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WHYDIGITAL?
The first chapterprovides an overview of an analog telephonenetwork and a brief introduction to digital ffansmission and switching technology introduced to replace
older analog equipment.This chapterdiscussesthe basic technical advantagesof digi'
tal implementationsthat stimulated the replacementof the analog systems.
OF DIGITALVOICENETWORKS
2.1 ADVANTAGES
A list of technical featuresof digital communicationsnetworks is provided in Table
2. L Thesefeaturesare listed in the order that the author considersto be their relative
importancefor generaltelephony.In particular applications,however, certain considerationsmay be more or lesssignificant. For instance,the last item, easeof encryption,
is a dominant feature favoring digital networks for the military.
Most of the featuresof digital voice networks listed in Table 2.1 and discussedin
the following paragraphspertain to advantagesof digital hansmission or switching
relative to analog counteryarts.In some instances,however, the featurespertain only
to all-digital networks. Encryption, for example,is practical and generallyuseful only
if the secureform of the messageis establishedat the sourceand translatedback into
the clear form only at the destination.Thus an end-to-enddigital systemthat operates
with no knowledge of the nature of the traffic (i.e., provides transparenttransmission)
is a requirement for digital encryption applications. For similar reasonsend-to-end
digital transmissionis neededfor direct transmissionof data (no modem)-When a network consistsof a mixture of analog and digital equipment, universal use of the network for servicessuch as datatransmissiondictatesconformanceto the leastcommon
denominator of the network: the analog channel.
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74
WHYDIGITAL?
TABLE 2.1 Technical Advantages ot Dlgltar communlcations Networks
1. Ease0l multiplexing
2. Easeof signaling
3. U$eof moderntechnology
4. lntegration
of kansmission
andswitching
5. Signalregeneration
6. Performance
monitorability
7. Accommodation
of otherservices
8. Operability
at lowsignal-to-noi$e/intederence
ratios
L Easeof encryption'
TDM has been used in a fbw telephone applications. Farinon's SubscriberRadio System
[l ], for
example, used'pulse-width-modulatedTDM. As discussedin Chapter 5 some older PBXs also used analog
TDM.
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VOICENETWORKS 75
OF DIGITAL
2.1 ADVANTAGES
controlinformationhad
equipment.In someinterfacesbetweennetworksubsystems
to be convertedfrom one format to another.Signalingon analoglinks thereforerepandfinancialburdento the operatingtelephone
resenteda significantadministrative
companies.
signalingremovedmostof the signalingcostsa$The moveto common-channel
sociatedwith interofficetrunksbut did not changethe situationfor individualsubchannel.
scriberlines,which mustcarrysignalingon the samefacility asthemessage
thesignalingcostsrelativeto analog
lines(DSLs)reduces
Theuseof digitalsubscriber
lines,which helpsoffsetthehighercostof a DSL anda digitaltelephone'
subscriber
DSLsarea fundamentalaspectof ISDN, asdescribedin ChapterI l.
In summary,digital systemsallow controlinformationto be insertedinto andexmedium
of thenatureof thetransmission
streamindependently
ffactedfrom a message
(e.g., cable,fiber, microwave,satellite).Thus the signalingequipmentcan (and
system.It thenfollowsthatconfrom thetransmission
should)bedesignedseparately
subsysof thetransmission
independently
modified
can
be
and
trol functions formats
tem. Conversely,digital transmissionsystemscan be upgradedwithout impacting
controlfunctionsat eitherendofthe link.
2.1.3
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76
WHYDIGITAL?
f;TATA*l
.rr BA F
a t t
BA
4 Bit Gounter
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VOICENETWORKS 77
OFDIGITAL
2.1 ADVANTAGES
Figure 2.2 Integration of transmission and switching: (a) nonintegrated nansmission and
swirching, (b) integrated time time division switching and transmission.
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78
WHYDIGITAL?
commonplace,
integrationof higherlevel signalsis complicatedby higherlevelmultiplexingformats(pulsestuffing)describedin chapter7. A newermultiplexingformat (soNET) describedin chapter 8 has someoperationalmodesthar are more
amenable
to directinterconnection
into a switchingsy$tem.
Integrationof transmissionand switchingfunctionsnot only eliminatesmuch
equipmentbut alsogreatlyimprovesend-to-endvoicequality.By eliminatingmultiple analog-to-digital
and digital-to-analog
conversionsand by using low-error-rate
transmissionlinks, voicequaliryis determined
only by theencoding/decoding
pnxesses.
In summary,theimplementation
benefitsof a fully integrateddigitalnetworkare:
I' Long-distance
voicequalityis identicalto local voicequality in all aspectsof
noise,signallevel,anddistortion.
2. since digital circuits are inherentlyfour-wire,network-generated
echoesare
eliminated,andtruefull-duplex,four-wiredigitalcircuitsareavailable.
3. Cableentrance
requirement$
andmainframedistributionof wire pairsis greafly
reducedbecause
all trunksareimplemented
assubchannels
of a TDM signal.
2.1.5 Signal Regeneration
As described
morefully in thenextchapter,therepresentation
of voice(or anyanalog
signal)in a digitalformatinvolvesconveftingthecontinuousanalogwaveforminto a
sequence
of discretesamplevalues.Eachdiscretesamplevalueis represented
by some
numberof binarydigitsof information.when transmitted,eachbinarydigit is representedby only oneof two possiblesignalvalues(e.g.,apulseversusnopulseor apositive pulseversusa negativepulse).The receiver'sjob is to decidewhich discrete
valueswereffansmittedandrepresentthe message
asa sequence
of binary-encoded
discretemessage
samples.If only smallamountsof noise,interference.
or distortion
areimpressed
uponthesignalduringtansmission,thebinarydatain thereceiverare
identicalto thebinarysequence
generated
duringthedigitizationor encodingprocess.
As shownin Figure2.3,thetransmission
process,despitetheexistence
of certainimperfections,
doesnot altertheessential
natureof theinformation.Of course,if theimperfections
causesufficientchanges
in thesignal,detectionerrorsoccurandthebinary
datain thereceiverdoesnot represent
theoriginaldataexactly.
A fundamentalattributeof a digital systemis that theprobabilityof transmission
errorscanbemadearbitrarilysmallby insertingregenerative
repeaters
atintermediate
pointsin the transmission
link. If spacedcloseenoughtogether,theseintermediate
nodesdetectandregenerate
the digital signalsbeforechannel-induced
degradations
H:gmretiw
rGgdtr
Figure 2.3
Ftfttratiw
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VOICE
NETWORKS79
OFDIGITAL
2.1 ADVANTAGES
becomelarge enoughto causedecision effors. As demonshatedin Chapter4, the endto-end error rate can be made arbitrarily small by inserting a sufficient number of regenerationnodesin the transmissionlink.
The most direct benefit of the regenerationprocessis the ability to localize the effects of signal degradations.As long as the degradationson any particular regenerated
segmentof a transmissionlink do not causeerrors, their effects areeliminated. In contrast, signal impairments in analog transmissionaccumulatefrom one segmentto the
next. Individual subsystemsof a large analog network must be designed with tight
controls on the transmissionperformance to provide acceptableend-to-end quality.
An individual subsystemof a digital network, on the other hand, need only be designed to ensurea certain minimum error rate-usually a readily realizable goal.
When an all-digital network is designedwith enough regenerationpoints to effectively eliminate channel errors, the overall ffansmissionquality of the network is determined by the digitization process and not by the transmission systems' The
analog-to-digital conversion process inherently introduces a loss of signal fidelity
sincethe continuousanalogsourcewaveform can only be representedby discretesample values.By establishingenoughdiscretelevels, however, the analog waveform can
be representedwith as little conversion error as desired.The increasedresolution require$ more bits and consequentlymore bandwidth for transmission.Hence, a digital
transmission sy$tem readily provides a trade-off between transmission quality and
bandwidth. (A similar trade-off exists for frequency-modulatedanalog signals.)
2.1.6 PerformanceMonitorability
An additional benefit of the source-independentsignal structurein a digital transmission systemis that the quality of the received signal can be ascertainedwith no knowledge of the nature of the traffic. The transmission link is designed to produce
well-defined pulseswith discretelevels. Any deviation in the receive signal, other than
nominal amount$planned for in the design,representsa degradationin transmission
quality. In general,analog systemscannot be monitored or testedfor quality while in
service since the transmitted signal sfucture is unknown. FDM signals typically include pilot signals to measurechannel continuity and power levels. The power level
of a pilot is an effective meansof estimatingthe signal-to-noiseratio-only in a fixednoise environment.Hence, noise and distortion are sometimesdeterminedby measuring the energy level in an unusedmessageslot or at the edge of the signal passband'
In neither case,however, is the quality of an in-service channel being measureddirectly.
One common method of measuring the quality of a digital transmissionlink is to
add parity, or cyclic redundancycheck (CRC), bits to the messagestream.The redundancy introduced to the data streamenablesdigital logic circuits in a receiver to readily ascertainchannel error rates. If the error rate exceedssome nominal value, the
transmissionlink is degraded.
Another technique for measuring in-service transmission qualiry is used in T-cartier
lines. This techniqueinvolves monitoring certainredundanciesin the signal waveform
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80
WHYDIGITAL?
itself' Whentheredundancy
patternat thereceiverdeviatesfrom normal.decisionerrorshaveoccurred.A completedescriptionof theline codingformatusedin T-carrier
$ystems
is providedin Chapter4. Othermethodsof measuringtransmission
qualityin
digital systemsarediscussed
in Chapters4 and6.
2.1.7 Accommodatlon of Other Services
It waspreviouslypointedoutthata digitaltransmission
systemreadilyaccommodates
conffol(signaling)information.This factis representative
of a fundamental
aspectof
digital transmission:any digitally encodedmessage(whetherinherentlydigital or
conveftedfrom analog)presentsa coillmonsignalformatto thetransmission
system.
Thusthetransmission
systemneedprovideno specialattentionto individualservices
andcan,in fact, be totally indifferent to the natureof the traffic it carries.
In an analognetworkthetransmission
standard
is the4-kHzvoicecircuit.All special servicessuchasdataor facsimilemustbetransformed
to ,,looklike voice."In particular,datasignalsmustbeconvertedto ananalogformatthroughtheuseof modems.
Thestandard
analogchannelwa$necessarily
optimizedfor voicequality.In sodoing, certaintransmissioncharacteristics
(suchas the phaseresponseand impulse
noise)receivedlessattentionthanmorenoticeablevoicequalityimpairments.Some
lessemphasized
considerations,
phasedistortionin particular,arecriticalfor high-rate
dataservices.Useof an analognetworkfor nonvoiceservicesoftenrequiresspecial
compensation
for variousanalogtransmission
impairments.If the analogchannelis
toopoor,it maybe unusable
for a particularapplication.In contrast,themainparameter ofquality in a digital systemis theerrorrate.Low-error-ratechannelsarereadily
obtainable.Whendesired,theeffectsof channelerrorscanbe effectivelyeliminated
with errorcontrolprocedures
implemented
by theuser.
An additionalbenefitof the commontransmission
formatis ttrattraffic from differenttypesof sources
canbeintermixedin a singletransmission
mediumwithoutmutual interference.
The useof a commonffansmissionmediumfor analogsignalsis
sometimes
complicated
because
individualservicesrequiredifferinglevelsof quality.
For example,televisionsignals,whichrequiregreatertransmission
qualitythanvoice
signals,werenot usuallycombinedwith FDM voicechannelsin a widebandanalos
transmission
system[3].
2.1.8 Operabillty at Low Slgnal-to-Noiee/tnteileronceRailos
Noise and inted'erence
in an analogvoice networkbecomemost apparentduring
pauseswhenthesignalamplitudeis low. Relativelysmallamountsof noiseocspeech
curing duringa speechpausecanbe quiteannoyingto a listener.The samelevelsof
noiseor interference
arevirtuallyunnoticeable
whenspeechis present.Henceit is the
absolutenoiselevelof anidle channelthatdetermines
analogspeechquality.Subjective evaluationsof voice quality t4, 5l led to maximumnoiselevel standards
of 2g
dBmcO(-62 dBm0)for short-haulsystemsand34 dBrnc0 (-56 dBm0)for long-haul
systems.For comparison,
the powerlevel of an activetalkeris typically -16 dBm0.
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2.2 DIGITALSIGNALPBOCESSING
81
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82
WHY DIGITAL?
2.2.1 DSPApplications
The following four sectionsidentify applications of DSP that either representlower
cost solutions to functions that have beentraditionally implementedwith analogtechnology or are functions that have no practical implementationcounterpartwith analog
technology.
Echo Cancellers
The cost and pedormanceof DSP echo cancellershave improved to the point that they
can be justified for any long-distancecircuit, thereby providing full-duplex circuits
(no echo suppression)and no artificial attenuation (no via net loss). A particularly
critical needfor echo cancellationoccur$in high-speed,full-duplex data modemsthat
incorporate near-end echo cancellation-an unnece$saryrequirement for voice circuits. Furthermore, low-cost echo canceling enablespacket-switchedvoice applications that inffoduce artificial delays that are not accommodatedin normal analoe
Anrlog
input
Anelog
to
digitrl
Figure 2.4
Dieitd
dFrl
procarEof
Digit l
to
fido0
Anrlog
ouFut
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srcNALPHocE$slNG 83
a.a DrcrrAL
TABLE2.2 DigltalSlgnalProceeslngFeatures
and parasiticelements
The immunityof digitalcircuit$to smallimperfections
Reproducibilitltr
withoutline
characteri$tics
operational
withconsistent
imiliesthatcircuitscanbe pioducdd
or agingtolerances.
adjustments
A single
basicstructurecanbe usedfor a varietyof signaltype.sand
Programmability
-changing
in a digitalmemory.
specification
or parameilic
an algorithmic
by'merely
applications
signalsby
circuitcanbe usedfor multiple
A singledigitalsignalprocessing
Timesharing'.
each
memoryandprocessing
storingtemforaryretuftsbfeachprocessin random-access
lashion.
signalin a cyclic(time-divided)
circuitaredigital.
Automatic
fesfiSincethe inputsandoutputsof a digitalsignalprocessing
storedin
to datapatterns
testresponses
routinely
by comparing
data,testscanbe perlormed
memory.
of digitallogic,digital.signal
capahilities
Because
of thedecision-making
versatititr.
withanalog
or impractical
thatareimpossible
processing
canporformmanyfunctions
implementations.
Tone Receivers
Detectionof DTMF, MF, SF,or otheranalogtonesis easilyandeconomicallyrealized
for the explicitpurposeof
by convertingthe analogsignalsto digitalrepresentations
is evenmoreeconomicalwhen
detectingthe tone.Of course,a DSPimplementation
thetonesarealreadydigitized,whichis thecasewithin a digitalswitch.Theprogrammability featureof a DSPcircuit is particularlyusefulfor tonereceiversbecauseone
canbeusedfor multiplefunctionsby selectingdifferentfilhardwareimplementation
ter options(programs)dependingon the application[10].
Hlgh-Spead Modems
(e.g.,?8.8-kbps)voicebandmoReliableoperation(low bit errorrates)of high-speed
modulation
dems[tI] over the switchedtelephonenetworkrequiressophisticated
signalconditioningreferredto
techniques(describedin Chapter6) anttsophisticated
Theonly practicalway to implementthesefunctionsis with
asadaptiveequalization.
DSPcircuitry.Referenceil21 describesan earlyapplicationof DSPto a 14,400-bps
the useof DSPfor adaptiveequalizationof a 400modem.Reference[13] describes
Mbps digital radio.Previousdigital radiosusedanalogadaptiveequalizersbecause
equalizthey werecheaper.Very-high-ratedigital radiosrequiremoresophisticated
ers,whichareeasierto implement(perhapsonly possible)with DSP.
Low-Bit-Rate Voice E ncodi n g
The realizationof low-bit-ratevoiceencodingalgorithmsdescribedin Chapter3 involve$extensivenumericalprocessingto removeredundancyin the digitizedvoice
samples.DSPtechnologyis the only economicalmeansof implementingthesealgorithmson a real-timebasis.References
[14], [15], and[16] describeDSPimplemenReference
respectively.
voicecoders,
[17]describes
tationsfor32-,16-,and4.8-kbps
to
voice
compression'
of
DSP
application
general
theory
and
moreof the
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WHYDIGITAL?
2.3 DISADVANTAGES
OF DIGITALVOICENETWORKS
The first pafr of this chapterdiscussed
the basictechnicaladvantages
of digital networks.To balancethe discussion,
this sectionreviewsthe basictechnicaldisadvantagesof digitalimplemenrarions
aslistedin Table2.3.
2.3.1 IncreaeedBandwidth
In thebrief introductionto voicedigitizationpresented
in Chapter1,mentionis made
thattransmission
of samplesof ananalogwaveformrequiresno morebandwidththan
theunderlyingwaveform(at leastin theory).Thebandwidthexpansioncomeswhen
thesamplesareencodedintobinarycodesandffansmittedwith anindividualpulsefor
eachbit in the code.Thus a Tl systemrequiresapproximatelyeight timesas much
bandwidthasdo 24 analogvoicechannelssinceeachsampleis represented
by an8-bit
codewordandeachbit is transmittedasa separate
discretepulse.Althoughmoresophisticateddigitizationalgorithmscanbe usedto encodevoiceat a lowerbit ratethan
thatusedon Tl systems(64 kbps),eventhemostsophisticated
algorithms(described
in chapter3) cannotprovidecomparable
voicequalitywithoutat leasta rwo-to-one
bandwidthpenalty.
In someportionsof theanalognetwork,suchasthelocalloops,thebandwidthincreasedid not represent
muchof a penaltysincethe inherentbandwidthwas(andis)
underutilized.
In long-haulradiosystems,
however,bandwidthwasat apremium,and
digital systemswererelativelyinefficientin termsof the numberof voicechannels
provided.one mitigatingaspectof a digital radio systemis its ability to overcome
higherlevelsof noiseandinterference,
which sometimes
providescompensation
for
the bandwidthrequirements,
particularlyin congestedtransmissionenvironments
wheremutualinterference
canbecomea limiting consideration
[3]. The inherentrobustnessof a digital systemwith respectto interference
is oneimportantattributeof
digitalcellularsy$tems
describedin Chapter9.
Thebandwidthpenaltyimposedby voicedigitizationis directlydependenr
on the
form of transmission
codingor modulationused.With greatersophistication
in the
modulation/demodulation
equipment,greaterefficiencyin termsof the bit ratein a
givenbandwidthis achievable.
Basically,greatertransmission
efficiencyis achieved
by increasingthenumberof levelsin theline code.With limitedtransmitpower.however,thedistances
betweendiscretesignallevelsin thereceiverarereduceddramatiTABLE2.3 Dlsadvantagesof Digitallmplementatlona
1. Increased
bandwidth
2. Needfortimesynchronization
3. Topologically
restricted
muttiplexing
4. Needfor conference/extension
bridges
5. Incompatibilities
withanaloglacitities
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VOICE
NETWORKS85
OFDIGITAL
2.3 DISADVANTAGES
cally. Thus, the transmitted signal is no longer as immune to noise And other imperfections as it is with lower information densities
Using a combination of advanceddigital modulation, lower rate digitization, and
error-correcting codes,point-to-point digital radios could provide voice channel efficiencies comparableto or even better than analog microwave systems.Full development along these Iines never occuffed, however, becausethe emergenceof optical
fiber transmission eliminated the incentive to do so.
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86
WHY DIGITAL?
mitters increases.Furthermore,eachtime division sourcemust duplicate the synchronization and time slot recognition logic neededto operatea TDM $ystem.For these
reason$,TDM has been usedprimarily in applications(e.g., interoffice trunks) where
all of the information source$are centrally located and a single multiplexer controls
the occurrenceand assignmentof time slots.
Time division multiple access(TDMA) satellites and cellular systemsare examples of applicationsof TDM for distributed sources.These systemsuse sophisticated
synchronizationtechniquesso that each ground station or mobile unit times its hansmission to arrive at the satelliteor basestation at precisely defined times, allowing the
use of small guard times between time slots. Notice that these applications involve
only one destination; a satellite or a base station. If an application involves multiple,
distributed solurcesand destinatians (with transmissionin more than one direction),
larger guard times are unavoidable. Figure 2.5 shows such an application but uses
FDM insteadof TDM. The main engineeringconsiderationfor this systemis to ensure
that the FDM channelshave sufficient isolation to allow a high-powered sourceto be
adjacentto a receiverwith the worst-casereceivelevel. obviously, adequateFDM isolation require$a certain amount of bandwidth overhead,but it is usually fairly easyto
design filters with adequateisolation for a large rangeofsignal levels so distanceconsiderationsare minimized.
Multipoint
trmcni$ion
line
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VOICENETWORKS 87
OF DIGITAL
E.3 DISADVANTAGES
to two-wireline'
connected
Figure 2.6 Analogtelephones
When conferencing is implemented in associationwith a switching system, the
needfor a digital conferencebridge is not much of a disadvantageand in fact can significantly improve the quality of a conferenceby eliminating echoesand signal loss
causedby power division. However, when digital extensionsneedto have their signals
combined so multiple extensionscan be active in a conversation,the need for a centralized bridge can be an onerousproblem. Residentialtelephonewiring typically follows a daisy-chain pattern, as indicated in Figure 2.6. Thus the need to rewire all
outlets and install a centralizedconferencebox is a significant impediment to the deployment of digital station equipment in residential applications'
Digital
Conference
Bridge
bridgefor digitaltelephones.
Figure 2.7 Useof conference
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WHYDIGITAL?
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A bridg+'d tap is an unused pair of wires connected at some point to an in-use pair as alother
extension or
for possible future reassignment of a cable pair.
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