Energy Conversion and Management 52 (2011) 5359

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Energy Conversion and Management

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/enconman

The study on the evaporation cooling efciency and effectiveness of cooling

tower of lm type
Li Yingjian a,*, You Xinkui a, Qiu Qi a, Li Jiezhi b
a
b

College of Chemistry & Chemical Engineering, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, PR China
Ecole Centrale de Lyon 69130, France

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Article history:
Received 2 August 2007
Received in revised form 13 October 2009
Accepted 13 June 2010
Available online 13 July 2010
Keywords:
Film type cooling
Latent heat of evaporation
Energy balance
Efciency and effectiveness

a b s t r a c t
Based on heat and mass transport mechanism of lm type cooling, which was combined with an on-site
test on counter ow lm type cooling tower, a mathematical model on the evaporation and cooling efciency and effectiveness has been developed. Under typical climatic conditions, air conditioning load and
the operating condition, the mass and heat balances have been calculated for the air and the cooling
water including the volume of evaporative cooling water. Changing rule has been measured and calculated between coefcient of performance (COP) and chiller load. The inuences of air and cooling water
parameters on the evaporative cooling efciency were analyzed in cooling tower restrained by latent heat
evaporative cooling, and detailed derivation and computation revealed that both the evaporative cooling
efciency and effectiveness of cooling tower are the same characteristics parameters of the thermal performance of a cooling tower under identical assumptions.
Crown Copyright 2010 Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Thermal efciency is commonly used to express the cooling effect of a cooling tower, and it in fact represents water evaporative
cooling efciency [1]. Merkel developed a cooling tower model in
1925, for simplicity, several crucial suppositions have been made.
Namely:
(1) the Lewis factor of the airwater system Lef = (h/cPH  hm) = 1,
(2) the outlet air of the cooling tower is water vapor saturated,
and may just be represented by the enthalpy of the air,
(3) the evaporation impact of the cooling water on the energy
balance is neglected in the cooling tower,
The effectiveness-NTU based on the same simplied assumptions as the Merkel method, NTU method is convenient and quite
accurate compared with other existing numerical methods. The
shortcoming is that it is difculty to quantify the product of the heat
transfer coefcient and the area, since the detailed information is
required on the geometry of the cooling tower, and when the operating point is changed, iterative computation is indispensible [2].
The Poppe method was proposed by Poppe and Rgener [3] to
express the Lewis factor more rigorously. The Lewis factor for
supersaturated air was derived from the empirical relationship of
the Lewis factor for unsaturated air developed by Bosnjakovic [4]
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +86 755 26538802; fax: +86 755 26536141.
E-mail address: szulyj@sohu.com (Y. Li).

for airsteam system. Therefore more accurate results for the

outlet air moisture content and in predicting evaporating water
content were achieved compared to the Merkel method and effectiveness NTU method [5].
The Poppe method was especially suitable for the analysis of
mixed style cooling tower, where accurate determination of the
outlet air state was required. The differences in the Merkel and
Poppe methods for the evaporative and cooling analyses could be
described with the aid of temperatureenthalpy diagrams and psychrometric charts [6,7].
In the experimental model to study the heat and mass transfer
performance of the cooling tower in operation, Jin et al. [2] employed a cooling tower with the size of 4.94 m (L)  4.94 m
(W)  3.96 m (H). But for simulation purpose, most widely used
equipments were minitype ones, for example, Lemouari et al. [8]
employed a model tower whose size was 0.206 m  0.148 m 
0.55 m for thermal properties research on the cooling tower lling.
Gharagheizi et al. [9] employed a model tower whose size was
0.5 m  0.5 m  1.5 m for the performance experiment of two kind
thin lm lling mechanical draft cooling tower. Naphon [10]
employed a minimized cooling tower, whose size was 0.15 m 
0.15 m  0.48 m, the mathematical model is solved by an iterative
method. This model was corrected by the heat transfer characteristics and the pressure drop of the cooling tower obtained from
experiments.
The model cooling tower and the actual cooling tower to have
likely analogy proportion (similar) law that such as the pump
and the blower to have the same the experience and the theory

0196-8904/$ - see front matter Crown Copyright 2010 Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.enconman.2010.06.036

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Y. Li et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 52 (2011) 5359

Nomenclature
A
A0
COP
cPH
cPL
cpg
cpV
G
H
H
H
hm
I
Isat,wi
K
L
Lsup
NTU
P
Ps
Qc
Qe
R
ro

heat transfer area, m2

net area of the discharge air, m2
coefcient of performance
specic heat of humid air, kJ/kg C
specic heat of cooling water, kJ/kg C
specic heat of dry air, 1.01 kJ/kg C
specic heat of water vapor in air, 1.88 kJ/kg C
mass rate of air, kg/s
humidity ratio of air, kg water/kg dry air
saturated humidity at entering water temperature,
kg water/kg dry air
heat transfer coefcient, w/m2 K
mass transfer coefcient, kg/m2 s
enthalpy of humid air, kJ/kg
saturated air enthalpy at entering water temperature,
kJ/kg
overall heat transfer coefcient, kW/m2 C
mass rate of cooling water, kg/s
mass rate of supply water, kg/s
number of transfer units
input power of chiller, kW
saturated pressure of water vapor in air, kPa
heat load of condenser, kW
heat load of evaporator, kW
specic waterair heat capacity ratio
latent heat of evaporation of water, 2500 kJ/kg

relationship still not were discovered. Therefore, utilizing in used

of cooling tower for examination has the advantage of discovering
the adverse factors for the tower structure as well as the operational parameter. Consequently, adjustments could be made in
time.
The mechanical draft cooling tower in this study is utilizing a
rotating pipe-type water distributing system, and the tower is
packed with thick wave-shape PVC boards, and the tower outlet
uses an axial-ow fan. The cooling water mixes directly with the
air in the cooling tower. The temperature difference between the
water and the air makes the sensible heat transfer, and partial
moisture evaporation makes the latent heat transfer, and therefore
the overall heat transfer is the sum of the sensible and the latent
heat transfer. The sensible heat transfer is proportional to the temperature difference between cooling water and the air. The latent
heat transfer is proportional to the humidity difference between
the entering and leaving air. When the inlet water temperature is
higher than the outlet air dry bulb temperature, the sensible heat
and the latent heat transfers as a result of the temperature and
the psychrometric difference reduce the water temperature, and
at the same time elevate the air temperature and humidity. When
the inlet water temperature is lower than the dry bulb temperature
and higher than the wet-bulb temperature, the latent heat transfer
because of partial cooling water evaporation predominates, and
the outlet water temperature drops. Meanwhile the air temperature decreases and humidity increases. In higher humidity and
hot season, the latent heat transfer is predominant in cooling
tower, and it accounts for as much as 8090% of the overall heat
transfer [11].
Based on the fundamental theory of the heat and mass transfer,
in combination with a eld test on a counter ow cooling tower of
lm type, cold load rule of air conditioners in working was tested
and calculated. Meanwhile, the air and cooling water parameters
was analyzed for their impact on the thermal efciency for the
cooling tower that which is predominated by the latent heat evaporative cooling process. Moreover, a mathematical model was dis-

Tc
T
tawb
u

u
V

condensation temperature of refrigerant vapor, C

temperature, C
wet-bulb temperature of air, C
air velocity at outlet, m/s
the average air velocity at outlet, m/s
volume rate of air, m3/h

Greek symbols
g
thermal efciency of cooling tower
u
relative humidity
e
effectiveness of cooling tower
qa
air density, kg/m3
Du
difference of air velocity, m/s
Dt
temperature difference, C
mH
humid volume, m3/kg
Subscripts
awb
air wet-bulb temperature, C
max
maximum
min
minimum
o
standard condition
a
air
w
cooling water
in
inlet
out
outlet

cussed for the evaporative cooling efciency and effectiveness for

evaporative cooling of lm type. The detailed derivation and computation proved that the evaporative cooling efciency and effectiveness of cooling tower are the same thermal performance
parameter to characterize the cooling tower.

2. Testing device
The system consists of two centrifugal chiller units (380RT)
mounted underground, and three cooling towers (LBC-LN-500)
mounted on the roof of a 91 m high building are parallelly connected and operated. One of the cooling towers is to the west of
the other two. The runtime of the system is from 8:00 am to
17:30 pm. Because the lling height in the cooling tower is not
high enough (only two stories, see Fig. 1), the heat and mass transfer process is only between the cooling tower and the spray tower.

2.1. Test meters

Building Automation System (BAS): an intelligent on-line control and measuring appliance for the building automatic control
system developed by Johnson controls, Inc., USA. The core part of
BAS system is the network controller (NU-NC3 361-8), which is
responsible for the connection of the central operation station
(OWS) with the directdigit controller (DDC)
Locale test meters as shown in Table 1.

2.2. Measuring points distribution

The BAS data were monitored and displayed on the output
screen in the operation room, and other data were measured with
the locale test meters in Table 1. The measuring points are distributed as in Fig. 1.

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Y. Li et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 52 (2011) 5359

Axial Fan V

u a taout
out

3800
500 700 480 1200

770

3300

Bank Building

4460

ta

in

tawbin in

L sup

tc
Lch

tch
tw
V

in

in

RT ,V , I ,tR22

P
tw

Cooling Pump

out

Chillers
tch

Chilling Pump
out

Fig. 1. Distribution of systematic measuring points.

3.2. The inlet wind status

Table 1
Specications for on-site test meters.
Device

Model

Function

Unit

Measuring
accuracy

Germany testo
635
Digitaltemp and
hygrometer
Electric
instrument

DET06352
TES-1360

Air parameter

FLUKE316

0.3 C, 0.5% RH of
reading
0.8 C, 3% RH of
reading
1.9 5%/1.2 5%

Anemoscope

8903/06

Blower
electric
quantity
Flow speed of
air

C,
%
C,
%
A, V

m/s

Glass tube
thermometer

Mercury

Scale
division 0.1 C,
0.01 m/s
0.1 C

Air parameter

Cooling water
temp

3. Measuring and calculation

3.1. Load of air conditioning
The ow rate of the cold water uctuated quite a lot, nevertheless, the temperature difference was relatively stable during the
system testing. Because the starting room temperature was in
equilibrium with the outdoor temperature, the chiller unit started
at its highest load of the entire day. From 8:30 am to 10:30 am, the
system load stabilized gradually, and the air conditioning load decreased progressively to its lowest value. At noon the air temperature elevated gradually, consequently, the air conditioning load
started to rise, and kept almost constant at the lunch break. In
the afternoon, the load varied similarly to the morning. Table 2
showed the typical load variation during the workday.
The variation of coefcient of performance (COP) was almost
the same as that of the air conditioning load. Both decreased to
the lowest value at about 10:30 am, and reached the highest value
at about 16:30 pm. This demonstrated that COP was directly proportional to the chiller load rate, and that COP was related with
the refrigerant condensing temperature. The lower condensing
temperature favors higher COP.

The meteorological conditions during test period were that the

dry bulb temperature was 2833 C, and the relative humidity was
5585%. Because of the direct solarization, the leading wind direction, the atmospheric pressure, the obstruction from the buildings
around the cooling tower, as well as the warm, moist discharge air
reentering the tower [12] and so on, the condition of the inlet wind
varied greatly. The maximum dry bulb temperature difference was
6.7 C, and the maximum wet-bulb temperature difference was
2.7 C. The dry bulb temperatures of inlet wind for the two east
towers were always higher than that of the west tower, while
the relative humidity is higher for the east towers in the morning
and for the west tower in the afternoon. The maximum and minimum dry bulb temperature differences for the entering wind of all
towers were 5.3 C. The variation range of the relative humidity for
the two east towers was more than 60%, but variation in the wetbulb temperature was less than 1.9 C.
The dry bulb temperature of inlet air rised continually since
power on at 8:30 am, and reached the maximum temperature at
15:30 pm, and then started to drop. The relative humidity dropped
continually since power on; and the minimum value appeared at
about 15:30 pm. The change in the tendency of inlet wind status
is in accordance with the meteorological condition, but the temperature and humidity of entering wind are higher than the ground
air parameters, the dry bulb temperature could be sometimes 2 C
higher. Fig. 2, Fig. 3, Table 3 have listed the inlet wind status of the
east and west towers.
When the air conditioning load and the ow rate of cooling
water were kept constant, COP increased with decreasing wet-bulb
temperature of inlet air. It was obvious that the COP was inversely
proportional with wet-bulb temperature of inlet wind under steady operation state.

3.3. Temperature of the cooling water

The outlet temperature of cooling water was approximately 4
5 C lower than the refrigerant condensing temperature, and chiller
unit would stop automatically if the refrigerant condensing temperature was close to 40.0 C. The mean temperature difference

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Y. Li et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 52 (2011) 5359

Table 2
Chiller units test parameters.

Time

8:30

9:30

10:30

11:30

12:30

13:30

14:30

15:30

16:30

17:30

Chiller power (kW)

Cold water rate (m3/h)a
Temp difference (C)
Refrigeration (kW)
COP
Condensing temp (C)

585.5
550
4.3
2.753
4.69
35.1

553.1
385
4.2
1.882
3.40
35.3

489.2
238
4.0
1.108
2.26
34.9

507.9
315
3.9
1.430
2.82
34.7

492.7
374
3.9
1.698
3.45
34.4

464.0
416
3.6
1.743
3.76
33.1

493.5
500
3.7
2.153
4.36
33.8

502.3
372
3.9
1.689
3.36
33.4

495.1
555
3.7
2.390
4.83
33.7

459.3
519
2.6
1.571
3.42
33.8

The data from the pipeline ow meters.

umin = 3.0 m/s were measured by anemoscope on 32 distributing

dot by equal-area ring method. The wind speed showed the maximum difference of umax = 7.98 m/s and the minimum difference of
Dumin = 1.17 m/s on the same circumference. All these results indicated the blockage of the llings [13]. The mean velocity of outlet
 5:13 m=s, and the air ow
air was measured and calculated as u
area (wind speed survey section) A0 = 9.0 m/s.Humid volume

vH

qa

2:83  103 4:56  103 Ht 273

The mass rate and volume ux of the leaving humid air was calculated by the following equations respectively:

  A0 ;
Gout qa;out  u

  A0
V out u

Outlet and inlet tower air parameters were shown in Table 4.

Scheme and parameters of heat and mass balance were shown
in Fig. 4 and Table 5 respectively.

Fig. 2. Variation of the temperature ta with time.

3.4.2. Cooling water ux

The outlet air of the cooling tower contained partial vaporized water vapor which was generated from the contact of the
cooling water with the air. To make-up this amount of partial
vaporized water, tap water was added into the water collecting
sump of cooling tower.

Lin Lsup Lout

Lsup 6.88 m3/h which was determined by stopwatch-weighing

method.
3.4.3. The balancing calculation of heat and the mass
Air humidity is

H 0:622

Fig. 3. Variation of the relative humidity u with time.

of the circulating cooling water was less than 3.9 C, and the maximum temperature difference did not exceed 4.2 C (according to
statistics data). The variation of the inlet and outlet cooling water
temperature of tw was basically the same as that of the refrigeration quantity. When the cooling range is constant the cooling
water mass ux is proportional of the air conditioning load.

u  ps
p  u  ps

Condenser heat load is

Qc P Qe

Cooling water mass ux is

Qc
tw;in  t w;out  cpL

Enthalpy of moist air is

3.4. The heat and mass balance

3.4.1. The air ow rate
When the outlet wind temperature for the east towers was
34.2 C and relative humidity was 75.4% at 13:30 pm, a maximum
wind speed of umax = 7.98 m/s and a minimum wind speed

I cpg t cpV H  t a r 0  H 1:01 1:88Ht a 2500H

Heat balance of water and air within the tower

Lin  t w;in  Lout  t w;out cpL Gout  Ia;out  Gin  Ia;in

Table 3
Variation of wet-bulb temperature tawb of entering wind for cooling tower with time.
Time

8:30

9:30

10:30

11:30

12:30

13:30

14:30

15:30

16:30

17:30

tawb (C) in east

tawb (C) in west

27.3
26.7

27.6
27.2

27.4
27.2

27.9
28.7

27.1
27.2

27.1
28.2

26.6
28.3

26.3
27.8

26.0
27.5

27.4
27.1

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Y. Li et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 52 (2011) 5359

where tw,in = 32.3 C, tw,out = 29.4 C, tawb,in = 27.1 C, g = 0.5577,

Hsat,wi = 0.03164, Isat;wi 1:01 1:88  Hsat;wi t w;in 2500  Hsat;wi
113:63; g0 0:5599.
The cooling range of Eq. (11) expressed only the heat dissipating
capacity, which is not the same as the cooling effect. When the inlet water temperature is certain, the thermal efciency g is a function of the approach, the cooling performance is decided by the
heat load and the ow rate of water. Magnitude of g value has reected the cooling tower performance. If air is drawn out outward,
under this low air pressure, the steam diffusion coefcient increases, leading to more intense evaporation and higher g value.
Fig. 5 shows that the thermal efciency of the east cooling towers decreases to its minimum 46.8% at 13:30 pm. This is because of
the gradual increase in the cooling water mass ux with invariable
air ow rate. Therefore, the quantity of vaporized water vapor is increased, while the air density is reduced, leading to a minimum air
mass ow rate. During this time period, the latent heat transfer is
the majority of the total heat transfer. A large sum of make-up
waters is needed to compensate the water loss from the vaporization. Meanwhile, the increase of the air conditioning load also requires a subsequent increase the cooling water circulation;
therefore, a higher mass rate of air is needed for the increase of
the thermal efciency of the cooling tower.
The thermodynamic performance of the cooling tower is highly
relevant to the wet-bulb temperature of the inlet air. Fig. 6 shows
that the east and west cooling towers, with basically the same
cooling water condition, have different thermal efciency because
of inlet air conditions. The thermal efciency was same basically
when air wet-bulb temperatures are close to each other. When
the difference is bigger, and then the thermal efciency has the
bigger differential value.

Table 4
The measured and calculated data for air of east side cooling towers.

a
b

Time 13:30

ta (C)

u (%)

qa (kg/m3)

G (kg/s)

V (m3/h)

Entering air
Leaving aira
State conversionb

34.7
34.2
20.0

55.6
75.4
50.0

1.113
1.104
1.20

48.87
50.78
50.78

1.58  105*2
1.66  105
1.52  105

The impact of water evaporation had been considered.

Fans standards state (qa,o = 101.325 kPa, ta,o = 20.0 C, u = 50.0%).

Cooling
tower

Fig. 4. Scheme of the equation of heat and mass.

4. The efciency and effectiveness

4.2. The thermal effectiveness (e-NTU method)
4.1. The thermal efciency
The thermal efciency of the cooling tower describes the water
evaporative cooling efciency. The lowest temperature that the
cooling water can achieve is close to wet-bulb temperature of inlet
air. The maximum theoretical heat released from the cooling water
in the cooling tower was given by:

dQ max L  cpL  tw;in  tawb;in

The thermal effectiveness of the cooling tower, mentioned by

Refs. [11,15,16], see Eq. (13), is a characteristic parameter for the
evaluation of the cooling towers performance.

The actual heat released was given by:

dQ L  cpL  tw;in  tw;out

10

Merkel method expressed the thermal efciency of cooling

tower as the ratio of the actual released heat to the maximum theoretical heat from the cooling water [14], namely

t w;in  t w;out
t w;in  t awb;in

11

Lin Lout, Gin Gout, The evaporation loss of water was not considered in Eq. (11), therefore error could be occurred in the thermal
balance calculation.
The tower effectiveness can be also determined from:

g0

Ia;out  Ia;in
Isat;wi  Ia;in

12

Fig. 5. Relationship between the tw,out, tawb,in, and g, in the east side towers with
time.

Table 5
The parameters of heat and mass balance.
Time 13:30 pm

ta (C)

H (kg kg1)

tw (C)

Hw (kg kg1)

G (kg s1)

L (kg s1)

I (kJ kg1)

Q (kW)

Inlet tower
Outlet tower

34.7
34.2

0.0195
0.0260

32.3
29.4

0.0229
0.0277

48.87
50.78

60.78
58.87

85.07
101.06

12,352
12,356

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Y. Li et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 52 (2011) 5359

Dt m

32:3  30:2  29:4  27:1

2:198
32:3  30:2
ln
29:4  27:1

and obtain

eg

Fig. 6. Variation of the thermal efciency g at air conditions of different inlet tower
with time.

1  eNTUR1
1  R  eNTUR1

13

Starting from Eq. (13), the relationship between e and g is discussed. The e and g can be derived by the following equations:
From heat balance by the water and air

L  cpL  Dtw G  cpH  Dtawb

14

Specic heat capacity ratio is

L  cpL
Dt awb
R

G  cpH
Dt w

15

The number of heat transfer units is

NTU

t w;in  t w;out
KA

L  cpL
Dt m

16

Log mean temperature difference (LMTD):

1

Dtm ln

L  cpL
t w;in  t w;out



KA
L  cpL
G  cpH t w;in  tawb;in

1
tw;in  tw;out
L  cpL
G  cpH
1
tw;in  tawb;in

17

The combined with that the heat balance of water and air, the
heat transfer rate as well as the log mean temperature difference,
eliminate wet-bulb temperature tawb;out of leaving air from the cooling tower and was obtain:

1
ln

L  cpL
t w;in  t w;out



KA
L  cpL
G  cpH t w;in  tawb;in

1
tw;in  tw;out
L  cpL
G  cpH
1
tw;in  t awb;in

18

Take the Eqs. (11), (15), (16) and (17) substitutes into the Eq.
(18) and was obtain:

ln

1Rg
NTU1  R
1g

19

Reorganize Eq. (19) and obtain

1  eNTUR1
1  e1:3191:0691

0:5577:
NTUR1
1Re
1  1:069  e1:3191:0691

Comparing formula (11) and (20), we can see that the Merkel
method and the e-NTU method gives consistent results under the
same simplied assumption. When the inlet, outlet cooling water
and the air temperature are kept constant, cpL/cpH can be regarded
as a constant, then the thermal efciency is dependent on mass rate
of the water and the air as well as the number of heat transfer units.
When the temperature of the entering and leaving cooling water
and the air web bulb is kept constant, and the number of heat transfer units is also kept constant, then the thermal efciency was controlled by ratio of the mass rate of the water and the air. The
experiment of thermal efciency with function relations of the
water and the air ratio by Fisenko et al. [17,18] through the radius
of different water drop proved that the thermal efciency of the
pack is a nonlinear monotonically decreasing function of the relation of the specic mass ow rates of the water and the air, when
the cooling water and the air temperature condition is invariable.
5. Conclusions
(1) When the temperature of the entering and leaving cooling
water and the air wet-bulb is constant, the thermal efciency of the cooling tower were controlled by the mass rate
ratio of water and air. The larger the mass rate ratio of water
and air is, the lower the thermal efciency is, that is, the
evaporation rate of the moisture is small. When the air conditioning load is increased, it is needed to increase the air
mass rate to maintain the thermal efciency constant, therefore, the blower should have the device of frequency control.
(2) The water supply is approximately 2.53.0% of the volume of
overall circulates water during test process, and should be
adjustable along with different operating mode. When the
latent heat transfer process is predominated, certain water
supply needs to be maintained. If the dry bulb temperature
of the entering air is obviously lower than the entering water
temperature, and that the relative humidity is on the higher
side, the total heat transfer will be predominated by sensible
heat transfer, and water supply can be reduced accordingly.
(3) The serious lling clogs in cooling tower could signicantly
inuence the mass ow rate of the water and the air, as well
as process of the heat and the mass transfer.
(4) After detailed derivation and the calculation, it is derived
that both the e and the g are equal to 0.5577; this indicates
that the evaporative cooling efciency and the effectiveness
of the cooling tower are the same characteristics parameters
for the thermal performance of a cooling tower.

Acknowledgements

NTUR1

1e
1  R  eNTUR1

20

Substitute the corresponding parameters in Eqs. (15), (16), (17)

and (20) and the followings are evaluated:

Dtawb t awb;out  tawb;in 30:2  27:1

1:069;

32:3  29:4
Dt w
tw;in  tw;out

NTU

32:3  29:4
1:319;
2:198

This research has been supported by public technological project (Contract No. SY2008343).The authors would like to thank
the Bureau of science and technology and information, Shenzhen,
for their contribution in project realization. The anonymous
reviewers are also appreciated for their comments.
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