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Engine performance
measures. Chapter 2 in Off-Road Vehicle Engineering Principles, 19-36. St. Joseph, Mich.: ASAE.
American Society of Agricultural Engineers.
CHAPTER 2
ENGINE
PERFORMANCE
MEASURES
2.1 Introduction
In this chapter, you will learn some important terminology and relationships for
describing and calculating engine performance. These performance measures include
torque, power, mean effective pressures, fuel-use efficiencies, and specific fuel
consumption. Terminology of governed engines will be presented as a lead-in to a
discussion of engine maps and how they can be used to maximize engine efficiency.
& f Hg
m
3600
(2.1A)
20
where
Pfe = fuel equivalent power, kW
& f = fuel consumption rate, kg/h
m
Hg = gross (higher) heating value of the fuel, kJ/kg
Equation 2.1A is used when the fuel consumption is measured on a mass basis. If
the fuel consumption is measured volumetrically, the following equation is used to
calculate fuel equivalent power:
Pfe = q f f H g 3600
(2.1B)
where
qf = fuel consumption rate, L/h
f = fuel density, kg/L
For example, an engine consuming 30 kg/h of No. 2 diesel (Hg = 45,000 kJ/kg) would
have a Pfe of 375 kW. The heating value of the fuel is measured by a calorimeter, as
will be discussed in the chapter on fuels. More than half of the fuel equivalent power
is lost and unavailable for useful work. In the paragraphs below, we trace the power
through the engine to identify the losses.
Burning of the fuel produces high pressure on each piston which, when multiplied
by the piston area, generates a force. Although the pressure varies throughout the
piston stroke, it is possible to calculate an indicated mean effective pressure, pime
(sometimes also shown as imep). The procedure will be explained a little later.
Multiplying the force by the piston stroke gives the work per engine cycle (in the
typical, four-stroke cycle, an engine cycle occurs each two revolutions of the
crankshaft). Finally, multiplying by the number of cycles per unit time, i.e., the
crankshaft speed, gives the indicated power, as
Pi =
p ime D e N e
120,000
(2.2)
21
where
Pi = indicated power, kW
pime = indicated mean effective pressure, kPa
De = engine displacement, L
Ne = crankshaft speed, rpm
The number in the denominator is the product of 2 revs/cycle times 60 sec/min times
1000 W per kW. Equation 2.2 also works for a two-stroke cycle engine, except that
the number in the denominator would be 60,000 instead of 120,000. The engine
displacement, De, of the engine is calculated as
De =
Ap L n
1000
(2.3)
where
Ap = top area of piston (cm2) = d2/4 (d = piston diameter, cm)
L = stroke length, cm
n = number of cylinders in the engine
Continuing the above example, suppose the engine that consumed 375 kW of fuel
equivalent power was a six-cylinder engine with a bore of 11.67 cm, a stroke of 12.0
cm, and the crankshaft speed was 2200 rev/min. Also, the pime was 1200 kPa. Using
Equation 2.3, the displacement would be 7.7 L. Using Equation 2.2, the indicated
power would be 169.4 kW.
Equation 2.2 shows that, for any engine, there are only three possible ways to
increase the indicated power, i.e., the power at the head of the pistons. These are:
1. Increase the engine size (De), or
2. Increase the engine speed (Ne), or
3. Increase the internal pressure and consequently the stress on the engine.
The indicated power is not immediately available for useful work; rather, it must
first be transmitted to the flywheel of the engine. Therefore, interest is in the flywheel
power of the engine that, in the early days of engine testing, was measured with a
device called a prony brake. Thus, flywheel power is commonly referred to as brake
power, Pb. The derivation of the brake-power equation begins with a consideration of
how work per crankshaft revolution relates to crankshaft torque.
Consider applying a force, F, to a wrench at a radius of R from the center of a shaft
that is to be turned by the wrench. The torque applied to the shaft thus becomes FR. In
traveling one full revolution, the force travels a distance equal to the circumference of
the circle, 2R. The work per revolution then is 2RF, or 2T, where T is the shaft
torque. Thus, the work per revolution is simply 2 times the shaft torque. Multiplying
the work per revolution by the number of revolutions per unit of time (i.e., the shaft
speed) gives the shaft power. Thus, the brake power is given by the following
equation:
Pb =
2 Tb N e
60,000
(2.4)
22
where
Pb = brake (flywheel) power, kW
Tb = engine brake torque, N.m
Ne = engine speed, rpm
The significance of the term, brake torque, will be explained a little later. The 60,000
in the denominator is simply a units constant. Continuing the above example, assume
the brake torque was 625 N.m. Then Equation 2.4 shows that the brake power of the
example engine was 144 kW.
For the example, the engine consumed 375 kW of fuel equivalent power but had
only 169.4 kW of indicated power at the head of the pistons and only 144 kW of brake
power at the flywheel. The loss, 375 169.4 = 205.6 kW, is primarily caused by
thermodynamic limitations imposed by the second law of thermodynamics. However,
the loss, 169.4 144 = 25.4 kW, is due to friction losses in the engine. Friction power
is given by
Pf = Pi Pb
(2.5)
23
Figure 2.2. Engine p-v diagram and indicated mean effective pressure.
For an engine of displacement De running at a given speed, Ne, Equation 2.2 shows
that the indicated power varies proportionally with the indicated mean effective
pressure. Engine analysts have used a variation of Equation 2.2 to develop other mean
effective pressures. Thus, a brake mean effective pressure, pbme or bmep, can be
calculated by
p bme =
120,000 Pb
De Ne
(2.6)
D e p bme
4
(2.7)
The denominator in Equation 2.7 would be 2 for a two-stroke cycle engine. Brake
mean effective pressure is often referred to as specific torque; it is proportional to
brake torque but is independent of the engine displacement. For our example engine,
either Equation 2.6 or Equation 2.7 shows the bmep would be 1020 kPa.
24
120,000 Pf
De N e
(2.8)
Ne
N
) + A3 ( e )2
1000
1000
(2.9)
Pi
Pfe
(2.10)
Pb
Pi
(2.11)
Pb
Pfe
(2.12)
25
high overall or brake thermal efficiency, the engine must have both a high indicated
thermal efficiency and a high mechanical efficiency. For our example engine, eit =
0.452, em = 0.85 and ebt = 0.384.
3600
H g e xt
(2.14)
where I, B, D, or P is substituted for X. Thus, as Equation 2.14 shows, the higher the
efficiency, the lower the specific fuel consumption. For our example engine, ISFC =
0.177 kg/kWh and BSFC = 0.208 kg/kWh.
26
Mechanical governors of the type shown in Figure 2.3a can be a separate unit or, on
CI engines, can be included in the fuel injector pump housing. In either case, the
governor shaft speed is proportional to the crankshaft speed of the engine. As engine
speed increases, increased centrifugal force on the hinged flyweights causes them to
swing outward, thus pushing downward on the thrust bearing and causing the linkage
to rotate counterclockwise and stretch the governor spring. The fuel control rod then
moves to decrease fuel delivery to the engine. Conversely, if the engine speed falls,
27
the spring causes the linkage to rotate clockwise, pushing the thrust bearing upward
and forcing the flyweights to move inward. The rotating linkage also moves the fuel
control rod to increase fuel delivery to the engine. All mechanical governors include a
thrust bearing because the governor flyweights are attached to a rotating governor
shaft, while the pivot of the linkage is stationary; therefore, the bearing accommodates
the relative motion between the rotating and non-rotating parts of the governor. The
fuel control rod could change fuel delivery in a number of ways. In some SI engines,
the rod would control fueling by opening or closing the throttle plate in a carburetor.
In CI engines, rod movement would change the delivery of a fuel injection pump. Fuel
injection pumps are discussed in Chapter 7.
When the governor is in equilibrium, the force imposed on the thrust bearing by the
flyweights is equal to the force imposed by the governor spring. It is helpful in
understanding governor action to calculate the force on the thrust bearing. From
Newtons second law, the force on the thrust bearing is
Ftb = K r N g2
(2.15)
where
K = a units constant also incorporating mechanical advantage of flyweight linkage
r = radius from center of governor shaft to center of flyweights
Plotting thrust-bearing force versus engine speed (Figure 2.3b) leads to the problem
that the radius, r, is changing as speed changes. Two limiting cases have been plotted
in the figure, one for weights in (minimum r) and one for weights out (maximum r).
Now consider an engine running without load but with substantial fuel delivery.
The governor prevents the engine from accelerating until it destroys itself; as speed
increases, the flyweights swing to the full-out position to reduce the fuel delivery and
limit the engine speed to that shown at Point A of Figures 2.3b and 2.3c. Point A is
called the high idle point because the speed is high and the engine is idling, i.e., not
doing any work. Now imagine that increasing torque load is placed on the engine; the
resulting decline in speed causes the flyweights to move inward, thus increasing fuel
delivery to the engine to accommodate the increased load. When the torque reaches
and exceeds that shown at Point C in Figure 2.3c, the governor flyweights would be at
their innermost position and the linkage would not be able to move the fuel control rod
any farther. Point C is called the governors maximum point because the governor is
unable to affect fuel delivery beyond that point. To the left of Point C in Figure 2.3c,
the speed is controlled entirely by the amount of torque load placed on the engine, i.e.,
higher loads cause lower engine speeds. Figure 2.3c is called the engine map. The area
to the right of Point C on the map is called the governor-control region, while the area
to the left is called the load-control region. Although a perfect governor would
maintain constant speed in the governor-control region, actual governors permit some
speed variation. Governor regulation, as calculated using Equation 2.16, is a measure
of how closely the governor can maintain constant speed.
Reg = 200 (
N HI N GM
)
N HI + N GM
(2.16)
28
where
Reg = governor regulation, %
NHI = high idle speed, rev/min
NGM = speed at governors maximum, rev/min
The lower the regulation value, the more closely the governor is able to control the
engine speed. High-quality mechanical governors can achieve regulation of 6% or
less, while electronic governors can achieve regulation as low as 1%.
Figure 2.3 shows a mechanical governor holding the engine speed within the range
identified as speed droop in Figure 2.3c. However, the operator could select a different
speed-control range by use of the lever in Figure 2.3a. For example, moving the lever
to the left would further stretch the governor spring, increasing the force on the thrust
bearing and requiring a higher engine speed to move the weights outward. The result
would be that the governor control range would move to the right on Figure 2.3c, i.e.,
the engine would operate at higher speeds in the governor-controlled range.
Conversely, moving the speed-control lever to the right would reduce the spring
tension and the engine would operate at lower speeds in the governor-controlled range.
One other feature in Figure 2.3c is of interest; the increase in torque between torque
at governors maximum and that at peak torque is known as torque reserve. Torque
reserve is normally expressed as a percentage of the rated torque. Normally, governed
engines are rated at the governors maximum point when the speed control lever is set
for maximum engine speed. Torque reserve of CI engines ranges from less than 10%
up to 50% but is typically higher than 25%.
(2.17)
where
Tb = brake torque, N.m
Ti = indicated torque, N.m
Tf = friction torque, N.m
Ti and Tf are defined as
Ti = (
H g e it
0.06
)(
&f
m
)
2Ne
(2.18)
and
Tf =
D e p fme
4
(2.19)
29
the friction mean effective pressure that, according to Equation 2.9, is a function of
engine speed. In the governor-controlled range, the governor controls the amount of
fuel delivered to the engine per engine cycle and thus controls the indicated torque; the
engine speed and thus the pfme and friction torque are nearly constant in the governorcontrolled range. As the engine moves into the load-controlled range, the governor can
no longer change the amount of fuel per engine cycle. As the engine speed falls in the
load-controlled range, the friction torque drops and the brake torque increases
accordingly. Thus, accessories that add to friction power at high speeds actually add to
torque reserve as speed falls! However, if the fuel per cycle remained constant
throughout the load-controlled range, the engine would have insufficient torque
reserve. In fact, due to features of injection-system design, including increasing
volumetric efficiency of the fuel-injection pump, the fuel per cycle actually increases
gradually as the engine speed falls in the load-controlled range. The combination of
decreasing friction torque plus some increase in fuel per cycle provides the total torque
reserve of the engine.
p
3600
) (1 + fme )
H g e it
p bme
(2.20)
30
Equation 2.20 is valid for any engine. For any brake torque on the map of any
engine, the pbme in Equation 2.20 can be calculated using Equation 2.7. For a given
diesel engine, the pfme can be calculated from the speed if the constants in Equation 2.9
are known. Finally, an equation is needed to relate eit to engine torque and speed. For a
given CI engine, approximates value for eit can be calculated using
e it =
e ito
1 + Tbn f ( N e )
(2.21)
where
eito = indicated thermal efficiency at low torque, decimal
n = a constant specific to a given engine
f(Ne) = a function of engine speed
Reasonable approximations of eit can be obtained when the following function is
used:
f ( N e ) = B 0 + B1 (
N
N
N
N e 1
) + B 2 ( e ) 2 + B 3 ( e ) 3 + B 4 ( e ) - 4
1000
1000
1000
1000
(2.22)
31
where B0 B4 = constants specific to a given engine and can vary somewhat even
between engines of the same model. All speeds in Equation 2.22 were divided by 1000
to provide B constants of reasonable size.
For a CI engine, eito is essentially constant in the lower half of the torque-speed
map. By measuring torque, speed and fuel consumption at approximately 50 points on
the map, it is possible to fit a model to the engine, i.e., to find values for A0, A1, A2,
B0, B1, B2, B3, B4, eito, and n. Then the model can be used to find the BSFC at any
point on the map. Computer programs based on the model can plot the entire engine
map.
BSFC, kg/kW h
32
33
efficiency, an engine must have both an efficient combustion process and must deliver
a high portion of the indicated power to the flywheel.
Specific fuel consumption (SFC) indicates the amount of fuel consumed per unit of
work accomplished by the engine. Adjectives must be used with the SFC to indicate
where the power is measured. For example, BSFC is appropriate when the brake
power is measured.
Engine load has a large effect on engine efficiency and SFC. At zero engine load,
both the mechanical and the brake thermal efficiencies are zero, while the SFC is
infinite! As load increases, the efficiency approaches its maximum value
asymptotically, while the SFC approaches its minimum value asymptotically.
In the governor-controlled range of operation, speed is nearly constant; both
indicated and brake torque thus increase as the governor increases the amount of fuel
delivered to the engine per engine cycle. In the load-controlled range, the governor
cannot increase the fuel delivered per cycle. However, the design of the injection
system does allow some increase in the fuel per cycle as the engine slows, thus
providing torque reserve. A smaller contribution to torque reserve is provided by the
decline in friction torque as the engine slows.
Engine performance maps display a torque-speed envelope, a set of constant-power
contours, and a set of constant BSFC contours. The constant-power contours are easily
plotted through use of the brake-power equation. Constant BSFC contours require
more data and effort to plot, but plotting is made easier through calibration of an
engine model. The BSFC contours show areas of efficient engine operation. On some
maps, the point of minimum BSFC is below the torque envelope. On such engines,
BSFC decreases with increasing load until the minimum BSFC is reached and then
increases in a phenomenon called over-fueling. Other engines have the minimum
BSFC point above the torque envelope and cannot be over-fueled.
Homework Problems
2.1. A certain CI engine consumes No. 2 diesel fuel (Hg = 45,000 kJ/kg) at the rate of
26.3 kg/h while running at a rated speed of 2200 rpm and producing 595 N.m of
torque. Assuming the mechanical efficiency is 0.85,
(a) Calculate the fuel equivalent power.
(b) Calculate the brake power.
(c) Calculate the indicated power.
(d) Calculate the friction power.
(e) Calculate the indicated thermal efficiency.
(f) Calculate the brake thermal efficiency.
(g) Calculate the BSFC.
2.2. A certain SI engine consumes gasoline (Hg = 47,600 kJ/kg) at the rate of 29.5
kg/hr while running at a rated speed of 2200 rpm and producing 508 N.m of
torque. Assuming the mechanical efficiency is 0.85,
(a) Calculate the fuel equivalent power.
34
2.3.
2.4.
2.5.
2.6.
2.7.
2.8.
2.9.
2.10.
(c) Sketch the torque and power curves versus engine speed.
2.11. The engine of Problem 2.2 has high idle speed of 2385 rpm. The torque reserve
is 25.4% and peak torque occurs at 1200 rpm.
(a) Calculate the governor regulation.
(b) Calculate the peak torque in N.m.
(c) Sketch the torque and power curves versus engine speed.
2.12. The engine of Problem 2.2 has high idle speed of 2392 rev/min. The torque
reserve is 50.0% and peak torque occurs at 1200 rpm.
(a) Calculate the governor regulation.
(b) Calculate the peak torque in N.m.
(c) Sketch the torque and power curves versus engine speed.
2.13. Using theory from Chapter 2, derive Equation 2.20.
2.14. In a test of a certain CI engine, the speed is held constant while the torque is
increased from 10% of rated torque to full-rated torque. The heating value of the
35
fuel is 45,500 kg/kJ. Assume that the indicated thermal efficiency remains
constant at 0.45 and that the BSFC is 0.2 kg/kWh at full rated torque. Use
Equation 2.20 to plot BSFC versus percent of maximum torque. Note that the
pfme remains constant because the engine speed is constant. This is an excellent
spreadsheet problem. (Hint: Note that you can solve Equation 2.20 for the ratio,
pfme/pfme at full-rated torque, and then adjust it for various torque percentages.)
2.15. In a test of a certain CI engine, the speed is held constant while the torque is
increased from 8% of rated torque to full-rated torque. The heating value of the
fuel is 45,500 kg/kJ. Assume that the indicated thermal efficiency remains
constant at 0.45 and that the BSFC is 0.19 kg/kWh at full rated-torque. Use
Equation 2.20 to plot BSFC versus percent of maximum torque. Note that the
pfme remains constant because the engine speed is constant. This is an excellent
spreadsheet problem. (Hint: Note that you can solve Equation 2.20 for the ratio,
pfme/pfme at full-rated torque, and then adjust it for various torque percentages.)
36