Chapter 2

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Introduction
TC-700 is one of the critical gas compressor-driver steam turbine at Petron Bataan
Refinery (PBR). During years of its operation, there are instances where it suffered drop in
performance due to deposition or fouling of steam turbine blades caused by abnormal steam
quality. This prompts the management of PBR to implement strict condition monitoring in
order for early detection and assessment of signs of performance drop. However, difficulties
of analyzation of condition monitoring arises due to the fact that the turbines operating point
is always varying to match the process requirements. Steam turbine also cannot be tested offgrid because it operates at 24/7. This prompted an idea to develop a quick and trendable
monitoring technique for easy turbine performance assessment using empirical quantities
derived from other steam turbine operating parameters.

Related Readings
ASME/ANSI PTC 6S Report Simplified Procedure for Routine Performance Tests
of Steam Turbines is a guideline to perform developing procedures of monitoring steam
turbine performance. This includes data in determining turbine cycle heat rate, power
capacity, high pressure (HP) and intermediate pressure (IP) section efficiencies, turbine stage
pressures and flow capacities, Albert, (2000). The procedures will determine trends of
operating efficiency, trouble detection, and test data for evaluation of efficiency changes of

steam turbine operation. In order to have a reliable result in conducting the procedures,
precision instruments must be installed at critical test points, ASME PTC-6S (2003).
Related Literature
Steam Turbine
Steam Turbines is a type of Heat Engine where heat is extracted from the steam then
converting it to mechanical work. The steam turbine, however, differs from other type of heat
engine (i.e. steam engine, internal combustion engine) on the manner of converting the heat
energy to mechanical work. The heat energy is transformed into Kinetic (Velocity) Energy
which is then transformed to mechanical work. The Kinetic Energy is produced by the steam
passing to a small opening. The Mechanical work is then produced by striking (impulse) or
leaving (reaction) a movable part, Terrell Croft (1923).
At Saudi Aramco, steam turbines are used as a prime mover to drive generators, gas
compressors and pumps. Nozzles and Blades are the two main components of Steam turbine
to convert steam heat energy to mechanical work. The rotating parts are the blades while the
stationary or non-moving parts the nozzles. Pressure and Temperature comprises the heat
energy stored in the steam. As the steam passes the nozzle, the steam velocity increases while
the pressure drops. The kinetic energy of the steam will strike the blades causing them to
move thus generating a mechanical work. The blades are aligned around the circumference of
the rotating wheel while the nozzles are aligned along the inside circumference of the
stationary wheel just around the same radius of the blades, Saudi Aramco (2003).
Steam turbines converts the heat energy of steam into mechanical work. Steam heat
energy is defined by its pressure and temperature. Given these properties, enthalpy, entropy

and state can be determined using steam diagrams. The steam will pass thru a small opening
converting the pressure energy to kinetic energy. During this process, the temperature and
pressure decreases. The developed kinetic energy moves the blades of the turbine thus
spinning the wheel. The spinning wheel is now the mechanical work. Steam turbine has
many purpose mainly as a driver of equipment such as pumps, generators, fans and blowers
and compressors. The steam turbine has an advantage of converting directly the heat energy
to mechanical work compared to electric motors where the heat must be transformed to
mechanical work (thru generators) then to electricity and finally to mechanical work again.
For applications of steam turbine driving compressors and/or pumps, steam turbine has an
advantage to quickly adopt to the varying process load by speed control (thru turbine
governor) and steam flow, Revalo, 2016.
Steam Turbine Performance
Steam Turbine Performance is a way of evaluating the turbine design and installation
and will provide an indication when a turbine maintenance is required. In conventional
method, steam turbine performance is generally related to the amount of energy available.
The amount of energy available is computed with the help of Mollier Diagram by plotting the
actual steam parameters. Mollier diagram is a plot of enthalpy versus entropy with constant
pressure and temperature lines, Saudi Aramco (2003).
Monitoring systems such as vibration, lubrication, material erosion and cracking,
bearing condition, turbine load and speed are not turbine performance indicators. However,
analytical techniques can be assumed using theses parameters can be implemented for
identifying potential steam turbine performance problems, ASME PTC-6S (2003).

The overall turbine performance is a function of the average performance of the

turbine stages which is related to the velocity ratio. The velocity ratio is the blade velocity
(Vb) over steam jet velocity (Vj). Blade velocity at meters per second (m/sec) can be
obtained using the formula: Vb = (DN)/60000, where D is wheel pitch diameter in meters,
N is revolutions per minute (RPM). Steam jet velocity at meters per second (m/sec) can be
obtained using the formula: Vj = (44.72)*sqrt(h1-h2), where h1 and h2 are steam inlet and
outlet enthalpy respectively in kilojoules per kilogram (kJ/kg), Saudi Aramco (2003).

From:

Saudi Aramco (2003), Engineering Encyclopedia - Determining Steam

Turbine Performance Characteristics. Page 7

Steam turbine performance is basically the mechanical steam turbine efficiency.
Which further described as on how the available heat, that is the heat absorbed by the steam
turbine is converted to mechanical work. Not all the heat absorbed by the steam turbine is
converted to mechanical work due to heat loss, steam leakages and other types of
inefficiencies which falls on the steam turbine design, Revalo, 2016
Steam Turbine Blade Deposition (Fouling)
Blade surface deposition is due to the impurities found in the feedwater, water, steam
generator, desuperheating water that flows with the steam and enters the steam turbine. The

impurities dissolve in the superheated and wet steam depending on the pressure and
temperature. The steam losses its pressure and temperature as it passes the turbine thus
loosing also its impurity dissolving characteristic. The impurities then precipitate and adheres
to the turbine blades. The effect of the deposition is a drop in steam turbine performance. The
loss of performance will depend on the deposits thickness, location and the surface
roughness. The performance loss is due to the change of the basic profile of the nozzles
which attributes to changes in flow, energy distribution, and the aerodynamic profiles, Otakar
Jonas, Lee Machemer, 2008.
Deposition on turbine which decreases the performance are formed by precipitation
from superheated steam, evaporation of moisture on surfaces above saturation temperature,
deposition of metal oxides and adsorption of gases and dissolved impurities in superheated
and wet steam onoxidized surface, Otakar Jonas, Joyce Mancini, Jonas, Inc., 2001.
The deposits on the steam turbine blades increases the inter-stage pressure. Steam
turbine deposition can happen on a very short instance given a poor steam purity. Normally,
improper steam water purification process leads to this problem. Amorphous silica (SiO2) is
the most common fouling compound. There are several causes of steam turbine deposition
where most famous are entrainment, attemperating water impurity, boiler water salts
vaporization, localized silica saturation and turbine velocity. Prevention or minimizing of
steam turbine deposition of silica can be realized by proper purification of boiler water using
water treatment facilities such as reverse osmosis and by increasing the number of blowdown
activity in order to lower the silica level of the steam. Online water washing can remove
water soluble deposits that adhered onto the steam turbine blades, however for non-water
soluble steam turbine blades and nozzle deposits such as silica, water washing normally do

no improvement on restoring steam turbine performance which would require steam turbine
opening and blasting to remove the adhered deposits, GE water, 2012.

from: http://www.gewater.com/handbook/boiler_water_systems/fig18-1.jsp

from: http://www.gewater.com/handbook/boiler_water_systems/fig18-2.jsp
Experiences by the author suggests that the main cause of performance degradation of
steam turbines as a driver of compressors and generators is blade deposition or fouling.
Issues such as blade erosion due to particles or droplets of water impinging the blades are
minor issue and insignificant. In PBR, boiler water is subjected to the process called reverse
osmosis which apparently purifies the boiler water before entering the steam generators.

However, reverse osmosis alone does not solve the problem of turbine blade deposition since
the reverse osmosis equipment are continuously online and properly maintained. Mitigations
such as continuous or frequent steam blow down helped to alleviate the issue of blade
deposition. Other source of water going into the steam is during attemperating where water is
injected or sprayed on the steam line in order the steam to desuperheat thus lowering the
temperature. At lower temperature, the steam loses some of its dissolving capabilities which
could worsen the problem. Many instances, during continuous operation, the required
capacity of the driven equipment will not be reached because of decrease in performance of
the steam turbine. Monitoring each steam turbine parameters are tedious due to the
continuously varying operating point as required by the process. Therefore, by just trending
each parameter will not efficiently or proficiently know the current steam turbine
performance, Revalo, 2016.
Steam turbine performance curve
Water rate (or steam rate) is generally the basis of performance guarantee of
manufacturers of steam turbine due to the fact that this is dependent on varying steam
conditions and principally, because all other performance values are determined from it. In
addition, average purchasers of turbine think about the economics in terms of water rate.
However, if inlet and outlet steam conditions are available, water rate is meaningless, Terrell
Croft (1923).
Theoretical steam rate (TSR) is the required steam in producing the horsepower of an
ideal machine. Actual Steam Rate (ASR) which is also called as water rate is the steam
needed per actual horsepower of real steam turbine. TSR can be computed ideally by
subtracting the inlet and exhaust enthalpy at pressures of isentropic condition then converting

to work units (i.e. Btu to ft-lb). ASR is equal to the steam turbine efficiency multiplied by
TSR. TSR tables are very useful and alternative method in calculating steam rates by not
using Mollier diagram, Saudi Aramco (2003).
Steam turbine performance curve using Mollier chart is seemingly difficult to use due
to the obvious reason of difficulty of reading, plotting and computing from it. Steam rate is
easier to visualize since it graphs the power versus the steam flow. Under theoretical
condition (no drop in turbine performance) and by using steam rate, steam flow is linearly
and directly proportional with the steam turbine power delivered. Manufacturers provides a
guarantee Actual Steam Rate graph where the turbine efficiency is already considered. The
actual steam rate provided by the manufacturer is a best way to see if the steam turbine still
on par with the guaranteed performance. For these reason, steam rate is best be applied for
steam turbine and generator setup where the generator will measure the power delivered by
the turbine and by knowing the steam flow rate, it will be easily being compared to the actual
steam rate provided by the manufacturer or vendor. For applications such as pump and
compressor where the steam turbine is the driver, power produced by the steam turbine is not
immediately known due to the fact that the pumps and compressors do not directly reveal the
power. Graphs of steam rate for different steam turbine speed is also provided. Also for
special applications such as steam turbines having extractions have its steam rate chart.
Steam rate chart also has an extension for hand valves which adds steam flow if open,
Revalo, 2016.
Condition Monitoring
Condition monitoring is the identification of a machines condition while in
operation. Condition monitoring of steam turbines is important because it allows detection of

the machines possible wear. It also is used to detect leakages which can affect the lifespan of
the steam turbine. Some examples of condition monitoring for steam turbines are: Plotting
first stage pressure versus steam flow: detection of steam path fouling; and Trending if gland
condenser vacuum: detection of contamination of oil system, Firsthoffer, 2011.
Essential to a successful condition monitoring is the identification of correct
parameters to measure and how to interpret them. There are two methods of condition
monitoring. One is the trend monitoring wherein machine parameter readings are taken
regularly. The other one is condition checking wherein machine parameter readings are taken
just at a single instance. The advantage of the former is it gives the technician or engineer
time for preparing for a possible machine problem. Other types of condition monitoring,
Revalo, 2016.
Related Study
Steam Turbine
Steam turbine consists of expansive components (i.e. nozzles and stators) which are
connected to the stationary frame of the turbine casing and primary concerns with the
conversion of heat energy to kinetic energy, and the rotor blades which converts the kinetic
energy to mechanical energy. The blade system consists the expansive components and rotor
blades. Airfoil, spacer and shroud typically components of the steam turbine blade. In the
paper by Jolanta Baran, eco-design for manufacturing turbine blades and packages which
will lead to a decrease in power consumption to produce the product thus helping the
environment, Baran, 2016.

The basic parts of steam turbines are the rotating part and the stationary part. The
rotating part composed of the shaft and turbine wheel with the blades; and the stationary part
composes the casing and with the nozzles installed. The combination of the nozzle and blades
essentially converts the heat energy of the steam into a mechanical work. Construction and
manufacturing of these parts utilizes an amount of energy. By designing each of this part with
a purpose in mind, less energy will be spent in producing these parts. Advances in design
such as the airfoil profile and material could be made used in order to achieve this goal of
decreasing of environmental impact on producing steam turbine parts. Other parts or system
can also be improved such as interstage sealing, governor valve and bearings can also be
improved for a better design with the goal of low production cost and longer life of parts,
Revalo, 2016
Steam Turbine Performance
Performance testing versus performance monitoring: performance monitoring uses
indices variations by periodic calculations or surveillance while the performance test is
conducted in a controlled condition (i.e. PTC 6S). Standards or codes for performance
monitoring are limited to calculation of significant indices which could indicate steam
turbine performance and monitoring their operating trends comparing them to the reference
indices. Performance monitoring mainly beneficial due to short period of performance
gathering activity. Performance testing is not practical due to preparations and pre-requisites
it requires. However, performance monitoring is less accurate than performance testing due
to the data conditioning. Ultimately, detection of performance variation is for performance
monitoring while absolute values of performance indices is for performance testing, KIM et
al., 2014.

Performance testing is prescribed by ASME in order to know the actual operating

condition of the steam turbine after an interval of time. During performance testing, the
steam turbine will be tested to the design condition and the data of the test will be compared
from the guaranteed design specification. Controlled variables must be maintained during
performance testing which follows that there are a lot of preparation and resources needed in
order to perform this activity. Performance monitoring is the other way around and
complements the performance testing. By performance monitoring, the steam turbine
condition is checked using online instruments during the equipment is at actual operation.
Although not at controlled condition, performance monitoring can trend specific parameters
and analyzing them in order to gain an indication or hint of what is the current condition of
the steam turbine. A good performance monitoring implementation will lengthen the interval
of the prescribed performance test which is an economical saving to the plant, Revalo, 2016.
Steam Turbine Blade Deposition (Fouling)
Common steam turbine faults are: (1) solid particle erosion at the first stage of steam
turbine; (2) overflow valve leakage; (3) deposition and fouling in 2 nd, 3rd and 4th stages; (4)
damaging of shell and seals; (5) normal wearing and aging; and (6) gassing and fouling in the
condenser of power plants. Specifically, fouling or deposition normally is coming from the
boiler then transported to the superheated steam by three types of mechanisms which are:
carry-over mechanically, vaporous carry-over and attemperators or desuperheater. The notch
of fouling and deposition is dependent to the steam generator drum pressure, efficiency of
separation, desuperheating, and other factors. Fouling or deposition causes a decrease in
steam turbine performance. This is due to the changing of blade profile and increasing of
surface roughness. Different depositing or fouling compound can be found at different steam

turbine parts and depends on the temperature of the location. Fouling and deposition can be
generally reduced by improving of water purification and reduction of desuperheating or
attemperating, C. Karlsson et al., 2008.
Steam turbine fouling and deposition has an adverse effect on the steam turbine
performance. Many instances that the plant operators are already into their radar that there
will be an eminent performance degradation of the steam turbine in the future due to
deposition and fouling. But solving this issue is very complicated especially if the plant is old
and an upgrade of boiler water purification technology will be economically unfeasible. The
main attributor of steam turbine performance degradation due to deposition or fouling is the
changing of the aerodynamic profile of the blades and nozzles which affects the generation of
kinetic energy by the nozzle and mechanical work by the blades. Many types of depositing
and fouling compound has been identified which adheres at the turbine blades. The location
of the deposition or fouling along the steam path is dictated by the actual temperature and
pressure on that location where the depositing or fouling compound separates to the steam.
Improving the water quality and reducing the source of the depositing and fouling compound
are ways to alleviate the problem, Revalo, 2016.
Steam turbine performance curve
Steam turbine efficiency is basically dependent to its the mechanical condition
relative to the design. As the condition of the turbine deteriorates, efficiency of the steam
turbine drops proportionally thus the steam turbine will not operate as per its published
performance curve. There are three key areas to improve in order to increase the steam
turbines efficiency which are: improving of combustion which has something to with the heat
balance of the cycle; improvement of aerodynamics of turbine blades in order to increase the

life and performance; and improvement of materials for longer life and to cope to a higher
operating temperature. Computer optimized steam turbine operation and improvement in
material had continuously making the goal reaching 50 percent efficiency. Improved nozzle
profiles are overcoming the problem of losses on the stationary blades. More efficient blades
are also realized due to computer aided design. Redesigning of turbine sidewall contours at
high pressure side and the reduction of wet steam at low pressure side have increase the
turbine efficiency by 10 percent and reduced downtimes and cost of maintenance. There are
four causes of decreasing of steam turbine efficiency and performance which are: deposits
and fouling in the steam paths; nozzle and bucket surface erosion; mechanical damage of
nozzles and buckets because of foreign material; leakages of steam in the packing seals.
Deterioration due to aging is also a factor on the degradation of steam turbine efficiency.
Mass and energy balance of steam cycle could increase the overall power plant efficiency by:
Superheating which increases the thermal efficiency; Further reduction of condensing
pressure and temperature which increases power cycle efficiency; Reheating which increases
thermal efficiency and also decrease the chances of wet steam at the low pressure side thus
protecting the last blades from erosion; increasing of feed water temperature which decreases
the heat added by the steam generator; decreasing the pressure drop at the reheater which
increase the available steam energy entering the intermediate section of the steam turbine;
decreasing of pressure drop at the extraction which leads to lower heat input by the reheater;
reduction of makeup water by repairing the source of leakage of water; reducing the turbine
exhaust pressure which has something to do with the design; air preheating at the steam
generator use of the available heat source in order to use less fuel consumed; sub-cooling

which increase the turbine heat rate when applied to a power cycle, Joseph A. MacDonald,
2003.
Steam turbine performance curve is a document provided by the original equipment
manufacturer as a tool to know or see if the actual steam turbine performance is still at par to
the guaranteed operating condition. Steam turbine performance would basically decrease
upon its aging and a new turbine performance curve can be developed after performance
testing. During the design phase, there are many areas with regards to the steam turbine
design could increase or improve the steam turbine efficiency. Steam turbine as a part of a
power cycle, improvements on the other equipment will improve the thermal efficiency of
the cycle thus producing more work using less heat input, Revalo, 2016
Condition Monitoring
Seven key steam turbine parameters: inlet flow, inlet pressure, first stage pressure, hot
reheat pressure, cross-over pressure, high pressure efficiency index, and intermediate
pressure efficiency index if trended over time and interpreted properly will give a steam
turbine diagnosis of deterioration. Different combinations of these parameters will lead to an
early warning or identification of the steam turbine issues which are: solid particle erosion in
the high pressure steam turbine; solid particle erosion in the intermediate pressure steam
turbine; deposition and peening in high pressure turbine; deposition and peeing in
intermediate pressure turbine; deposition in intermediate pressure turbine; rubbing in the
intermediate pressure steam turbine; and deposition and damages in the intermediate pressure
steam turbine. Accuracy of data is a must for proper interpretation. Because of such, there is
a need to verify and trending of data before starting the analysis. An understanding of
changes of each of the seven parameters one at time is essential for an easier and correct

interpretation since there are more than one change happens at a time. The main strategy to
be adopted in order to know if a deterioration is eminent is to see the historical pattern of
trend of each of the seven parameters (i.e. increasing, decreasing or stable). Comparing of the
seven parameters to its corresponding guaranteed design values is also a plus. Real time
diagnosis of fault is more important for steam turbines in power generation. Analysis of the
inferences of the trend of each seven parameters such as increasing, decreasing or constant
provides a relationship of steam turbine fault condition, L. Sivakumar, S. Devi, 2014.

from: Applied Soft Computing (730-741) - Implementation of VLSI model as a tool in

diagnostics of slowly varying process parameters which affect the performance of steam
turbine
PTC PM addresses steam turbine performance monitoring and PTC 6 or 6S are for
performance testing. Performance testing and performance monitoring are complimentary to
each other where the results of PTC 6 or 6S are reliably accepted as official yet too much

resources are needed. Improved performance monitoring will reduce the frequency of
performance tests. Condition based maintenance or sometimes called predictive maintenance
can save money by the reduction of the testing activities, KIM et al., 2014.

from: Hyeonmin Kim, Man Gyun Na, Gyunyoung Heo, 2014, Application of monitoring,
diagnosis, and prognosis in thermal performance analysis for nuclear power plants.
Fault detection and diagnosis is a way to identify, isolate and detect faults. Initially, it
will determine the fault by fault detection. Then after the fault has been identified, isolating
the fault determines the location of the fault. Then follows the fault identification which
describes the faults characteristics. Online monitoring is the other designation to fault
detection and diagnosis and applied to monitor the system continuously during operation.
Model-based method and model-free method are the two classifications of fault detection and
diagnosis. Model-free method is further classified into multivariate (data-driven) and
univariate (signal-based). Model-based fault detection and diagnosis is a mathematical model
used to represent the systems normal behavior. Faults are detected and diagnosed by
comparing the actual condition to the predicted or theoretical condition using a model.

Multivariate fault detection and diagnosis also into the relationships of correlated
measurements of parameters. However, relationships may be developed in an implicit
methodology by training an empirical model through analysis of fault free training data
obtained at normal operations. The empirical model is used to estimate the values of new
measurements then faults are detected and diagnosed by analyzing the residuals. Univariate
method fault detection and diagnosis decide by comparison of features or spectrum from a
signal to the desired baseline values. Data-driven fault detection and diagnosis and signal
based fault detection and diagnosis methods are mostly used in various industries, Jianping
Ma, Jin Jiang,2010.
Several steam turbine operating parameters, if analyzed properly will complement
every established condition monitoring program. Many studies are already being performed
in the area of steam turbine fault detection and diagnosis where frameworks are created to
formulate working programs to automatically notify or alert human operators of impending
problem or issue the steam turbine currently being experienced. The program can
immediately shut down the steam turbine in order to protect the safety of the operators and
lessen the impact of the problem mechanically; and alert the maintenance team in order to
properly schedule the maintenance to be conducted thus decreasing the maintenance cost. As
prescribed by PTC 6S, the steam turbine must undergo occasional performance testing to test
the steam turbine if the actual performance still at par with the guaranteed performance
provided by the original equipment manufacturer of the steam turbine. This prescription
becomes an issue to plant operators because of the required planning and resources needed to
conduct the testing only for the purpose of knowing if the performance of the steam turbine is
still at par with the design condition guaranteed by the original equipment manufacturer.

Performance testing interval could be decreased if online performance monitoring by

trending will be implemented measuring different steam turbine parameters which could also
give a valuable insight whether the steam turbine is actually operating reasonably below its
previous performance, Revalo, 2016.
Synthesis and Justification
This research will provide a simplification of notification or a quick tool in order to
detect steam turbine performance degradation thru introduction of empirically derived
quantity from the selected steam turbine operating parameters. By trending this quantity,
performance degradation can be easily being detected even the selected parameters are
continuously changing due to the changing requirement of the process. By eliminating the
noise of the continuously changing measurement of the selected parameters, analyzing will
be quick and just visual by observing the trend which also no need for further calculation.
Deposition or fouling in steam turbine blades is the major cause of early degradation
of steam turbine performance. If not properly managed, the effect to the steam turbine is
quick and still, if partially mitigated, a gradual deposition to the steam turbine nozzles and
blades will still manifest. TC-700 of Petron Bataan Refinery is suffering with this type of
problem. This steam turbine drives the un-spared and critical compressor of Fluid Catalytic
Cracker (FCC) unit. Performance testing just as prescribed by ASME PTC-6S cannot be
implemented due to the fact that FCC cannot be shut down due to the apparent economic
loss. Therefore, performance monitoring is the only way to have an idea or a hint of possible
gradual degradation of steam turbine performance. The performance monitoring will
complement the already established condition monitoring of the steam turbine. There are
already established researches on the area of early fault detection and diagnosis using

different methods and developing a software which basically analyzes and compare different
steam turbine parameters.
Past studies establish a method by using advanced approaches such as neural,
heuristic and fuzzy logic in performing analysis in determining the problem. This study is
different due to the fact that it is a quick and simple trend representation of overall steam
turbine performance. It will use simple manipulation of steam turbine parameters in order to
come up with an empirically derived quantity which is trendable and can be exported to
Excel. This will serve an early detection which should notify the Reliability Engineers of
Petron Bataan Refinery to perform an in depth analysis of the steam turbine.
Theoretical Framework
Hyeonmin Kim, Man Gyun Na and Gyunyoung Heo have a research study on
Application of monitoring, diagnosis, and prognosis in thermal performance analysis for
nuclear power plants. This study made light of implementation an in-situ or basically a
performance monitoring model for nuclear power plants. Turbine faults are referred to the
work of K. C. Cotton, 1998 to his book Evaluating and Improving Steam Turbine
Performance, where diagnostics matrix for steam turbine monitoring was presented. Steam
Turbine performance degradation due to blade deposition and fouling was well presented by
GE Water, 2012. Jianping Ma, Jin Jiang,2010 further explains the purpose of condition
monitoring in fault detection and diagnosis which to be used for nuclear power plants.

References
Terrell Croft (1923), Steam Turbine Principles and Practice, 4th Edition

Saudi Aramco (2003), Engineering Encyclopedia - Steam Turbines

Saudi Aramco (2003), Engineering Encyclopedia - Determining Steam Turbine Performance
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ASME PTC 6S REPORT (2003), Procedures for Routine Performance Tests of Steam
Turbines.
http://www.plant-maintenance.com/articles/steam_turbine_analysis.shtml
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W.E.Forsthoffer (2011), Forsthoffer's Best Practice Handbook for Rotating Machinery
Otakar Jonas, Lee Machemer, 2008, Proceedings of the Thirty-Seventh Turbomcachinery
Symposium - Steam Turbine Corrosion and Deposits Problems and Solutions
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http://www.gewater.com/handbook/boiler_water_systems/ch_18_Corrosion.jsp
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maintenance decisions

L. Sivakumar, S. Devi, 2014, Applied Soft Computing (730-741) - Implementation of VLSI

model as a tool in diagnostics of slowly varying process parameters which affect the
performance of steam turbine
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Hyeonmin Kim, Man Gyun Na, Gyunyoung Heo, 2014, Application of monitoring,
diagnosis, and prognosis in thermal performance analysis for nuclear power plants.
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