action as illegal from backdate.
No person shall b easked to give evidence against himself. It means that the accused
cannot be a witness that he has committed crime.
Right against exploitation
Right against exploitation is the third fundamental right. This is very important to save weak
and underprivileged from exploitation. Weak may be subjected to exploitation by their
fellow human beings. Constitutition has held forced labor and employment of children
below age of 14 years in factories as exploitation. In the past, money lenders used to employ
labors who were forced to work with little or no wages as slaves. Children have also been
employed in factories like cracker factory. Our constitution has termed it illegal and
punishable under law. Children have also been given right to education as a fundamental
right.
Question and Answer
What is right against exploitation?

Ans. Right against exploitation includes prohibition of forced labor and trafficking of
human labor. and employment of children in factories or industries etc. this right protects
the weak and underprivileged from exploitation at the hands of powerful. Therefore to
give equality and liberty to all individuals irrespective of class and caste , our
constitution has protective provisions for the weak.
trafficking : transportation of humans to another country for working as slaves.

Right to Freedom of Religion

This is the fourth fundamental right. And it includes freedom of visiting any place of
worship or practicing any religion and right to propagate any one's religion . Our
constitution guarantees equality to all religions. India does not have any official religion. It
is a secular country. For example: iran is an Islamic country which favors Islam religion but
india does not have favor any religion. This freedom is important for democracy as this right
show that our constitution does not discriminate between any religion. Why was this right of
religion important? it was important because historically, people following different religion
than their rulers were either kills or forced to convert to a particular religion. Freedom of
religion also includes freedom of conscience. That means the person has the freedom to
follow any religion or not to follow any religion. But again, this right is not absolute. It has
certain restrictions to maintain law and order and security of the country. State can also
interfere in religious matters to remove social evils like practice of sati or human sacrifice.
Our constitution has also guaranteed right to propagate one's religion. It means that a person
can give information about his/ her religion but cannot force other person to convert to his/
her religion. Therefore, there is equality of religions in our constitution because we donot
have to be of any one religion to be prime minister / president.
In summary right to religion includes:
Freedom of conscience( to follow or not to follow anyy religion)
Freedom to practice , profess or follow any religion
Equality of religions.
Questions and answers
What is right to freedom of religion? (imp)
Ans. Our indian constitution has guaranteed Right to freedom of religion. It means that
there exists freedom of faith and worship. Everyone is free to choose his/ her religion. It
includes freedom of conscience which means a person is even free to follow or not to
follow any religion. It further includes right to propagate, profess and follow any
religion. Under this any person can give information about his/ her religion or follow or
convert to any religion. But government prohibits any forced conversion. There is also
equality of all religions meaning that no person will be discriminated on basis of their
religion.
Why is right to freedom of religion important? (imp)

Ans. Right to freedom is important for the democracy of the country. This right does not
discriminate between any religions and gives equal treatment to every individual. We have
to consider the religious riots which occurred in India during pre independence times and
also post independence of India. Therefore, this right becomes important to save the rights of
every religious group.
Cultural and Educational Rights
This is the fifth fundamental right. This right is also important for the survival of democracy.
This right protects the minorities in our country. India is a vast country rich in diversity in
terms of culture, religion and language. This right protects the religious, cultural and
linguistic minorities. Minorities are groups that have common language or religion and in a
part of the country or in the entire country, they are outnumbered by other social group.
These minorities can set up their educational institutes to preserve and develop their own
culture. The government will not discriminate, on the basis of that it is a minority,while
granting aid to educational institutions.
Questions and answers
Ques a. What is Cultural and Educational Rights? (imp)
Ans a. Cultural and Educational rights are the fundamental rights guaranteed by our
constitution to protect the rights of religious, cultural and linguistic minorities. This right
also includes setting up of educational institutions for preserving and devloping their own
culture. This right is important for the sustenance of democracy.
Right to Constitutional Remedies
Although our constitution contains impressive fundamental rights. But then they have to be
enforced through rule of law. So this right helps in giving remedies to if anybody's
fundamental right have been violated. Dr. ambedkar considered right to consitutional
remedies as 'heart and soul of the constitution'.
The Supreme Court and High Court can issue various special orders and give directives to
the government for enforcement of rights known as writs. Various writs are:
Habeas corpus : the court orders that arrested person should be presented before the
court. It can also order to set free an arrested person if the arrest is unlawful.
Mandamus: it orders when a particular office is not doing legal duty and is violating
the right of an individual.
Prohibition: this writ is issued by a higher court (high court or supreme court) when
a lower court has considered that the case is going beyond its jurisdiction.
Quo warranto : if the court finds that a person holding office is not entitled to hold
office , it issues quo warranto and restricts that person from holding or acting in that
office.
Certiorari: under this writ, the court orders lower court or another authority to
transfer a matter pending before it to a higher authority or court. It is different from

prohibition in the sense that prohibition writ is passed at an earlier stage while
certiorari is passed at a later stage.
Apart from judiciary, there are other mechanisms for the protection of rights. National
commission on minorities , the national commission on women, the national commission on
scheduled castes. They protect the right of women, Dalits and minorities. There is also
National Human Rights Commission to protect fundamental and other rights.
Questions and answers
Ques A. What is right to consitutional remedies? (imp)
Ans A. This Right helps in giving remedies if anybody's fundamental right have been
violated. It issues various writs to protect fundamental rights like mandamus, prohibition,
Certiorari, quo warranto etc. there are also agencies national human rights commission,
national commission of minorities to protect the rights of weak and underprivileged.
Ques b. what is Habeas corpus? (imp)
Ans b. It is a writ where court orders that arrested person should be presented before the
court. It can also order to set free an arrested person if the arrest is unlawful.
Ques c. what is Mandamus? (imp)
Ans c. Mandamus is a writ where it orders when a particular office is not doing legal duty
and is violating the right of an individual.
Ques d. what is Prohibition? (imp)
Ans d. This writ is issued by a higher court (high court or supreme court) when a lower
court has considered that the case is going beyond its jurisdiction.
Ques e. what is Quo warranto? (imp)
Ans e. it is a writ when the court finds that a person holding office is not entitled to hold
office , it issues quo warranto and restricts that person from holding or acting in that office.
Ques f. what is Certiorari? (imp)
Ans f. Under this writ, the court orders lower court or another authority to transfer a matter
pending before it to a higher authority or court. It is different from prohibition in the sense
that prohibition writ is passed at an earlier stage while certiorari is passed at a later stage.
Ques g. are there any other mechanisms for addressing our constitutional remedies?
Ans g. Apart from judiciary, there are other mechanisms for the protection of rights.
National commission on minorities , the national commission on women, the national
commission on scheduled castes. They protect the right of women, Dalits and minorities.
There is also National Human Rights Commission to protect fundamental and other rights.
Human Rights Commission
Government established national human rights commission in 2000 to protect the rights of te
poor, illiterate and deprived sections of society. Independent oragnsiations like people's

union for civilliberties (PUCL) and People's Union for Democratic Rights (PUDR) have
veen watchdogs of government.
They carry out inquiries by their own initiative or when a petitition is presented by a victim.
They undertake research in the field of human rights. They receive complaints in thousands
varying from custodial death, custodial rape, disappearances, police excesses, failure in
taking action, indignity to women. Its significant intervention has been on disappeared youth
in punjab and investigation into gujarat riot cases. But the biggest problem is that it does not
have power to punish. It can merely make recommendations.
Questions and Answers
Ques a. what is the role of human rights commission? (imp)
Ans a. Government established national human rights commission in 2000 to protect the
rights of te poor, illiterate and deprived sections of society.
Its role are:
They carry out inquiries by their own initiative or when a petitition is presented by a
victim.
They receive complaints in thousands varying from custodial death, custodial rape,
disappearances, police excesses, failure in taking action, indignity to women.
It investigated on disappeared youth in punjab and investigation into gujarat riot
cases.
But the biggest problem is that it does not have power to punish. It can merely make
recommendations.
Directive Principles of State Policy
Post independence, the challenge before the country was to bring equality and well being of
all citizens. But at the same time, we did not have enough resources to put everything under
fundamental rights category. Also, our constitution makers did not want to burden the policy
makers where every citizen will be going to court for asking their rights. So they came out
with guidelines, that is, directive principles of state policy. These are non-justiciable. It
means that if the government does not bring these principles into action, the citizen cannot
go to court for asking its implementation.
These directive principles contain:
The goals and objectives that society should adopt.
Certain rights that individuals should enjoy apart from fundamental rights.
Certain policies that government should adopt to build a welfare and equitable
society
Implementation of directive principles

To realise directive principles, several measures have been taken like abolition of zaminadri
system, nationalising banks, having minimum wage for laborers, cottage and small
industries were promoted. It also included right to education, spreading of Panchayati Raj
System and launching mid day meal scheme.

Questions and Answers

Ques 1. What are directive principles?
Ans 1. Directive principles are the policy directions given by constitution for building an
equitable and just society.
Ques 2. What is the purpose of directive principles?
Ans 2. These directive principlesare adopted for the purpose of :
The goals and objectives that society should adopt.
Certain rights that individuals should enjoy apart from fundamental rights.
Certain policies that government should adopt to build a welfare and equitable
society
Ques 3. Have directive principles been ever brought into effect?
Ans 3. To realise directive principles, several measures have been taken like abolition of
zaminadri system, nationalising banks, having minimum wage for laborers, cottage and
small industries were promoted. It also included right to education, spreading of Panchayati
Raj System, launching mid day meal scheme and having mahatma gandhi national rural
employment guarantee scheme.
Ques 4. Why was directive principles made non- justiciable?
Ans 4. At the time of independence, we did not have enough resources to put everything
under Fundamental Rights category. Also, our constitution makers did not want to burden
the policy makers where every citizen will be going to court for asking their rights.So they
came out with policy directions for our government for building an equitable and just
society.
Fundamental duties of citizens (less imp)
In 1976, 42nd amendment to the constitution was passed. This amendment included 10
fundamental duties in the constitution. They are not enforceable on the citizen. As citizens
we must abide by the constitution, defend our country when in need, and promote harmony
amongst all citizens and protect our environment. But here, a citizen cannot be punished if
she/he is not following the fundamental duties.
For students who are not serious
Constitution is a document or a set of documents that sees how the State is formed and on
what principles or norms the State should run.

a. What is a constitution? (V.Imp)

Ans. Constitution is a document or a set of documents that sees how the State is formed and
on what principles or norms the State should run.
There are certain ideas, beliefs and principles on which the country is build for example: that
of democracy, liberty, equality and justice. So keeping these ideas in mind, rules and laws
for governing the country are formulated. For example: right to freedom of speech and
expression article 19(A) guarantees liberty to all Indian citizens. Right to equality under
Article 14 guarantees equality to all citizens without any discrimination on the basis of caste,
religion, class and sex.
WHY DO WE NEED A CONSTITUTION?
The first function of the constitution is that it gives idea of how the policy, laws and
rules have to be formulated.
Constitution is a set of documents that gives the principles and idea on which the country
has to be governed. So while formulating rules and laws, the country decides whether the
laws should be equal for everybody. Or it should be partial towards certain section of
community. For example in Germany before World War 2, Jews were massacred because
they did not belong to the community of Germans. Such German policy is illiberal, unequal
and unjust.
Second function is that it allows for basic rules that allow for coordination and
assurance amongst the members of society. India is a diverse country. It has multiple
religions, regions, caste structure and class also. So obviously difference of opinion will
arise which will affect the law and order problem. Also any powerful group or section of
society will try to seize and assert its right over the weaker sections of people. For
example: rich might want to build and spread malls in the country. For this they want to
destroy and raze all public parks. So there will be all disputes between nature loving
people and rich people.
To prevent these types of conflicts and clashes in society, there needs to be basic rules
which will allow coordination and cooperation among different groups so that there are
no conflicts in society. So constitution helps in providing certain rules that helps in
the coordination and cooperation of different groups.
But this constitution will not be important unless and until it is not legally enforceable. It
means that rules in the constitution should be sincerely and religiously followed by the
general public. The people need an assurance that the rules will followed by everyone.
And anybody violating the rules will be punished so that it is not replicated by anybody.
The third function of the constitution is to specify who has the power to make
decisions in a society. It decides how the government will be constituted. To remind
you, Constitution is a document that lays basic principles and ideas for formulating rules
and laws. So now the question arises, who decides how the society should be governed?
Should it be one person as in monarchical countries where a monarch decides? Should it
be one party as in china? Or should it be people as in India?

Also if people decide in India, should all people decide? Or a group of people? Or the
representatives of people?
So all these rules are written in constitution of how the society should be governed. Our
constitution provides for parliamentary form of government where parliament composed
of representatives of people decides what laws should be made. Although our parliament
gives supremacy to parliament but it (constitution) also provides for separation of
powers among legislature, executive and judiciary which helps in keeping a check on
each of the organs. So the fourth function of constitution is to limit the powers of
parliament or the government in rule so that it does not frame arbitrary laws and
laws which are not in the interest of general public. These limits are fundamental
in the sense that no government can ignore it or trespass it.
The fifth function of constitution that it sets the aspirations and goals of the
society. It empowers and enables the government to take positive measures to remove
any injustice or inequality in society. It sets targets for the government which will help
in achieving development and progress among citizens and country as a whole.
For example: directive principles of our constitution says that just and humane
conditions at work place should be provided (Article 42) , our environment and natural
resources should be protected (Article 48A).
And finally, constitution helps in expression of fundamental identity of people.
When all the citizens of the country agree to a set of rules and regulations they form a
collective identity. One has many identities before the existence of constitution like that
of religion being a hindu, muslim, Christian or that of region belonging to Andhra or
Kashmir or any part. But after the formation of constitution, citizens are recognised on
the basis of political identity.
Moral identity is also formed because the constitution sets limits on the government and
also on individual of what to do and what not to do.
Question and Answers
a. Why do we need a constitution? (V.Imp)
Ans. Constitution is a document or a set of documents that sees how the State is formed
and on what principles or norms the State should run.
We require constitution for the following purpose:
a. The constitution gives us idea of how the policy, laws and rules have to be
formulated.
b. It allows for basic rules that allow for coordination and assurance amongst the
members of society. To prevent these types of conflicts and clashes in society, there
needs to be basic rules which will allow coordination and cooperation among
different groups so that there are no conflicts in society.
c. The constitution specifies who has the power to make decisions in a society. It
decides how the government will be constituted. The rules are written in the

constitution of how the society should be governed. Our constitution provides for
parliamentary form of government where parliament composed of representatives of
people decides what laws should be made.
d. The constitution limits the powers of parliament or the government in rule so that
it does not frame arbitrary laws and laws which are not in the interest of general
public. These limits are fundamental in the sense that no government can ignore it or
trespass it. It provides for separation of powers among legislature, executive and
legislature; fundamental rights and directive principles.
e. The constitution sets the aspirations and goals of the society. It empowers and
enables the government to take positive measures to remove any injustice or
inequality in society. It sets targets for the government which will help in achieving
development and progress among citizens and country as a whole.
f. Constitution helps in expression of fundamental identity of people. When all the
citizens of the country agree to a set of rules and regulations they form a collective
identity. One has many identities before the existence of constitution like that of
religion being a Hindu, Muslim, Christian or that of region belonging to Andhra or
Kashmir or any part. But after the formation of constitution, citizens are recognised
on the basis of a unified political identity. Moral identity is also formed because the
constitution sets limits on the government and also on individual of what to do and
what not to do.

b. How does the constitution allows for coordination and assurance in society?
(imp)
Ans. Constitution allows for coordination:
In a society, there exists different demands and opinions. There are situations when people
from different groups clash with each other therefore creating disorder and conflict in
society. To prevent these types of conflicts and clashes in society, there needs to be basic
rules which will allow for coordination and cooperation among different groups so that there
are no conflicts in society. So constitution helps in providing certain rules that helps in the
coordination and cooperation of different groups.
Constitution allows for assurance:
But this constitution will not be important unless and until it is not legally enforceable. It
means that rules in the constitution should be sincerely and religiously followed by the
general public. The people need an assurance that the rules will followed by everyone. And
anybody violating the rules will be punished. Therefore, constitution gives an assurance to
the society.
c. How does the constitution limit the powers of government?
Ans. Our Constitution of India provides for limits to the powers of government. It
provides for separation of powers among legislature, executive and legislature;

fundamental rights and directive principles which keep a check on the excesses of
government.
(Excesses mean arbitrary/improper use of power.)
Separation of powers among executive, legislature and judiciary keeps a check on the
government's activities. Legislature keeps a check on executive by formulating rules and
laws and demanding answers from the ministers if any policy has been wrongly
implemented. Judiciary act as the third pillar by interpreting the rules and laws and
keeping in accordance with the spirit of constitution.
Fundamental Rights keep the government in check in the way that fundamental rights
are those rights which cannot be ignored or transgressed by the government. they include
freedom to speech and expression, freedom to move, freedom to practice any profession
etc. They are enforceable in the court of law.
Directive principles also act as a check on the powers of government. It sets principles
for the government to take positive welfare measures for the well being and interest of
public.

NON SERIOUS
chapter 2
Bill of Rights
A democracy ensures that individuals have certain rights and the government recognises
these rights in its constitution. Therefore, there is a list of rights provided and
protected by our constitution called 'Bill of Rights'. A bill of rights gives the list of
fundamental and very important rights which are important for the life and liberty of an
individual. But why fundamental rights are important only to life and liberty?
Fundamental rights are important to Life because if an individual has no life then there is
no point in having a government and doing work to protect his welfare.
And if an individual has no liberty, then whatever the government does for the welfare,
the individual will not be able to use it because he does not have freedom to have his
goals and aspirations in life. By having freedom; then only individual can move around,
talk, build oppurtunities for himself.
Questions and answers
1. What is Bill of Rights?(Imp)
Ans1. A democracy ensures that individuals have certain rights and the government
recognises these rights in its constitution. Therefore, there is a list of rights provided and
protected by our constitution called 'Bill of Rights'.

2. What are fundamental rights?

Ans. Rights which are important for preserving the life and liberty of an individual is called
fundamental rights. Our constitution has listed them separately and made special provisions
for its protection. They are so important that even the government cannot violate it.
Ques1. What is right to freedom? (imp)
Ans1. Our constitution has granted right to freedom. Under these, there are six freedoms that
is free speech, free assembly, free movement in any part of the country. This is a very
important right to ensure democracy in the country. This is not absolute. Our constitution has
put limits on it so that it does not lead to law and order problem.
Right to life and personal liberty
This is a very important right under Right to freedom. No citizen can be denied his/ her life
except under procedure established by law. Procedure established by law means unless the
state has not sentenced him for death. Under this right, no one can be arrested without being
told the reason. If a person is arrested he has a right to approach the lawyer. And it is also
necessary that the police take the person to nearest magistrate within 24 hours. The
magistrate who is not the part of police will decide whether the arrest is justified or not.
Supreme court has expanded right to life. They have included right to live with human
dignity, right to be free from exploitation. Supreme court has also included right to shelter
because without this no person can live without the means of livelihood. Why only supreme
court? Why not high court?
Question and answers
Ques1. What is right to life and personal liberty ?
Ans 1. Right to life and personal liberty is a very important right under right to freedom. No
citizen can be denied his/ her life except under procedure established by law. Under this
right, no one can be arrested without being told the reason. If a person is arrested he has a
right to approach the lawyer. And it is also necessary that the police take the person to
nearest magistrate within 24 hours. The magistrate who is not the part of police will decide
whether the arrest is justified or not. Now, Supreme court has expanded right to life and has
included right to livelihood, right to life of human dignity.
Ques 2. Why only Supreme Court has expanded Right to Life? Why not High Court or
any Lower Court?(less imp)
Ans 2. Supreme court has got the exclusive power to deal with fundamental rights. High
court cannot deal with fundamental rights.
Ques 3. What is Preventive Detention? (imp)
Ans 3. A person can be arrested out of fear that he/ she can engage in unlawful activity and
be danger to the law and order of the country. It can be extended for three months only.

1. Right against exploitation

Right against exploitation is the third fundamental right. This is very important to save weak
and underprivileged from exploitation. Weak may be subjected to exploitation by their
fellow human beings. Constitutition has held forced labor and employment of children
below age of 14 years in factories as exploitation. In the past, money lenders used to employ
labors who were forced to work with little or no wages as slaves. Children have also been
employed in factories like cracker factory. Our constitution has termed it illegal and
punishable under law. Children have also been given right to education as a fundamental
right.
Question and Answer
1. What is right against exploitation?
Ans. Right against exploitation includes prohibition of forced labor and employment of
children in factories or industries etc. this right protects the weak and underprivileged
from exploitation at the hands of powerful. Therefore to give equality and liberty to all
individuals irrespective of class and caste , our constitution has protective provisions for
the weak.
Right to Freedom of Religion
This is the fourth fundamental right. Right to religion includes:
a. Freedom of conscience( to follow or not to follow anyy religion)
b. Freedom to practice , profess or follow any religion ( a person can give
information about his/ her religion but cannot force other to follow his religion. there
cannot be forced conversion)
c. Equality of religions. (india does not have official religions like iran or paksitan
have islam as their official religion)

1. What is right to freedom of religion? (imp)

Ans. Our indian constitution has guaranteed Right to freedom of religion. It means that
there exists freedom of faith and worship. Everyone is free to choose his/ her religion. It
includes freedom of conscience which means a person is even free to follow or not to
follow any religion. It further includes right to propagate, profess and follow any
religion. Under this any person can give information about his/ her religion or follow or
convert to any religion. But government prohibits any forced conversion. There is also
equality of all religions meaning that no person will be discriminated on basis of their
religion.
2. Why is right to freedom of religion important? (imp)
Ans. Right to freedom is important for the democracy of the country. This right does not
discriminate between any religions and gives equal treatment to every individual. We have

to consider the religious riots which occurred in India during pre independence times and
also post independence of India. Therefore, this right becomes important to save the rights of
every religious group.
Right to Constitutional Remedies
Although our constitution contains impressive fundamental rights. But then they have to be
enforced through rule of law. So this right helps in giving remedies to if anybody's
fundamental right have been violated. Dr. ambedkar considered right to consitutional
remedies as 'heart and soul of the constitution'.
The Supreme Court and High Court can issue various special orders and give directives to
the government for enforcement of rights known as writs.
Apart from judiciary, there are other mechanisms for the protection of rights. National
commission on minorities , the national commission on women, the national commission on
scheduled castes. They protect the right of women, Dalits and minorities. There is also
National Human Rights Commission to protect fundamental and other rights.
Questions and answers
Ques A. What is right to consitutional remedies? (imp)
Ans A. This Right helps in giving remedies if anybody's fundamental right have been
violated. It issues various writs to protect fundamental rights like mandamus, prohibition,
Certiorari, quo warranto etc. there are also agencies national human rights commission,
national commission of minorities to protect the rights of weak and underprivileged.
Directive Principles of State Policy
Post independence, the challenge before the country was to bring equality and well being of
all citizens. But at the same time, we did not have enough resources to put everything under
fundamental rights category. Also, our constitution makers did not want to burden the policy
makers where every citizen will be going to court for asking their rights. So they came out
with guidelines, that is, directive principles of state policy. These are non-justiciable. It
means that if the government does not bring these principles into action, the citizen cannot
go to court for asking its implementation.
These directive principles contain:
The goals and objectives that society should adopt.
Certain rights that individuals should enjoy apart from fundamental rights.
Certain policies that government should adopt to build a welfare and equitable
society
Implementation of directive principles
To realise directive principles, several measures have been taken like abolition of zaminadri
system, nationalising banks, having minimum wage for laborers, cottage and small

industries were promoted. It also included right to education, spreading of Panchayati Raj
System and launching mid day meal scheme.

Questions and Answers

Ques 1. What are directive principles?
Ans 1. Directive principles are the policy directions given by constitution for building an
equitable and just society.
Ques 2. What is the purpose of directive principles?
Ans 2. These directive principlesare adopted for the purpose of :
The goals and objectives that society should adopt.
Certain rights that individuals should enjoy apart from fundamental rights.
Certain policies that government should adopt to build a welfare and equitable
society
Ques 3. Have directive principles been ever brought into effect?
Ans 3. To realise directive principles, several measures have been taken like abolition of
zaminadri system, nationalising banks, having minimum wage for laborers, cottage and
small industries were promoted. It also included right to education, spreading of Panchayati
Raj System, launching mid day meal scheme and having mahatma gandhi national rural
employment guarantee scheme.
Ques 4. Why was directive principles made non- justiciable?
Ans 4. At the time of independence, we did not have enough resources to put everything
under Fundamental Rights category. Also, our constitution makers did not want to burden
the policy makers where every citizen will be going to court for asking their rights.So they
came out with policy directions for our government for building an equitable and just
society.

dictioanary
a. untouchability : higher caste ill treating lower caste
b. trafficking : transportation of humans to another country for working as slaves.
1. which part constitutes fundamental right in indian constitution?
a. part 1
b. part 2
c. part 3

d. part 4
Ans. Part 3
ans. C part 3
2. which is a violation of fundamental rights?
a. allowing free speech
b. paying less than minimum wages
c. allowing to worship their religion.
d. moving anywhere in the country.
3. which one cannot prove to be a danger to fundamental rights of an individual?
a. government
b. private organisation
c. other individuals
d. he himself
ans D
4. what are bill of rights?
a. list of rights
b. bill in the parliament for introduction
c. electricity bill
d. any rights
ans A
5. when was the bill of rights first presented?
a. 1947
b. 1950
c. 1928
d. 1929
ans. C
6. which committee first presented the demands for Bill of Rights?
a. jawaharlal nehru committee
b. moti lal nehru committee
c. mahatma gandhi committee
d. ambedkar committee

ans B
7. which is not a fundamental right?
a. Right to equality
b. Right to particular freedoms
c. Right against exploitation
d. right to property
ans D
8. which article in our constitution guarantees reservation as a policy to improve
backward lot?
a. article 16(1)
b. article 16(2)
c. article 16(3)
d. article 16(4)
ans. D
9. how many rights does right to freedom have?
a. 5
b. 6
c. 7
d. 8
Ans B
10. which court can deal with fundamental rights?
a. high court
b. trial court
c. supreme court
d. lower court
ans C
11. right against exploitation does not includes?
a. prohibition of forced labor
b. prohibition of human trafficking
c. prohibition of employment in children
d. prohibition of employment of women in factories.

Ans D
12. what is the religion of india?
a. hindu
b. muslim
c. christian
d. secular
ans D. we are secular country. It means that we give equality to all religions and does favor
or discriminate any one religion.
13. which one of these is not a writ?
a. quo warranto
b. certiorari
c. permission
d. prohibition
Ans. C
14. when was national human rights commission formed?
a. 2000
b. 2001
c. 2002
d. 2003
ans. A
15. which amendment included fundamental duties ?
a. 40th
b. 42nd
c. 43rd
d. 44th
Ans B
16. When was the 42nd amendment passed?
a. 1972
b. 1974
c. 1975
d. 1976

Ans. D

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chapter 1 constitution why and how

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Chapter: 10
Development
Serious
Introduction
Development means progress, achievement and well being for a better society. but the
question which comes up is development for whom? Building dams for generating
electricity is development for you and for rich people because they will get continuous
supply of electricity by which they can do their household chores. but building dams is not
development for tribals because their land gets seized and they have to move to other place.
also building dams causes environmental damage which kill fish and damage soil fertility. so
the question is what is development? and development is meant for whom?
what is development?
development conveys the ideas of improvement, progress, well being and aspiration for a
better society.
development is defined in narrower terms also like increasing growth rate or modernising
the society. Modernising the society means having dams, opening industries , having many
brands etc.
but development has a broader meaning as well. there needs to be improvement in the lives
of people. Poverty needs to be reduced, health of people needs to be improved and
employment oppurtunities need to be given.
Concept of Development
development concept emerged after the second half of twentieth century(post 1950s). it

emerged then because countries in asia and africa got independence. These countries were
under colonial rule so the rulers used their resources for their own self interest rather than
interest of people.
asian and african people at the time of independence didnot even have a basic necessities of
life. there was poverty, malnourishment, unemployment, illiteracy, and lack of sanitation etc.
the concept of development has been changed over the years. in the initial years, focus was
on economic growth and modernisation of societies. so developing countries adopted
development model like faster economic growth through industrialisation, modernisation of
agriculture by bringing latest technology, and extending modern education. also initially
development goals were limited because countries recently got independence and they were
not having enough resources to develop.
India adopted five years plans for development. they build mega projects like bhakra nangal
dam, steel plants, mining , fertiliser production, and improving agricultural techniques. they
hoped that this model of development will have 'trickle down' effect. and reduce the
inequalities. investment was made in science and technology. new educational institutes
were build up like IIT. but this didnot provide much development to lower sections of
society. this created a larger gap between rich and poor. this model of development has been
criticised. next we will read criticisms about this model of development. before that let's
attempt questions.
Q&A
Q1. what is development?
A1. development is defined as the ideas of improvement, progress, well being and
aspiration for a better society.
Q2. Is development defined in terms of economic growth?
A2. development defined in terms of economic growth is a narrow definition. broad
definition of development includes needs to be improvement in the lives of people. Poverty
needs to be reduced, health of people needs to be improved and employment oppurtunities
need to be given.
Q3. what model of development was adopted in india?
A3. india adopted five years plans for development. they build mega projects like bhakra
nangal dam, steel plants, mining , fertiliser production, and improving agricultural
techniques. they hoped that this model of development will have 'trickle down' effect. and
reduce the inequalities. investment was made in science and technology. new educational
institutes were build up like IIT.
Q4. why were asian and african countries underdeveloped?
A4. asian and african countries were under colonial rule so the rulers used their resources for
their own self interest rather than interest of people. So, at the time of independence didnot
even have a basic necessities of life. there was poverty, malnourishment, unemployment,
illiteracy, and lack of sanitation etc.
Q5. Which development model India adopted?
A5. Five year plans
Criticisms of development model

Development model has been criticised. Financial costs have been enormous and this has put
many countries into debt. African and asian countries have borrowed enormously and this
has led to large loans on them.
Social costs of development
Development such as building dams, steel plants and industrial activities has led to large
scale displacement. This has resulted in loss of livelihood, and increase in impoverishment.
Since they have been displaced from their traditional land so they migrate to urban areas
where they donot have any employment because they are not educated and skilled enough
and they then lead their lives in poverty. Their culture is also lost as their community life
gets destroyed and people move to different areas.
But poor people have not accepted their fate. You may have heard of narmada bachao
andolan where medha patkar is leading a movement against sardar sarovar dam on narmada
river. The movement says that development of big dams has caused submergence of their
land and over 1 million lives have been displaced. It has also disturbed the ecological
balance as the soil has lost its fertility and land has become more prone to earthquakes.
Environmental costs
Development has caused huge environmental damage. Pollution has increased due to
building of factories. Global warming has taken place. This has also caused hole in ozone
layer. Melting of glaciers is also taking place. Rivers have dried up and forests have been
lost.
When we talk about environmental costs, it becomes important to talk about a brave fighter
who laid his life to save his environment. His name is Ken Saro Wiwa.
Ken saro wiwa is a nigerian and belonged to ogoni caste. Nigeria is rich in oil resources.
Many multi national companies set up their exploration shops there and started exploring oil.
Exploration of oil polluted water and air. And this caused great disturbance to local people
living there. People got polluted water to drink and polluted air to breathe. So ken saro wiwa
led a non violent struggle for its right to clean drinking water and right to breathe unpolluted
air. The movement was called movement for the survival of ogoni people (MOSOP). The
movement was effective to such an extent that all the companies have to pull out. Military
rulers of Nigeria framed him in murder case and sentenced him to death.
Besides, the social and environmental costs of development, there have been some success
rate for example it has led to increasing rate of economic growth. Income of people has been
increased and consumption of goods has gone up. But, it has also caused huge gap between
rich and poor. There is no fair distribution of goods. Rich have become richer and poor have
become poorer. Quality of life of people has not improved. They do not have basic minimum
necessities of life. Like food, education, health and shelter. This is called basic needs
approach. These are necessary for leading a dignified life.
UNDP united nations of development programme has come out with human development
index(HDI). This is the human development report that ranks countries on the basis of

performance in social indicators like literacy and education levels, life expectancy and
maternal mortality rates. This measure is called human development index.

Q&A
Q1. What are the environmental costs of development?
A1. Development has caused huge environmental damage. Pollution has increased due to
building of factories. Global warming has taken place. This has also caused hole in ozone
layer. Melting of glaciers is also taking place. Rivers have dried up and forests have been
lost.
Q2. What are the social costs of development?
A2. Development such as building dams, steel plants and industrial activities has led to huge
social costs. It has caused large scale displacement. This has resulted in loss of livelihood,
and increase in impoverishment. Since they have been displaced from their traditional land
so they migrate to urban areas where they donot have any employment because they are not
educated and skilled enough and they then lead their lives in poverty. Their culture is also
lost as their community life gets destroyed and people move to different areas.
Q3. Write about ken saro wiwa's struggle.
A3. Ken saro wiwa is a nigerian and belonged to ogoni caste. Nigeria is rich in oil resources.
Many multi national companies set up their exploration shops there and started exploring oil.
Exploration of oil polluted water and air. And this caused great disturbance to local people
living there. People got polluted water to drink and polluted air to breathe. So ken saro wiwa
led a non violent struggle for its right to clean drinking water and right to breathe unpolluted
air. The movement was called movement for the survival of ogoni people (MOSOP). The
movement was effective to such an extent that all the companies have to pull out. Military
rulers of Nigeria framed him in murder case and sentenced him to death.
Q4. What are the criticisms of development?
A4. Social costs of development
Development such as building dams, steel plants and industrial activities has led to large
scale displacement. This has resulted in loss of livelihood, and increase in impoverishment.
Since they have been displaced from their traditional land so they migrate to urban areas
where they donot have any employment because they are not educated and skilled enough
and they then lead their lives in poverty. Their culture is also lost as their community life
gets destroyed and people move to different areas.
Environmental costs
Development has caused huge environmental damage. Pollution has increased due to
building of factories. Global warming has taken place. This has also caused hole in ozone
layer. Melting of glaciers is also taking place. Rivers have dried up and forests have been
lost.

Besides, the social and environmental costs of development, there have been some success
rate for example it has led to increasing rate of economic growth. Income of people has been
increased and consumption of goods has gone up. But, it has also caused huge gap between
rich and poor. There is no fair distribution of goods. Rich have become richer and poor have
become poorer. Quality of life of people has not improved. They do not have basic minimum
necessities of life. Like food, education, health and shelter. This is called basic needs
approach. This is necessary for leading a dignified life.
Q5. What is human development index?
A5. It is the human development report that ranks countries on the basis of performance in
social indicators like literacy and education levels, life expectancy and maternal mortality
rates. This measure is called human development index.
Alternative conceptions of development
Till now the development model adopted in most countries have been top down. It means
that development policy was decided by higher levels of political leadership and
bureaucracy. Local people were not consulted. Bureaucrats sitting in AC rooms drafted
policy for the benefit of people. But these bureaucrats donot have any knowledge about local
areas. So without any consultation they drafted the policy. This led to unequitable
development. Need is for equitable and sustainable level of development.
Right claims
We have seen that how model of development led to development for some and
underdevlopment of another. Remember dam example at the starting of chapter. So the
question which arises is development for whom? To whom do natural resources? Does only
rich have right for development? So we need fair and equitable development and this is
possible in a democracy where different groups compete with each other, negotiate and
compromise to come to an equal and fair solution.
Democratic participation
It is only through discussion and debate that we can formulate policy for the welfare of
all. A democracy allows room for negotiation and discussion which is not possible in a
dictatorship. A sustainable and equitable development can happen only when local people
are consulted and knowledge is shared with them.otherwise, it will be a top down
approach where higher level people like bureaucrats and politicians impose on local
people.
Development and lifestyle
There is also need to change our lifestyle. Development should not be measured in terms
of cellphones, cars or plots a person possesses. But it should also be measured in terms of
happiness, harmony and satisfaction of essential needs. We can do rainwater harvesting,
build solar and biogas plants . micro hydel projects rather than building huge dams. We
also need to reduce our dependence on non renewable resources and build more of trees
for a cleaner air.

Q&A
Q1. What are the alternatives of development model?
A1. Right claims
When a dam is built, it helps in generation of electricity which is then supplied to
households. but building of dam leads to displacement of tribals and loss of livelihood
for them. so the question which arises is development for whom? To whom do natural
resources? Does only rich have right for development? So we need fair and equitable
development and this is possible in a democracy where different groups compete with
each other, negotiate and compromise to come to an equal and fair solution.
Democratic participation
It is only through discussion and debate that we can formulate policy for the welfare of
all. A democracy allows room for negotiation and discussion which is not possible in a
dictatorship. A sustainable and equitable development can happen only when local people
are consulted and knowledge is shared with them.otherwise, it will be a top down
approach where higher level people like bureaucrats and politicians impose on local
people.
Development and lifestyle
There is also need to change our lifestyle. Development should not be measured in terms
of cellphones, cars or plots a person possesses. But it should also be measured in terms of
happiness, harmony and satisfaction of essential needs. We can do rainwater harvesting,
build solar and biogas plants . micro hydel projects rather than building huge dams. We
also need to reduce our dependence on non renewable resources and build more of trees
for a cleaner air.
Q2. Why do we need an alternative source of development?
A2. the development model adopted in most countries have been top down. It means that
development policy was decided by higher levels of political leadership and bureaucracy.
Local people are not consulted. Bureaucrats sitting in AC rooms draft the policy for the
benefit of people. But these bureaucrats do not have any knowledge about local areas. So
without any consultation they draft the policy and this leads to unequitable development.
The need is for an equitable and sustainable level of development.
Q3. How should we change our lifestyles to protect our environment?
A3. Development should not be measured in terms of cellphones, cars or plots a person
possesses. But it should also be measured in terms of happiness, harmony and satisfaction of
essential needs. We can do rainwater harvesting, build solar and biogas plants . micro hydel
projects rather than building huge dams. We also need to reduce our dependence on non
renewable resources and build more of trees for a cleaner air.
NON SERIOUS
dt

non serious
Introduction
Development means progress, achievement and well being for a better society. but the
question which comes up is development for whom? Building dams for generating
electricity is development for you and for rich people because they will get continuous
supply of electricity by which they can do their household chores. but building dams is not
development for tribals because their land gets seized and they have to move to other place.
also building dams causes environmental damage which kill fish and damage soil fertility. so
the question is what is development? and development is meant for whom?
what is development?
development conveys the ideas of improvement, progress, well being and aspiration for a
better society.
development is defined in narrower terms also like increasing growth rate or modernising
the society. Modernising the society means having dams, opening industries , having many
brands etc.
but development has a broader meaning as well. there needs to be improvement in the lives
of people. Poverty needs to be reduced, health of people needs to be improved and
employment oppurtunities need to be given.
Q&A
Q1. what is development?
A1. development is defined as the ideas of improvement, progress, well being and
aspiration for a better society.
Q2. Is development defined in terms of economic growth?
A2. development defined in terms of economic growth is a narrow definition. broad
definition of development includes needs to be improvement in the lives of people. Poverty
needs to be reduced, health of people needs to be improved and employment oppurtunities
need to be given.
Q3. which model of development was adopted in india?
A3. india adopted five years plans for development. they build mega projects like bhakra
nangal dam, steel plants, mining , fertiliser production, and improving agricultural
techniques. they hoped that this model of development will have 'trickle down' effect. and
reduce the inequalities. investment was made in science and technology. new educational
institutes were build up like IIT.
Q4. why were asian and african countries underdeveloped?
A4. asian and african countries were under colonial rule so the rulers used their resources for
their own self interest rather than interest of people. So, at the time of independence didnot

even have a basic necessities of life. there was poverty, malnourishment, unemployment,
illiteracy, and lack of sanitation etc.
Q5. Which development model India adopted?
A5. Five year plans
Criticisms of development model
Development model has been criticised. Financial costs have been enormous and this has put
many countries into debt. African and asian countries have borrowed enormously and this
has led to large loans on them.
Social costs of development
Development such as building dams, steel plants and industrial activities has led to large
scale displacement. This has resulted in loss of livelihood, and increase in impoverishment.
Since they have been displaced from their traditional land so they migrate to urban areas
where they donot have any employment because they are not educated and skilled enough
and they then lead their lives in poverty. Their culture is also lost as their community life
gets destroyed and people move to different areas.
But poor people have not accepted their fate. You may have heard of narmada bachao
andolan where medha patkar is leading a movement against sardar sarovar dam on narmada
river. The movement says that development of big dams has caused submergence of their
land and over 1 million lives have been displaced. It has also disturbed the ecological
balance as the soil has lost its fertility and land has become more prone to earthquakes.
Environmental costs
Development has caused huge environmental damage. Pollution has increased due to
building of factories. Global warming has taken place. This has also caused hole in ozone
layer. Melting of glaciers is also taking place. Rivers have dried up and forests have been
lost.
When we talk about environmental costs, it becomes important to talk about a brave fighter
who laid his life to save his environment. His name is Ken Saro Wiwa.
Ken saro wiwa is a nigerian and belonged to ogoni caste. Nigeria is rich in oil resources.
Many multi national companies set up their exploration shops there and started exploring oil.
Exploration of oil polluted water and air. And this caused great disturbance to local people
living there. People got polluted water to drink and polluted air to breathe. So ken saro wiwa
led a non violent struggle for its right to clean drinking water and right to breathe unpolluted
air. The movement was called movement for the survival of ogoni people (MOSOP). The
movement was effective to such an extent that all the companies have to pull out. Military
rulers of Nigeria framed him in murder case and sentenced him to death.
Besides, the social and environmental costs of development, there have been some success
rate for example it has led to increasing rate of economic growth. Income of people has been
increased and consumption of goods has gone up. But, it has also caused huge gap between
rich and poor. There is no fair distribution of goods. Rich have become richer and poor have

become poorer. Quality of life of people has not improved. They do not have basic minimum
necessities of life. Like food, education, health and shelter. This is called basic needs
approach. These are necessary for leading a dignified life.

Q&A
Q1. What are the environmental costs of development?
A1. Development has caused huge environmental damage. Pollution has increased due to
building of factories. Global warming has taken place. This has also caused hole in ozone
layer. Melting of glaciers is also taking place. Rivers have dried up and forests have been
lost.
Q2. What are the social costs of development?
A2. Development such as building dams, steel plants and industrial activities has led to huge
social costs. It has caused large scale displacement. This has resulted in loss of livelihood,
and increase in impoverishment. Since they have been displaced from their traditional land
so they migrate to urban areas where they donot have any employment because they are not
educated and skilled enough and they then lead their lives in poverty. Their culture is also
lost as their community life gets destroyed and people move to different areas.
Q3. Write about ken saro wiwa's struggle.
A3. Ken saro wiwa is a nigerian and belonged to ogoni caste. Nigeria is rich in oil resources.
Many multi national companies set up their exploration shops there and started exploring oil.
Exploration of oil polluted water and air. And this caused great disturbance to local people
living there. People got polluted water to drink and polluted air to breathe. So ken saro wiwa
led a non violent struggle for its right to clean drinking water and right to breathe unpolluted
air. The movement was called movement for the survival of ogoni people (MOSOP). The
movement was effective to such an extent that all the companies have to pull out. Military
rulers of Nigeria framed him in murder case and sentenced him to death.
Q4. What are the criticisms of development?
A4. Social costs of development
Development such as building dams, steel plants and industrial activities has led to large
scale displacement. This has resulted in loss of livelihood, and increase in impoverishment.
Since they have been displaced from their traditional land so they migrate to urban areas
where they donot have any employment because they are not educated and skilled enough
and they then lead their lives in poverty. Their culture is also lost as their community life
gets destroyed and people move to different areas.
Environmental costs
Development has caused huge environmental damage. Pollution has increased due to
building of factories. Global warming has taken place. This has also caused hole in ozone

layer. Melting of glaciers is also taking place. Rivers have dried up and forests have been
lost.
Besides, the social and environmental costs of development, there have been some success
rate for example it has led to increasing rate of economic growth. Income of people has been
increased and consumption of goods has gone up. But, it has also caused huge gap between
rich and poor. There is no fair distribution of goods. Rich have become richer and poor have
become poorer. Quality of life of people has not improved. They do not have basic minimum
necessities of life. Like food, education, health and shelter. This is called basic needs
approach. This is necessary for leading a dignified life.

Alternative conceptions of development

Till now the development model adopted in most countries have been top down. It means
that development policy was decided by higher levels of political leadership and
bureaucracy. Local people were not consulted. Bureaucrats sitting in AC rooms drafted
policy for the benefit of people. But these bureaucrats donot have any knowledge about local
areas. So without any consultation they drafted the policy. This led to unequitable
development. Need is for equitable and sustainable level of development.
a. Right claims
We have seen that how model of development led to development for some and
underdevlopment of another. Remember dam example at the starting of chapter. So the
question which arises is development for whom? To whom do natural resources? Does only
rich have right for development? So we need fair and equitable development and this is
possible in a democracy where different groups compete with each other, negotiate and
compromise to come to an equal and fair solution.
b. Democratic participation
It is only through discussion and debate that we can formulate policy for the welfare of
all. A democracy allows room for negotiation and discussion which is not possible in a
dictatorship. A sustainable and equitable development can happen only when local people
are consulted and knowledge is shared with them.otherwise, it will be a top down
approach where higher level people like bureaucrats and politicians impose on local
people.
c. Development and lifestyle
There is also need to change our lifestyle. Development should not be measured in terms
of cellphones, cars or plots a person possesses. But it should also be measured in terms of
happiness, harmony and satisfaction of essential needs. We can do rainwater harvesting,
build solar and biogas plants . micro hydel projects rather than building huge dams. We
also need to reduce our dependence on non renewable resources and build more of trees
for a cleaner air.
Q&A

Q1. What are the alternatives of development model?

a. A1. Right claims
When a dam is built, it helps in generation of electricity which is then supplied to
households. but building of dam leads to displacement of tribals and loss of livelihood
for them. so the question which arises is development for whom? To whom do natural
resources? Does only rich have right for development? So we need fair and equitable
development and this is possible in a democracy where different groups compete with
each other, negotiate and compromise to come to an equal and fair solution.
b. Democratic participation
It is only through discussion and debate that we can formulate policy for the welfare of
all. A democracy allows room for negotiation and discussion which is not possible in a
dictatorship. A sustainable and equitable development can happen only when local people
are consulted and knowledge is shared with them.otherwise, it will be a top down
approach where higher level people like bureaucrats and politicians impose on local
people.
c. Development and lifestyle
There is also need to change our lifestyle. Development should not be measured in terms
of cellphones, cars or plots a person possesses. But it should also be measured in terms of
happiness, harmony and satisfaction of essential needs. We can do rainwater harvesting,
build solar and biogas plants . micro hydel projects rather than building huge dams. We
also need to reduce our dependence on non renewable resources and build more of trees
for a cleaner air.
Q2. Why do we need an alternative source of development?
A2. the development model adopted in most countries have been top down. It means that
development policy was decided by higher levels of political leadership and bureaucracy.
Local people are not consulted. Bureaucrats sitting in AC rooms draft the policy for the
benefit of people. But these bureaucrats do not have any knowledge about local areas. So
without any consultation they draft the policy and this leads to unequitable development.
The need is for an equitable and sustainable level of development.
Q3. How should we change our lifestyles to protect our environment?
A3. Development should not be measured in terms of cellphones, cars or plots a person
possesses. But it should also be measured in terms of happiness, harmony and satisfaction of
essential needs. We can do rainwater harvesting, build solar and biogas plants . micro hydel
projects rather than building huge dams. We also need to reduce our dependence on non
renewable resources and build more of trees for a cleaner air.

mcqs

dt
dictionary
a. modern education: it means education based on principlesof rationality, science and
fairness. it is not religious education.
b. displacement: removed from their original position.
c. top down approach: decisions made by top bureaucrats and politicians are implemented on
local level/people without consulting them

1. what is development?
a. education
b. health
c. employment
d. all of the above
ans D
2. Initial years of development was:
a. economic growth
b. modernisation of societies
c. both of the above
d. none of the above
ans C
3. why were asian countries were underdeveloped?
a. because they didnot have good policy makers
b. colonial rule
c. they didnot want development
d. rajas and maharajas rule brought underdevelopment
ansB
4. india adopted plans?
a. four year plans
b. five year plans
c. six year plans
d. seven year plans

ans B
5. Which oil company made ken saro wiwa executed?
a. shell
b. hell
c. kell
d. mell
ans A
6. environmental costs of development?
a. melting of glaciers
b. pure air
c. clean water
d. richness in bio diversity
ans A
7. social costs of development ?
a. displacement
b. loss of livelihood
c. impoverishment
d. all of the above
ans D
8. Name the environmental leaders?
a. ken saro wiwa
b. medha patkar
c. all of the above
d. none of the above
ans C
9. To which country does ken saro wiwa belonged?
a. nigeria
b. swaziland
c. america
d. tunisia
ans A

10. Name the movement of ken saro wiwa?

a. movement for survival of ogoni people
b. movement for survival
c. ogoni people movement
d. ogoni movement
ans A
11. who was ken saro wiwa?
a. feminist leader
b. environmental leader
c. trade union leader
d. university leader
ans B
12. name the leader of narmada bachao andolan?
a. arundhate roy
b. aamir khan
c. medha patkar
d. ken saro wiwa
ans C
13. which organisation come out with human development report?
a. UNDP
B. UNICEF
c. ECOSOC
d. UNHCR
ans A
14. alternative models of development are:
a. right claims
b. democratic participation
c. change in lifestyle
d. all of the above
ans D

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9. Oct
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chapter 10 development
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Chapter: 10
Development
Serious
Introduction
Development means progress, achievement and well being for a better society. but the
question which comes up is development for whom? Building dams for generating
electricity is development for you and for rich people because they will get continuous
supply of electricity by which they can do their household chores. but building dams is not
development for tribals because their land gets seized and they have to move to other place.
also building dams causes environmental damage which kill fish and damage soil fertility. so
the question is what is development? and development is meant for whom?
what is development?
development conveys the ideas of improvement, progress, well being and aspiration for a
better society.
development is defined in narrower terms also like increasing growth rate or modernising
the society. Modernising the society means having dams, opening industries , having many
brands etc.
but development has a broader meaning as well. there needs to be improvement in the lives
of people. Poverty needs to be reduced, health of people needs to be improved and
employment oppurtunities need to be given.
Concept of Development
development concept emerged after the second half of twentieth century(post 1950s). it
emerged then because countries in asia and africa got independence. These countries were
under colonial rule so the rulers used their resources for their own self interest rather than
interest of people.
asian and african people at the time of independence didnot even have a basic necessities of
life. there was poverty, malnourishment, unemployment, illiteracy, and lack of sanitation etc.
the concept of development has been changed over the years. in the initial years, focus was
on economic growth and modernisation of societies. so developing countries adopted
development model like faster economic growth through industrialisation, modernisation of

agriculture by bringing latest technology, and extending modern education. also initially
development goals were limited because countries recently got independence and they were
not having enough resources to develop.
India adopted five years plans for development. they build mega projects like bhakra nangal
dam, steel plants, mining , fertiliser production, and improving agricultural techniques. they
hoped that this model of development will have 'trickle down' effect. and reduce the
inequalities. investment was made in science and technology. new educational institutes
were build up like IIT. but this didnot provide much development to lower sections of
society. this created a larger gap between rich and poor. this model of development has been
criticised. next we will read criticisms about this model of development. before that let's
attempt questions.
Q&A
Q1. what is development?
A1. development is defined as the ideas of improvement, progress, well being and
aspiration for a better society.
Q2. Is development defined in terms of economic growth?
A2. development defined in terms of economic growth is a narrow definition. broad
definition of development includes needs to be improvement in the lives of people. Poverty
needs to be reduced, health of people needs to be improved and employment oppurtunities
need to be given.
Q3. what model of development was adopted in india?
A3. india adopted five years plans for development. they build mega projects like bhakra
nangal dam, steel plants, mining , fertiliser production, and improving agricultural
techniques. they hoped that this model of development will have 'trickle down' effect. and
reduce the inequalities. investment was made in science and technology. new educational
institutes were build up like IIT.
Q4. why were asian and african countries underdeveloped?
A4. asian and african countries were under colonial rule so the rulers used their resources for
their own self interest rather than interest of people. So, at the time of independence didnot
even have a basic necessities of life. there was poverty, malnourishment, unemployment,
illiteracy, and lack of sanitation etc.
Q5. Which development model India adopted?
A5. Five year plans
Criticisms of development model
Development model has been criticised. Financial costs have been enormous and this has put
many countries into debt. African and asian countries have borrowed enormously and this
has led to large loans on them.
Social costs of development
Development such as building dams, steel plants and industrial activities has led to large
scale displacement. This has resulted in loss of livelihood, and increase in impoverishment.
Since they have been displaced from their traditional land so they migrate to urban areas

where they donot have any employment because they are not educated and skilled enough
and they then lead their lives in poverty. Their culture is also lost as their community life
gets destroyed and people move to different areas.
But poor people have not accepted their fate. You may have heard of narmada bachao
andolan where medha patkar is leading a movement against sardar sarovar dam on narmada
river. The movement says that development of big dams has caused submergence of their
land and over 1 million lives have been displaced. It has also disturbed the ecological
balance as the soil has lost its fertility and land has become more prone to earthquakes.
Environmental costs
Development has caused huge environmental damage. Pollution has increased due to
building of factories. Global warming has taken place. This has also caused hole in ozone
layer. Melting of glaciers is also taking place. Rivers have dried up and forests have been
lost.
When we talk about environmental costs, it becomes important to talk about a brave fighter
who laid his life to save his environment. His name is Ken Saro Wiwa.
Ken saro wiwa is a nigerian and belonged to ogoni caste. Nigeria is rich in oil resources.
Many multi national companies set up their exploration shops there and started exploring oil.
Exploration of oil polluted water and air. And this caused great disturbance to local people
living there. People got polluted water to drink and polluted air to breathe. So ken saro wiwa
led a non violent struggle for its right to clean drinking water and right to breathe unpolluted
air. The movement was called movement for the survival of ogoni people (MOSOP). The
movement was effective to such an extent that all the companies have to pull out. Military
rulers of Nigeria framed him in murder case and sentenced him to death.
Besides, the social and environmental costs of development, there have been some success
rate for example it has led to increasing rate of economic growth. Income of people has been
increased and consumption of goods has gone up. But, it has also caused huge gap between
rich and poor. There is no fair distribution of goods. Rich have become richer and poor have
become poorer. Quality of life of people has not improved. They do not have basic minimum
necessities of life. Like food, education, health and shelter. This is called basic needs
approach. These are necessary for leading a dignified life.
UNDP united nations of development programme has come out with human development
index(HDI). This is the human development report that ranks countries on the basis of
performance in social indicators like literacy and education levels, life expectancy and
maternal mortality rates. This measure is called human development index.

Q&A
Q1. What are the environmental costs of development?
A1. Development has caused huge environmental damage. Pollution has increased due to
building of factories. Global warming has taken place. This has also caused hole in ozone

layer. Melting of glaciers is also taking place. Rivers have dried up and forests have been
lost.
Q2. What are the social costs of development?
A2. Development such as building dams, steel plants and industrial activities has led to huge
social costs. It has caused large scale displacement. This has resulted in loss of livelihood,
and increase in impoverishment. Since they have been displaced from their traditional land
so they migrate to urban areas where they donot have any employment because they are not
educated and skilled enough and they then lead their lives in poverty. Their culture is also
lost as their community life gets destroyed and people move to different areas.
Q3. Write about ken saro wiwa's struggle.
A3. Ken saro wiwa is a nigerian and belonged to ogoni caste. Nigeria is rich in oil resources.
Many multi national companies set up their exploration shops there and started exploring oil.
Exploration of oil polluted water and air. And this caused great disturbance to local people
living there. People got polluted water to drink and polluted air to breathe. So ken saro wiwa
led a non violent struggle for its right to clean drinking water and right to breathe unpolluted
air. The movement was called movement for the survival of ogoni people (MOSOP). The
movement was effective to such an extent that all the companies have to pull out. Military
rulers of Nigeria framed him in murder case and sentenced him to death.
Q4. What are the criticisms of development?
A4. Social costs of development
Development such as building dams, steel plants and industrial activities has led to large
scale displacement. This has resulted in loss of livelihood, and increase in impoverishment.
Since they have been displaced from their traditional land so they migrate to urban areas
where they donot have any employment because they are not educated and skilled enough
and they then lead their lives in poverty. Their culture is also lost as their community life
gets destroyed and people move to different areas.
Environmental costs
Development has caused huge environmental damage. Pollution has increased due to
building of factories. Global warming has taken place. This has also caused hole in ozone
layer. Melting of glaciers is also taking place. Rivers have dried up and forests have been
lost.
Besides, the social and environmental costs of development, there have been some success
rate for example it has led to increasing rate of economic growth. Income of people has been
increased and consumption of goods has gone up. But, it has also caused huge gap between
rich and poor. There is no fair distribution of goods. Rich have become richer and poor have
become poorer. Quality of life of people has not improved. They do not have basic minimum
necessities of life. Like food, education, health and shelter. This is called basic needs
approach. This is necessary for leading a dignified life.
Q5. What is human development index?

A5. It is the human development report that ranks countries on the basis of performance in
social indicators like literacy and education levels, life expectancy and maternal mortality
rates. This measure is called human development index.
Alternative conceptions of development
Till now the development model adopted in most countries have been top down. It means
that development policy was decided by higher levels of political leadership and
bureaucracy. Local people were not consulted. Bureaucrats sitting in AC rooms drafted
policy for the benefit of people. But these bureaucrats donot have any knowledge about local
areas. So without any consultation they drafted the policy. This led to unequitable
development. Need is for equitable and sustainable level of development.
Right claims
We have seen that how model of development led to development for some and
underdevlopment of another. Remember dam example at the starting of chapter. So the
question which arises is development for whom? To whom do natural resources? Does only
rich have right for development? So we need fair and equitable development and this is
possible in a democracy where different groups compete with each other, negotiate and
compromise to come to an equal and fair solution.
Democratic participation
It is only through discussion and debate that we can formulate policy for the welfare of
all. A democracy allows room for negotiation and discussion which is not possible in a
dictatorship. A sustainable and equitable development can happen only when local people
are consulted and knowledge is shared with them.otherwise, it will be a top down
approach where higher level people like bureaucrats and politicians impose on local
people.
Development and lifestyle
There is also need to change our lifestyle. Development should not be measured in terms
of cellphones, cars or plots a person possesses. But it should also be measured in terms of
happiness, harmony and satisfaction of essential needs. We can do rainwater harvesting,
build solar and biogas plants . micro hydel projects rather than building huge dams. We
also need to reduce our dependence on non renewable resources and build more of trees
for a cleaner air.
Q&A
Q1. What are the alternatives of development model?
A1. Right claims
When a dam is built, it helps in generation of electricity which is then supplied to
households. but building of dam leads to displacement of tribals and loss of livelihood
for them. so the question which arises is development for whom? To whom do natural
resources? Does only rich have right for development? So we need fair and equitable

development and this is possible in a democracy where different groups compete with
each other, negotiate and compromise to come to an equal and fair solution.
Democratic participation
It is only through discussion and debate that we can formulate policy for the welfare of
all. A democracy allows room for negotiation and discussion which is not possible in a
dictatorship. A sustainable and equitable development can happen only when local people
are consulted and knowledge is shared with them.otherwise, it will be a top down
approach where higher level people like bureaucrats and politicians impose on local
people.
Development and lifestyle
There is also need to change our lifestyle. Development should not be measured in terms
of cellphones, cars or plots a person possesses. But it should also be measured in terms of
happiness, harmony and satisfaction of essential needs. We can do rainwater harvesting,
build solar and biogas plants . micro hydel projects rather than building huge dams. We
also need to reduce our dependence on non renewable resources and build more of trees
for a cleaner air.
Q2. Why do we need an alternative source of development?
A2. the development model adopted in most countries have been top down. It means that
development policy was decided by higher levels of political leadership and bureaucracy.
Local people are not consulted. Bureaucrats sitting in AC rooms draft the policy for the
benefit of people. But these bureaucrats do not have any knowledge about local areas. So
without any consultation they draft the policy and this leads to unequitable development.
The need is for an equitable and sustainable level of development.
Q3. How should we change our lifestyles to protect our environment?
A3. Development should not be measured in terms of cellphones, cars or plots a person
possesses. But it should also be measured in terms of happiness, harmony and satisfaction of
essential needs. We can do rainwater harvesting, build solar and biogas plants . micro hydel
projects rather than building huge dams. We also need to reduce our dependence on non
renewable resources and build more of trees for a cleaner air.
NON SERIOUS
dt
non serious
Introduction
Development means progress, achievement and well being for a better society. but the
question which comes up is development for whom? Building dams for generating
electricity is development for you and for rich people because they will get continuous
supply of electricity by which they can do their household chores. but building dams is not
development for tribals because their land gets seized and they have to move to other place.

also building dams causes environmental damage which kill fish and damage soil fertility. so
the question is what is development? and development is meant for whom?
what is development?
development conveys the ideas of improvement, progress, well being and aspiration for a
better society.
development is defined in narrower terms also like increasing growth rate or modernising
the society. Modernising the society means having dams, opening industries , having many
brands etc.
but development has a broader meaning as well. there needs to be improvement in the lives
of people. Poverty needs to be reduced, health of people needs to be improved and
employment oppurtunities need to be given.
Q&A
Q1. what is development?
A1. development is defined as the ideas of improvement, progress, well being and
aspiration for a better society.
Q2. Is development defined in terms of economic growth?
A2. development defined in terms of economic growth is a narrow definition. broad
definition of development includes needs to be improvement in the lives of people. Poverty
needs to be reduced, health of people needs to be improved and employment oppurtunities
need to be given.
Q3. which model of development was adopted in india?
A3. india adopted five years plans for development. they build mega projects like bhakra
nangal dam, steel plants, mining , fertiliser production, and improving agricultural
techniques. they hoped that this model of development will have 'trickle down' effect. and
reduce the inequalities. investment was made in science and technology. new educational
institutes were build up like IIT.
Q4. why were asian and african countries underdeveloped?
A4. asian and african countries were under colonial rule so the rulers used their resources for
their own self interest rather than interest of people. So, at the time of independence didnot
even have a basic necessities of life. there was poverty, malnourishment, unemployment,
illiteracy, and lack of sanitation etc.
Q5. Which development model India adopted?
A5. Five year plans
Criticisms of development model

Development model has been criticised. Financial costs have been enormous and this has put
many countries into debt. African and asian countries have borrowed enormously and this
has led to large loans on them.
Social costs of development
Development such as building dams, steel plants and industrial activities has led to large
scale displacement. This has resulted in loss of livelihood, and increase in impoverishment.
Since they have been displaced from their traditional land so they migrate to urban areas
where they donot have any employment because they are not educated and skilled enough
and they then lead their lives in poverty. Their culture is also lost as their community life
gets destroyed and people move to different areas.
But poor people have not accepted their fate. You may have heard of narmada bachao
andolan where medha patkar is leading a movement against sardar sarovar dam on narmada
river. The movement says that development of big dams has caused submergence of their
land and over 1 million lives have been displaced. It has also disturbed the ecological
balance as the soil has lost its fertility and land has become more prone to earthquakes.
Environmental costs
Development has caused huge environmental damage. Pollution has increased due to
building of factories. Global warming has taken place. This has also caused hole in ozone
layer. Melting of glaciers is also taking place. Rivers have dried up and forests have been
lost.
When we talk about environmental costs, it becomes important to talk about a brave fighter
who laid his life to save his environment. His name is Ken Saro Wiwa.
Ken saro wiwa is a nigerian and belonged to ogoni caste. Nigeria is rich in oil resources.
Many multi national companies set up their exploration shops there and started exploring oil.
Exploration of oil polluted water and air. And this caused great disturbance to local people
living there. People got polluted water to drink and polluted air to breathe. So ken saro wiwa
led a non violent struggle for its right to clean drinking water and right to breathe unpolluted
air. The movement was called movement for the survival of ogoni people (MOSOP). The
movement was effective to such an extent that all the companies have to pull out. Military
rulers of Nigeria framed him in murder case and sentenced him to death.
Besides, the social and environmental costs of development, there have been some success
rate for example it has led to increasing rate of economic growth. Income of people has been
increased and consumption of goods has gone up. But, it has also caused huge gap between
rich and poor. There is no fair distribution of goods. Rich have become richer and poor have
become poorer. Quality of life of people has not improved. They do not have basic minimum
necessities of life. Like food, education, health and shelter. This is called basic needs
approach. These are necessary for leading a dignified life.

Q&A

Q1. What are the environmental costs of development?

A1. Development has caused huge environmental damage. Pollution has increased due to
building of factories. Global warming has taken place. This has also caused hole in ozone
layer. Melting of glaciers is also taking place. Rivers have dried up and forests have been
lost.
Q2. What are the social costs of development?
A2. Development such as building dams, steel plants and industrial activities has led to huge
social costs. It has caused large scale displacement. This has resulted in loss of livelihood,
and increase in impoverishment. Since they have been displaced from their traditional land
so they migrate to urban areas where they donot have any employment because they are not
educated and skilled enough and they then lead their lives in poverty. Their culture is also
lost as their community life gets destroyed and people move to different areas.
Q3. Write about ken saro wiwa's struggle.
A3. Ken saro wiwa is a nigerian and belonged to ogoni caste. Nigeria is rich in oil resources.
Many multi national companies set up their exploration shops there and started exploring oil.
Exploration of oil polluted water and air. And this caused great disturbance to local people
living there. People got polluted water to drink and polluted air to breathe. So ken saro wiwa
led a non violent struggle for its right to clean drinking water and right to breathe unpolluted
air. The movement was called movement for the survival of ogoni people (MOSOP). The
movement was effective to such an extent that all the companies have to pull out. Military
rulers of Nigeria framed him in murder case and sentenced him to death.
Q4. What are the criticisms of development?
A4. Social costs of development
Development such as building dams, steel plants and industrial activities has led to large
scale displacement. This has resulted in loss of livelihood, and increase in impoverishment.
Since they have been displaced from their traditional land so they migrate to urban areas
where they donot have any employment because they are not educated and skilled enough
and they then lead their lives in poverty. Their culture is also lost as their community life
gets destroyed and people move to different areas.
Environmental costs
Development has caused huge environmental damage. Pollution has increased due to
building of factories. Global warming has taken place. This has also caused hole in ozone
layer. Melting of glaciers is also taking place. Rivers have dried up and forests have been
lost.
Besides, the social and environmental costs of development, there have been some success
rate for example it has led to increasing rate of economic growth. Income of people has been
increased and consumption of goods has gone up. But, it has also caused huge gap between
rich and poor. There is no fair distribution of goods. Rich have become richer and poor have
become poorer. Quality of life of people has not improved. They do not have basic minimum

necessities of life. Like food, education, health and shelter. This is called basic needs
approach. This is necessary for leading a dignified life.

Alternative conceptions of development

Till now the development model adopted in most countries have been top down. It means
that development policy was decided by higher levels of political leadership and
bureaucracy. Local people were not consulted. Bureaucrats sitting in AC rooms drafted
policy for the benefit of people. But these bureaucrats donot have any knowledge about local
areas. So without any consultation they drafted the policy. This led to unequitable
development. Need is for equitable and sustainable level of development.
a. Right claims
We have seen that how model of development led to development for some and
underdevlopment of another. Remember dam example at the starting of chapter. So the
question which arises is development for whom? To whom do natural resources? Does only
rich have right for development? So we need fair and equitable development and this is
possible in a democracy where different groups compete with each other, negotiate and
compromise to come to an equal and fair solution.
b. Democratic participation
It is only through discussion and debate that we can formulate policy for the welfare of
all. A democracy allows room for negotiation and discussion which is not possible in a
dictatorship. A sustainable and equitable development can happen only when local people
are consulted and knowledge is shared with them.otherwise, it will be a top down
approach where higher level people like bureaucrats and politicians impose on local
people.
c. Development and lifestyle
There is also need to change our lifestyle. Development should not be measured in terms
of cellphones, cars or plots a person possesses. But it should also be measured in terms of
happiness, harmony and satisfaction of essential needs. We can do rainwater harvesting,
build solar and biogas plants . micro hydel projects rather than building huge dams. We
also need to reduce our dependence on non renewable resources and build more of trees
for a cleaner air.
Q&A
Q1. What are the alternatives of development model?
a. A1. Right claims
When a dam is built, it helps in generation of electricity which is then supplied to
households. but building of dam leads to displacement of tribals and loss of livelihood
for them. so the question which arises is development for whom? To whom do natural
resources? Does only rich have right for development? So we need fair and equitable

development and this is possible in a democracy where different groups compete with
each other, negotiate and compromise to come to an equal and fair solution.
b. Democratic participation
It is only through discussion and debate that we can formulate policy for the welfare of
all. A democracy allows room for negotiation and discussion which is not possible in a
dictatorship. A sustainable and equitable development can happen only when local people
are consulted and knowledge is shared with them.otherwise, it will be a top down
approach where higher level people like bureaucrats and politicians impose on local
people.
c. Development and lifestyle
There is also need to change our lifestyle. Development should not be measured in terms
of cellphones, cars or plots a person possesses. But it should also be measured in terms of
happiness, harmony and satisfaction of essential needs. We can do rainwater harvesting,
build solar and biogas plants . micro hydel projects rather than building huge dams. We
also need to reduce our dependence on non renewable resources and build more of trees
for a cleaner air.
Q2. Why do we need an alternative source of development?
A2. the development model adopted in most countries have been top down. It means that
development policy was decided by higher levels of political leadership and bureaucracy.
Local people are not consulted. Bureaucrats sitting in AC rooms draft the policy for the
benefit of people. But these bureaucrats do not have any knowledge about local areas. So
without any consultation they draft the policy and this leads to unequitable development.
The need is for an equitable and sustainable level of development.
Q3. How should we change our lifestyles to protect our environment?
A3. Development should not be measured in terms of cellphones, cars or plots a person
possesses. But it should also be measured in terms of happiness, harmony and satisfaction of
essential needs. We can do rainwater harvesting, build solar and biogas plants . micro hydel
projects rather than building huge dams. We also need to reduce our dependence on non
renewable resources and build more of trees for a cleaner air.

mcqs
dt
dictionary
a. modern education: it means education based on principlesof rationality, science and
fairness. it is not religious education.
b. displacement: removed from their original position.

c. top down approach: decisions made by top bureaucrats and politicians are implemented on
local level/people without consulting them

1. what is development?
a. education
b. health
c. employment
d. all of the above
ans D
2. Initial years of development was:
a. economic growth
b. modernisation of societies
c. both of the above
d. none of the above
ans C
3. why were asian countries were underdeveloped?
a. because they didnot have good policy makers
b. colonial rule
c. they didnot want development
d. rajas and maharajas rule brought underdevelopment
ansB
4. india adopted plans?
a. four year plans
b. five year plans
c. six year plans
d. seven year plans
ans B
5. Which oil company made ken saro wiwa executed?
a. shell
b. hell
c. kell

d. mell
ans A
6. environmental costs of development?
a. melting of glaciers
b. pure air
c. clean water
d. richness in bio diversity
ans A
7. social costs of development ?
a. displacement
b. loss of livelihood
c. impoverishment
d. all of the above
ans D
8. Name the environmental leaders?
a. ken saro wiwa
b. medha patkar
c. all of the above
d. none of the above
ans C
9. To which country does ken saro wiwa belonged?
a. nigeria
b. swaziland
c. america
d. tunisia
ans A
10. Name the movement of ken saro wiwa?
a. movement for survival of ogoni people
b. movement for survival
c. ogoni people movement
d. ogoni movement

ans A
11. who was ken saro wiwa?
a. feminist leader
b. environmental leader
c. trade union leader
d. university leader
ans B
12. name the leader of narmada bachao andolan?
a. arundhate roy
b. aamir khan
c. medha patkar
d. ken saro wiwa
ans C
13. which organisation come out with human development report?
a. UNDP
B. UNICEF
c. ECOSOC
d. UNHCR
ans A
14. alternative models of development are:
a. right claims
b. democratic participation
c. change in lifestyle
d. all of the above
ans D

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chapter 9 peace
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chap 9 serious
peace
introduction
Today, peace has become an important value like justice, equality and rights. although
arguments on want of peace in society is of recent evolution. Initially, thinkers have praised
conflict as the growth of civilisation. For example: nietzsche glorified war as it would lead
to growth of civilisation. Italian theorist vilfred pareto said that people who used force to
achieve their goals , constitute governing elites. They are called lions.
What is peace?
Peace is defined as absence of war. Situations where there is no conflict, violence or war is
defined as peace. this was defined as peace because society has witnessed two world wars
and a cold war. They have also witnessed nagasaki and hiroshima bombing and have
realised the importance of peace.
But now peace has assumed greater dimensions in terms of economic, political and social.
By economic peace, it means removal of poverty and economic inequalities in society,
minimum provision of necessities of life. Social peace means removal of discrimination on
the basis of caste, religion and region. And political peace having democracy, everybody
sharing equal rights and oppurtunities. Violence which is due to economic, social and
political is defined as structural violence.
This is how peace is being defined in a broader because we , in society, has achieved
considerable peace.
Forms of structural violence
Traditional caste system has discriminated between higher and lower castes.
Although it has been now abolished by constitution. But still oppression and
inequalities prevail.
Patriarchy: discrimination against women is still common even though constitution
has provided right to equality for all. Discrimination in the form of lack of education,
nourishment, child marriage, wife battering etc.
Colonialism: it is the prolonged and direct subjection of people to alien rule. Coloial
rule has exploited people and oppressed them by taking away their wealth. And also,
people have been forced to perform labor. Palestinian struggle against Israeli
domination shows that colonialism has not disappeared completely.
Racism and communalism: Racism has also been an evil in society. Apartheid
existed for long in South Africa. Blacks were discriminated and were treated as
inferior in compariosn to whites. Communalism has also become a biggest evil

because people are now discriminated on the basis of religion and this is leading to
conflicts in society.
Q&A
Q1. What is peace?
A1. Absence of war is defined as peace. and now definition of peace has been broadened
to include elimination of structural violence like caste discrimination, building an equal
society and eliminating patriarchal society, eliminating communalism and racism.
Q2. What are forms of structural violence?
A2. Traditional caste system has discriminated between higher and lower castes.
Although it has been now abolished by constitution. But still oppression and
inequalities prevail.
Patriarchy: discrimination against women is still common even though constitution
has provided right to equality for all. Discrimination in the form of lack of education,
nourishment, child marriage, wife battering etc. men are considered superior to
women. They(men) are treated in a bette way than women. They(men) are given
preference in food, nourishment, education etc.
Colonialism: it is the prolonged and direct subjection of people to alien rule. Coloial
rule has exploited people and oppressed them by taking away their wealth. And also,
people have been forced to perform labor. Palestinian struggle against Israeli
domination shows that colonialism has not disappeared completely.
Racism and communalism: Racism has also been an evil in society. Apartheid
existed for long in South Africa. Blacks were discriminated and were treated as
inferior in compariosn to whites. Communalism has also become a biggest evil
because people are now discriminated on the basis of religion and this is leading to
conflicts in society.
Q3. Name two thinkers who promoted war?
A3. Nietzsche and vilfred pareto.
Q4.How can peace be promoted?
A4. By removing structural violence, we can create a democratic and just society.
Can violence promote peace?
This question might sound stange but we use violence to promote peace. for example
sentencing a culprit to death for the crime of murdering another person is a form of
violence. But this violence can be self-defeating because society learns that killing and
death is the only way to rectify or correct a crime.
Pacifists say that non violence is the best way to bring about peaceful society. They urge
to take a moral stand against the use of violence for attaining just ends. They say that
through love and truth one change the mind of oppressors.

Gandhi used civil disobedience method to have a non violence freedom movement.
Gandhi deployed satyagraha. He tried to evoke the moral conscience of british. And if
thatdidnot work then he put moral and political pressure on them by launching a mass
movement.
Q&A
Q1. What method gandhi employed to pursue freedom movement?
A1. He made use of satyagraha and launched civil disobedience movement to achieve
independence.
Q2. What is pacifists view on violence?
A2. Pacifists say that non violence is the best way to bring about peaceful society. They
urge to take a moral stand against the use of violence for attaining just ends. They say
that through love and truth one change the mind of oppressors.
Q3. What is Gandhi's view of non violence?
A3. Non violence for gandhi meant not only causing physical harm but also avoiding
mental harm or loss of livelihood to other person. He also said that one must even give
up the thought of harming the other person. He also worked towards eliminating
structural violence.
State as an instrument of peace
State is considered as an instrument of peace because it protects our life, liberty and our
rights. But a state always act in its self interest. It uses military, army, coercion and force
to protect its territory and its people. States, many times uses this instrument of coercion
to suppress their own people for example: in case of authoritarian and dictatorships.
So we require an accountable and democratic states which protects life and liberty of
people but at the same time is also accountable to other states and respect rights of other
country as well.
Q&A
Q1. How state is an instrument of violence?
A1. Although state, protects our life, liberty and our rights. But a state always act in its
self interest. It uses military, army, coercion and force to protect its territory and its
people from enemy country. States, many times uses this instrument of coercion to
suppress their own people for example: in case of authoritarian and dictatorships.
Different approaches to peace
There are three significant approaches to peace.
Centrality to states: this approach talks about giving importance to state and
respecting their sovereignty. They want balance of power so that no country
dominates the other country and there is no prevailing threat of attack also .

Second approach is nature of inter state rivalry: this approach says that increase
interdependence of countries. Lets have trade, cultural exchange and social
cooperation. This will help in promoting peace. and cooperation will be established.
Third approach considers state to be a passing phase of human history: this approach
says that with passing time, state's importance will be reduced and after some time
diminished. This is because we are living in an global and interdependent world.
There is increasing interactions among states. Multi national companies are coming
up and incresaing their presence in society. So role of state will diminish and it will
become a global world where borders will become irrelevant.
Q&A
Q1. What are three different approaches to peace?
A1. There are three significant approaches to peace.
Centrality to states: this approach talks about giving importance to state and
respecting their sovereignty. They want balance of power so that no country
dominates the other country and there is no prevailing threat of attack also .
Second approach is nature of inter state rivalry: this approach says that increase
interdependence of countries. Lets have trade, cultural exchange and social
cooperation. This will help in promoting peace. and cooperation will be established.
Third approach considers state to be a passing phase of human history: this approach
says that with passing time, state's importance will be reduced and after some time
diminished. This is because we are living in an global and interdependent world.
There is increasing interactions among states. Multi national companies are coming
up and incresaing their presence in society. So role of state will diminish and it will
become a global world where borders will become irrelevant.

Contemporary challenges
Although UN has made efforts in promoting and establishing peace, UN has also
made use of war to bring peace. war in iraq and afghanistan is a clear example.
Terrorism : spread of terrorism has become a global problem. With even a
superpower like USA not being spared from it. September 9/11 shocked the world.
Weapons of mass destruction: Nuclear weapons has really scared the global
community. As use of it will lead to masss destruction.
Environmental problems: This is also disturbing our peace as polluted environment
has led to disturbance of our health. This has also led to migrations from vulnerable
countries like maldives. Maldives is on the verge of being drowned as it is the
country which is at lowest sea level.
Q&A

Q1. What are the challenges to achieving peace?

A1.
Although UN has made efforts in promoting and establishing peace, UN has also
made use of war to bring peace. war in iraq and afghanistan is a clear example.
Terrorism : spread of terrorism has become a global problem. With even a
superpower like USA not being spared from it. September 9/11 shocked the world.
Weapons of mass destruction: Nuclear weapons has really scared the global
community. As use of it will lead to masss destruction.
Environmental problems: This is also disturbing our peace as polluted environment
has led to disturbance of our health. This has also led to migrations from vulnerable
countries like Maldives.
NON SERIOUS
chap 9
non serious
peace

introduction
Today, peace has become an important value like justice, equality and rights. although
arguments on want of peace in society is of recent evolution. Initially, thinkers have praised
conflict as the growth of civilisation. For example: nietzsche glorified war as it would lead
to growth of civilisation. Italian theorist vilfred pareto said that people who used force to
achieve their goals , constitute governing elites. They are called lions.
What is peace?
Peace is defined as absence of war. Situations where there is no conflict, violence or war is
defined as peace. this was defined as peace because society has witnessed two world wars
and a cold war. They have also witnessed nagasaki and hiroshima bombing and have
realised the importance of peace.
But now peace has assumed greater dimensions in terms of economic, political and social.
By economic peace, it means removal of poverty and economic inequalities in society,
minimum provision of necessities of life. Social peace means removal of discrimination on
the basis of caste, religion and region. And political peace having democracy, everybody
sharing equal rights and oppurtunities. Violence which is due to economic, social and
political is defined as structural violence.
This is how peace is being defined in a broader because we , in society, has achieved
considerable peace.
Forms of structural violence

a. Traditional caste system has discriminated between higher and lower castes.
Although it has been now abolished by constitution. But still oppression and
inequalities prevail.
b. Patriarchy: discrimination against women is still common even though
constitution has provided right to equality for all. Discrimination in the form of lack
of education, nourishment, child marriage, wife battering etc.
c. Colonialism: it is the prolonged and direct subjection of people to alien rule.
Coloial rule has exploited people and oppressed them by taking away their wealth.
And also, people have been forced to perform labor. Palestinian struggle against
Israeli domination shows that colonialism has not disappeared completely.
d. Racism and communalism: Racism has also been an evil in society. Apartheid
existed for long in South Africa. Blacks were discriminated and were treated as
inferior in compariosn to whites. Communalism has also become a biggest evil
because people are now discriminated on the basis of religion and this is leading to
conflicts in society.
Q&A
Q1. What is peace?
A1. Absence of war is defined as peace. and now definition of peace has been broadened
to include elimination of structural violence like caste discrimination, building an equal
society and eliminating patriarchal society, eliminating communalism and racism.
Q2. What are forms of structural violence?
e. A2. Traditional caste system has discriminated between higher and lower castes.
Although it has been now abolished by constitution. But still oppression and
inequalities prevail.
f. Patriarchy: discrimination against women is still common even though constitution
has provided right to equality for all. Discrimination in the form of lack of education,
nourishment, child marriage, wife battering etc. men are considered superior to
women. They(men) are treated in a bette way than women. They(men) are given
preference in food, nourishment, education etc.
g. Colonialism: it is the prolonged and direct subjection of people to alien rule.
Coloial rule has exploited people and oppressed them by taking away their wealth.
And also, people have been forced to perform labor. Palestinian struggle against
Israeli domination shows that colonialism has not disappeared completely.
h. Racism and communalism: Racism has also been an evil in society. Apartheid
existed for long in South Africa. Blacks were discriminated and were treated as
inferior in compariosn to whites. Communalism has also become a biggest evil
because people are now discriminated on the basis of religion and this is leading to
conflicts in society.
Different approaches to peace

There are three significant approaches to peace.

a. Centrality to states: this approach talks about giving importance to state and
respecting their sovereignty. They want balance of power so that no country
dominates the other country and there is no prevailing threat of attack also .
b. Second approach is nature of inter state rivalry: this approach says that increase
interdependence of countries. Lets have trade, cultural exchange and social
cooperation. This will help in promoting peace. and cooperation will be established.
c. Third approach considers state to be a passing phase of human history: this
approach says that with passing time, state's importance will be reduced and after
some time diminished. This is because we are living in an global and interdependent
world. There is increasing interactions among states. Multi national companies are
coming up and incresaing their presence in society. So role of state will diminish and
it will become a global world where borders will become irrelevant.
Q&A
Q1. What are three different approaches to peace?
A1. There are three significant approaches to peace.
d. Centrality to states: this approach talks about giving importance to state and
respecting their sovereignty. They want balance of power so that no country
dominates the other country and there is no prevailing threat of attack also .
e. Second approach is nature of inter state rivalry: this approach says that increase
interdependence of countries. Lets have trade, cultural exchange and social
cooperation. This will help in promoting peace. and cooperation will be established.
f. Third approach considers state to be a passing phase of human history: this
approach says that with passing time, state's importance will be reduced and after
some time diminished. This is because we are living in an global and interdependent
world. There is increasing interactions among states. Multi national companies are
coming up and incresaing their presence in society. So role of state will diminish and
it will become a global world where borders will become irrelevant.

Contemporary challenges
a. Although UN has made efforts in promoting and establishing peace, UN has also
made use of war to bring peace. war in iraq and afghanistan is a clear example.
b. Terrorism : spread of terrorism has become a global problem. With even a
superpower like USA not being spared from it. September 9/11 shocked the world.
c. Weapons of mass destruction: Nuclear weapons has really scared the global
community. As use of it will lead to masss destruction.

d. Environmental problems: This is also disturbing our peace as polluted

environment has led to disturbance of our health. This has also led to migrations
from vulnerable countries like maldives. Maldives is on the verge of being drowned
as it is the country which is at lowest sea level.
Q&A
Q1. What are the challenges to achieving peace?
A1.
a. Although UN has made efforts in promoting and establishing peace, UN has also
made use of war to bring peace. war in iraq and afghanistan is a clear example.
b. Terrorism : spread of terrorism has become a global problem. With even a
superpower like USA not being spared from it. September 9/11 shocked the world.
c. Weapons of mass destruction: Nuclear weapons has really scared the global
community. As use of it will lead to masss destruction.
d. Environmental problems: This is also disturbing our peace as polluted
environment has led to disturbance of our health. This has also led to migrations
from vulnerable countries like Maldives.

mqs
peace
1. thinker who promoted war?
a. nietzche
b. pareto.
c.both of above
d. none of the above
Ans C
2. which is the form of structural violence?
a. riots
b. war
c. conflicts
d. caste discrimination
ans D
3. which is not the form of structural violence?
a. caste discrimination

b. patriarchy
c. war
d. racism
ans C
4. which is the form of structural violence?
a. inequality
b. caste discrimination
c. patriarchy
d. all of the above
ans D
5. Thinkers who promoted war?
a. pareto
b. rawls
c. wilson
d. ruskin bond
ans A
6. which one is not the view of non violence of gandhi?
a. passive spiritualism
b. active pursuit of well being
c. mental health
d. giving up thought of harming somebody
ans A
7. pacifists view on non violnce?
a. love
b. truth
c. eliminating structural violence
d. all of the above
ans D
8. which one is the approach to peace?
a. centrality to state
b. state's role to be diminished

c. increasing interdependence
d. all of the above
ans D
9. what are the challenges to peace?
a. environmental problem
b. weapons of mass destruction
c. terrorism
d. all of the above
ans D
10. where is rwanda?
a. africa
b. asia
c. america
d. europe
ansA

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11.Oct
21

chapter 8 secularism
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secularism
chapter 8
introduction
india is a diverse country. Multiple religions and cultures coexist. This can also become a
source of conflict and tensions in the country. So India has followed secular principles so
that every religion nad community is respected and are given equal rights.

What is secularism?
Secularism is a normative doctrine which seeks to realise a secular society. It is free from
inter-religious and intra religious domination. It promotes freedom to practice their religion
and equality between religions as well as within religions.
Inter religious domination : situations where one religion dominates and suppresses other
religion. For example In 1984, there were anti sikh riots. In 2004, in Godhra riots, Gujarat,
Muslims were killed. All these examples show how one religion killed and suppressed other
religion to show their superiority and domination.
Intra religious domination: situations where a community/religion dominates its own
members. For example: dalits are at a very low hierarchy and they are treated inhumanely
and like slaves by upper castes.
So secularism promotes freedom of religion. And is free from inter religious domination and
intra religious domination.
Q&A
Q1. What is secularism?
A1. Secularism is a normative doctrine which seeks to realise a secular society. It is free
from inter-religious and intra religious domination. It promotes freedom to practice their
religion and equality between religions as well as within religions.
Q2. What is inter religious domination? Give example.
A2. Inter religious domination : situations where one religion dominates and suppresses
other religion. For example In 1984, there were anti sikh riots. In 2004, in Godhra riots,
Gujarat, Muslims were killed. All these examples show how one religion killed and
suppressed other religion to show their superiority and domination.
Q3. What is intra religious domination? Give example.
A3. Intra religious domination: situations where a community/religion dominates its own
members. For example: Dalits are at a very low hierarchy and they are treated inhumanely
and like slaves by upper castes.
Secular state
Now the question which arises is what needs to be done to prevent conflicts and tensions in
society? Education is very important for inculcating the right values in individuals. Mutual
respect and love need to be shared.
Besides education we need a secular state. state should not be run by religious heads rather
than directly elected by people. There needs to be separation between religion and political
institutions. A state governed by priestly order is called theocratic state.
A state should also not have any formal or legal alliance with any religion. For example:
although pakistan is headed by democratic rulers. But it is having an official religion namely
sunni islam.
State should be committed to principles and goals like peace, freedom from religious
oppression, discrimination and also inter religious and intra religious equality.

Q&A
Q1. Give characteristics of secular state?
A1. A. state should not be run by religious heads rather directly elected by people. A state
governed by priestly order is called theocratic state.
b. A state should also not have any formal or legal alliance with any religion. For example:
although pakistan is headed by democratic rulers. But it is having an official religion namely
sunni islam.
c. State should be committed t principles and goals like peace, freedom from religious
oppression, discrimination and also inter religious and intra religious equality.
Western model of secularism
We have read that there needs to be separation between political institutions and religion.
Now what kind of separation. Separation means complete separation where state does not
interfere in religious affairs at all.this is western secularism. Or should state interfere in
religion so as to remove evils in it. This is Indian secularism. Let me explain more on this.
Features of Western model of secularism
State will not intervene in the affairs of religion. And religion will not intervene in
the affairs of the state. Each have separate sphere of its own. No public policy will be
drafted on the basis of religion. And the state cannot aid any religious institution. It
cannot give any financial support o educational institutions run by religious
communities. State donot intervene in the affairs of religion till the time religion is
working within the limits of the law. For example: if a religion does not allow
woman to become a priest , then the state can do little about it. If the religion does
not allow some community to enter in its temple, then the state cannot do anything
about it. State does not give community based rights or minority rights. This was
because; most of the western societies was religiously homogenous except the
presence of Jews. So they focused on individual freedom and equality and inter
religious issues were neglected.
Indian model of secularism
Indian secularism is completely different from western secularism. Before we understand
this, we need to remember that India is a religiously diverse country. The differences
between indian and western secularism are
Keeping our deep rooted diversity in mind, indian secularism focused on equality. It
opposed the oppression of women and dalits within hinduism or indian islam or
christianity.
Indian secularism deals not only with religious freedom of individuals but also with
religious freedom of minority community. Within it, individual has right to profess
religion of his/her choice. Religious communities have a right to exist and establish
their own culture and educational institutions.

We are having state supported religious reform. Our constitution has banned
untouchability. It has also enacted several laws like abolishing child marriage and also
allowing inter caste marriage within Hinduism.
So the question is, since the state intervenes in religious reform so can it be called secular?
India has adopted a very sophisticated policy of religious equality. It has chosen positive
mode of engagement. It grants all religious minorities the right to establish and maintain
their own educational institutions which may receive assistance from state. These strategies
are adopted by state to promote values of peace, freedom and equality.
Indian constitution allows for principled state intervention. It means that state will intervene
when itsprinciples of freedom, equality and peace will be hindered.
Q&A
Q1. What is the difference between western model of secularism and indian model
ofsecularism?
A1. The difference between western model of secularism and indian model of secularism is
:
Western model of secularism: State will not intervene in the affairs of religion. And religion
will not intervene in the affairs of the state. Each have a separate sphere of its own. No
public policy will be drafted on the basis of religion. And the state cannot aid any religious
institution. It cannot give any financial support to educational institutions run by religious
communities. State donot intervene in the affairs of religion till the time religion is working
within the limits of the law. For example: if a religion does not allow woman to become a
priest , then the state can do little about it. If the religion does not allow some community to
enter in its temple, then the state cannot do anything about it. State does not give community
based rights or minority rights. This was because; most of the western societies was
religiously homogenous except the presence of Jews. So they focused on individual freedom
and equality and inter religious issues were neglected.
Indian model of secularism
Indian secularism is completely different from western secularism. This is because India is
a religiously diverse country. The differences between indian and western secularism are:
Keeping our deep rooted diversity in mind, indian secularism focused on equality. It
opposed the oppression of women and dalits within hinduism or indian islam or
christianity.
Indian secularism deals not only with religious freedom of individuals but also with
religious freedom of minority community. Within it, individual has right to profess
religion of his/her choice. Religious communities have a right to exist and establish
their own culture and educational institutions.
We are having state supported religious reform. Our constitution has banned
untouchability. It has also enacted several laws like abolishing child marriage and also
allowing inter caste marriage within Hinduism.

India has adopted a very sophisticated policy of religious equality. It has chosen a positive
mode of engagement. It grants all religious minorities the right to establish and maintain
their own educational institutions which may receive assistance from state. These strategies
are adopted by state to promote values of peace, freedom and equality. Indian constitution
allows for principled state intervention.
Q2. Mention any two features of India as a secular state.
Ans. 1. There is no state religion in India. No religion has been given special rights and no
religion is given any special help by the state.
2. The Constitution grants religious freedom to all the people. Every individual can pursue
religion of their choice.
Q3. Is secularism suitable for India? Explain.
Ans. Secularism is most suitable for India due to following reasons:
1. Multi-Religious State. Secularism is most suitable for India because India is a multireligious state. So, it is not desirable to accept one single religion as the state religion.
2. Impact of ancient culture. Since ancient times diverse religious movements flourished in
different parts of India. And this promoted tolerance. So the framers of the Constitution felt
that secularism was the best option to continue that spirit.
3. India is a democratic State. So it grants Freedom of religion and equality of all religions to
every individual.
4. Partition of the country. The division of the country made us learn that india needs to be
secular country if it wants peace in the country.
Q.3. Mention five forces that threaten the growth of a secular state in India.
Ans. Followings are the main forces and factors which threaten the growth of a secular state
in India:
1. Communalism. Hatred amongst communities has led to inter-community conflicts.for
example: godhra riots, anti sikh riots in 1984.
3. Casteism. Almost all the political parties in India contest elections on the basis of caste.
And even a candidate for a constituency is selected on the basis of the caste.
4. Lack of tolerance. Lack of tolerance among people has become great problem for Indian
secularism. Politicians also take advantage of this by inculcating more of intolerance and
encouraging them to remain divided and fight.
5. Social Inequalities. Serious social inequalities like poverty, unemployment has also
threaten the growth of secularism.
Q4. Short note: difference between indian secularism and western secularism
A4.
Western Secularism
non-interference of religion and
state in each other's affairs.
separation of state and religion.

Indian Secularism
State supports religious reforms.

Equality between different sects of Equality between different

a religion is emphasised.

religious groups is a key concern.

Less attention to community based focus on minority rights.

rights.
community based rights are
granted.
individual liberty at the centre.

equality at centre

secularism
non serious
introduction
india is a diverse country. Multiple religions and cultures coexist. This can also become a
source of conflict and tensions in the country. So India has followed secular principles so
that every religion nad community is respected and are given equal rights.
What is secularism?
Secularism is a normative doctrine which seeks to realise a secular society. It is free from
inter-religious and intra religious domination. It promotes freedom to practice their religion
and equality between religions as well as within religions.
Inter religious domination : situations where one religion dominates and suppresses other
religion. For example In 1984, there were anti sikh riots. In 2004, in Godhra riots, Gujarat,
Muslims were killed. All these examples show how one religion killed and suppressed other
religion to show their superiority and domination.
Intra religious domination: situations where a community/religion dominates its own
members. For example: dalits are at a very low hierarchy and they are treated inhumanely
and like slaves by upper castes.
So secularism promotes freedom of religion. And is free from inter religious domination and
intra religious domination.
Q&A
Q1. What is secularism?
A1. Secularism is a normative doctrine which seeks to realise a secular society. It is free
from inter-religious and intra religious domination. It promotes freedom to practice their
religion and equality between religions as well as within religions.
Q2. What is inter religious domination? Give example.
A2. Inter religious domination : situations where one religion dominates and suppresses
other religion. For example In 1984, there were anti sikh riots. In 2004, in Godhra riots,
Gujarat, Muslims were killed. All these examples show how one religion killed and
suppressed other religion to show their superiority and domination.
Q3. What is intra religious domination? Give example.

A3. Intra religious domination: situations where a community/religion dominates its own
members. For example: Dalits are at a very low hierarchy and they are treated inhumanely
and like slaves by upper castes.
state should not be run by religious heads rather than directly elected by people. There needs
to be separation between religion and political institutions. A state governed by priestly order
is called theocratic state.
A state should also not have any formal or legal alliance with any religion. For example:
although pakistan is headed by democratic rulers. But it is having an official religion namely
sunni islam.
State should be committed to principles and goals like peace, freedom from religious
oppression, discrimination and also inter religious and intra religious equality.
Q&A
Q1. Give characteristics of secular state?
A1. A. state should not be run by religious heads rather directly elected by people. A state
governed by priestly order is called theocratic state.
b. A state should also not have any formal or legal alliance with any religion. For example:
although pakistan is headed by democratic rulers. But it is having an official religion namely
sunni islam.
c. State should be committed t principles and goals like peace, freedom from religious
oppression, discrimination and also inter religious and intra religious equality.
Q2. give difference between wesyern secularism and indian secularism.
Western Secularism
non-interference of religion and
state in each other's affairs.
separation of state and religion.

Indian Secularism
State supports religious reforms.

Equality between different sects of Equality between different

a religion is emphasised.
religious groups is a key concern.
Less attention to community based focus on minority rights.
rights.
community based rights are
granted.
individual liberty at the centre.

equality at centre

Q3. Mention five forces that threaten the growth of a secular state in India.
A3. Followings are the main forces and factors which threaten the growth of a secular state
in India:
1. Communalism. Hatred amongst communities has led to inter-community conflicts.for
example: godhra riots, anti sikh riots in 1984.

3. Casteism. Almost all the political parties in India contest elections on the basis of caste.
And even a candidate for a constituency is selected on the basis of the caste.
4. Lack of tolerance. Lack of tolerance among people has become great problem for Indian
secularism. Politicians also take advantage of this by inculcating more of intolerance and
encouraging them to remain divided and fight.
5. Social Inequalities. Serious social inequalities like poverty, unemployment has also
threaten the growth of secularism.
MCQs
MCQs
chap 8
1. what is secularism ?
a. equality of religion
b. freedom of religion
c. all of the above
d. none of the above
ans C
2. which one is an example of intra religious domination.
a. anti sikh riots
b. godhra riots
c. ill treatment of dalits
d. none of the above
ans C
3. which one is an example of inter religious domination.
a. anti sikh riots
b. godhra riots
c. massacres of kashmiri pandits
d. all of the above
ans D
4. what is a secular state?
a. separation of religion and politics
b. promote values of religion
c. have an official state religion.
d. ignores intra religious domination

ans A
5. Secular State means :
(a) The State has a religion
(b) The State is impartial in the matters of religion
(c) The State is against religion
(d) The State is irreligious.
Ans. (b)
6. India is a:
(a) Secular State (b) Hindu State
(c) Muslim State (d) Sikh State.
Ans. (a)
7. Which amendment of the Constitution added the word 'secular' in the Preamble?
(a) 44th Amendment (b) 42nd Amendment
(c) 46th Amendment (d) 50th Amendment
Ans. (b)
8. what are the threats to our indian secularism?
a. vote bank politics
b. intolerance
c.social inequalities
d.all of the above
ans D
9. which of the following characteristic indian model of secularism does not possess?
a. complete separation of religion and politics
b. religious reform
c. community based rights
d. religious freedom of minority communities
ans A
10. which of the following characteristic indian model of secularism possess?
a. religious reform
b. community based rights
c. religious freedom of minority communities
d. all of the above
ans D
11. western model of secularism has?
a. complete separation of religion and politics

b. no support of state to religion

c. liberty of individuals
d. all of the above
ans D
12. western model of secularism does not possess?
a. complete separation of religion and politics
b. no support of state to religion
c. liberty of individuals
d. none of the above
ans D
13. western model of secularism does not possess?
a. complete separation of religion and politics
b. no support of state to religion
c. liberty of individuals
d. equality of religious communities
ans D

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chapter 7 nationalism
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chapter 7
nationalism
Introduction
this chapter will explain us the meaning of nation and nationalism. and its strengths and limitations.
Nationalism
the very important point which we come across at first place, is what is nation ? and what is
nationalism?
nation is an imagined community which is held together by common beliefs, aspirations, and
imaginations of its members. it is based on assumptions which people make on which they are
identified. these common assumptions are:
a. shared beliefs
b. history
c. territory
d. shared political ideals
e. common political identity

before we discuss, these points in little detail let us first answer the questions.
Q&A
Q1. what is a nation?
A1. nation is an imagined community which is held together by common beliefs, aspirations, and
imaginations of its members.
Q2. what are the common assumptions on which people identify themselves as a collective unity?

A2. The common assumptions on which people identify themselves as a collective unity
are:
a. shared beliefs
b. history
c. territory
d. shared political ideals
e. common political identity
Now let us discuss these points.
a. Shared Beliefs
a nation does not consist of mountains, hills, territory, infrastructure and natural resources
etc. but nation is made by its people. and a nation exists only when people believe that they

belong together. They have a belief that they are one entity and together as one team, we
have to take our country forward.
b. history
india shares history of its ancient and long civilisation. she (india) shares her legends,
historical memories, historical records . we also share our freedom movement. this sense of
hidtory binds us as one entity.
c. territory
Sharing a common past and living together on a particular territory over a long period of
time gives people a sense of collective identity. it helps them to imagine themselves as one
community. people who see themselves as nation speak of homeland, fatherland, or
holyland. for example: jewish people say palestine as their homeland.
d. shared political ideals
india shares its political ideals like democracy, liberty, secularism, socialism, and equality.
these ideals keep indian people united. people have accpeted these ideals as benefitting
every section of community and are willing to live together. we are also bound by
obligations and these obligations(duty) towards our country has kept us united.
e. common political identity
india do not share a common religious and linguistic identity. this is because india has
diverse religions. and in those religions also there are different sects. also, india wanted to
rsepect different religions so india never adopted a state religion. india is a secular country.
she(india) is not a hindu country or a muslim country or a christian country.
we are identified as one political entity because we adhere to the values enshrined in our
constitution. we have accept secularism, freedom and rights etc as the values in our
constitution.
Q&A
Q1. How does sharing beliefs constitute a nation?
A1. a nation does not consist of mountains, hills, territory, infrastructure and natural
resources etc. but nation is made by its people. and a nation exists only when people believe
that they belong together. They have a belief that they are one entity and together as one
team, we have to take our country forward.
Q2. How does sharing history constitute nation?
A2. India shares history of its ancient and long civilisation. she (india) shares her legends,
historical memories, historical records . we also share our freedom movement. this sense of
hidtory binds us as one entity.
Q3. how does sharing a territory constitute a nation?
A3. Sharing a common past and living together on a particular territory over a long period of
time gives people a sense of collective identity. it helps them to imagine themselves as one
community. people who see themselves as nation speak of homeland, fatherland, or
holyland. for example: jewish people say palestine as their homeland.
Q4. what beliefs constitute a nation? explain

A4. a. Shared Beliefs

a nation does not consist of mountains, hills, territory, infrastructure and natural resources
etc. but nation is made by its people. and a nation exists only when people believe that they
belong together. They have a belief that they are one entity and together as one team, we
have to take our country forward.
b. history
india shares istory of its ancient and long civilisation. she (india) shares her legends,
historical memories, historical records . we also share our freedom movement. this sense of
hidtory binds us as one entity.
c. territory
Sharing a common past and living together on a particular territory over a long period of
time gives people a sense of collective identity. it helps them to imagine themselves as one
community. people who see themselves as nation speak of homeland, fatherland, or
holyland. for example: jewish people say palestine as their homeland.
d. shared political ideals
india shares its political ideals like democracy, liberty, secularism, socialism, and equality.
these ideals keep indian people united. people have accpeted these ideals as benefitting
every section of community and are willing to live together. we are also bound by
obligations and these obligations(duty) towards our country has kept us united.
e. common political identity
we are identified as one political entity because we adhere to the values enshrined in our
constitution. we have accept secularism, freedom and rights etc as the values in our
constitution. india does not share a common religious and linguistic identity.
Q.5. Give the meaning of nationalism.
Ans. nationalism means devotion for the nation. It is a sentiment that binds the people
together.

National Self-Determination
self determination means right to govern oneself. nations always seek to govern themselves. This is
because they get an international recognition and acceptance that they are one nation. nations also
lay claim to self government because they can protect their culture and beliefs and their own people.
india also carried out long independence movement to claim right to self determination. self
government provides dignity and also confidence that they are not being ruled by any outside
superior power.
even today there are groups who are fighting for separate statehood and self determination. tamilians
in sri lanka, quebecois in canada etc.
but countries formed on the basis on nation have also led to increasing amount of violence, mass
migration and riots. since, a cultural group when they get right to govern themselves and establish
their statehood, people from other cultural groups or minority groups start feeling marginalised and
discriminated. so they migrate to other areas where they feel safe and their rights are protected. So, it
is a paradoxical situation when cultural groups claim right to self determination but at the same time

other cultural or minority groups feel discriminated which leads to violence and backlash. if you
remember, in chapter of citizenship we have talked about global citizenship where human rights of
every individual is to be respected. global citizenship can solve the national self-determination
paradox.
Also, other suggestion is that we need to make nations more democratic and inclusive. we need to
accept the fact that it is a globalisation world and people are on the move for jobs, travel, marriage
and for residence. So, we cannot follow restrictive definition of nation. nations need to be more
democratic and inclusive now. they need to give constitutional protection to minority groups. right to
representation in legislative bodies can also be provided.
Q&A

Q1. Write two merits of nationalism.

Ans. 1. Nationalism inculcates patriotic spirit. A man is prepared to make any sacrifice for
the glory and safety of his/her country.
2. Nationalism is a unifying factor. it creates religious and cultural unity.
Q2. Write two demerits of nationalism.
Ans. 1. Nationalism is a threat to world peace. Nationalism many a times becomes the cause
of many wars. people belonging to minority or other nation feels marginalised which
becomes a cause of conflict and violence.
2. A nation upholding the values of nationalism regards its nations as superior to others and
thereby creates hatred for other nations. for example: hitler regarded jewish race as inferior
to aryan race. and hence he carried out mass massacres of jewish in order to exterminate
them.
Q3. What is right to self determination?
A3. right to self determination means right to govern oneself.
Q4. what are the merits of self determination?
A4. a. they have the right to govern themselves
b. they can determine their own future developments.
c. they get recognition as a distinct political entity.
d. they can protect their own cultural group.
e. political independence provide dignity and freedom from colonial domination. as in case
of asian and african freedom struggles.

Q5. What are the demerits of national self determination?

A5. a. many times, minorities are not considered as equal citizens.
b. impossible to grant self determination to every group.
c. it will lead to formation of many small states will be created.

Q6. How can minorities problem be solved in a nation?

a6. nations need to be made more democratic and inclusive. we need to accept the fact that
it is a globalisation world and people are on the move for jobs, travel, marriage and for
residence. So, we cannot follow restrictive definition of nation. they need to give
constitutional protection to minority groups. right to representation in legislative bodies can
also be provided. also we can recognise a nation on the basis of political identity rather than
reinforcing cultural, language or religious identity.
Q7. Distinguish between state and nation.
Ans. Following are the difference between state and nation:
1. State has four essential elements, but elements of nation are not fixed.
2. The elements of a nation may change and they go on changing, but the elements of state
are permanent and remain same.
3. Idea of oneness is essential for the nation but not for the state.
4. Definite territory is essential for the state but not for the Nation.
5. Sovereignty is essential for the state and not for the Nation.

Tagore on nationalism
Tagore was against the concept of nationalism. he believed in internationalism rather than
nationalism . he believed that humanity cannot be divided on the basis of nations or borders.
equal rights and dignity need to be provided to everyone irrespective of the fact whether
he/she is an indian, american or arabi.
Q&A
Q1. what was tagore's critique of nationalism?
A1. tagore believed in internationalism rather than nationalism . he believed that humanity
cannot be divided on the basis of nations or borders. equal rights and dignity need to be
provided to everyone irrespective of his/her nationality.

NON SERIOUS
non serious
chap 7
Nationalism
the very important point which we come across at first place, is what is nation ? and what is
nationalism?
nation is an imagined community which is held together by common beliefs, aspirations, and
imaginations of its members. it is based on assumptions which people make on which they
are identified. these common assumptions are:

a. shared beliefs
b. history
c. territory
d. shared political ideals
e. common political identity
Q&A
Q1. what is a nation?
A1. nation is an imagined community which is held together by common beliefs, aspirations,
and imaginations of its members.
Q2. what are the common assumptions on which people identify themselves as a collective
unity?
A2. The common assumptions on which people identify themselves as a collective unity
are:
a. shared beliefs
b. history
c. territory
d. shared political ideals
e. common political identity
a. Shared Beliefs
a nation does not consist of mountains, hills, territory, infrastructure and natural resources
etc. but nation is made by its people. and a nation exists only when people believe that they
belong together. They have a belief that they are one entity and together as one team, we
have to take our country forward.
b. history
india shares history of its ancient and long civilisation. she (india) shares her legends,
historical memories, historical records . we also share our freedom movement. this sense of
hidtory binds us as one entity.
c. territory
Sharing a common past and living together on a particular territory over a long period of
time gives people a sense of collective identity. it helps them to imagine themselves as one
community. people who see themselves as nation speak of homeland, fatherland, or
holyland. for example: jewish people say palestine as their homeland.
d. shared political ideals
india shares its political ideals like democracy, liberty, secularism, socialism, and equality.
these ideals keep indian people united. people have accpeted these ideals as benefitting

every section of community and are willing to live together. we are also bound by
obligations and these obligations(duty) towards our country has kept us united.
e. common political identity
india do not share a common religious and linguistic identity. this is because india has
diverse religions. and in those religions also there are different sects. also, india wanted to
rsepect different religions so india never adopted a state religion. india is a secular country.
she(india) is not a hindu country or a muslim country or a christian country.
we are identified as one political entity because we adhere to the values enshrined in our
constitution. we have accept secularism, freedom and rights etc as the values in our
constitution.
National Self-Determination
self determination means right to govern oneself. nations always seek to govern themselves.
india also carried out long independence movement to claim right to self determination. self
government provides dignity and also confidence that they are not being ruled by any
outside superior power.
even today there are groups who are fighting for separate statehood and self determination.
tamilians in sri lanka, quebecois in canada etc.
but countries formed on the basis on nation have also led to increasing amount of violence,
mass migration and riots. since, a cultural group when they get right to govern themselves
and establish their statehood, people from other cultural groups or minority groups start
feeling marginalised and discriminated. so they migrate to other areas where they feel safe
and their rights are protected.
to improve on this problem, there is a need to make nations more democratic and inclusive.
we need to accept the fact that it is a globalisation world and people are on the move for
jobs, travel, marriage and for residence. So, we cannot follow restrictive definition of nation.
nations need to be more democratic and inclusive now. they need to give constitutional
protection to minority groups. right to representation in legislative bodies can also be
provided.
Q&A
Q1. What is right to self determination?
A1. right to self determination means right to govern oneself.
Q2. what are the merits of self determination?
A2. a. they have the right to govern themselves
b. they can determine their own future developments.
c. they get recognition as a distinct political entity.
d. they can protect their own cultural group.
e. political independence provide dignity and freedom from colonial domination. as in case
of asian and african freedom struggles.

Q3. What are the demerits of national self determination?

A3. a. many times, minorities are not considered as equal citizens.
b. impossible to grant self determination to every group.
c. it will lead to formation of many small states will be created.

Q4. How can minorities problem be solved in a nation?

a4. nations need to be made more democratic and inclusive. we need to accept the fact that
it is a globalisation world and people are on the move for jobs, travel, marriage and for
residence. So, we cannot follow restrictive definition of nation. they need to give
constitutional protection to minority groups. right to representation in legislative bodies can
also be provided. also we can recognise a nation on the basis of political identity rather than
reinforcing cultural, language or religious identity.

mcqs chap 7
1. What is a nation?
a. government
b. sovereignty
c. imagined community
d. population
ans C
2. Why is nation called imagined community?
a. it occurs only in imagination.
b. it is false imagination.
c. it is a community which does not exist
d. it is based aspirations and imaginations of its members like beliefs, political identity etc.
ans D
3. what does nation include?
a. shared beliefs
b. history
c. territory
d. all of the above
ans D

4. what does nation include?

A. Shared political ideals
b. common political identity
c. territory
d. all of the above
ans D
5. What does nation does not include?
a. government
b. political ideals
c. territory
d. history
ans A
6. which political ideals india shares?
a. sovereignty
b. state religion
c. freedom
d. rights
ans B
7. Which of the following is not a difference between State and Nation?
a State has four essential elements but nation has none.
b Idea of oneness is essential for the nation but not for the State.
c Sovereignty is essential for a state and not for a nation.
d Sovereignty is essential for a nation and not for a state.
ans D
8. Which of the following elements is responsible for the promotion of nationalism?
a Common Motherland
b Common Language
c Common Race
d All the above.
Ans. (d)
9. The word nation is derived from which language?

(a) Greek (b) French (c) Latin (d) Russian.

Ans. (c)
10. right to self determination means:
a. self government
b. to determine somebody's future
c. right in indian constitution
d. to determine an individual's destiny
ans A
11. why do we need to make nations more democratic and inclusive?
a. we love democracy
b. democracy will give equal rights to all citizens whether majority or minority
c. it will lead to financial inclusion
d. it will lead to global citizenship
ans B
12. how can we protect minority in a nation?
a. constitutional protection
b. democracy
c. right to representation in legislative bodies
d. all of the above
ans D
13. tagore believed in?
a. nationalism
b. internationalism
c. regionalism
d. localism
ans B
14. which famous indian thinker provided critique of nationalism?
a. tagore
b. gandhi
c. ambedkar
d. nehru

ans A

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chapter 6 citizenship
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CHAP 6
citizenship

Introduction
we require certain rights so that we are able to live our life with dignity nad can
progress and develop in our area of interests. we also require protection so that
we are able to have our right to life and property. that is why we require state
so that we can be protected from threats.( now duties of state has been
extended to providing minimum quality of life.) so we require state. every
individual is identified by their nationality and loyalty to their state. In this
chapter, we will read who is a citizen? and what are the rights of the
citizens?
What is citizenship?
It is defined as full and equal membership of a political community. full
membership of a political community means that he/she enjoys all civil as well
as political rights under the protection of the state in return of his/her loyalty to

the state. loyalty to the state means that he/she agrees to abide by the rules and
regulations of the society, not be disturbance to the society and follow his/her
duties completely alongwith rights. you can understand full membership by
taking an example of refugees. they do not have full membership of their
country and hence they donot enjoy any rights and live like strangers in other
country.
and equal membership means that all citizens have got equal rights. nobody is
discriminated on the basis of caste, religion, region and gender.
When we talk about citizenship, we talk about rights and alongwith this duties.
but we have won this after many struggles for example: freedom struggle by
indians. in south africa, blacks fought for equal rights.
Citizenship is not only about state and citizens relations but also about citizencitizen relations, and duties of citizens to state.
Q&A
Q1. Describe the meaning and definition of citizenship.
a1. It is defined as full and equal membership of a political community.
q2. what is meant by full membership of community?
A2. full membership of a political community means that he/she enjoys all
civil as well as political rights under the protection of the state in return of
his/her loyalty to the state.
Q3. what is meant by equal membership of citizenship?
A3. equal membership means that all citizens have got equal rights. nobody is
discriminated on the basis of caste, religion, region and gender.
EQUAL RIGHTS
All citizens should be provided with equal rights. but not everyone in india gets
to enjoy equal rights. For example: slum dwellers. slum dwellers comefrom
poorer parts of the country like Bihar and UP and settle in towns to earn a
living for them. so they migrate from their villages and land up in metropolitan
areas like Delhi and Mumbai. These poor migrants donot get basic housing and
they live in slums areas in one small room with no clean drinking water,
sanitation, proper nourishment, and housing. but these migrants also play a
very important role by providing us cleaning services at our home, cleaning our
cars etc. so even if these poor people are indians, they donot enjoy the basic
minimum necessities of life.
Another example is of tribal people. Their forests are being cut by rich people
for their own commercial interests. They build hotels, playgrounds and their

own beautiful locales but destroy the tribal people's area of living.they have
been rendered homeless and been rooted out from their traditional place.
Same is the case with women. women although they have equal rights but still
they are being discriminated. they are attacked at night and many crimes are
committed against them.
Q&A
Q1. Do tribals share the same equal rights?
A1. Tribal people donot share equal rights.Their forests are being cut by rich
people for their own commercial interests. They build hotels, playgrounds and
their own beautiful locales. and destroy the tribal people's area of living. They
have been rendered homeless and been rooted out from their traditional place.
Q2. Do slumdwellers share the equal rights?
A2. Slumdwellers donot share the equal rights. they come from poorer parts of
the country like Bihar and UP and settle in towns to earn a living for them. so
they migrate from their villages and land up in metropolitan areas like Delhi
and Mumbai. These poor migrants donot get basic housing and they live in
slums areas in one small room with no clean drinking water, sanitation, proper
nourishment, and housing. but these migrants also play a very important role
by providing us cleaning services at our home, cleaning our cars etc. so even if
these poor people are indians, they donot enjoy the basic minimum necessities
of life.
Q3. do all people enjoy equal rights?
A3. No. poor people, slum dwellers, tribals do not enjoy equal rights. as they
donot have access to basic necessities.
Citizen and Nation
Nation is different from a country. a country is defined by territory and
government with population in it. Whereas nation is defined in terms of culture
and history. a nation state provides an identity to an individual on the basis of
which they are recognised different than other countries. for example: indian,
chinese, Portuguese, American.
The State, then, provides rights to these individuals so that they can enjoy
themselves. differnt states provide different rights.
indian constitution has included citizenship in part 2. citizenship can be
acquired by birth, descent, registration, naturalisation and inclusion of territory.
if an individual is born in a country, he/she automatically becomes citizen of
that country.

Descent means that if his/her parents are born in that country, he/she
automatically becomes citizen of that country.
Registration means by registering or applying for citizenship of another
country.
Naturalisation means that person lives in the country for a minimum period of
time and then naturally he/she acquires the citizenship of that country.
inclusion of territory: if a country acquires a territory of a country, then the
defeated country acquires the citizenship of a victorious country.
Q&A
q1. how is citizenship acquired?
A1. citizenship can be acquired by birth, descent, registration, naturalisation
and inclusion of territory.
Q.2. What do you mean by Naturalised citizenship?
Ans. Naturalised citizenship is a process of acquring foreign citizenship. It is a
process by which foreigners acquire citizenship of any other state in which they
wish to settle permanently. Naturalised citizenship is acquired after birth.
Universal citizenship
we have just read that national citizenship cannot be enjoyed by people fully
because there are social and economic inequalities. no people cant enjoy their
rights fully. but when we look at the world, then we see that war, famine and
devastation have made people stateless. they do not have citizenship of state
that can provide them protection and rights. they are dependent on the other
country to provide protection and minimum basic needs to them. india is
surrounded by many countries on its borders and almost all neighboring
countries are affected by violence and disturbance. so people leave their
country and come in india. but there's a limit to which any country can absorb
refugees and the country has to look after its own people first.
This is a globalised and interdependent world. Technology like internet, mobile have made
communications faster and easier. there are global problems like war, devastation, weapons,
famine which needs to be dealt globally.
so now we need global citizenship and human rights so that everybody's rights can be
protected. and they can become part of the world rather than feeling alien and worthless
because they donot have protection of state.
Q&A
Q1. What is global citizenship?
A1. global citizenship means granting human rights to every individual.

Q2. what is the need for global citizenship?

A2. We require global citizenship because:
a. we are living in an interdependent so our problems are common.
b. world is affected by globl problems like war, hunger, devastation and weapons and
environmental problems.
c. we need an inclusive idea of citizenship so that everybody is respected only because they
are humans.
d. boundaries have been redefined by advancement in technology and communications.
TH Marshall on citizenship
TH marshall in his book "citizenship and social class" defined citizenship as one who
possesses full and equal membership of community. he gave three kinds of rights:
a. civil rights: protection of life , liberty and property
b. political rights: right to vote
c. social rights: right to education, employment.
Q&A
Q1.. Who was T.H. Marshall?
Ans. T.H. Marshall was a British Sociologist.
Q1. Which rights are considered most important by T.H. Marshall in his idea of citizenship?
Ans. 1. Civil Rights 2. Political Rights 3. Social Rights.

NON SERIOUS
chap6
non serious

Introduction
we require certain rights so that we are able to live our life with dignity nad can
progress and develop in our area of interests. we also require protection so that
we are able to have our right to life and property. that is why we require state
so that we can be protected from threats.( now duties of state has been
extended to providing minimum quality of life.) so we require state. every
individual is identified by their nationality and loyalty to their state. In this
chapter, we will read who is a citizen? and what are the rights of the
citizens?
What is citizenship?

It is defined as full and equal membership of a political community. full membership of a

political community.
Q&A
Q1. Describe the meaning and definition of citizenship.
a1. It is defined as full and equal membership of a political community.
q2. what is meant by full membership of community?
A2. full membership of a political community means that he/she enjoys all civil as well as
political rights under the protection of the state in return of his/her loyalty to the state.
Q3. what is meant by equal membership of citizenship?
A3. equal membership means that all citizens have got equal rights. nobody is discriminated
on the basis of caste, religion, region and gender.
Q4. do all people enjoy equal rights?
A4. No. poor people, slum dwellers, tribals do not enjoy equal rights. as they donot have
access to basic necessities.
Universal citizenship
we have just read that national citizenship cannot be enjoyed by people fully because there
are social and economic inequalities. no people cant enjoy their rights fully. but when we
look at the world, then we see that war, famine and devastation have made people stateless.
they do not have citizenship of state that can provide them protection and rights. they are
dependent on the other country to provide protection and minimum basic needs to them.
india is surrounded by many countries on its borders and almost all neighboring countries
are affected by violence and disturbance. so people leave their country and come in india.
but there's a limit to which any country can absorb refugees and the country has to look after
its own people first.
This is a globalised and interdependent world. Technology like internet, mobile have made
communications faster and easier. there are global problems like war, devastation, weapons,
famine which needs to be dealt globally.
so now we need global citizenship and human rights so that everybody's rights can be
protected. and they can become part of the world rather than feeling alien and worthless
because they donot have protection of state.
Q&A
Q1. What is global citizenship?
A1. global citizenship means granting human rights to every individual.
Q2. what is the need for global citizenship?
A2. We require global citizenship because:
a. we are living in an interdependent so our problems are common.
b. world is affected by globl problems like war, hunger, devastation and weapons and
environmental problems.

c. we need an inclusive idea of citizenship so that everybody is respected only because they
are humans.
d. boundaries have been redefined by advancement in technology and communications.

chap 6
mcqs : citizenship

1. Who said, "He who has the power to take part in delilberative or
judicial administration of any state is said by us to be a citizen of that
state?"
(a) Aristotle
(b) Plato
(c) Gettell
(d) Boyd.
Ans. (a)
2. french revolution occured in?
a. 1769
b. 1789
c. 1799
d. 1800
ans B
3. what is citizenship?
a. full membership
b. equal membership
c. both of the above
d. non of the above
ans C
4. apartheid was practiced in ?
a. germany
b. india
c. nigeria

d. south africa
ans D
5. Right to minimum wage is:
a. social right
b. political right
c. economic right
d. natural right
ans C
6. Right to vote is ?
a. social right
b. political right
c. economic right
d. natural right
ans b
7. freedom to speech and expression
a. social right
b. political right
c. economic right
d. civil right
ans D
8. which group of sections do not have equal rights of citizens?
a. tribal
b. slum dwellers
c. women
d. all of the above
ans D
9. National policy on urban dwellers was set up in?
a. 2003
b. 2004
c. 2005

d.2006
ans B
10. in which part of the constitution is citizenship found?
a. 1
b. 2
c. 3
d. 4
ans B
11. citizenship can be acquired by:
a. inclusion of territory
b. living
c. travelling
d. studying
ans A
12. citizenship can be acquired by:
a. inclusion of territory
b. birth
c. descent
d. all of the above
ans D
13. we require global citizenship for:
a. global problems
b. boundaries changing
c. interdependency
d. all of the above
ans D
14. Marshall's book?
a. citizenship and social class
b. citizenship
c. equality

d. social class
ans A
15. Marshall's rights are:
a. civil
b. political
c. social
D. all of the above
ans D
16. Marshall's idea of citizenship is based on :
a. liberty
b. equality
c. fraternity
d. sanctity
ans B
17. TH Marshall belonged to which country?
a. USA
b. Britain
c. germany
d. turkey
ans B

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21

chapter 5 rights
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chap 5
rights
Introduction
rights are very important for the well being of an individual. By having rights, individuals can enjoy
their life and have freedom to do what he/she wants to do. but the question arises is what kind of
rights should be given to an individual? should there be any restrictions on the rights? and why are
rights so important for an individual. all these questions will be addressed in this chapter on rights.
what are rights?
rights are entitlements that we as citizens, individuals and human beings can enjoy. they are
recognied by society as legitimate claim. they are necessary for leading a life of respect and dignity.
for example: right to livelihoodis considered necessary for leading a life of respect and dignity.
otherwise, we have to beg for buying basic necessities and this hurts the dignity of an individual.
rights are also claimed because they are necessary for our well being. they help individuals to
develop their skills and talents. for example: right to education. an educated person can develop his
skills and progress in life.
Q&A
Q1. what are rights?
A1. rights are entitlements that we as citizens, individuals and human beings can enjoy. they are
recognied by society as legitimate claim.
Q2. why are rights necessary?

A2.a. rights are necessary for leading a life of respect and dignity. for example: right to
livelihoodis considered necessary for leading a life of respect and dignity. otherwise, we
have to beg for buying basic necessities and this hurts the dignity of an individual.

b. rights are also claimed because they are necessary for our well being. they help
individuals to develop their skills and talents. for example: right to education. an educated
person can develop his skills and progress in life.
Q3. how does rights leads to a dignified life?
A3. rights are necessary for leading a life of respect and dignity. for example: right to
livelihoodis considered necessary for leading a life of respect and dignity. otherwise, we
have to beg for buying basic necessities and this hurts the dignity of an individual.
where do rights come from?
in 17th and 18th century, thinkers have said that rights are derived from god or given us by
nature. the rights are derived from natural. it means that rights are not given by any ruler or a
society rather we are born with them. so these rights cannot be taken away. and three natural
rights are: life, liberty and property. all other rights are said to be derived from these basic
rights. this natural rights theory resists /opposes the arbitrary power of state and safeguards
our individual freedom.
but now term human rights are being used rather than natural rights. this is because the idea
that rights are derived from god or from nature is unacceptable today. rights are seen
increasingly as guarantees that human beings themselves seek to lead a minimally good life.
human rights are given because we deserve rights as we all are humans.it means all persons
are equal and no one is born to serve others. this concept is used increasingly to challenge
inequalities based on race, caste, religion or and gender.
concept of human rights have been used to challenge the inequalities in society. for example:
slavery has been abolished. human rights have been expanded as we now include right to
protect our environment.
Q&A
Q1. where have rights come from ?
A1.In 17th and 18th century, thinkers have said that rights are derived from god or given us
by nature. the rights are derived from natural. it means that rights are not given by any ruler
or a society rather we are born with them. so these rights cannot be taken away. and three
natural rights are: life, liberty and property. all other rights are said to be derived from these
basic rights. this natural rights theory resists /opposes the arbitrary power of state and
safeguards our individual freedom.
but now term human rights are being used rather than natural rights. this is because the idea
that rights are derived from god or from nature is unacceptable today. rights are seen
increasingly as guarantees that human beings themselves seek to lead a minimally good life.
Q2. what are human rights?
A2. human rights are given because we deserve rights as we all are humans.it means all
persons are equal and no one is born to serve others. this concept is used increasingly to
challenge inequalities based on race, caste, religion or and gender.
legal rights and state
Rights become more effective when they are given recognition by state. many countries
have Bill of Rights in their constitution. our constitution also has fundamental rights.

through rights people demand from state. rights places an obligation upon state to act in a
certain way. it also indicates what the state might refrain from doing. for example: state
cannot a person arbitrarily without knowing the cause. so rights ensures that authority of
state is exercised without violating sanctity of an individual life and liberty.
kinds of rights
a. political rights: it gives right to equality and right to participate in political process. t
includes right to vote and elect representatives, right to contest elections, right to form
political parties.
politicalo rights are supplemented by civil liberties. civil liberties like right to a free and fair
trial, rightto express one's view freely, and right to protest and dissent.
civil liberties and political rights form the basis of democratic system.
b. economic rights: political rights can only be exercised when our basic needs like food,
clothing, shelter, adequate wages are recognised.
c. cultural rights: nowadays, groups are even asking for cultural rights. for example: right
to be educated in their mother tongue, right to establish educational institutions for teaching
one's language. and this is necessary for leading a good life.
Q&A
Q1. what are kinds of rights?
A1. a. political rights: it gives right to equality and right to participate in political process.
it includes right to vote and elect representatives, right to contest elections, right to form
political parties.
politicalo rights are supplemented by civil liberties. civil liberties like right to a free and fair
trial, rightto express one's view freely, and right to protest and dissent.
civil liberties and political rights form the basis of democratic system.
b. economic rights: political rights can only be exercised when our basic needs like food,
clothing, shelter, adequate wages are recognised.
c. cultural rights: nowadays, groups are even asking for cultural rights. for example: right
to be educated in their mother tongue, right to establish educational institutions for teaching
one's language. and this is necessary for leading a good life.
Q2. what are political rights?
A2. it gives right to equality and right to participate in political process. t includes right to
vote and elect representatives, right to contest elections, right to form political parties.
politicalo rights are supplemented by civil liberties. civil liberties like right to a free and fair
trial, rightto express one's view freely, and right to protest and dissent.
civil liberties and political rights form the basis of democratic system.
Rights and Responsibilities
a. rights are not simply claims. they are not mainly insructions given to state to act in a
particular way. but it also calls for obligations or responsibilities to act in a certain way. it

compel us to think not only of self interest but also defending things as being good for all of
us. protecting ozone layer, minimising air and water pollution are common good.
b. it also requires that an individual must respect the rights of other. remember harm
principle of JSMill
c. we must balance our rights when they come into conflict. for example: my freedom of
speech nadexpression says that i have right to take picture but i cannottake pictures of a
person bathing otherwise it will violate his/her rights.
d. we must be careful of the limitations placed on our rights. restrictions should not be too a
great extent that it harms the life and liberty of a person. for example: in a dictatorship
country, ruler places large restrictions on rights. citizens should keep constant check on
rights.
Q&A
Q1. why rights are complemented with responsibilities?
A1. a. rights are not simply claims. they are not mainly insructions given to state to act in a
particular way. but it also calls for obligations or responsibilities to act in a certain way. it
compel us to think not only of self interest but also defending things as being good for all of
us. protecting ozone layer, minimising air and water pollution are common good.
b. it also requires that an individual must respect the rights of other. remeber harm principle
of JSMill
c. we must balance our rights when they come into conflict. for example: my freedom of
speech nadexpression says that i have right to take picture but i cannottake pictures of a
person bathing otherwise it will violate his/her rights.
d. we must be careful of the limitations placed on our rights. restrictions should not be too a
great extent that it harms the life and liberty of a person.

NON SERIOUS
non serious
rights
Introduction
rights are very important for the well being of an individual. By having rights, individuals
can enjoy their life and have freedom to do what he/she wants to do. but the question arises
is what kind of rights should be given to an individual? should there be any restrictions on
the rights? and why are rights so important for an individual. all these questions will be
addressed in this chapter on rights.
what are rights?
rights are entitlements that we as citizens, individuals and human beings can enjoy. they are
recognied by society as legitimate claim. they are necessary for leading a life of respect and
dignity. for example: right to livelihoodis considered necessary for leading a life of respect
and dignity. otherwise, we have to beg for buying basic necessities and this hurts the dignity
of an individual.

rights are also claimed because they are necessary for our well being. they help individuals
to develop their skills and talents. for example: right to education. an educated person can
develop his skills and progress in life.
Q&A
Q1. what are rights?
A1. rights are entitlements that we as citizens, individuals and human beings can enjoy. they
are recognied by society as legitimate claim.
Q2. why are rights necessary?
A2.a. rights are necessary for leading a life of respect and dignity. for example: right to
livelihoodis considered necessary for leading a life of respect and dignity. otherwise, we
have to beg for buying basic necessities and this hurts the dignity of an individual.
b. rights are also claimed because they are necessary for our well being. they help
individuals to develop their skills and talents. for example: right to education. an educated
person can develop his skills and progress in life.
Q3. how does rights leads to a dignified life?
A3. rights are necessary for leading a life of respect and dignity. for example: right to
livelihoodis considered necessary for leading a life of respect and dignity. otherwise, we
have to beg for buying basic necessities and this hurts the dignity of an individual.
HUMAN RIGHTS
these rights are seen increasingly as guarantees that human beings themselves seek to lead a
minimally good life. human rights are given because we deserve rights as we all
are humans.it means all persons are equal and no one is born to serve others. this concept is
used increasingly to challenge inequalities based on race, caste, religion or and gender.
concept of human rights have been used to challenge the inequalities in society. for example:
slavery has been abolished. human rights have been expanded as we now include right to
protect our environment.
Q2. what are human rights?
A2. human rights are given because we deserve rights as we all are humans.it means all
persons are equal and no one is born to serve others. this concept is used increasingly to
challenge inequalities based on race, caste, religion or and gender.
legal rights and state
Rights become more effective when they are given recognition by state. many countries
have Bill of Rights in their constitution. our constitution also has fundamental rights.
through rights people demand from state. rights places an obligation upon state to act in a
certain way. it also indicates what the state might refrain from doing. for example: state
cannot a person arbitrarily without knowing the cause. so rights ensures that authority of
state is exercised without violating sanctity of an individual life and liberty.
kinds of rights

a. political rights: it gives right to equality and right to participate in political process. t
includes right to vote and elect representatives, right to contest elections, right to form
political parties.
politicalo rights are supplemented by civil liberties. civil liberties like right to a free and fair
trial, rightto express one's view freely, and right to protest and dissent.
civil liberties and political rights form the basis of democratic system.
b. economic rights: political rights can only be exercised when our basic needs like food,
clothing, shelter, adequate wages are recognised.
c. cultural rights: nowadays, groups are even asking for cultural rights. for example: right
to be educated in their mother tongue, right to establish educational institutions for teaching
one's language. and this is necessary for leading a good life.
Q&A
Q1. what are kinds of rights?
A1. a. political rights: it gives right to equality and right to participate in political process.
it includes right to vote and elect representatives, right to contest elections, right to form
political parties.
politicalo rights are supplemented by civil liberties. civil liberties like right to a free and fair
trial, rightto express one's view freely, and right to protest and dissent.
civil liberties and political rights form the basis of democratic system.
b. economic rights: political rights can only be exercised when our basic needs like food,
clothing, shelter, adequate wages are recognised.
c. cultural rights: nowadays, groups are even asking for cultural rights. for example: right
to be educated in their mother tongue, right to establish educational institutions for teaching
one's language. and this is necessary for leading a good life.
Q2. what are political rights?
A2. it gives right to equality and right to participate in political process. t includes right to
vote and elect representatives, right to contest elections, right to form political parties.
politicalo rights are supplemented by civil liberties. civil liberties like right to a free and fair
trial, rightto express one's view freely, and right to protest and dissent.
civil liberties and political rights form the basis of democratic system.
Rights and Responsibilities
a. rights are not simply claims. they are not mainly insructions given to state to act in a
particular way. but it also calls for obligations or responsibilities to act in a certain way. it
compel us to think not only of self interest but also defending things as being good for all of
us. protecting ozone layer, minimising air and water pollution are common good.
b. it also requires that an individual must respect the rights of other. remember harm
principle of JSMill

c. we must balance our rights when they come into conflict. for example: my freedom of
speech nadexpression says that i have right to take picture but i cannottake pictures of a
person bathing otherwise it will violate his/her rights.
d. we must be careful of the limitations placed on our rights. restrictions should not be too a
great extent that it harms the life and liberty of a person. for example: in a dictatorship
country, ruler places large restrictions on rights. citizens should keep constant check on
rights.
Q&A
Q1. why rights are complemented with responsibilities?
A1. a. rights are not simply claims. they are not mainly insructions given to state to act in a
particular way. but it also calls for obligations or responsibilities to act in a certain way. it
compel us to think not only of self interest but also defending things as being good for all of
us. protecting ozone layer, minimising air and water pollution are common good.
b. it also requires that an individual must respect the rights of other. remeber harm principle
of JSMill
c. we must balance our rights when they come into conflict. for example: my freedom of
speech nadexpression says that i have right to take picture but i cannottake pictures of a
person bathing otherwise it will violate his/her rights.
d. we must be careful of the limitations placed on our rights. restrictions should not be too a
great extent that it harms the life and liberty of a person.

mcqs
MCQs
chap5
1. what are rights?
a. entitlements
b. claims
c. both of the above
d. none of the above
ans C
2. why rights are necessary?
a. dignity
b. freedom

c.developing talents
d. all of the above
3. where do rights come from?
a. natural rights
b. human rights
c. both of the above
d. none of the above
ans C
4. natural rights are:
a. rights derived from nature
b. rights beacuuse we are humans
c . rights given by state
d. none of the above
ans A
5. What are human rights?
a. rights derived from nature
b. rights because we are humans
c . rights given by state
d. none of the above
ans B
6. what are natural rights?
a. life liberty property
b. life liberty
c. life property
d. liberty and property
ans A
7. Which thinker talked about human dignity
a. rawls
b. kant
c. neitzche
d. plato

ans B
8. rights and reponsibilities go hand in hand because:
a. respect other people's rights
b. citizens to b evigilant on restrictions on rights
c. common good important
d. all of the above
ans D
9. When was human rights adopted by general assembly?
a. 1947
b. 1948
c. 1949
d. 1950
ans B
10. which organisation adopted universal declaration of human rights?
a. security council
b. general assembly
c. trusteeship council
d. international court of justice
ans A

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chapter 4 social justice

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chap 4
social justice
Introduction
Our society requires justice so that we are able to have order and the well being of all the
people. now the question is what kind of justice. rich people will argue that they want a
completely liberal society where market will rule and state will function merely to maintain
law and order. this is justice for them. whereas socialists will say that justice is where state
will occupy all resources and there is equal distribution of resources. so what is justice?
important thinkers have given their own view point on justice.
what is justice?
justice involves the well being of all people. immanuel kant has argued that human beings
possesses dignity. and if all persons are granted dignity , then they will have equal
opportunity to develop their talents and pursue their chosen goals. justice means that we give
equal consideration to all individuals.
Q&A
Q1. What is justice?
A1. . justice means giving equal consideration to all individuals.
Q2. What does immanuel kant says about justice?
A2. immanuel kant has argued that human beings possesses dignity. and if all persons are
granted dignity , then they will have equal opportunity to develop their talents and pursue
their chosen goals.
Equal treatment for equals
Equality does not mean that everybody should be treated equally. it means that equal
treatment should be provided to equals only. This means that there can be equality of
oppurtunity only when people are educated. that means equality of oppurtunity should be for
equally educated. For example: everybody has equal access to law. but the irony is that only
rich and educated people can access it. so, for poor people equal access to law does not
mean anything. so make them equal PIL has been introduced. PIL is a process where
anybody/group can file a petition in court on behalf of any aggrieved group. so now poor
people have been brought at an equal platform.
so while talking about equal treatment we need to see whether they can be equally treated.
for example: if a boss says that a male colleague in their office stays late at night. the boss
cannot say the same thing to female colleague to stay late in office. because the female has
security problem at night. a boss can only tell male colleague to stay late till night. so only
equals can be treated equally.
Q&A
Q1. Does equality mean that everybody should be treated equally?
A1. No
Q2. What is the meaning of equal treatment for equals?
A2. It means that equal treatment should be provided to equals only. This means that there
can be equality of opportunity only when people are educated. So, while talking about equal
treatment we need to see whether they can be equally treated. For example: if a boss says
that a male colleague in their office stays late at night. The boss cannot say the same thing to

female colleague to stay late in office. Because the female has security problem at night. a
boss can only tell male colleague to stay late till night. So only equals can be treated
equally.

proportionate justice.
this is the second principle of justice. although equality is an important principle but we
cannot have equal treatment for all. how will you feel if you have worked so hard fo your
exams and you get the same marks as your friend who has slept and played during exams.
you will feel this is injustice. so justice has to be according to the merit. it means rewarding
people according to the scale and quality of effort. so for justice in society, equal treatment
needs to be balanced with proportionality.
Q&A
Q1. What is proportionate justice?
A1. Justice has to be according to the merit. It means rewarding people according to the
scale and quality of effort. So for justice in society, equal treatment needs to be balanced
with proportionality.
Q2. What are the three principles of justice?
A2. A. equal treatment for equals.
b. proportionate justice
c. recognition of special needs
recognition of special needs
this is the third principle of justice. i will repeat the same point again that everybody cannot
be treated equally. there are people with special needs also. for example: handicaps. these
people have disabilities and cannot be compared with abled people. so state needs to help
them and provide them facilities so that they can come equal to abled people.
another example: we need to recognise that if women work at night then security issues
arise. and we need to take note of that rather than comparing them with male colleagues.
similarly, if a person lack good education , we cannot compare him/her with a convent
educated student. for that government has provided reservations so that underprivileged
children can be brought at par.
so, physical disbilities, lack of education and health care are some factors which are
considered grounds for special treatment.

just distribution
A society requires just distribution of goods and services for maintaing law and order. if
there are deep inequalities in society, then it requires redistribution of goods and resources.

for example: when india was unedr british rule, then zamindars had acquired vast swathes of
land. But post independence, land reforms were carried out and land was redistributed
among poor peasants.
so as we have read in previous lessons that basic minimum quality of life needs to be
provided so that one can enjoy equality of opurtunity. basic needs of life include housing,
nourishment, clean drinking water, education and a minimum wage. If everybody does not
have education, then open civil services examination does not have any value because only
highly educated people can take examinations then.
So just distribution means that resources and goods should be so distributed that everybody
can enjoy minimum quality of life. if everybody does not have basic minimum resources
then it should be redistributed from rich classes to poor classes.
John Rawl's theory of justice
While reading this chapter, we might be thinking what kind of just society we want? john
rawls, an important political thinker, has given a theory of justice to achieve a just state. he
puts all individuals behind the 'veil of ignorance'. 'veil of ignorance' means that individuals
are put in a position where they do not know what is their status, wealth, class, ability , talent
etc. so these individuals will choose privileges which will affect them once they come out of
veil of ignorance. Rawls said that these individuals are rational and will choose privileges
which will help them in developing their fuller personality. so they will first choose liberty.
Because if an individual has liberty then he/she will be able to achieve anything by his/her
hard work. second they will want is equality of oppurtunity. that means all individuals
should get the equal opportunity. they should not be discriminated on the basis of their caste,
region, gender and religion.
And third, they will demand is difference principle. It means that if any individual, after veil
of ignorance, comes out is disabled or unfortunate, then society should help that least
advantaged person.
This Rawl's theory of justice where rationality rather than moral thinking can lead us to have
a fair and just society.
Q&A
Q1. What is just distribution of resources?
A1. A society requires just distribution of goods and services for maintaing law and order. if
there are deep inequalities in society, then it requires redistribution of goods and resources.
for example: when india was under british rule, then zamindars had acquired vast swathes of
land. But post independence, land reforms were carried out and land was redistributed
among poor peasants.
Q2. What are basic needs of life?
A2. Basic needs of life include housing, nourishment, clean drinking water, education and a
minimum wage.
Q3. What is Rawl's theory of justice?

A3. john rawls, an important political thinker, has given a theory of justice to achieve a just
state. he puts all individuals behind the 'veil of ignorance'. 'veil of ignorance' means that
individuals are put in a position where they do not know what is their status, wealth, class,
ability , talent etc. so these individuals will choose privileges which will affect them once
they come out of veil of ignorance. Rawls said that these individuals are rational and will
choose privileges which will help them in developing their fuller personality. so they will
first choose liberty. Because if an individual has liberty then he/she will be able to achieve
anything by his/her hard work. second they will want is equality of oppurtunity. that means
all individuals should get the equal oppurtunity. they should not be discriminated on the
basis of their caste, region, gender and religion.
And third, they will demand is difference principle. It means that if any individual, after veil
of ignorance, comes out is disabled or unfortunate, then society should help that least
advantaged person.
This Rawl's theory of justice where rationality rather than moral thinking can lead us to have
a fair and just society.
Q4. What is veil of ignorance?
A4.Rawls has talked about veil of ignorance in his theory of justice. He puts all individuals
behind the 'veil of ignorance'. 'veil of ignorance' means that individuals are put in a position
where they do not know what is their status, wealth, class, ability , talent etc.
Q5. What are the three principles in john rawls theory?
A5. A. liberty
b. equality of oppurtunity
c. difference principle

Pursuing Social Justice

To pursue justice in society, different thinkers will argue differently to bring justice. some
will say to bring free market so that everybody can pursue their own interests. free market
means that individuals should be free to own property and enter into contracts and
agreements with each other regarding prices, wages and profits. they should be free to
compete with each other to gain greatest amount of benefit. they believe that if free markets
are there, then less interference by state will ensure equal distribution of benefits and duties
in society. nowadays, free markets are demanding state to step in to regulate markets like
provision of health, education.
free market also allow us to have more choices. and moreover they provide good quality
services in comparison to poor quality of services provided by governmental institutions.

But free markets favor the privileged because they have money and resources to buy goods
and services they want.
so, politics is basically about just distribution of goods and services. there are negotiations
and compromises when there is distribution of resources.
Q&A
Q1. What is free market?
A1. free market means that individuals should be free to own property and enter into
contracts and agreements with each other regarding prices, wages and profits. they should be
free to compete with each other to gain greatest amount of benefit.
Q2. What are the advantages of free markets?
A2. In free markets, there is less interference by state which ensures equal distribution of
benefits and duties in society. Free market also allow us to have more choices. And
moreover they provide good quality services in comparison to poor quality of services
provided by governmental institutions.
Q3. What are the disadvantages of free markets ?
A3. free markets favor the privileged because they have money and resources to buy goods
and services they want.

MCQs
chap 4
1. which thinker talks about human dignity?
a. plato
b. socrates
c. kant
d. aristotle
ans C
2. provisions of equal treatment for ?
a. equals
b. rich class
c. poor class
d. all
ans A
3. which is a political right?

a. right to vote
b. right to life
c.right to liberty
d. right to property
ans A
4. What is proportionate justice?
a. equal treatment for all
b. well being of all
c. justice according to merit
d. measuring justice
ans C
5. equal treatment should be balanced by what?
a. equality
b. proportionality
c. fraternity
d. liberty
ansB
6. what is NOT the principle of justice?
a. proportionate justice
b. equal treatment for equals
c. equal treatment for all
d. recognition of special needs
ans C
7. which famous thinker gave theory of justice?
a. gandhi
b. rawls
c. martin luther
d. mother teresa
ans B
8. Rawls theory of justice is build on ?
a. morality

b. fraternity
c. rationality
d. sanctity
ans C
9. what is minimum needs of life?
a. clean drinking water
b. three room house
c. a small car
d. nice clothes
ans A
10.Which is not included in minimum quality of life?
a. housing
b. clean drinking water
c. nourishment
d. small car
ans D
11. We require free markets because?
a. goods and services are free
b. quality goods and services are provided
c. cost of social goods are less
d. there is fair distribution of goods
ans B
12. we require state intervention because?
a. goods and services are free
b. quality goods and services are provided
c. cost of social goods are less
d. there is fair distribution of goods
Ans D
13. which point is NOT in favor of free markets?
a. superior quality of goods
b. fair distribution of goods

c. greater choices
d. merit rewarded
ans B
14. which is not the principle of justice?
a. favoring least advantaged
b. liberty
c. fraternity
d. equality
ans C

NON SERIOUS
non serious
Introduction
Our society requires justice so that we are able to have order and the well being of all the
people. now the question is what kind of justice. rich people will argue that they want a
completely liberal society where market will rule and state will function merely to maintain
law and order. this is justice for them. whereas socialists will say that justice is where state
will occupy all resources and there is equal distribution of resources. so what is justice?
important thinkers have given their own view point on justice.
what is justice?
justice involves the well being of all people. justice means that we give equal consideration
to all individuals.
Q&A
Q1. What is justice?
A1. . justice means giving equal consideration to all individuals.
Q2. What are the three principles of justice?
A2. A. equal treatment for equals.
b. proportionate justice
c. recognition of special needs
John Rawl's theory of justice
While reading this chapter, we might be thinking what kind of just society we want? john
rawls, an important political thinker, has given a theory of justice to achieve a just state. he
puts all individuals behind the 'veil of ignorance'. 'veil of ignorance' means that individuals
are put in a position where they do not know what is their status, wealth, class, ability , talent

etc. so these individuals will choose privileges which will affect them once they come out of
veil of ignorance. Rawls said that these individuals are rational and will choose privileges
which will help them in developing their fuller personality. so they will first choose liberty.
Because if an individual has liberty then he/she will be able to achieve anything by his/her
hard work. second they will want is equality of oppurtunity. that means all individuals
should get the equal opportunity. they should not be discriminated on the basis of their caste,
region, gender and religion.
And third, they will demand is difference principle. It means that if any individual, after veil
of ignorance, comes out is disabled or unfortunate, then society should help that least
advantaged person.
This Rawl's theory of justice where rationality rather than moral thinking can lead us to have
a fair and just society.
Q&A
Q1. What is just distribution of resources?
A1. A society requires just distribution of goods and services for maintaing law and order. if
there are deep inequalities in society, then it requires redistribution of goods and resources.
for example: when india was under british rule, then zamindars had acquired vast swathes of
land. But post independence, land reforms were carried out and land was redistributed
among poor peasants.
Q2. What are basic needs of life?
A2. Basic needs of life include housing, nourishment, clean drinking water, education and a
minimum wage.
Q3. What is Rawl's theory of justice?
A3. john rawls, an important political thinker, has given a theory of justice to achieve a just
state. he puts all individuals behind the 'veil of ignorance'. 'veil of ignorance' means that
individuals are put in a position where they do not know what is their status, wealth, class,
ability , talent etc. so these individuals will choose privileges which will affect them once
they come out of veil of ignorance. Rawls said that these individuals are rational and will
choose privileges which will help them in developing their fuller personality. so they will
first choose liberty. Because if an individual has liberty then he/she will be able to achieve
anything by his/her hard work. second they will want is equality of oppurtunity. that means
all individuals should get the equal oppurtunity. they should not be discriminated on the
basis of their caste, region, gender and religion.
And third, they will demand is difference principle. It means that if any individual, after veil
of ignorance, comes out is disabled or unfortunate, then society should help that least
advantaged person.
This Rawl's theory of justice where rationality rather than moral thinking can lead us to have
a fair and just society.
Q4. What is veil of ignorance?

A4.Rawls has talked about veil of ignorance in his theory of justice. He puts all individuals
behind the 'veil of ignorance'. 'veil of ignorance' means that individuals are put in a position
where they do not know what is their status, wealth, class, ability , talent etc.
Q5. What are the three principles in john rawls theory?
A5. A. liberty
b. equality of opportunity
c. difference principle

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chapter 3 equality
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equality
chap3
introduction

our constitution has granted right to equality under Article 14. but with this it has also given special
provisions like the backward community of society needs to be given reservations so that they can
enjoy the right to equality. for example: if everybody has been given equal right to compete in
exams, then it can happen when all sections of community share the fruits of education. but
backward community in india's past were not given equal rights. So post independence, India came
out with reservations to bring them on an equal platform.
why do we need equality?
We need equality so that we can get equal treatment in society. when we are treated equally, an
individual earns respect and dignity. he feels he/she is having equal worth in society despite race,
caste, color, status or nationality. a person gets equal rights and liberty. and by making use of this,
he/she is able to develop his/her full personality.
In 18th century, French revolutionaries talked about liberty, equality and fraternity to revolt against
the landed aristocracy ( rich land owners) and monarchy(rule of king).
demand for equality was also raised during our independence movement when we demanded equal
treatment for indians with british. remember rowlatt act where indians will be imprisoned without
trial. and british will be tried by english judges only. this was so unequal.
even now, we see so much of inequality. There 's so much of poverty. slums coexist with huge
buildings. Women do not have equal rights like access to education, health facilities etc. in remote
areas of india, dalits are still discriminated on the basis of caste. there is no equal provision of
drinking water, food and sanitation facilities.
so equality is an important principle for the society to function. and since there's all inequality
around us, so equality becomes an important topic in political theory. how can we achieve an equal
world? but the question arises is what kind of equality are we looking for? are we looking for equal
income and status? that means, do we want everybody to earn equal income? but then if everybody
will earn less and same income, country's growth will get slow. and if everybody earns more and
equal income, then the lazy people will be paid equal to hardworking people. so what kind of
equality are we looking for?
these questions will be answered in this chapter.
Q&A
Q1. Why is equality important?
A1. equality is important so that we can get equal treatment and not be discriminated on the basis of
color, race, gender, caste, religion and region. this will allow individual to cherish dignity and respect
in society. an individual will also be able to enjoy equal rights in society by which he/she can
develop full personality.
Q2. what was the slogan in french revolution?
A2. liberty, equality and fraternity.
Q3. do we have an equal society?
A3. No, there's no equality in society because discrimination against women, backward communities
still exist. poverty and unemployment evils are still rampant which do not allow people to have
minimum necessity for life.
WHAT IS EQUALITY?
equality does not mean treatment in an identical way. it does not mean that everybody should have
same goods and resources. it does not mean that everybody should have same income and status. we

donot mind if our prime ministers get more privileges. but the only thing is that our PM should not
abuse his powers. so we respect difference in treatment given according to status. so a person is
allowed to follow his ambitions and interests and earn his/her name accordingly.
but we donot accept if a poor child or a dalit is not able to access education, food and health
facilities.
so we want that treatment we receive and oppurtunities avaliable must not be given according to our
class, caste, status, region and religion. we donot want a dalit child to go to agriculture work and a
rich man's child to go to school just because there is a difference in his caste.
Q&A
Q1. What is equality?
A1. equality means that all people are entitled to same rights and oppurtunities to develop their skills
and talents and to pursue their goals and amibitions.
Q2. do we want equality in income?
A2. no
Q2. do we want equality of oppurtunity?
A2. yes
EQUALITY OF OPPURTUNITIES
So we have read that equality means having equal rights and oppurtunities like education, health
facilities and employment etc, to develop our skills and talents and to pursue our own goals and
ambitions.
this means that whether your friend is a cricketer or you a writer, it does not matter till the time you
are not getting basic essential requirements like education, health care and safe housing which if not
there leads to unequal and unjust society.
Q&A
Q1. what is equality of oppurtunity?
A1. equality of oppurtunity means people having access to basic goods such as education, health
care and safe housing that will lead to an equal and just society.
NATURAL AND SOCIAL INEQUALITIES
now there are different kind of inequalities like natural and social inequalities.
Natural inequalities are those that emerge from different capabilities and talents. they are due to
different physical characteristics. it is assumed that natural inequalities cannot be altered. But to a
certain extent this has been proved wrong. With the advancement in science and technology, even
disabled people are now making their lives comfortable. stephen hawking who cannot move and
speak , has made significant contribution to science. so our society and our institutions need to help
such disabled people to empower them.
but inthe past there were wrong assumptions and inequality were done on the basis of natural ability.
for example: women which were till now wrongly considered as weaker sex are now contributing
hugely to their empowerment. blacks and in fact asians were considered weak and who cannot
develop themselves and they need white people to free them from deprivation. but all this has been
proved wrong now.

Social Inequality: These inequalities are due to unequal access to basic things in life like education,
safe housing and health care.
Q&A
Q1. What is natural inequality?
A1. Natural inequalities are those that emerge from different capabilities and talents. they are due to
different physical characteristics.
Q2. can natural inequality be altered?
A2. natural inequality can be altered if there is huge support from government and institutions to
disbaled people.
Q3. what are social inequality?
A3. social inequalities are those inequalities that arise from the deprivation of basic things which are
necessary to lead a minimum quality of life like education, safe housing and healthcare.
THREE DIMENSIONS OF INEQUALITY
Thinkers have highlighted three types of equality which if improved upon can help us moving more
towards a better and just society.
a. political equality
In democratic societies, these would include granting equal citizenship to all members of the state.
equal citizenship means certain basic rights such as right to vote, freedom of expression, movement
and association and freedom of belief are granted to everybody. they can participate in the affairs of
the country. but still you would have noticed that not all are able to exercise these rights likefreedom
of expression and movement. it is because that they do not have equal access to resources like
education. so they cannot exercise their freedom of speech and expression. so we need to grant them
social equality as well. so political equality may not be sufficient but it is certainly an important
component.
b. social equality
making equal laws are enough. what we require is equality in the access of resources. so there
needsto be equal social and economic conditions like adequate provision of health care, education,
nutrition and minimum wages.
unequal oppurtunities do not arise only from lack of goods but also from customs. for example:
women are not given equal rights in inheritance in india. so we need to make policies to prevent
discrimination and harassment of women in public places.
c. economic equality
When there is significant differences in wealth and property between individuals or classes, then it
leads to economic inequality. there are people who live below poverty line. they cannot afford food,
water, sanitation and schooling. so there need to be minimum wage for individuals. and equal
oppurtunities need to be provided.
sometimes inequality may not be only because of wealth. but also because of the customs that have
continued for long generations. if over a certain period of time, one class by having control over
money nad resouces have ruled over another class, then the wealthy class becomes dominant and
they start exercising theitr control. and it is difficult to become open and egalitarian.
So how can these inequalities be overcome? karl marx , 19th century thinker says that inequality has
come because of the ownership/ control of important economic resources like oil, land, forests and

other forms of property by rich classes. and by owning such a great economic power, they have also
got hold of political power. so these rich class make policies which benefit the rich class and is
disadvantageous to poor class. so economic inequality provides support to ther forms of inequality.
so only providing oppurtunities will not help the poor classs. the need is to have state or public
control over the resources and property of the society.
but liberalism opposes this. they say that if state is going to have control over resources then
freedom and liberty of individuals will be curtailed and they will not be able to progress. hard
working people will not be able to grow because they will feel that state will take away their fruits of
hard work. so liberals say that let state intervene in providing minimum welfare to people. and when
people have attained minimum standard of living, allow competition between them and everybody
will then get according to their hard work. so long as competition is there, inequalities will not be
there in the system. they believe that political , social and economic inequality is not linked. on the
other hand we have read that marxists belive that social, economic and political inequality is linked.
because rich people having control over wealth leads to control over political system and this also
makes them powerful in society.
but liberals believe each sphere needs to be dealt individually to tackle its problems. for political
inequality we need democracy. and for social and economic inequality and state can intervene to
provide minimum standard of living. liberals donot have problem as such with inequality. but they
want that inequality should not disturb us while achieving our fuller capabilities.
Q&A
Q1. What are the three dimensions of equality?
A1. political, economiic and social equality
Q2. what is political equality ?
a2. political equality means granting equal citizenship to all members of the state. equal citizenship
provides certain basic rights such as right to vote, freedom of expression, movement and association
and freedom of belief to everybody. They can participate in the affairs of the country.
Q3. what is social equality?
A3. It means provision of equality in society. equality of oppurtunites need to be provided so that
minimum quality of life can be achieved.
Q4. what is economic equality?
A4. economic equality means granting equal economic oppurtunities to all.
Q5. what are the views of karl marx on equality?
A5. karl marx , 19th century thinker says that inequality has arisen because of the ownership of
important economic resources like oil, land, forests and other forms of property by rich class. and
by owning such a great economic power, they have also got hold of political power. so these rich
class make policies which benefit the rich class and is disadvantageous to poor class. so economic
inequality provides support to other forms of inequality. so only providing oppurtunities will not help
the poor class. karl marx says the need is to have state or public control over the resources and
property of the society. so , karl marx belive that social, economic and political inequality is linked.
because rich people having control over wealth leads to control over political system and this also
makes them powerful in society.
Q6. what are the views of liberals on equality?

A6. To achieve equality, liberals say that let state intervene in providing minimum welfare to
people. and when people have attained minimum standard of living, allow competition

between them and everybody will then get according to their hard work. so long as
competition is there, inequalities will not be there in the system. they believe that political ,
social and economic inequality is not linked. they want each sphere tobe dealt individually
to tackle its problems. for political inequality we need democracy. and for social and
economic inequality, state can intervene to provide minimum standard of living. liberals
donot have problem as such with inequality. but they want that inequality should not disturb
us while achieving our fuller capabilities.
HOW CAN WE PROMOTE EQUALITY?
This is a very important question that when equality is so important for the dignity of
individual, what steps do we need to take to improve equality? although karl marx has
given us suggestion to have public control over resources
a. establishing formal equality
There are various inequalities around. and these inequalities can be removed when the law
of the country strictly deals with it.
Women initially were not given right to vote. dalits were exploited.blacks were treated as
slaves. but now the law has changed and their condition has also improved. so there is a
need to make laws and policies which will help in their empowerment. for example: indian
constitution banned untouchability post independence under Article 17.
b. equality through different treatment
there is also a need to look at individuals from different angle. disabled people require
special treatment so that they can get equal chance to enter public life. women needs to be
protected in night when they return from work. so these kind of special treatment enhance
nad promote equality rather than disturbing equality. in india we have also given special
treatment in the form of reservations to backward community.
c. Affirmative Action
backward community has been deprived of minimum standard of life and dignity since ages.
there lacked basic necessities like education, food and decent housing. this lead to their
deprivation and they became further backward. post indepndence, our constitution granted
equal rights to all.
but people who do not even have the basic necessities, they can't even enjoy the right to
equal oppurtunities beacuse they are not educated enough to enter into equal employment
oppurtunities.
So, our constitution has granted them reservations so that they get level playing field in
terms of competition. in government jobs, 49% of jobs go to backward community. and the
rest is for general class. this is called as positive discrimination.
they are also given scholarships and special consideration in schools and colleges.
critics of positive discrimination say that this reservation has led to reverse discrimination. it
has denied the general (not backward) class equal treatment. equality says that all people
should be treated alike. and we need to remove caste system to bring equality.
now the question is 'Why has the need arisen for reservations?'. it is because india has failed
badly in providing good quality education and health care facilities. so the poor and
backward community continue with their backwardness and tehy are not able to come at

level with other better off classes. they have not got quality education so they can't compete
at equal level with better off classes. so that is why the system of reservations has arisen.
Q&A
Q1. What steps can be taken to promote equality?
A1. a. Establishing formal equality
b. Equality through different treatment
c. Affirmative Action
Q2. How can equality be established by following formal system?
A2. Our political system needs to establish stringent laws and policies so that equality is
established formally. for example: our indian constitution abolished untouchability under
Article 17.
Q3. what is affirmative action?
A3. affirmative action means taking positive measures to minimise and eliminate social
inequalities.
Q4. why do we need affirmative action?
A4. we require affirmative action because our society has entrenched inequality. Customs in
our society since ages has deprived lower castes of minimum standard of living. And this has
further made them backward. India has also failed miserably in providing good schooling
and health facilities to all sections of the community. so government has provided them
reservations so that they get level playing field in competition with better off people.
Q5. what is the criticism of affirmative action?
A5. critics of affirmative action says that reservations goes against the right to equal
treatment. they say that reservations are reverse discrimination. equality means that all
persons should be treated equally. and if we will make distinctions between caste to provide
them reservations in jobs, we will further reinforce the caste factor. so they say that we need
to do away with the caste distinctions.
non serious
equality
introduction
our constitution has granted right to equality under Article 14. but with this it has also given
special provisions like the backward community of society needs to be given reservations so
that they can enjoy the right to equality. for example: if everybody has been given equal
right to compete in exams, then it can happen when all sections of community share the
fruits of education. but backward community in india's past were not given equal rights. So
post independence, India came out with reservations to bring them on an equal platform.
why do we need equality?
We need equality so that we can get equal treatment in society. when we are treated equally,
an individual earns respect and dignity. he feels he/she is having equal worth in society

despite race, caste, color, status or nationality. a person gets equal rights and liberty. and by
making use of this, he/she is able to develop his/her full personality.
Q&A
Q1. Why is equality important?
A1. equality is important so that we can get equal treatment and not be discriminated on the
basis of color, race, gender, caste, religion and region. this will allow individual to cherish
dignity and respect in society. an individual will also be able to enjoy equal rights in society
by which he/she can develop full personality.
WHAT IS EQUALITY?
equality does not mean treatment in an identical way. it does not mean that everybody
should have same goods and resources. it does not mean that everybody should have same
income and status. we donot mind if our prime ministers get more privileges. but the only
thing is that our PM should not abuse his powers. so we respect difference in treatment
given according to status. so a person is allowed to follow his ambitions and interests and
earn his/her name accordingly.
but we donot accept if a poor child or a dalit is not able to access education, food and health
facilities.
so we want that treatment we receive and oppurtunities avaliable must not be given
according to our class, caste, status, region and religion. we donot want a dalit child to go to
agriculture work and a rich man's child to go to school just because there is a difference in
his caste.
Q&A
Q1. What is equality?
A1. equality is an important value which give equal treatment to all without discriminating
on the basis of birth and social circumstances.
Q2. do we want equality in income?
A2. no
Q2. do we want equality of oppurtunity?
A2. yes
EQUALITY OF OPPURTUNITIES
So we have read that equality means having equal rights and oppurtunities like education,
health facilities and employment etc, to develop our skills and talents and to pursue our own
goals and ambitions.
this means that whether your friend is a cricketer or you a writer, it does not matter till the
time you are not getting basic essential requirements like education, health care and safe
housing which if not there leads to unequal and unjust society.
Q&A
Q1. what is equality of oppurtunity?

A1. equality of oppurtunity means people having access to basic goods such as education,
health care and safe housing that will lead to an equal and just society.
THREE DIMENSIONS OF INEQUALITY
Thinkers have highlighted three types of equality which if improved upon can help us
moving more towards a better and just society.
a. political equality
In democratic societies, these would include granting equal citizenship to all members of the
state. equal citizenship means certain basic rights such as right to vote, freedom of
expression, movement and association and freedom of belief are granted to everybody. they
can participate in the affairs of the country.
b. social equality
making equal laws are enough. what we require is equality in the access of resources. so
there needsto be equal social and economic conditions like adequate provision of health
care, education, nutrition and minimum wages.
unequal oppurtunities do not arise only from lack of goods but also from customs. for
example: women are not given equal rights in inheritance in india. so we need to make
policies to prevent discrimination and harassment of women in public places.
c. economic equality
When there is significant differences in wealth and property between individuals or classes,
then it leads to economic inequality. there are people who live below poverty line. they
cannot afford food, water, sanitation and schooling. so there need to be minimum wage for
individuals. and equal oppurtunities need to be provided.
So how can these inequalities be overcome? karl marx , 19th century thinker says that
inequality has come because of the ownership/ control of important economic resources like
oil, land, forests and other forms of property by rich classes. and by owning such a great
economic power, they have also got hold of political power. so these rich class make policies
which benefit the rich class and is disadvantageous to poor class. so economic inequality
provides support to ther forms of inequality. so only providing oppurtunities will not help
the poor classs. the need is to have state or public control over the resources and property of
the society.
but liberalism opposes this. they say that if state is going to have control over resources then
freedom and liberty of individuals will be curtailed and they will not be able to progress.
hard working people will not be able to grow because they will feel that state will take away
their fruits of hard work. so liberals say that let state intervene in providing minimum
welfare to people. and when people have attained minimum standard of living, allow
competition between them and everybody will then get according to their hard work. so
long as competition is there, inequalities will not be there in the system. they believe that
political , social and economic inequality is not linked.
Q&A
Q1. What are the three dimensions of equality?
A1. political, economiic and social equality

Q2. what are the views of karl marx on equality?

A2. karl marx , 19th century thinker says that inequality has arisen because of the
ownership of important economic resources like oil, land, forests and other forms of
property by rich class. and by owning such a great economic power, they have also got
hold of political power. so these rich class make policies which benefit the rich class and is
disadvantageous to poor class. so economic inequality provides support to other forms of
inequality. so only providing oppurtunities will not help the poor class. karl marx says the
need is to have state or public control over the resources and property of the society. so , karl
marx belive that social, economic and political inequality is linked. because rich people
having control over wealth leads to control over political system and this also makes them
powerful in society.
Q3. what are the views of liberals on equality?
A3. to achieve equality, liberals say that let state intervene in providing minimum welfare to
people. and when people have attained minimum standard of living, allow competition
between them and everybody will then get according to their hard work. so long as
competition is there, inequalities will not be there in the system. they believe that political ,
social and economic inequality is not linked. they want each sphere tobe dealt individually
to tackle its problems. for political inequality we need democracy. and for social and
economic inequality, state can intervene to provide minimum standard of living. liberals
donot have problem as such with inequality. but they want that inequality should not disturb
us while achieving our fuller capabilities.
HOW CAN WE PROMOTE EQUALITY?
This is a very important question that when equality is so important for the dignity of
individual, what steps do we need to take to improve equality? although karl marx has
given us suggestion to have public control over resources
a. establishing formal equality
There are various inequalities around. and these inequalities can be removed when the law
of the country strictly deals with it.
Women initially were not given right to vote. dalits were exploited.blacks were treated as
slaves. but now the law has changed and their condition has also improved. so there is a
need to make laws and policies which will help in their empowerment. for example: indian
constitution banned untouchability post independence under Article 17.
b. equality through different treatment
there is also a need to look at individuals from different angle. disabled people require
special treatment so that they can get equal chance to enter public life. women needs to be
protected in night when they return from work. so these kind of special treatment enhance
nad promote equality rather than disturbing equality.
c. Affirmative Action
backward community has been deprived of minimum standard of life and dignity since ages.
they lacked basic necessities like education, food and decent housing. this led to their
deprivation and they became further backward. post indepndence, our constitution granted
equal rights to all.

but people who do not even have the basic necessities, they can't even enjoy the right to
equal oppurtunities beacuse they are not educated enough to enter into equal employment
oppurtunities.
So, our constitution has granted them reservations so that they get level playing field in
terms of competition. in government jobs, 49% of jobs go to backward community. and the
rest is for general class. this is called as positive discrimination.
they are also given scholarships and special consideration in schools and colleges.
critics of positive discrimination say that this reservation has led to reverse discrimination. it
has denied the general (not backward) class equal treatment. equality says that all people
should be treated alike. and we need to remove caste system to bring equality.
now the question is 'Why has the need arisen for reservations?'. it is because india has failed
badly in providing good quality education and health care facilities. so the poor and
backward community continue with their backwardness and tehy are not able to come at
level with other better off classes. they have not got quality education so they can't compete
at equal level with better off classes. so that is why the system of reservations has arisen.
Q&A
Q1. What steps can be taken to promote equality?
A1. a. Establishing formal equality
b. Equality through different treatment
c. Affirmative Action
Q2. what is affirmative action?
A2. affirmative action means taking positive measures to minimise and eliminate social
inequalities.
Q3. why do we need affirmative action?
A3. we require affirmative action because our society has entrenched inequality. Customs in
our society since ages has deprived lower castes of minimum standard of living. And this has
further made them backward. India has also failed miserably in providing good schooling
and health facilities to all sections of the community. so government has provided them
reservations so that they get level playing field in competition with better off people.
Q4. what is the criticism of affirmative action?
A4. critics of affirmative action says that reservations goes against the right to equal
treatment. they say that reservations are reverse discrimination. equality means that all
persons should be treated equally. and if we will make distinctions between caste to provide
them reservations in jobs, we will further reinforce the caste factor. so they say that we need
to do away with the caste distinctions.

MCQs
chap 3
equality

1. what is the slogan of french revolution?

a. liberty
b. eternity
c. equality
d. fraternity
ansB
2. what tenet equality does not fulfil?
a. giving respect
b. taking away liberty
c. enjoying full rights
d. equal treatment
ans B
3. what is equality?
a. everbody should have access to hospitals
b. everbody should score same in class.
c. everbody should have same income
d. everybody should have same clothes
ans A
4. What is equality of oppurtunity?
a. access to same clothing brand
b. access to schooling
c. access to good food
d. access to luxury vehicles
ans B
5. what is not equality of oppurtunity?
a. access to education
b. access to health care
c. equality in ambition
d. equality in safe housing
ans C
6. what is not the dimension of equality?

a. professional
b. social
c.political
d. economic
ans A
7.karl marx belonged to which century?
a. 18th
b. 19th
c. 20th
d. 21st
ans B
8. which one is NOT karl marx views on equality?
a. poor class exploited by rich class
b. politics controlled by rich class
c. provide minimum level of welfare
d. state control of public resources
ans C
9. What are liberals views on equality?
a. poor class exploited by rich class
b. politics controlled by rich class
c. provide minimum level of welfare
d. state control of public resources
ans C
10. sapta kranti is the ideology belongs to ?
a. gandhi
b. marx
c. chandra bose
d. lohia
ans D
11. what is affirmative actions?
a. making laws and policies

b. reservations
c. giving them free food.
d. giving them free clothes
ans B
12. which ideology calls for equal rights of men and women?
a. socialism
b. liberalism
c. feminism
d. marxism
ans C

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17.Oct
21

chapter 2 freedom
chap2
freedom '
introduction
you surely know that india fought for freedom of their country from foreign rule. many countries
have fought for their independence too.we also argue with our parents to give us freedom to live our
own lives. so freedom is a very important principle for individual and for society as well. so we
require freedom so that we can controlour own destinies and ive according to our own rules. and also
to have the oppurtunity to express ourselves and pursue our choices and activities.
but we cannot have absolute freedom. there need to be restrictions on freedom so that everybody can
enjoy their freedom.

So, in this chapter we will read arguments from different thinkers on how much freedom should be
given to individuals and what restrictions should be placed on them? remember we did importance of
political theory in first chapter where i told you that various thinkers debate about various ideas and
principles and give different definitions of values like freedom, equality and rights. we will do this
here. Before we start with our freedom, we need to know that nelson mandel of south africa spent 28
years in jail to fight for independence movement. and aung san suu kyi of myanmar also spent years
under house arrest to fight for independence.
What is freedom?
freedom includes two aspects- one absence of external constraints and two, existence of conditions
which expand freedom. what does this means?
external constraints means the force or compulsions under which an individual has to work. and
absence of external constraints means that an individual should not be forced to perform any actions
which she/he does not want to perform.
for example: if a woman wants to drive, there should not be rules and regulations which deny her
that. in iran women are not allowed to drive. So there should be absence of external
constraints(restrictions) , so that she can enjoy her freedom. so a society should have minimum
constraints to allow more freedom.
and second is conditions which expand her freedom. this means that there should be conditions
available that make her enjoy her freedom more. for example: there should be educational
oppurtunities available for women so that she can keep herself informed, she can get into
employment, she can know her rights and in this way she will be having more oppurtunities to enjoy
her freedom. and in this freedom she can develop her capabilities and creativity. so there should be
freedom in sports, science, arts, music or exploration.
So, both these freedoms help individual to grow and develop his/her capabilities.
but there cannot be absolute freedom. and total absence of constraints. there need to be some social
constraints so that freedom is not abused. social constraints means that restrictions to be imposed on
the individual keeping in mind the benefit of society. for example: freedom of speech and expression
has restrictions that you cannot abuse anybody, their family or their religion. so there is a need to
look at which freedom society allows.
Q&A
Q1. What is freedom?
A1. freedom can be defined in two aspects, that is, absence of constraints and existence of conditions
which expand freedom.
Q2. What is the meaning of absence of constraints?

A2. Absence of external constraints means that an individual should not be forced to
perform any actions which she/he does not want to perform. for example: in burma, there is
forced labor. people are forced to work there at low or no wages. so this restrict their
freedom.
Q3. what is the meaning of presence of conditions which expand freedom?
A3. Conditions which expand her freedom means that there should be conditions available
that make an individual enjoy their freedom more. for example: there should be educational
oppurtunities available for women so that she can keep herself informed, she can get into
employment, she can know her rights and in this way she will be having more oppurtunities

to enjoy her freedom. and in this freedom she can develop her capabilities and creativity. so
there needs to be freedom in sports, science, arts, music or exploration.
Swaraj
for gandhi, swaraj was same as freedom. He said that swaraj does not only means freedom
from british rule and making india independent. but freedom has other aspects too. swa
means self and raj means rule . so there needs to be self rule. it meant rule of the self and
rule over self. rule of self means that india needs to be ruled byitsown people. and rule over
self means that every individual should live with respect and dignity. Their should be
removal of poverty and unemployment so that a person can earn his living respectfully and
access minimum quality of life. he/she should have self responsibility to carry out his work
rather than being forced to work. so freedom for gandhi was economic freedom meaning
removal of pverty and having employment. social freedom where people from different
castes and religion are not discriminated and everybody treated equally. and cultural
freedom where all religions and cultures are equally respected. this was also freedom for
Gandhi because if anybody is dicriminated on the basis of his caste or religion, then they
will not be able to enjoy full rights. untouchability in india made backward community more
backward and they were not allowed to enjoy their rights and freedom. backward
communities likedalits were segregated from the main community.
Q&A
Q1. what is swaraj?
A1. swa means self and raj means rule. it means rule of self and rule over self.
Q2. what is swaraj? explain elaborately.
A2. swa means self and raj means rule. it means rule of self and rule over self. rule of self
refers to freedom from british rule and attainment of freedom for india. and rule over self
means not just political freedom but also economic, social and cultural freedom. economic
freedom means removal of poverty and having employment. social freedom means where
people from different castes and religion are not discriminated and everybody is treated
equally. and cultural freedom where all religions and cultures are equally respected. this type
of freedom will help in gaining self respect and dignity for everybody.
from where does constraints come
we have read previously that freedom can be realised when there is absence of constraints.
but from does constraints come. we have read an example where women are not allowed to
drive in Iran. so, constraints come from law imposed by government. other example of
constraints by law is the apartheid system in south africa. here the colonial rulers
discriminated between black and white people and imposed harsher laws on blacks. blacks
were treated as slaves of white people. that is why we want democracy where there is rule of
representatives of people and they can draft laws in their favor.
other constraints mean economic constraints like economic inequality in the form of pverty,
lower wages etc, social inequality in the form of untouchability and caste discrimination and
exploitation of women. and cultural inequality in terms of discrimination on the basis of
religion and culture. to understand this more, let us know what subas chandra bose said
about freedom. bose said that there should be freedom of rich and poor, freedom for men
and women, freedom for allclasses and aall individuals, freedom for individual and society.
freedom does not only means independence of india from british rule but equal distribution
of wealth, abolition of caste, destruction of communalism and religious intolerance.

Q&A
Q1. what are the cosntraints on freedom?
A1. constraints on freedom come from domination and external controls. external controls in
the form of law imposed by government. for exaple: apartheid rule in south africa. and other
constraints is from inequality in the form of social, economic and cultural inequality.
Q2. what is subash chandra bose's view on freedom?
A2. bose shares the same view of freedom as gandhi. bose was also in favor of economic,
social and cultural inequality. he said that there should be freedom of rich and poor, freedom
for men and women, freedom for all classes and all individuals, freedom for individual and
society. freedom does not only means independence of india from british rule but equal
distribution of wealth, abolition of caste, destruction of communalism and religious
intolerance.
Need for constraints
we have read previously that social constraints are required on freedom so that it does nt
harm the society and individual can enjoy their freedom as well. like we read about that
freedom off speech should not include abusing one's family , religion and culture. otherwise
there will be violence and hatred in society. so we need to realise that everybody is different
and we need to respect difference of opinions, culture , ideas and beliefs.
so what these constraints should be on individual? these constraints should be
democratically decided by people. which area should be constrained and which area should
be left free from constraints. this we will read in negative and positive liberty and the harm
principle of john stuart mill.

Q&A
Q1. why do we need constraints?
A1. we need constraints so that we can respect the difference of ideas,beliefs and opinions in
society. this will lead to maintenance of order and peace in society.
HARM PRINCIPLE
to answer the question how much constraints(restrictions) we need on our liberty, we will be
discussing about liberal political thinker i.e. John Stuart Mill. Mill says that freedom can be
restrained only for self protection. that means if somebody's freedom harm the other person
then that person's freedom can be restricted.
for example: if 'x' person harms 'y' person, then only 'x' freedom should be restricted.
there are two types of actions- 'self regarding actions' and the 'other regarding actions'.
self regarding actions are those actions that shave consequences only for the individual only
and nobody else. it means actions which affect himself/herself only are self regarding
actions. here the state has no business to interfere in the actions of those people. to put it
simply "it is none of your business to interfere in my work". but actions which affect the
other person, or harm him/her is called other regarding actions. if your action harms me then
i need to protect myself.

JS Mill says that since freedom is very important for human life so it should be constrained
only in special circumstances. the harm needs to be serious. If it is a minor harm then there
can be a social disapproval but we cannot call law to interfere in that. because otherwise law
will expand it area of interference and which will restrict freedom in the long run.for
example: if somebody has played a loud music then we should not call police to interfere
and stop the music. We should show society's disapproval to it. there cannot be legal
punishment for it. lawshould be called only when there is a serious threat.
john mill mill calls for tolerance of different views, interests and principles of people. but if
it harms the other people then it should be dealt by law. For example: hatred campaigns. but
we cannot ask for life imprisonment for those people. there should be reasonable restrictions
and reasonable punishment.
reasonable restrictions means that that punishment should not be in excess , not out of
proportion of the action otherwise it would affect the genral condition of freedom of society.
Q&A
Q1. What is harm principle of JS Mill?
A1. John Stuart Mill says that there are two kinds of actions- self regarding actions and other
regarding actions. self regarding actions are those actions which affect the individual only.
and other regarding actions are those actions which affect the society. so harm principle
means the actions of an individual which 'harms' other individual , should be restricted by
law.
Q2. Give two kinds of action of JS Mill?
A2. John Stuart Mill says that there are two kinds of actions- self regarding actions and other
regarding actions. self regarding actions are those actions which affect the individual only.
and other regarding actions are those actions which affect the society.
Q3. does JSMill call for law to interfere in all kinds of other regarding actions?
A3. No, JS Mill doesnot call for law to interfere in all kinds of other regarding actions. he
says only when the harm is serious then only law needs to called. for minor harm only social
disapproval is sufficient.
Q4. what is reasonable restrictions?
A4. reasonable restrictions means that restrictions need to be reasonable on law. there needs
to be justifiable constraints. it should not be out of proportion and excessive to the action
being restricted. restrictions should be capable of being defended. otherwise it will lead to
restrictions on the general freedom of individual.
LIBERALISM
Liberalism has been identified with tolerance. it means the right of person to hold and
express his/ her opinion and beliefs should be defended. and modern liberalism focus on
individual. they emphasise on individual's choices and interests. family, societyand
community has no value. but only the individuals have value. for example:in terms of
marriage , only the individuals will be heard not their parents or community. liberals give
priority to individual liberty rather than equality.
classical liberalism used to focus on minimal state where state has only few roles to play as
maintaining law and order. but now liberal state calls for welfare state wherethe individual

is allowed to pursue its own activities but at the same time state take measures to reduce
social and economic inequalities.
Q&A
Q1. what is modern liberalism?
A1. Liberalism has been identified with tolerance. it means the right of person to hold and
express his/ her opinion and beliefs should be defended. and modern liberalism focus on
individual. they emphasise on individual's choices and interests. family, societyand
community have no value. modern liberals give priority to individual liberty rather than
equality.
Q2. what is the example of modern liberalism?
A2. For example: in terms of marriage , only the individuals will be heard not their parents
or community.
Q3. what is the difference between classical and modern liberalism?
A3. In classical liberalism, there was minimal state and only functions they used to carry out
was to maintain their law and order. but in modern liberalism, role of state is emphasised to
be that of welfare state where social and economic inequalities are emphasised.

NEGATIVE AND POSITIVE LIBERALISM

now the important question which comes is what kind of freedom should be restricted?
JSMill has answered this question by giving harm principle. he has divided actions into self
regarding and other regarding actions. we should not only listen to one view point but
other's viewpoint also.so what does other scholars say? let us read about this.
liberty has been divided into positive liberty and negative liberty.
Negative Liberty is an area where there cannot be any interference by anyone- whether it be
state, family, community etc. and positive liberty is an area where the state can interfere in
the lives of an individual to expand their liberty. for example: state can make education
compulsory for all children. in this way state can help in making the lives of people better.
negative liberty: it explains the idea 'freedom from'. that means freedom from state,
familyy, community, authority etc.
so this is the area where no authority can interfere is negative liberty. an individual can do
whatever he /she wants to do. then how much area should be given. thinkers say that wide
area should be given because this will enhance the dignity of an individual. for example:
state should not interfere in what clothes to wear,what to read , where to go for travelling,
and what to eat? etc.
positive liberty: it explains the idea "freedom to". it means freedom to work, freedom to
write, read , learn, play. for this we need state because when state provides education then
only we can write, read and learn. and when state povides health facilities, then only we can
play and be fit.
so, this area is concerned where state can interfere. and state's interference here doesnot
restrict freedom. it actually enhances freedom. for example: provision of positive conditions
like education, health, employment etc. so these provisions help in development and fuller

growth of his personality. positive liberty recognises that one can be free only in society. and
hence state creates a society in such a way that it enlarges one's freedom.
however, negative liberty and positive liberty go hand in hand. we require negative liberty so
that we can expand our freedom and develop our mental and physical faculties. and positive
liberty is necessary so that we can expand our freedom by getting benefitted by education,
health facilities and employment provided by state.
Q&A
Q1. what are two kinds of liberty?
A1. positive liberty and negative liberty
Q2. What is positive liberty?
A2. It explains the idea "freedom to". this area is concerned where state can interfere. and
state's interference here doesnot restrict freedom. it actually enhances freedom. for example:
provision of positive conditions like education, health, employment etc. so these provisions
help in fuller development of the personality of an individual. positive liberty recognises that
one can be free only in society. and hence state creates a society in such a way that it
enlarges one's freedom.
Q3. what is negative liberty?
A3. negative liberty defines an area where no authority can interfere. An individual can do
whatever he /she wants to do.
Q4. Give an example of positive liberty?
A4. provision of education, employment and health facilities by state.
Q5. give an example of negative liberty?
A5. listening music, wearing clothes, travelling any part of country or globe.

FREEDOM OF SPEECH AND EXPRESSION

this is one area where there should be minimum interference. for free exchange of
knowledge and free flow of ideas, there should be freedom to speak. This is a very
important freedom considering that many films, books, movies, plays, paintings are banned.
as we have read earlier that there should not be hatred campaigns and hatred speeches
against anyone. yes, banning should be there , but the question which comes is how much
banning should be there? banning should not be regularly, otherwise state gets into habit of
banning everytime.
voltaire's famous stateement reads that although i disapprove of whatever you say but i
defend your right to speak till death. it means that i may not agree with whatever you say but
then you have a right to speak.
JSMill gave for reasons of why freedom of speech and expression should be protected.
a. no idea is completely false. mill says that no idea in this world is false. for example: iif
your parents tell you to go for higher studies they are not wrong, because they know that it
will brighten your future prospects. but if you do not want to go for higher studies, then you

also not wrong because you are having interest in music and you think you can brighten your
future prospects here. so no body is false. and nobody is at fault.
b. truth does not emerge by itself. it is only through debates and discussion that truth
emerges. discussion between parents and a young child can lead to this conclusion that the
child will go for higher studies in music. in this way, a child will be able to follwo his
passion in music and he will follow hi parents dream of going for higher studies also
c. this conflict of ideas is important not only for past but for present and future also. only
when truth is exposed to constant criticism , it (truth) then becomes trustworthy. for
example: if higher studies has not helped the child in his music then constant discussion and
debates will nullify the importance of higher studies in music.
d. we cannot be sure what we considered true is actually true. ideas which were true at one
point of time are false at another point of time. for example: higher studies were important
and now also it is important but children can make career in music by going to reality
shows etc. and by not only going for higher studies.
mill says that society that completely suppresses the idea is not acceptable today. and it runs
the danger of losing very valuable knowledge.
Q&A
Q1. what did voltaire said on freedom of expression?
a1. Voltaire said that I may disapprove of whatever you say but i defend your right to speak
till death. it means that i may not agree with whatever you say but then you have a right to
speak.
Q2. what are the four reasons given by mill for protecting freedom of speech and
expression?
A2. a. no idea is completely false. what appears as false has some element of truth.
b. truth does not emerge by itself. it is only through debates and discussion that truth
emerges.
c. the conflict of ideas is important not only for past but for present and future also. only
when truth is exposed to constant criticism , it (truth) then becomes trustworthy.
d. we cannot be sure what we considered true is actually true. ideas which were true at one
point of time are false at another point of time.

non serious
chap2
non serious
introduction
you surely know that india fought for freedom of their country from foreign rule. many
countries have fought for their independence too.we also argue with our parents to give us
freedom to live our own lives. so freedom is a very important principle for individual and for
society as well. so we require freedom so that we can controlour own destinies and ive

according to our own rules. and also to have the oppurtunity to express ourselves and pursue
our choices and activities.
but we cannot have absolute freedom. there need to be restrictions on freedom so that
everybody can enjoy their freedom.
So, in this chapter we will read arguments from different thinkers on how much freedom
should be given to individuals and what restrictions should be placed on them?
What is freedom?
freedom includes two aspects- one absence of external constraints and two, existence of
conditions which expand freedom. what does this means?
external constraints means the force or compulsions under which an individual has to work.
and absence of external constraints means that an individual should not be forced to
perform any actions which she/he does not want to perform.
for example: if a woman wants to drive, there should not be rules and regulations which
deny her that. in iran women are not allowed to drive. So there should be absence of external
constraints(restrictions) , so that she can enjoy her freedom. so a society should have
minimum constraints to allow more freedom.
and second is conditions which expand her freedom. this means that there should be
conditions available that make her enjoy her freedom more. for example: there should be
educational oppurtunities available for women so that she can keep herself informed, she can
get into employment, she can know her rights and in this way she will be having more
oppurtunities to enjoy her freedom. and in this freedom she can develop her capabilities and
creativity. so there should be freedom in sports, science, arts, music or exploration.
Q&A
Q1. What is freedom?
A1. freedom can be defined in two aspects, that is, absence of constraints and existence of
conditions which expand freedom.
Swaraj
for gandhi, swaraj was same as freedom. He said that swaraj does not only means freedom
from british rule and making india independent. but freedom has other aspects too. swa
means self and raj means rule . so there needs to be self rule. it meant rule of the self and
rule over self. rule of self means that india needs to be ruled byitsown people. and rule over
self means that every individual should live with respect and dignity. Their should be
removal of poverty and unemployment so that a person can earn his living respectfully and
access minimum quality of life. he/she should have self responsibility to carry out his work
rather than being forced to work. so freedom for gandhi was economic freedom meaning
removal of pverty and having employment. social freedom where people from different
castes and religion are not discriminated and everybody treated equally. and cultural
freedom where all religions and cultures are equally respected.
Q&A
Q1. what is swaraj?
A1. swa means self and raj means rule. it means rule of self and rule over self.

Q2. what is swaraj? explain elaborately.

A2. swa means self and raj means rule. it means rule of self and rule over self. rule of self
refers to freedom from british rule and attainment of freedom for india. and rule over self
means not just political freedom but also economic, social and cultural freedom. economic
freedom means removal of poverty and having employment. social freedom means where
people from different castes and religion are not discriminated and everybody is treated
equally. and cultural freedom where all religions and cultures are equally respected. this type
of freedom will help in gaining self respect and dignity for everybody.
from where does constraints come
we have read previously that freedom can be realised when there is absence of constraints.
but from does constraints come. we have read an example where women are not allowed to
drive in Iran. so, constraints come from law imposed by government. other example of
constraints by law is the apartheid system in south africa.
other constraints mean economic constraints like economic inequality in the form of pverty,
lower wages etc, social inequality in the form of untouchability and caste discrimination and
exploitation of women. and cultural inequality in terms of discrimination on the basis of
religion and culture.
Q&A
Q1. what are the coNStraints on freedom?
A1. constraints on freedom come from domination and external controls. external controls in
the form of law imposed by government. for exaple: apartheid rule in south africa. and other
constraints is from inequality in the form of social, economic and cultural inequality.
Q2. why do we need constraints?
A2. we need constraints so that we can respect the difference of ideas,beliefs and opinions in
society. this will lead to maintenance of order and peace in society.
NEGATIVE AND POSITIVE LIBERALISM
now the important question which comes is what kind of freedom should be restricted?
JSMill has answered this question by giving harm principle. he has divided actions into self
regarding and other regarding actions. we should not only listen to one view point but
other's viewpoint also.so what does other scholars say? let us read about this.
liberty has been divided into positive liberty and negative liberty.
Negative Liberty is an area where there cannot be any interference by anyone- whether it be
state, family, community etc. and positive liberty is an area where the state can interfere in
the lives of an individual to expand their liberty. for example: state can make education
compulsory for all children. in this way state can help in making the lives of people better.
negative liberty
this is the area where no authority can interfere is negative liberty. an individual can do
whatever he /she wants to do. then how much area should be given. thinkers say that wide
area should be given because this will enhance the dignity of an individual. for example:
state should not interfere in what clothes to wear,what to read , where to go for travelling,
and what to eat? etc.

positive liberty:
this area is concerned where state can interfere. and state's interference here doesnot restrict
freedom. it actually enhances freedom. for example: provision of positive conditions like
education, health, employment etc. so these provisions help in development and fuller
growth of his personality. positive liberty recognises that one can be free only in society. and
hence state creates a society in such a way that it enlarges one's freedom.
however, negative liberty and positive liberty go hand in hand. we require negative liberty so
that we can expand our freedom and develop our mental and physical faculties. and positive
liberty is necessary so that we can expand our freedom by getting benefitted by education,
health facilities and employment provided by state.
Q&A
Q1. what are two kinds of liberty?
A1. positive liberty and negative liberty
Q2. What is positive liberty?
A2. It explains the idea "freedom to". this area is concerned where state can interfere. and
state's interference here doesnot restrict freedom. it actually enhances freedom. for example:
provision of positive conditions like education, health, employment etc. so these provisions
help in fuller development of the personality of an individual. positive liberty recognises that
one can be free only in society. and hence state creates a society in such a way that it
enlarges one's freedom.
Q3. what is negative liberty?
A3. negative liberty defines an area where no authority can interfere. An individual can do
whatever he /she wants to do.
Q4. Give an example of positive liberty?
A4. provision of education, employment and health facilities by state.
Q5. give an example of negative liberty?
A5. listening music, wearing clothes, travelling any part of country or globe.
FREEDOM OF SPEECH AND EXPRESSION
this is one area where there should be minimum interference. for free exchange of
knowledge and free flow of ideas, there should be freedom to speak. This is a very
important freedom considering that many films, books, movies, plays, paintings are banned.
as we have read earlier that there should not be hatred campaigns and hatred speeches
against anyone. yes, banning should be there , but the question which comes is how much
banning should be there? banning should not be regularly, otherwise state gets into habit of
banning everytime.
voltaire's famous statement reads that although i disapprove of whatever you say but i
defend your right to speak till death. it means that i may not agree with whatever you say but
then you have a right to speak.
JSMill gave for reasons of why freedom of speech and expression should be protected.

a. no idea is completely false. mill says that no idea in this world is false. for example: iif
your parents tell you to go for higher studies they are not wrong, because they know that it
will brighten your future prospects. but if you do not want to go for higher studies, then you
also not wrong because you are having interest in music and you think you can brighten your
future prospects here. so no body is false. and nobody is at fault.
b. truth does not emerge by itself. it is only through debates and discussion that truth
emerges. discussion between parents and a young child can lead to this conclusion that the
child will go for higher studies in music. in this way, a child will be able to follwo his
passion in music and he will follow hi parents dream of going for higher studies also
c. this conflict of ideas is important not only for past but for present and future also. only
when truth is exposed to constant criticism , it (truth) then becomes trustworthy. for
example: if higher studies has not helped the child in his music then constant discussion and
debates will nullify the importance of higher studies in music.
d. we cannot be sure what we considered true is actually true. ideas which were true at one
point of time are false at another point of time. for example: higher studies were important
and now also it is important but children can make career in music by going to reality
shows etc. and by not only going for higher studies.
mill says that society that completely suppresses the idea is not acceptable today. and it runs
the danger of losing very valuable knowledge.
Q&A
Q1. what did voltaire said on freedom of expression?
a1. Voltaire said that I may disapprove of whatever you say but i defend your right to speak
till death. it means that i may not agree with whatever you say but then you have a right to
speak.
Q2. what are the four reasons given by mill for protecting freedom of speech and
expression?
A2. a. no idea is completely false. what appears as false has some element of truth.
b. truth does not emerge by itself. it is only through debates and discussion that truth
emerges.
c. the conflict of ideas is important not only for past but for present and future also. only when truth
is exposed to constant criticism , it (truth) then becomes trustworthy.
d. we cannot be sure what we considered true is actually true. ideas which were true at one point of
time are false at another point of time.

MCQs
MCQs
chap2
1. 'long walk to freedom' is an autobiography of which famous person?
a. mahatma gandhi

b. karl marx
c. nelson mandela
d. aung san suu kyi
ans C
2. nelson mandela belonged to which country?
a. india
b. north africa
c. nigeria
d. south africa
ans D
3. How many years mandela spent in jail?
a. 30
b. 29
c. 28
d. 27
ans C
4. for what principle did mandela fight?
a. freedom
b. rights
c. equality
d. secularism
ans A
5. aung san suu kyi was inspired by?
a. gandhi
b. nelson mandela
c. margaret thatcher
d. hitler
ans A
6. aung san suu kyi belonged to which country?
a. bangladesh
b. myanmar
c. sri lanka

d. maldives
ans B
7. 'freedom form fear' is written by?
a. mahatma gandhi
b. karl marx
c. nelson mandela
d. aung san suu kyi
ans D
8. for aung san suu kyi, to live a dignified life what do we need to overcome?
a. shyness
b. hesitation
c. fear
d. power of conservatives
ans C
9. to whom does swaraj concept belong?
a. gandhi
b. nelson mandela
c. leo tolstoy
d. ruskin bond
ans A
10. when did gandhi write hind swaraj?
a. 1908
b. 1909
c. 1910
d. 1911
ans B
11. Who said swaraj is my birth right and i shall have it?
a. gandhi
b. subash chandra bose
c. bal ganga dhar tilak
d. annie besant
ans B

12. who wrote 'on liberty'?

a. hayek
b. bentham
c. JS Mill
d. gandhi
ans C
13. what is reasonable restrictions?
a. which can be defended by reason
b. which can be in excess
c. which can be out of proportion
d. unjustifiable constraints
ans A
14. who divides actions into other regarding and self regarding actions?
a. hayek
b. bentham
c. JS Mill
d. gandhi
ans C
15. which value is emphasised in liberalism?
a. tolerance
B. state's control
c. family's control
d. equality
ans A
16. what has changed in classical and modern liberalism?
a. role of individuals
b. role of state
c. role of markets
d. role of family
ans B
17. what is 'freedom to'?
a. neutral liberty

b. attractive liberty
c. negative liberty
d. positive liberty
ans D
18. What is freedom from?
a. a. neutral liberty
b. attractive liberty
c. negative liberty
d. positive liberty
ans C
19. what is NOT the reason given by mill to protect freedom of expression?
a. no idea is false
b. ideas which harms one culture is also true
c. ideas true at one point can be false at other time
d. truth emerges by conflict
ans B
20 JSMill belonged to which country?
a. USA
b. germany
C. britain
d. mexico
ans C

dictionary
chap 2
a. constraints: restrictions
b.

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18.Oct
21

chapter - 1 political theory

chap 1
political theory
Introduction
there are questions which arise in our mind that how should our society be?
who should rule our society? Should there be rulers or not? how should the
problems in our society like poverty, unemployment and violence be death
with? what kind of education be provided to us? should be act like slave sor be
treated us with respect and dignity? how can we bring equality and respect in
the society? These our questions which constantly bog our mind. and political
theory examines and answers these questions.
Political Theory looks at these queries critically. and gives a just and fair
answer to it. when i say just answer it means that it gives an answer which does
justice to every individual not only to a group of individuals. thus, it helps us in
thinking rationally about political questions
So, political theory talks about values and gives the definition of these values.
for example: ancient greece said that justice means where people are divided
into rulers and slaves. And slaves have no right except working for the comfort
of rulers.
But, today in modern times, justice is defined as equal treatment for everybody.
so political theory also helps in clarifying concepts. it also helps in making
values more democratic. for example: justice now has become more
democratic.
in short, political theory answers our questions related to society and
individual. It critically assesses the values and makes them more democratic
and inclusive.
Q&A
Q1. What is the significance of political theory?
A1. The importance of political theory is :
a. it critically evaluates values which are part of our life- freedom, equality and
justice.
b. it defines the concepts and talks about its significance.
c. we will be all adults tomorrow and have a right to vote. So we need to know
which party is acting responsibly and in the welfare of citizens. We need to
have basic knowledge of the political ideas and institutions.
d. tomorrow we may be lawyer, activists, teacher, politicians, judges,
bureaucrats, so we must be aware of the political ideas.
e. political theory shapes our opinions and argue in an informed manner .

c. it examines the extent to which freedom is resent in the institutions.

d. it looks whether existing institutions are adequate and how existing
institutions can be made more democratic.
e. it trains individual to think rationally about political questions.
Q2. How does political theory allow us to think rationally?
A2. Political Theory examines whether the system is correct or not. it clearly
define the values and sees whether the current system i sdemocratic and fair or
not. it informs an individual of the values which should exist in the system.
Q3. How does political theory make society more democratic?
A3. Political Theory examines whether the system is correct or not. It clearly
define the values and sees whether the current system is democratic and fair or
not. it informs an individual of the values which should exist in the system.
What is Politics?
We identify politics with a negative connotation. When we say somebody is
playing politics, we say that person is dirty or bad. but politics is not a negative
word. It has become a bad word because of the corruption, scams and scandals
by bureaucracy and politicians. we think that politics means where a person
follows his own interests at the cost of public.
But Politics is a positive word. It means resolving conflicts and allowing equal
distribution of resources so that we are able to have an equal and fair society.
Politics involves making and taking decisions so as to bring a change in the
lives of people.
so for politics to be carried out, we need important institutions like family,
school, economic institutions, government.
Government is one such important institution. If the government is good, then
all decisions are taken in favor of public. But if the government is corrupt, then
people will suffer because politicians will fill their own pockets.
So, we people then form associations and organise campaigns to be clear in our
demands. We negotiate with the government reagrding our demands and if the
government does not hear us then we protest and take out rallies. for example:
Anna Hazare protested against corruption in our political system.
In short, politics sees what is just and what is unjust. It negotiate with
different groups to form a decision which is beneficial to all sections of society.
therefore, they work towards development and progress in society. and
resolving conflict among various sections over distribution of resources.
(distribution of resources means that various groups want to have control over
resources. for example: you might have heard of cauvery water dispute where
tamil nadu and karnataka are fighting over share of water. because each state
wants water for their drinking, irrigation and industrial purposes. so to resolve
such conflicts we require institutions like judiciary, government.)
Q&A
Q1. what is politics?
A1. Politics is a process by which decisions are taken in the interest of people.
institutions decide what is just and unjust. and then they collectively remove

unjust practices in the system. it is important in resolving conflicts over

distribution of resources and for development in society.
Q2. Why politics has become a bad word?
A2. Politics have become a bad word because of the scams and scandals
committed by our bureaucracy and politicians. our political system has become
corrupt where the office holders think about expanding their own interests.
Q3. How ordinary people carry out politics?
A3. ordinary people organise campaigns and form associations to put their
demands forward to the government. But if the government does not listen to
their demands, then they protest and organise rallies and demonstrations.
protest by anna hazare against corruption is a clear example.
Q4. what is the significance of politics?
A4. politics is very important for the progress and development of society. It is
required for arriving at just decisions and removing injustices in society. it
allows for negoatiations that go in society through collective decision making.
it resolves conflicts over distribution of resources.
Q5. How does politics help in resolving conflict over distribution of resouces?
A5. There are various groups in our society. and all groups require resources to
develop their community. But, natural resources are scarce. so groups fight
over these limited resources. and here the government intervenes to help in just
and equal distribution of resources so that no community feel marginalised and
exploited.
What do we study in political theory?
So, now we have read that political theory is important to form values and have
values which will help in governing our society. and we have also seen that
since politics has become a dirty word so it is important to study political
theory more seriously so that we can know how it can be made beneficial to the
society. So, what will we study in political theory?
We will study the ideas and values propagated by different persons to make our
society more better. For Example: ideas of mahatma gandhi on non violence
and satyagraha. gandhi spread these ideas to bring a peaceful and non violent
political system. Ambedkar stood for equal rights for deprived sections like
dalits, SC, ST etc. He was of the opinion that every individual is equal and
caste has no role to play in politics. hw was against untouchability.
So, political theory deals with ideas and principles that how society can be
made more better. ow our constitutions should be shaped? how our
governments should function? how our society should treat every individual?
should they treat our rulers superior? or should they treat everybody as equal?
so different people give their own arguments. for example: aristotle has said
that slaves and rulers need to be treated unequally. slaves should act as slaves
and be ready to serve their rulers. whereas rulers should continue with their
rule and have rule on people and slaves. whereas contemporary thinkers like
locke and ambedkar talks about equality for all.
so in political theory you will read about these arguments by different thinkers
and the rationality behind their arguments.

so now the question which arises is why do we need to study age old ideas of
political thinkers who wrote 100-200 years back and are their ideas still
relevant?
Now you must be wondering that India has got independence and our
constitution has granted equal rights to all so why do we need to discuss this.
We still require political theory because there is poverty and unemployment
and these ills still constrict our freedom and rights. so to allow us to live fully
and with freedom we require political theory.
And moreover as our world is changing there are different interpretations of
freedom which evolves. for example: Recently we have got right to
information. And also we require freedom to connect and share ideas on
internet but government is putting restrictions on this.
so political theory answers all these queries.
Q&A
Q1.Why do we need political theory?
A1. we require political theory for:
a. it deals with ideas and principles that shape constitutions, governments and
social life.
b. it clarifies the meaning of concepts like freedom, equality, justice,
democracy, secularism etc.
c. political theorists examine arguments of thinkers and then defend values and
shape possibilities for the future.
d. Although society has achieved freedom and equality but there other sections
that have not been able to get minimum quality of life. so society still needs
freedom and equality for other section of society.
e. the world is changing and the meaning of freedom and rights also change. so
we need to be in touch with political theory of what rights and what kinds of
freedom needs to be brought in. for example: we now have right to
information.
Q2. Even though india has got independence, why do we need political
theory?
A2. Even though india has got independence, we need political theory because
there are still restrictions on freedom in the form of discriminations on the
basis of caste, gender, region and religion. there is poverty nad unemployment.
some are privileged while others are deprived of basic necessities. so to bring
freedom and equality to all sections, we require political theory.
Q3. Why do we require political theory with changing times?
A3. Society changes with changing times. And as society changes, different
interpretations of concepts like freedom, equality, rights emerges. For example:
now our rights have been expanded and we have right to information as one of
our rights.
non serious
chap 1

Introduction
there are questions which arise in our mind that how should our society be?
who should rule our society? Should there be rulers or not? how should the
problems in our society like poverty, unemployment and violence be death
with? what kind of education be provided to us? should be act like slave sor be
treated us with respect and dignity? how can we bring equality and respect in
the society? These our questions which constantly bog our mind. and political
theory examines and answers these questions.
Political Theory looks at these queries critically. and gives a just and fair
answer to it. when i say just answer it means that it gives an answer which does
justice to every individual not only to a group of individuals. thus, it helps us in
thinking rationally about political questions
So, political theory talks about values and gives the definition of these values.
for example: ancient greece said that justice means where people are divided
into rulers and slaves. And slaves have no right except working for the comfort
of rulers.
But, today in modern times, justice is defined as equal treatment for everybody.
so political theory also helps in clarifying concepts. it also helps in making
values more democratic. for example: justice now has become more
democratic.
Q&A
Q1. What is the significance of political theory?
A1. the importance of political theory is :
a. it critically evaluates values which are part of our life- freedom, equality and
justice.
b. it defines the concepts and talks about its significance.
c. it examines the extent to which freedom is resent in the institutions.
d. it looks whether existing institutions are adequate and how existing
institutions can be made more democratic.
e. it trains individual to think rationally about political questions.
What is Politics?
We identify politics with a negative connotation. When we say somebody is
playing politics, we say that person is dirty or bad. but politics is not a negative
word. It has become a bad word because of the corruption, scams and scandals
by bureaucracy and politicians. we think that politics means where a person
follows his own interests at the cost of public.
But Politics is a positive word. It means resolving conflicts and allowing equal
distribution of resources so that we are able to have an equal and fair society.

Politics involves making and taking decisions so as to bring a change in the

lives of people.
Q&A
Q1. what is politics?
A1. Politics is a process by which decisions are taken in the interest of people.
institutions decide what is just and unjust. and then they collectively remove
unjust practices in the system. it is important in resolving conflicts over
distribution of resources and for development in society.
Q2. what is the significance of politics?
A2. politics is very important for the progress and development of society. It is
required for arriving at just decisions and removing injustices in society. it
allows for negoatiations that go in society through collective decision making.
it resolves conflicts over distribution of resources.
What do we study in political theory?
We will study the ideas and values propagated by different persons to make our
society more better. For Example: ideas of mahatma gandhi on non violence
and satyagraha. gandhi spread these ideas to bring a peaceful and non violent
political system. Ambedkar stood for equal rights for deprived sections like
dalits, SC, ST etc. He was of the opinion that every individual is equal and
caste has no role to play in politics. hw was against untouchability.
So, political theory deals with ideas and principles that how society can be
made more better. ow our constitutions should be shaped? how our
governments should function? how our society should treat every individual?
should they treat our rulers superior? or should they treat everybody as equal?
so different people give their own arguments. for example: aristotle has said
that slaves and rulers need to be treated unequally. slaves should act as slaves
and be ready to serve their rulers. whereas rulers should continue with their
rule and have rule on people and slaves. whereas contemporary thinkers like
locke and ambedkar talks about equality for all.
so in political theory you will read about these arguments by different thinkers
and the rationality behind their arguments.
so now the question which arises is why do we need to study age old ideas of
political thinkers who wrote 100-200 years back and are their ideas still
relevant?
Now you must be wondering that India has got independence and our
constitution has granted equal rights to all so why do we need to discuss this.
We still require political theory because there is poverty and unemployment
and these ills still constrict our freedom and rights. so to allow us to live fully
and with freedom we require political theory.

And moreover as our world is changing there are different interpretations of

freedom which evolves. for example: Recently we have got right to
information. And also we require freedom to connect and share ideas on
internet but government is putting restrictions on this.
Q&A
Q1.Why do we need political theory?
A1. we require political theory for:
a. it deals with ideas and principles that shape constitutions, governments and
social life.
b. it clarifies the meaning of concepts like freedom, equality, justice,
democracy, secularism etc.
c. political theorists examine arguments of thinkers and then defend values and
shape possibilities for the future.
d. Although society has achieved freedom and equality but there other sections
that have not been able to get minimum quality of life. so society still needs
freedom and equality for other section of society.
e. the world is changing and the meaning of freedom and rights also change. so
we need to be in touch with political theory of what rights and what kinds of
freedom needs to be brought in. for example: we now have right to
information.

MCQs
1. political theory is important because:
a. gives critical examination
b. for learning
c. our education system thins so
d. in the syllabus
ans A
2. Significance of political theory does NOT include:
a. makes system democratic
b. think rationally
c. theory is important for practice
d. theory is important for our syllabus

ans D
3. what is politics?
a. it is a process
b. it is a mathematical caluculation.
c. it is a geographical area
d. it is a scientific method.
Ans A
4. what is not the significance of politics?
a. It helps in resolving conflicts
b. organisation of campaigns.
c. asking money for work
d. protesting against wrong policies.
ans C
5. how does ordinary people carry out politics?
a. by protesting
b. by buying goods from mall
c. by finding jobs in media
d. by watching news regularly
ans A
6. What is not the significance of politics?
a. resolving conflicts
b. working for development
c. to throw shoes on ministers
d. decison making
ans C
7. who is a politician in this?
a. mahatma gandhi
b. man mohan singh
c. rousseau
d. marx
ans B

8. who first argued for freedom as a fundamental right of humankind?

a. mahatma gandhi
b. rousseau
c. karl marx
d. ambedkar
ans B
9. Who wrote the book hind swaraj?
a. mahatma gandhi
b. rousseau
c. karl marx
d. ambedkar
ans A
10. Who was the teacher of plato?
a. karl marx
b. rousseau
c. socrates
d. cephalus
ans C
11. Who wrote 'The Republic'?
a. karl marx
b. plato
c. socrates
d. cephalus
ans B
12. who was described as the wisest man in athens?
a. a. karl marx
b. plato
c. socrates
d. cephalus
ans C

dictionary
chap 1
a. institutions : organisations having functions and a specific structure.
b.

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